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Ec8353 Electronic Devices and Circuits Unit 2
Ec8353 Electronic Devices and Circuits Unit 2
Unit 2
Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel
Professor and Head
Electronics and Instrumentation
Engineering
R M K Engineering College
UNIT II TRANSISTORS
Understanding of BJT
Basic models of BJT
npn transistor
Diode
Diode
pnp transistor
Diode
Diode
Transistor Construction
3 layer semiconductor device consisting:
2 n- and 1 p-type layers of material npn transistor
2 p- and 1 n-type layers of material pnp transistor
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and
electrons participate in the injection process into the
oppositely polarized material
A single pn junction has two different types of bias:
forward bias
reverse bias
Thus, a two-pn-junction device has four types of bias.
Position of the terminals and symbol of BJT.
W W
+ - + -
Allow holes to jump over barrier Remove holes and electrons away
into N region as minority carriers from depletion region
I I
V V
So if we combine these by fusing their
terminals…
P N N P
W W
+ - + -
Vappl > 0 Vappl < 0
IE IC
- + IB
IE = I B + IC ………(KCL)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir4sY5Fm-dU
http://ecetutorials.com/analog-electronics/operation-of-bjt/
Bipolar Junction Transistors: Basics
+ -
IE IC
- + IB
Therefore, Ib = 93µA.
25 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018
Single Stage Common Emitter Amplifier
Circuit
Common Emitter Amplifier
configuration of an NPN
transistor is called a Class A
Amplifier. A “Class A Amplifier”
operation is one where the
transistors Base terminal is
biased in such a way as to
forward bias the Base-emitter
junction. Ohm´s Law, the
current flowing through the load
resistor, ( RL ),
VCC
VB(ac)
IB(ac) RC
RB
Q1
VCE(ac)
IC(ac)
32
A generic dc load line.
IC VCC VCE
IC
RC
VCC
I C (sat)
RC
33
Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.3a.
+12 V
IC
RC
2 k
8 IC(sat)
RB
6
Q1 4
VCE(off)
2
VCE
2 4 6 8 10 12
34
Fig 7.4 Example 7.2.
Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.4. Then,
find the values of VCE for IC = 1, 2, 5 mA respectively.
+10 V
IC
VCE VCC I C RC
RC
1 k
10 IC (mA) VCE (V)
RB
8 1 9
6 2 8
Q1
4 5 5
2
VCE
2 4 6 8 10
35
Fig 7.6-8 Optimum Q-point with amplifier
operation.
IC
IC(sat)
IB = 50 A IB
I C βI B
IB = 40 A
IC(sat)/2 Q-Point IB = 30 A
IB = 20 A
IB = 10 A
IB = 0 A
VCE
VCC/2 VCC
VCE VCC I C RC
36
Base bias (fixed bias).
VCC
VCC VBE
IB
RB
IC
RC I C βI B
RB
Output
VCE VCC I C RC
IB
Input Q1
b = dc current gain = hFE
+0.7 V
IE
VBE
37
Example
+8 V VCC 0.7V 8V 0.7V
IB
RB 360kΩ
20.28μA
RC
IC 2 k I C hFE I B 100 20.28μA
RB 2.028mA
360 k
IB VCE VCC I C RC
hFE = 100 8V 2.028mA 2kΩ
3.94V
+0.7 V
IE The circuit is midpoint biased.
VBE
38
Example
Construct the dc load line for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.10, and plot the Q-point
from the values obtained in Example 7.3. Determine whether the circuit is
midpoint biased.
IC (mA)
VCC 8V
I C (sat ) 4mA
RC 2kΩ
4
2 Q
VCE (V)
39 2 4 6 8 10
Example - Q-point shift.
The transistor in Fig. 7.12 has values of hFE = 100 when T = 25 °C and hFE = 150
when T = 100 °C. Determine the Q-point values of IC and VCE at both of these
temperatures.
