Chapter 2

Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of void volume in a porous medium to the total volume of
that medium. Let us assume that we have an empty 350 ml glass, and we fill the
glass to the brim with water to cover the entire volume. Now consider another
identical glass with four ice cubes in it, with each ice cube having a volume of 50
ml. The total volume of ice in the glass will be 200 ml, given that it is not melting.
If we now want to pour water to the glass, we know that there will be room for
just 150 ml of water, since the rest of the volume is occupied by ice. Hence, the
porosity of the glass with the ice cubes will be 150 ml (pore volume, the volume
of water filling the pore space) divided by 350 ml (total volume) and the resulting
porosity will be 0.43. This scenario is shown in Figure 2.1. Basically, porosity
means storage capacity that can indicate the amount of fluid that the porous
medium can store. Porosity can be calculated using the following equation:

Vp
φ= (2.1)
Vt

where ф is the porosity [dimensionless since we are dividing two volumes], Vp is

the pore volume [cm3], and Vt is the total volume [cm3].

Alternatively, we can subtract the matrix volume (in this case, the ice cubes)
from the total volume and divide it by the total volume to obtain the porosity, as
shown in the following equation:

Vt − Vm
φ= (2.2)
Vt

where Vm is the matrix volume [cm3].

Overall, we can say that:

Vp V t − Vm
φ= = (2.3)
Vt Vt

Vt = Vp + Vm (2.4)

Therefore, if we know any two of the volumes, we can calculate the porosity.

17
 350 ml 150 ml
of of
water water

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1: Schematic showing (a) a glass filled with 350 ml of water and (b) a glass filled with
water and four ice cubes. As shown, the volume of water in the glass with ice cubes is less since
a matrix volume is present.

Example 2.1
A core sample has a total volume of 24.5 cm3 and a matrix volume
of 18.9 cm3.

(a) What is the pore volume of this sample?

(b) What is the porosity of this sample?

Solution
(a) Equation 2.4 can be used to find the pore volume:

Vt = Vp + Vm

24.5 = Vp + 18.9
Vp = 5.6 cm3

(b) Equation 2.1 can be used to find the porosity:

φ=
Vp
Vt
=
5.6
24.5
= 0.229 or 22.9%

Reservoir rocks are porous and contain fluids in their pores, as shown in Figure
2.2. Porosity measurement from a core is part of RCAL. When we use the term
"core," we usually refer to a cylindrical rock sample with a width and length of a
few centimeters.

18
 0.5 mm

Figure 2.2: Schematic showing the pore spaces in a reservoir rock at a micro-scale from a giant
reservoir field. The blue color in the figure represents the water while the black color represents
the matrix.

In addition, when dealing with rocks, we often refer to the matrix volume as the
grain volume (Vg) and the total volume as the bulk volume (Vb). Note that the
fractional porosity value is often multiplied by 100 to make it a percentage;
however, it should always be a fraction when used in calculations. The
porosity of reservoir rocks usually ranges from 5% to 40%. Table 2.1 shows
typical porosity values for different reservoir rocks. The porosity of rocks within a
reservoir indicates how much oil and/or gas is stored in that reservoir. Therefore,
finding the porosity of the reservoir beforehand is important for engineers
because it helps them estimate how economically viable that reservoir is and
how many resources should be invested in it.

Table 2.1: Typical porosity values in reservoir rocks.

Rock Type Range

Loosely consolidated sands 35–40%

Sandstones 20–35%

Well-cemented sandstones 15–20%

Limestones 5–20%

19
2.1 Classification of Porosity

Porosity has two types of classifications: geological and engineering.

2.1.1 Geological Classification of Porosity

In terms of geological classification, porosity is classified into two subdivisions:

primary and secondary. Primary porosity is the original porosity that develops
during the deposition of the material. Primary porosity can be either intergranular
or intragranular (Figure 2.3). Intergranular porosity is the porosity between
grains, while intragranular porosity is the porosity within the grain itself.
Intergranular porosity forms the majority of the porosity of the rock. Secondary
(induced) porosity is developed after deposition by geological processes which
result in vugs and fractures.

Intergranular

Primary

Intragranular

Figure 2.3: Schematic showing the difference between intergranular and intragranular porosities.

2.1.2 Engineering Classification of Porosity

In terms of engineering classification, porosity can be subdivided into two

categories: total and effective. Total porosity (фt) is the total pore volume of the
rock divided by the bulk volume. On the other hand, effective porosity (фe) is
the interconnected pore volume divided by the bulk volume. Ineffective porosity
is the isolated pore volume divided by the bulk volume. Figure 2.4 shows the
difference between effective and ineffective porosity. Usually in sandstones,
фt = фe as they are relatively homogeneous rocks. Carbonate and dolomite
rocks, on the other hand, usually have фt > фe since carbonates are typically
heterogeneous. As petroleum engineers we are mainly interested in the effective
porosity since hydrocarbons can only flow through connected pores.
20
 Effective Connected
Porosity Pore

Total
Porosity

Ineffective Isolated
Porosity Pore

Figure 2.4: Schematic showing the difference between porosity subdivisions: total, effective, and
ineffective.

2.2 Calculation of Porosity

If we consider a cubic packing of spheres (ideal situation) and look at a cube

section as shown in Figure 2.5, the length of the cube is 2r, where r is the radius
of the sphere. Thus, the bulk volume of the cube will be:

Vb = (2r)3 = 8r3 (2.5)

The matrix volume in this case is represented by the volume of the spherical
portions in this cubic segment. We have eight equal portions of one-eighth of a
sphere in this cube, thus:

1 4
Vm = 8( sphere) = 1 sphere = πr3 (2.6)
8 3
The porosity then becomes:

V b − Vm 8r3 − 43 πr3 π
φ= = 3
= 1 − = 0.476 (2.7)
Vb 8r 6

We can conclude that the grain size does not affect the porosity of the rock (as
all the radii in the equation cancel out). In other words, having large spheres
or small spheres will lead to the same porosity as long as they are all of the
same size and have the same packing (Figure 2.6). A value of 0.476 is the highest
achievable porosity, and naturally you will always come across a porosity value
less than this.

21
 (a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.5: Schematic showing (a) a cubic packing of spheres from which (b) a subset cube is
selected and then (c) analyzed.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.6: Schematic showing (a) the large particle size and (b) the small particle size. Both have
the same porosity as the particle size does not affect the porosity value.

2.3 Factors Affecting Porosity

Porosity can be affected by either primary or secondary factors.

2.3.1 Primary Factors

Particle Packing

Different packing arrangements lead to different porosities, as shown in Figure

2.7. A cubic packing of matrix (Figure 2.7a) leads to a highest possible porosity of
47.6%, as discussed previously, while rhombohedral packing of spheres (Figure
2.7b) leads to a highest possible porosity of 26.0%, which is lower than the
previous case.

22
 (a) (b)

Figure 2.7: Different packing leads to different porosities; (a) cubic packing has 47.6% porosity
and (b) rhombohedral packing has 26.0% porosity.

Sorting

Particles are referred to as “well sorted” when they are all of the same size while
they are poorly sorted when they are of different sizes (Figure 2.8). Well-sorted
particles result in a higher porosity compared to poorly sorted particles.

Well Sorted Poorly Sorted

(a) (b)

Figure 2.8: Schematic showing the effect of sorting on porosity in (a) a well-sorted medium and
(b) a poorly sorted medium. A poorly sorted porous medium tends to have a lower porosity than
a well-sorted medium.

23
2.3.2 Secondary Factors

Cementing materials

The presence of more cementing materials means less porosity as there is less
void space available for the storage of hydrocarbons.

Overburden pressure (compaction)

Overburden pressure will lower the pore volume of the rock, leading to lower
porosity. We will cover more of this topic in Chapter 3.

Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

These are formed after deposition and will increase the porosity of rocks.
Dissolution is when the minerals dissolve over time. Some minerals will dissolve
in water. Vugs are large pores formed by dissolution. Fracture is a break or
separation in a rock formation.

2.4 Measuring Porosity

There are usually two methods of measuring porosity. We either measure it

using laboratory measurements (RCAL) at the centimeter scale or using wireline
logging at the meter scale.