+8 V
IB
hFE = 100 (T = 25C)
hFE = 150 (T = 100C)
+0.7 V
IE
VBE
40
Base bias characteristics. (1)
VCC
Circuit recognition: A single resistor (RB) between
the base terminal and VCC. No emitter resistor.
RC
IC
RB
Output
IB
Input Q1 Advantage: Circuit simplicity.
Disadvantage: Q-point shift with temp.
+0.7 V
IE Applications: Switching circuits only.
VBE
41
Base bias characteristics. (2)
VCC
Load line equations:
VCC
I C (sat )
RC RC
IC
RB VCE (off ) VCC
Output
IB
Q-point equations:
Input Q1
VCC VBE
+0.7 V
IE IB
VBE
RB
I C hFE I B
VCE VCC I C RC
42
Voltage divider bias
+VCC
Assume that I2 > 10IB.
R2
VB VCC
R1 R2
IC RC
I1 R1 VE VB 0.7V
VE
IB
Output IE
RE
Input Assume that ICQ IE (or hFE >>
I2 R2 1). Then
IE RE
VCEQ VCC ICQ RC RE
43
Example -1
Determine the values of ICQ and VCEQ for the circuit shown in Fig. 7.15.
+10 V R2
VB VCC
R1 R2
4.7kΩ
10V 2.07V
22.7kΩ
RC
R1
IC
3 k VE VB 0.7V
I1
18 k 2.07V 0.7V 1.37V
IB Because ICQ IE (or hFE >> 1),
hFE = 50 VE 1.37V
I CQ 1.25mA
RE 1.1kΩ
R2
I2
4.7 k
RE VCEQ VCC I CQ RC RE
1.1 k
IE 10V 1.25mA 4.1kΩ 4.87V
44
Example -2
Verify that I2 > 10 IB.
+10 V
VB 2.07V
I2 440.4μA
R2 4.7kΩ
IE 1.25mA
RC IB
R1
IC
3 k hFE 1 50+1
I1
18 k 24.51μA
IB I 2 10 I B
hFE = 50
R2
I2 RE
4.7 k
1.1 k
IE
45
Which value of hFE do I use?
Transistor specification sheet may list any combination of the
following hFE: max. hFE, min. hFE, or typ. hFE. Use typical value
if there is one. Otherwise, use
46
Example
A voltage-divider bias circuit has the following values: R1 = 1.5 k, R2 =
680 , RC = 260 , RE = 240 and VCC = 10 V. Assuming the transistor is
a 2N3904, determine the value of IB for the circuit.
R2 680Ω
VB VCC 10V 3.12V
R1 R2 2180Ω
VE VB 0.7V 3.12V 0.7V 2.42V
VE 2.42V
I CQ I E 10mA
RE 240Ω
IE 10mA
IB 57.5μA
hFE (ave) 1 174
47
Stability of Voltage Divider
Bias Circuit
The Q-point of voltage divider bias circuit is less dependent on hFE than
that of the base bias (fixed bias).
For example, if IE is exactly 10 mA, the range of hFE is 100 to 300. Then
IE 10mA
At hFE 100, I B 100μA and I CQ I E I B 9.90mA
hFE 1 101
IE 10mA
At hFE 300, I B 33μA and I CQ I E I B 9.97mA
hFE 1 301
IC (mA)
VCC 10V
25 I C (sat ) 20mA
RC RE 260Ω+240Ω
20
Circuit values are from Example 7.9.
15
10
VCE (off ) VCC 10V
5
VCE (V)
49 2 4 6 8 10 12
Base input resistance - 1
I2 R2 I2 R2 IB RIN(base)
RE
IE
RIN(base)
50
Base input resistance -2
51
Example
REQ R2 // hFE RE
VCC=20V
10kΩ// 50 1.1kΩ 8.46kΩ
REQ
VB VCC
RC R1 REQ
IC
R1 6.2k 8.46kΩ
20V
I1
68k 2.21V
68kΩ 8.46kΩ
VE V 0.7V
hFE = 50
I CQ I E B
RE RE
IE 2.21V 0.7V
I2
R2
RE
1.37mA
10k 1.1kΩ
1.1k
VCEQ VCC I CQ RC RE
20V 1.37mA 7.3kΩ 9.99V
52
Voltage-divider bias characteristics - 1
+VCC
Circuit recognition: The voltage
divider in the base circuit.