2.4.1 Laboratory Measurements

There are several methods of finding porosity in the laboratory. However, we will
focus on the two most common techniques, which are the fluid displacement
and gas expansion using a gas porosimeter. All the rocks used in the laboratory
core analysis are rocks extracted from a reservoir using coring performed by a
downhole instrument, as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Schematic showing a downhole instrument used to collect rock samples from the
reservoir (sidewall coring tool).

24
Fluid Displacement

The concept of fluid displacement is based on mass/material balance. In this

technique, we weigh a dry core and measure the dimensions, specifically the
diameter and length of the core. Then, we vacuum saturate the core with water
or brine (salt water), for instance, to make sure that the water has filled all the
pore spaces and no air is trapped in the core (Figure 2.10). The core is then
weighed to find the saturated weight. Subtracting the saturated weight from the
dry weight, we obtain the weight of the water in the pore spaces (Figure 2.11). By
dividing the weight of the water by the density of the water, we obtain the pore
volume:
W s − Wd
Vp = (2.8)
ρ
where Ws is the weight of the core saturated with fluid [g], Wd is the dry weight of
the core [g], and ρ is the density of the fluid [g/cm3]; since the fluid in this case is
water, the density is 1 g/cm3. Note that the weight term used in this book is
analogous to mass, unlike in physics where weight is a force.

Example 2.2
A cylindrical core sample has a length of 5 cm and a diameter of 2 cm. The
dry weight of the sample is 56.5 g, and the weight of the sample saturated
with water is 60.3 g. Given that the density of water is 1 g/cm3, find the
porosity of the sample.

Solution
We find the total volume of the core sample:
 2
2
V t = πr 2
L = π 5 = 15.71 cm3
2

We find the weight of water in the sample:

Ww = Ws − Wd = 60.3 − 56.5 = 3.8 g

We find the pore volume of the sample:

Ww 3.8
Vp = = = 3.8 cm3
ρw 1
Equation 2.1 can be used to find the porosity:

φ= =
Vp
Vt
3.8
15.71
= 0.242 or 24.2%

25
 Vacuum
Pump
Air
Bubbles

Figure 2.10: Schematic showing the vacuum saturation of a rock sample.

- =

Wsaturated Wdry Wwater

Figure 2.11: Schematic showing the concept of mass/material balance, indicating that subtracting
the dry weight from the saturated weight gives the weight of the liquid in the system. This weight
can be converted to pore volume by dividing it by the density of the liquid in the system.

From the displacement method, we can also find the bulk volume of irregular
shapes. Let us consider a rock with an irregular shape as shown in Figure 2.12.
In order to measure the volume, we need to coat the surface of the rock with
an insulating material such as paraffin (ρ = 0.9 g/cm3) to prevent the fluid we
are using to enter the pores. However, before that we need to measure the
dry weight of the rock sample and the weight of the core with the paraffin. The
difference between the two weights divided by the density of paraffin is the
volume of the added paraffin. This volume will then be subtracted from the final
volume calculation. After performing all these steps, we can find the volume of
the rock using two methods:

1) We can record the initial volume of water in the graduated cylinder,

and then record the new volume of water after submerging the rock. The
difference between the new volume and the initial volume is the volume of
the rock. However, we also need to subtract the volume of the paraffin to
obtain the actual bulk volume of the rock (Figure 2.12a).

26
 2) We can also use the Archimedes’ principle to find the bulk volume of the
rock (Figure 2.12b):

Wdf = Wr − Wa (2.9)

where Wdf is the weight of the displaced fluid [g], Wr is the dry weight of the core
or the weight of the core at the initial conditions before submerging (real weight)
[g], and Wa is the weight of the core after submerging it in the fluid (apparent
weight) [g]. Wa is less than the real weight due to buoyancy forces. Note that we
need to suspend the core in order for buoyancy forces to act on the core. Finally,
in order to measure the bulk volume, we need to use the following equation:

Wdf
Vb = − Vcoat (2.10)
ρ

where ρ is the density of the fluid in which the core is submerged [g/cm3], which
in this case is water, and Vcoat is the volume of coat used, usually paraffin [cm3].
Note that Vcoat can be measured by subtracting the weight of the sample with the
coat from the weight of the sample without the coat and divide the product by
the density of coat used, i.e., paraffin.

Example 2.3
The dry weight of a sample is 330 g, and its weight when saturated with
water is 360 g. The apparent weight of this sample in water is recorded as
225 g. Given that the density of water is 1 g/cm3, find the porosity of the
sample. Assuming the sample is coated with a material of negligible weight.

Solution
Equation 2.8 can be used to find the pore volume of the sample:
W s − Wd 360 − 330
Vp = = = 30 cm3
ρw 1
Equation 2.9 can be used to find the weight of the displaced fluid:

Wdf = Wr − Wa = 330 − 225 = 105 g
Equation 2.10 can be used to find the bulk volume:

Wdf 105

Vb = = = 105 cm3
ρw 1
Equation 2.1 can be used to find the porosity:

φ=
Vp
Vb
=
30
105
= 0.286 or 28.6%
27
 (a) (b)
Figure 2.12: Schematic showing the two ways of measuring the bulk volumes of irregularly
shaped volumes: (a) using volume difference and (b) using Archimedes’ principle. The gray liquid
represents the increase in fluid level after submerging the rock sample.

The Gas Expansion Method

The second method used to measure porosity is the method of gas expansion
using a helium porosimeter, which relies on Boyle’s law:

P1 V1 = P2 V2 (2.11)

In this method, we usually use helium as it has a low molecular weight and so
can easily enter the smallest pore spaces, which will lead to the most accurate
results. We use the system shown in Figure 2.13a which consists of two chambers
separated by a valve, with a pressure sensor in the first chamber. Chambers
1 and 2 should be of fixed volumes. To break down the process, we need to
understand the following:

1) We fill chamber 1 with helium and then record the pressure; thus, we
have P1 and V1 as shown in Figure 2.13b.

2) If we open the valve to chamber 2, as shown in Figure 2.13c, then Boyle’s

law becomes:

P1 V1 = P2 (V1 + V2 ) (2.12)

3) If we consider an actual case where we have a rock inside chamber 2

(Figure 2.13d), then Boyle’s law becomes:

P1 V1 = P2 (V1 + V2 − Vm ) (2.13)

28
In this case, helium will access all the chambers and the pore spaces. The only
space helium will not access is the matrix volume as it is not porous; using this
technique, we can calculate the porosity.

We will calculate Vm from the equation above, as V1 and V2 are constants and P1
and P2 will be read from the equipment. After finding Vm and also knowing the
bulk volume of the core, which is easy to measure, we can calculate the pore
volume as Vp = Vb – Vm and the porosity is equal to Vp divided by Vb.

It is important to mention that both the fluid displacement and gas expansion
tests measure the effective porosity as fluids can only access the connected
pores.

Example 2.4
A helium porosimeter is used to find the porosity of a certain core sample.
Both the chambers in the porosimeter have a volume of 100 cm3, and
the sample has a bulk volume of 16.2 cm3. Initially, helium is contained in
chamber 1, the sample is placed in chamber 2 and the valve separating the
two chambers is closed. The initial pressure in chamber 1 is recorded to be
30 kPa, and the pressure after the valve is opened is recorded to be 16 kPa.
Find the porosity of the core sample.

Solution
Equation 2.13 can be used to find the matrix volume:

P1 V1 = P2 (V1 + V2 − Vm )

Rearranging this equation:

P1 V 1
Vm = V1 + V2 −
P2
30 × 100
Vm = 100 + 100 − = 12.5 cm3
16
We find the pore volume:

Vp = Vb − Vm = 16.2 − 12.5 = 3.7 cm

3

The porosity can be found using Equation 2.1:

φ = Vp = 3.7 =
Vt 16.2
0.228 or 22.8%

29
 (1) (2)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 2.13: Schematic showing a helium porosimeter where (a) the system has two chambers
separated by a valve with a pressure sensor on chamber 1, (b) helium is introduced in the first
chamber and the pressure reading is taken; the volumes of the chambers need to be taken
before the actual measurement as part of the calibration process, (c) the valve is opened and
helium reaches the second chamber and, in this case, the pressure will decrease as the initial
helium introduced in the system has a larger volume to occupy (both V1 and V2), and (d) all the
previously discussed steps are incorporated and measurements are taken.