53
Voltage-divider bias characteristics -2
+VCC VCC
Load line I C (sat )
equations: RC RE
VCE (off ) VCC
IC RC
I1 R1 Q-point equations (assume that
hFERE > 10R2):
IB R2
Output VB VCC
R1 R2
Input VE VB 0.7V
I2 R2 VE
IE RE I CQ I E
RE
VCEQ VCC I CQ RC RE
54
Other Transistor Biasing Circuits
Emitter-bias circuits
Feedback-bias circuits
Collector-feedback bias
Emitter-feedback bias
55
Emitter bias.
+VCC
Assume that the transistor operation is in
active region.
VEE 0.7V
IC RC IB
RB hFE 1 RE
IB I C hFE I B
Output
Q1 I E hFE 1 I B
Input
RB
VCE VCC I C RC I E RE VEE
RE
IE Assume that hFE >> 1.
VCE VCC IC RC RE VEE
56 -VEE
Example
+12 V
Determine the values of 12V 0.7V
IB
ICQ and VCEQ for the RB ( hFE 1) RE
amplifier shown in 11.3V
Fig.7.27. RC 37.47μA
IC
750 100Ω+201 1.5kΩ
I CQ hFE I B 200 37.47μA
IB 7.49mA
Q1 Output
hFE = 200 VCEQ VCC I C RC RE (VEE )
Input
24V 7.49mA 750Ω 1.5kΩ
RB
100 RE 7.14V
IE 1.5k
57 -12 V
Load Line for
Emitter-Bias Circuit
IC
VCC ( VEE ) VCC VEE
I C (sat )
RC RE RC RE
IC(sat)
VCE ( off ) VCC VEE VCC VEE
VCE(off)
VCE
58
Emitter-bias characteristics -1
+VCC
Circuit recognition: A split (dual-polairty) power
supply and the base resistor is connected to
ground.
IC RC
Advantage: The circuit Q-point values are stable
against changes in hFE.
IB Disadvantage: Requires the use of dual-polarity
Output power supply.
Q1
Input Applications: Used primarily to bias linear
amplifiers.
RB
RE
IE
59 -VEE
Emitter-bias characteristics- 2
+VCC
Load line equations:
VCC VEE
I C (sat )
IC RC RC RE
VCE (off ) VCC VEE
IB
Output Q-point equations:
Q1
VBE VEE
Input I CQ hFE
RB
RB hFE 1 RE
IE
RE VCEQ VCC I CQ RC RE VEE
60 -VEE
Collector-feedback bias.
+VCC VCC IC I B RC I B RB VBE
VCC VBE
IB
( hFE 1) RC RB
RC
I CQ hFE I B
RB
VCEQ VCC hFE 1 I B RC
IC
IB
VCC I CQ RC
IE
61
Fig 7.30 Example 7.14.
+10 V Determine the values of ICQ and VCEQ for the amplifier shown
in Fig. 7.30.
VCC VBE
IB
RC RB hFE 1 RC
1.5 k
10V 0.7V
RB 28.05μA
180kΩ 1011.5kΩ
180 k I CQ hFE I B 100 28.05μA
IC
IB
IB decreases
IE
IC does not increase that much.
Good Stability. Less dependent on hFE and
temperature.
63
Collector-Feedback
Characteristics (1)
+VCC
Circuit recognition: The base resistor is
connected between the base and the
collector terminals of the transistor.
RC
RB Advantage: A simple circuit with relatively
stable Q-point.
IC Disadvantage: Relatively poor ac
IB
characteristics.
Applications: Used primarily to bias linear
IE amplifiers.
64
Collector-Feedback
Characteristics (2)
+VCC Q-point relationships:
VCC VBE
IB
( hFE 1) RC RB
RC
I CQ hFE I B
RB
VCEQ VCC I CQ RC
IC
IB
IE
65
Emitter-feedback bias.
+VCC VCC VBE
IB
RB hFE 1 RE
I CQ hFE I B
RB RC
IC
IB
I E hFE 1 I B
VCEQ VCC I C RC I E RE
VCC I CQ RC RE
IE RE
66
Fig 7.32 Example 7.15.
+VCC
VCC VBE 16V 0.7V
IB
RB hFE 1 RE 680kΩ 51 1.6kΩ
20.09μA
RB RC I CQ hFE I B 50 20.09μA 1mA
680k 6.2k
VCEQ VCC I CQ RC RE
16V 1mA 7.8kΩ 8.2V
hFE = 50
RE
1.6k
67
Circuit Stability of
Emitter-Feedback Bias
+VCC hFE increases
RB RC
IC VE increases
IB
IB decreases
IE RE
IC does not increase that much.
IC is less dependent on hFE and temperature.
68
Emitter-Feedback Characteristics -1
+VCC
Circuit recognition: Similar to voltage
divider bias with R2 missing (or base bias
with RE added).
RB RC
IC
Advantage: A simple circuit with relatively
stable Q-point.
IB
Disadvantage: Requires more components
than collector-feedback bias.
Applications: Used primarily to bias linear
IE RE amplifiers.
69
Emitter-Feedback Characteristics -2
+VCC
Q-point relationships:
VCC VBE
IB
RB ( hFE 1) RE
RB
IC
RC
I CQ hFE I B
IB
VCEQ VCC ICQ RC RE
IE RE
70
Summary
DC Biasing and the dc load line
Base bias circuits
Voltage-divider bias circuits
Emitter-bias circuits
Feedback-bias circuits
Collector-feedback bias circuits
Emitter-feedback bias circuits
71
Field-Effect Transistors -FET
The FET is based around the concept that charge
on a nearby object can attract charges within a
semiconductor channel.
The FET consists of a semiconductor channel with
electrodes at either end referred to as the drain and
the source.
A control electrode called the gate is placed in very
close proximity to the channel so that its electric
charge is able to affect the channel
In this way, the gate of the FET controls the flow of
carriers (electrons or holes) flowing from the source
to drain. It does this by controlling the size and
shape of the conductive channel.
The semiconductor channel where the current flow
occurs may be either P-type or N-type. This gives
72 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018
rise to two types or categories of FET known as P-
Field Effect Transistor types
There are many ways to define the
different types of FET that are available.
They may be categorised in a number of
ways, but some of the major types of FET
can be covered in the tree diagram.
Junction FET(JFET), Insulated Gate
FET(IGFET), Metal Oxide Silicon
FET(MOSFET), Dual Gate
MOSFET(DGMOSFET), MEtal Silicon
FET(MESFET), High Electron Mobility
Transistor (HEMT) , Pseudomorphic High
Electron Mobility Transistor( PHEMT), Fin
Field Effect Transistor (FinFET), vertical
73 MOS( Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel
VMOS) 7/11/2018
The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with donor impurities meaning that
the flow of current through the channel is negative (hence the term N-
channel) in the form of electrons.
The P-channel JFET’s channel is doped with acceptor impurities meaning
that the flow of current through the channel is positive (hence the term P-
channel) in the form of holes. N-channel JFET’s have a greater channel
conductivity (lower resistance) than their equivalent P-channel types, since
electrons have a higher mobility through a conductor compared to holes.
This makes the N-channel JFET’s a more efficient conductor compared to
their P-channel counterparts. Field Effect
Bipolar Transistor
Transistor
Emitter – (E) >> Source –
(S)
74 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel
Base – (B) >> Gate – 7/11/2018
(G)
Biasing of an N-channel JFET
In other words, for an n-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +VGS means more
electrons and more current. While a -VGS means less electrons and less
current. The opposite is also true for the p-channel types. Then the depletion
mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-closed” switch.
Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit
Symbols
1. Cut-off Region – with VGS < Vthreshold the gate-source voltage is lower
than the threshold voltage so the MOSFET transistor is switched “fully-OFF” and
IDS = 0, the transistor acts as an open circuit
2. Linear (Ohmic) Region – with VGS > Vthreshold and VDS < VGS the
transistor is in its constant resistance region and behaves as a voltage-controlled
resistor whose resistive value is determined by the gate voltage, VGS
3. Saturation Region – with VGS > Vthreshold the transistor is in its constant
current region and is switched “fully-ON”. The current IDS = maximum as the
MOSFET Summary
VGS = -
MOSFET type VGS = +ve VGS = 0
ve
N-Channel Depletion ON ON OFF
N-Channel
ON OFF OFF
Enhancement
P-Channel Depletion OFF ON ON
P-Channel
OFF OFF ON
Enhancement
Special Semiconductor Devices
INTRODUCTION:
The SCR is the most important special semiconductor device. This device is
popular for its Forward-Conducting and Reverse-blocking
characteristics.
SCR can be used in high-power devices. For example, in the central
processing unit of the computer, the SCR is used in switch mode power
supply (SMPS).
The DIAC, a combination of two Shockley Diodes, and the TRIAC, a
combination of two SCRs connected anti-parallelly are important power-
control devices.
The UJT is also used as an efficient switching device.
SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
The silicon-controlled rectifier or semiconductor controlled rectifier is
a two-state device used for efficient power control.
SCR is the parent member of the thyristor family and is used in high-
power electronics. Its constructional features, physical operation and
characteristics are explained in the following sections.
The SCR is a four-layer structure, either p–n–p–n or n–p–n–p, that
effectively blocks current through two terminals until it is turned ON by a
small-signal at a third terminal.
The SCR has two states: a high-current low-impedance ON state and a
low-current high-impedance OFF state.
The basic transistor action in a four-layer p–n–p–n structure is analyzed
first with only two terminals, and then the third control input is introduced.
Physical Operation and Characteristics:
The physical operation of the SCR can be explained clearly with reference to
the current–voltage characteristics.
The forward-bias condition and reverse-bias condition illustrate the
conducting state and the reverse blocking state respectively. Based on these
two states a typical I –V characteristic of the SCR is shown in Fig. 8-2.
SCR in Forward Bias:
There are two different states in which we can examine the SCR in the forward-
biased condition:
(i) The high- impedance or forward-blocking state
(ii) The low-impedance or forward-conducting state
At a critical peak forward voltage Vp, the SCR switches from the blocking state to
the conducting state, as shown in Fig. 8-2.
A positive voltage places junction j1 and j3 under forward-bias, and the centre
junction j2 under reverse-bias.
The for ward voltage in the blocking state appears across the reverse-biased
junction j2 as the applied voltage V is increased. The voltage from the anode A to
cathode C, as shown in Fig. 8-1, is very small after switching to the forward-
conducting state, and all three junctions are forward-biased. The junction j2
switches from reverse-bias to forward-bias..
SCR in Reverse Bias:
In the reverse-blocking state the junctions j1 and j3 are reverse-
biased, and j2 is forward-biased.
The supply of electrons and holes to junction j2 is restricted, and due
to the thermal generation of electron–hole pairs near junctions j1 and j2 the
device current is a small saturation current.
In the reverse blocking condition the current remains small until
avalanche breakdown occurs at a large reverse-bias of several thousand volts.
An SCR p–n–p–n structure is equivalent to one p–n–p transistor and
one n–p–n transistor sharing some common terminals.
Collector current I C1= α1i + I CO 1 having a transfer ratio α 1 for the p–n–p.
Collector current I C 2 =α2i + I CO 2 having a transfer ratio a2 for the n–p–n.
ICO1 and ICO 2 stand for the respective collector-saturation currents.