30
2.4.2 Wireline Logging

Wireline logging is the acquisition and analysis of petrophysical properties as a

function of depth. Figure 2.14 shows a schematic of a logging tool (sonde) used
in petrophysical measurements in the well. Wireline logging is usually referred
to as taking in situ measurements inside the well. Different wireline tools are
used to acquire three main properties: lithology, porosity, and fluid saturation.
For lithology, gamma rays from formation rocks as a result of the decay of
radioactive elements are recorded; shales have more radioactive components
than reservoir rocks. For fluid saturation, we use resistivity logs, which are based
on the concept that hydrocarbons have higher resistivity (lower conductivity)
than water. We will cover this in more detail in Chapter 6.

Well Log
SP Resistivity

Increasing Increasing Increasing

Radioactivity Resistivity Porosity

Shale

Oil Sand

Shale
Gamma Ray Resistivity Porosity

Figure 2.14: Schematic showing a wireline logging tool (sonde) and a typical logging response for
three properties.

Porosity Logs

Porosity logs can be divided into three types:

• Bulk Density Log (Density Log).

• Neutron Log.
• Acoustic (Sonic) Log.

31
Generally speaking, several logs are run simultaneously on the same logging
tool for several measurements to be taken at the same time. Porosity logs do
not measure porosity directly; porosity is instead obtained by performing some
calculations on the log data. Moreover, porosity logs measure the total porosity
when compared to laboratory measurements, because logging tools can access
both the isolated and connected pores.

Bulk Density Log (Density log)

A density log records the bulk density of the porous media near the well against
the depth. Moreover, it uses a radioactive source to generate gamma rays. The
gamma rays collide with electrons in the rock formation, losing energy. The
detector in the logging tool measures the intensity of the back-scattered gamma
rays, which is related to electron density of the formation. Electron density is a
measure of the bulk density. The bulk density is dependent on:

• Density of the lithology

• Porosity
• Density and saturation of the fluids in the pores

Again, the log reads bulk density, which is explained further in the following
equation:

ρb = ρm (1 − φ) + ρf φ (2.14)
   
Matrix Fluids in the
pore spaces
where ρb is the bulk density [g/cm3], ρm is the matrix density [g/cm3], which is
constant depending on the formation (the typical values will be discussed later),
ф is the porosity, and ρf is the density [g/cm3] of the fluid that occupies the pore
space and can be either water, oil, or gas; the fluid density is also constant.

Then, we can rearrange the equation to obtain:

ρm − ρb
φ= (2.15)
ρm − ρf

An example of a density log (RHOB) is shown in Figure 2.15.

Neutron Log

The logging tool emits high energy neutrons into the rock formation and the
neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation’s atoms. The neutrons lose
energy (velocity) with each collision; the most amount of energy is lost during
collisions with a hydrogen atom nucleus. The resulting low energy neutrons are
detected and their count rate is related to the number of hydrogen atoms in
the formation. The higher the count rate, the lower the porosity, and vice versa.
Sometimes corrections have to be made to the readings based on the lithology
32
under study. An example of a neutron porosity log (NPHI) is shown in Figure
2.15.

Acoustic (Sonic) Log

The sonic tool usually consists of sound transmitters and receivers. The concept
relies on sound traveling at different speeds, depending on the medium being
solid, liquid, or gas. Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids.

To calculate the porosity from the sonic log, we use the following equation:

∆TL = ∆Tm (1 − φ) + ∆Tf φ (2.16)

     
Matrix Fluids in the
pore spaces

where ∆TL is the interval transit time read from the log [µs/ft], ∆Tm is the interval
transit time through the matrix [µs/ft], and ∆Tf is the interval transit time through
the fluid [µs/ft]; for water, this time is 190 µs/ft. Interval transit time is the
time taken for the sound wave to travel a certain distance, proportional to the
reciprocal of velocity between the transmitter and the receiver.

Then, we can rearrange the equation to obtain:

∆Tm − ∆TL
φ= (2.17)
∆Tm − ∆Tf

∆Tm is a constant that is based on the lithology (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Expected travel time through the matrix for different rocks.

Lithology ΔTm [μs/ft]

Sandstone 55.5

Carbonate 47.5

Dolomite 43.5

An example of a sonic log (DT) is shown in Figure 2.15.