I C 1 = α 1i + I CO 1 = I B 2 ……………….(8-1)
SCR in Reverse Bias:
SCR in Reverse Bias:
The total current through the SCR is the sum of iC1 and iC2:
I C 1 + I = i ………………..(8-3)
Substituting the values of collector current from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) in Eq. (8-3) we get:
i (α1 + α2) + I CO 1 + I CO 2 = i
i = (I CO 1 + I CO 2 ) /(1- α1 + α2) ………………..(8-4)
Case I: When (α1 + α2) → 1, then the SCR current i → infinite.
As the sum of the values of alphas tends to unity, the SCR current i increases rapidly. The
derivation is no
longer valid as (α1 + α2) equals unity.
Case II: When (α1 + α2 → 0, i.e., when the summation value of alphas goes to zero, the
SCR resultant current can be expressed as:
i = I CO 1 + I CO 2 …………………………….(8-5)
The current, i, passing through the SCR is very small. It is the combined collector-saturation
currents of the two equivalent transistors as long as the sum (α1 + α2) is very small or almost
near zero.
I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
Forward-Blocking State:
When the device is biased in the forward-blocking state, as shown in Fig. 8-4(a), the applied
voltage appears primarily across the reverse-biased junction j2. Al though the junctions j1 and j3 are
forward-biased, the current is small.
I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
Forward-Conducting State of the SCR:
As the value of (α1 + α2 ) approaches unity through one of the mechanisms ,many holes
injected at j1 survive to be swept across j2 into p2.
This process helps feed the recombination in p2 and support the injection of holes into n2. In a
similar manner, the transistor action of electrons injected at j3 and collected at j2 supplies electrons for n1.
The current through the device can be much larger.
Reverse-Blocking State of the SCR:
The SCR in reverse-biased condition allows almost negligible
current to flow through it. This is shown in Fig. 8-4(c).
In the reverse-blocking state of the SCR, a small saturation
current flows from anode to cathode. Holes will flow from the gate into p2, the base of the n–p–n transistor,
due to positive gate current.
The required gate current for turn-on is only a few milli-amperes, therefore, the SCR can be
turned on by a very small amount of power in the gate.
I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
I–V Characteristics of the SCR:
The SCR is the most important member of the thyristor family. The SCR is a
capable power device as it can handle thousands of amperes and volts.
Generally the SCR is used in many applications such as in high power
electronics, switches, power-control and conversion mode.
It is also used as surge protector.
Static Switch: The SCR is used as a switch for power-switching in various
control circuits.
Power Control: Since the SCR can be turned on externally, it can be used to
regulate the amount of power delivered to a load.
Surge Protection: In an SCR circuit, when the voltage rises beyond the
threshold value, the SCR is turned on to dissipate the charge or voltage quickly.
Power Conversion: The SCR is also used for high-power conversion and
regulation. This includes conversion of power source from ac to ac, ac to dc and
TRIODE AC SWITCH (TRIAC):
The term TRIAC is derived by combining the first three letters of the word
“TRIODE” and the word “AC”.
A TRIAC is capable of conducting in both the directions. The TRIAC, is thus, a
bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It is widely used for the control of
power in ac circuits.
Constructional Features:
Depending upon the polarity of the gate pulse and the biasing
conditions, the main four-layer structure that turns ON by a
regenerative process could be one of p1 n1, p2 n2, p1 n1 p2 n3, or
p2 n1 p1 n4, as shown in Fig. 8-8.
Advantages of the TRIAC:
The TRIAC has the following advantages:
(i) They can be triggered with positive- or negative-polarity
voltage.
(ii) They need a single heat sink of slightly larger size.
(iii) They need a single fuse for protection, which simplifies their
construction.
(iv) In some dc applications, the SCR has to be connected with a
parallel diode for protection against reverse voltage, whereas a
TRIAC may work without a diode, as safe breakdown in either
direction is possible.
Disadvantages of the TRIAC:
The TRIAC has the following disadvantages:
(i) TRIACs have low dv/dt ratings compared to SCRs.