Responses of Porosity Logs

The three porosity logs respond differently to different matrix compositions and
to the presence of gas and oil. The combination of these logs along with the
resistivity and lithology logs is very important to understand the full picture of
the reservoir. The above sections briefly introduce the three logs that are used
to estimate porosity. A detailed interpretation of petrophysical properties from
logs is beyond the scope of this book.

33
2.5 Grain/Matrix Density

Grain/matrix density [g/cm3] is also considered a part of the RCAL. In order to

measure it, we need to know the bulk volume, the weight of the rock sample,
and the pore volume. Finding the matrix density can easily be a part of porosity
measurement as only the weight of the sample will be required. After we measure
the porosity, we can find the matrix volume and hence the matrix density can be
obtained through the following equation:

Wm
ρm = (2.18)
Vm

where ρm is the density of the matrix [g/cm3], Wm is the weight of the matrix or the
dry weight of the core [g] as the density of air is assumed to be negligible; Wm =
Wd (dry weight of the entire core), and Vm is the volume of the matrix [cm3], which
is the bulk volume minus the pore volume (Vb – Vp).

Typical matrix densities of different rock types are shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Typical matrix densities for different rock types.

Lithology ρm [g/cm3]

Sandstone 2.65

Limestone 2.71

Dolomite 2.87

34
 RHOB
Depth, 1.95 g/cc 2.95 DT
ft NPHI 150 μs/ft 50
0.45 -0.15

10700

10800

10900

Figure 2.15: Three different wireline logs: density log (RHOB), neutron log (NPHI), and sonic log
(DT).

Example 2.5
a) Using the density log from Figure 2.15, calculate the porosity of a
sandstone formation at a depth of 10,860 ft. Assume that the formation is
saturated with water having a density ρ = 1 g/cm3.

35
 b) Using a neutron log (Figure 2.15), calculate the porosity at a depth of
10,720 ft.

c) Using an acoustic log (Figure 2.15), calculate the porosity of a sandstone

formation at a depth of 10,820 ft. Assume that the formation is saturated
with water having a ∆Tf = 195 µs/ft.

Solution
a) From Figure 2.15, it can be seen that the density log scale has 10
increments. The value of ρb varies from 1.95 to 2.95 g/cm3, thus having a
range of 1.00 g/cm3. To obtain the ρb value after each increment, the range
is divided by the number of increments. Therefore, after every increment,
the value of ρb increases by 0.10 g/cm3 from left to right. At a depth of 10,860
ft, ρb is read to be approximately 2.25 g/cm3.

The value of ρm for sandstone is 2.65 g/cm3 (from Table 2.3) and the value
for ρf is given. Using Equation 2.15, the porosity can be found:
ρm − ρb
φ=
ρm − ρf

φ=
2.65 − 2.25
2.65 − 1
= 0.24 or 24%
b) For the neutron log, the porosity value can be read directly from the log.
From Figure 2.15, it can be seen that the ф value varies from 0.45 to -0.15,
thus having a range of 0.60. Since there are 10 increments, the value of ф
decreases by 0.06 from left to right after every increment. At a depth of
10,720 ft, the value of ф is read to be approximately equal to 0.15 or 15%.

c) From Figure 2.15, it can be seen that the ∆TL value varies from 150 to 50,
thus having a range of 100. Since there are 10 increments, the ∆TL value
decreases by 10 from left to right after every increment. At a depth of 10,820
ft, the ∆TL value is read to be approximately 70 µs/ft.

The value of ∆Tm for sandstone is 55.5 µs/ft (from Table 2.2) and the value
for ∆Tf is given. Based on these:
∆Tm − ∆TL
φ=
∆Tm − ∆Tf

φ=
55.5 − 70
55.5 − 195
= 0.1 10%
or

36
2.6 Summary

Porosity is the ratio of void volume in a porous medium to the total volume of
that medium. It is measured using the following equation:
Vp V b − Vm
φ= = (2.19)
Vb Vb
It is important to measure porosity accurately as it helps in quantifying the
amount of hydrocarbons stored within a reservoir. In terms of geological
classification, porosity is classified as primary and secondary. In terms of
engineering classification, porosity is subdivided into total and effective. Porosity
can be affected by several primary factors, such as particle packing and sorting.
It is also affected by secondary factors such as cementing materials, overburden
pressure, vugs, dissolution, and fractures. Porosity can be measured in the
laboratory using the fluid displacement method and the gas expansion method
using a helium porosimeter. In the field, porosity can be measured using wireline
logging, where measurements are taken inside wells. Three different porosity
logs, namely bulk density log, neutron log, and acoustic log, are used to estimate
the porosity in the formation adjacent to the well. The matrix density for different
types of rocks can also be obtained from the porosity measurements.