(ii) Since TRIACs can be triggered in either direction, the trigger circuits with
TRIACs needs careful consideration.
(iii) Reliability of TRIACs is less than that of SCRs.
Simple Applications of the TRIAC:
The TRIAC as a bidirectional thyristor has various applications. Some of the
popular applications of the
TRIAC are as follows:
(i) In speed control of single-phase ac series or universal motors.
(ii) In food mixers and portable drills.
(iii) In lamp dimming and heating control.
(iv) In zero-voltage switched ac relay.
DIODE AC SWITCH (DIAC):
The DIAC is a combination of two diodes. Diodes being unidirectional
devices, conduct current only in one direction.
If bidirectional (ac) operation is desired, two Shockley diodes may be joined
in parallel facing different directions to form the DIAC.
Constructional Features:
The construction of DIAC looks like a transistor but there are major differences.
They are as follows:
(i) All the three layers, p–n–p or n–p–n, are equally doped in the DIAC, whereas
in the BJT there is a gradation of doping. The emitter is highly doped, the collector
is lightly doped, and the base is moderately doped.
(ii) The DIAC is a two-terminal diode as opposed to the BJT, which is a three-
terminal device.
Physical Operation and Characteristics:
At this point holes from the heavily doped emitter are injected into the n-type
bar, especially into the B1 region. The bar, which is lightly doped, offers very
little chance for these holes to recombine.
The lower half of the bar becomes replete with additional current carriers
(holes) and its resistance RB is drastically reduced; the decrease in BB1
causes Vx to drop.
This drop, in turn, causes the diode to become more forward-biased and IE
OFF State of the UJT Circuit:
When a voltage VBB is applied across the two base terminals B1 and
B2, the potential of point p with respect to B1 is given by:
VP =[VBB/ (RB1 +RB2)]*RB1=η*RB1,
η is called the intrinsic stand off ratio with its typical value lying between
0.5 and 0.8.
The VEE source is applied to the emitter which is the p-side. Thus, the
emitter diode will be reverse-biased as long as VEE is less than Vx.
This is OFF state and is shown on the VE - IE curve as being a very
low current region.
In the OFF the UJT has a very high resistance between E and B1, and
IE is usually a negligible reverse leakage current. With no IE, the drop
across RE is zero and the emitter voltage equals the source voltage.
UJT Ratings:
Maximum peak emitter current : This represents the maximum allowable value of a pulse
of emitter current.
Maximum reverse emitter voltage :This is the maxi mum reverse-bias that the emitter
base junction B2 can tolerate before breakdown occurs.
Maximum inter base voltage :This limit is caused by the maxi mum power that the n-type
base bar can safely dissipate.
Emitter leakage current :This is the emitter current which flows when VE is less than Vp
and the UJT is in the OFF state.
Applications:
The UJT is very popular today mainly due to its high switching speed.
A few select applications of the UJT are as follows:
(i) It is used to trigger SCRs and TRIACs
(ii) It is used in non-sinusoidal oscillators
(iii) It is used in phase control and timing circuits
(iv) It is used in saw tooth generators
(v) It is used in oscillator circuit design
INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
(IGBT): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-ofyG3bLQ8
INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
(IGBT):
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor is a recent model of a power-switching
device that combines the advantages of a power BJT and a power MOSFET.
Both power MOSFET and IGBT are the continuously controllable voltage-
controlled switch.
Constructional Features:
The structure of an IGBT cell is shown in Fig. 8-19.
The p region acts as a substrate which forms the anode region, i.e., the
collector region of the IGBT. Then there is a buffer layer of n region and a
bipolar-base drift region.
The p-region contains two n regions and acts as a MOSFET source. An
inversion layer can be formed by applying proper gate voltage.
The cathode, i.e., the IGBT emitter is formed on the n source region.
Physical Operation:
The principle behind the operation of an
IGBT is similar to that of a power MOSFET.
The IGBT operates in two modes:
(i) The blocking or non-conducting
mode
(ii) The ON or conducting mode.