Table 2.4 summarizes the concept of porosity.

Table 2.4: Definition of porosity and its importance to the petroleum industry.

Parameter Symbol Definition Importance

Porosity ф The fraction of the Porosity is important

bulk volume of a to quantify the
material (rock) that amount of gas and/
is occupied by the or oil in the reservoir.
pores (voids) in
that material.

37
End of Chapter Questions

Question 2.1

A 200 cm3 beaker is completely filled with sand, and 37 cm3 of water is added to
the beaker until it reaches the top of the sand and no more can be added. What
is the porosity of the sand?

Question 2.2

A core sample has a cubic packing of spheres as shown in Figure 2.5c. Find the
matrix volume of this sample if the bulk volume of this sample is 216 mm3.

Question 2.3

A cylindrical core sample has a length of 8 cm and a diameter of 3 cm. The dry
weight of the sample is 90.8 g, and the weight of the sample saturated with oil of
density 0.75 g/cm3 is 101.2 g. What is the porosity of this sample?

Question 2.4

The fluid displacement technique is used to find the porosity of a certain core
sample. The sample is first coated with paraffin (density of 0.9 g/cm3) and
submerged in a beaker filled with water (density 1 g/cm3), where the volume of
water before and after submerging the sample is recorded. Then, the paraffin is
removed, the sample is saturated with water and then weighed. The following
information is given for the sample:

- Dry weight of the core = 140.2 g

- Weight of the core with paraffin = 145.6 g
- Initial volume in the beaker = 242.5 cm3
- Final volume in the beaker = 318.0 cm3
- Weight of the core saturated with water = 156.8 g

For this sample, find the:

a) Bulk volume

b) Pore volume

c) Porosity

d) Matrix density and the lithology

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Question 2.5

The dry weight of a sample is 241.0 g, and its weight when saturated with a
particular oil is 266.0 g. The apparent weight of this sample in that oil is recorded
as 143.1 g. Given that the density of this oil is 0.82 g/cm3, find the

a) Porosity of the sample

b) Matrix density and the lithology of the sample

Question 2.6

A core has a porosity of 0.28. The dry weight of the core is 156.4 g, and the weight
of the core when saturated with a 0.75 g/cm3 oil is 175.9 g.

a) What is the pore volume of the core?

b) What is the bulk volume of the core?

c) What would the apparent weight of the dry core be when it is

immersed in the given oil if the core is coated with a material of negligible
weight and volume?

d) When the dry core is coated with paraffin (density 0.9 g/cm3), its
weight in air is recorded as 166.1 g. What would the apparent weight of
the coated core be when immersed in water (density 1 g/cm3)?

Question 2.7

A core sample is placed inside a porosimeter. Both the chambers in the

porosimeter have a volume of 150 cm3, and the sample has a bulk volume of 41.4
cm3. Initially, helium is contained in chamber 1, the sample is placed in chamber
2, and the valve separating the two chambers is closed. After the valve is opened,
a 44% decrease in the pressure reading is recorded compared to when the valve
is closed.

a) What is the porosity of this sample?

b) In the same porosimeter, a different sample with the same bulk volume
is now used with a porosity of 0.15. Given that the initial pressure before
the valve is closed is recorded as 25 kPa, what is the final pressure after
the valve is opened?

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Question 2.8

For this question, use the logs shown in the figure below. Find the porosity of
the dolomite formation using the density log, neutron log, and acoustic log at a
depth of:

a) 5024 ft

b) 5044 ft

c) 5122 ft

Assume that the formation is saturated with an oil having a density ρ = 0.85 g/
cm3 and a travel time ∆Tf = 325 µs/ft.

Question 2.9

i. The following data is available for core sample A extracted at a depth of 5046 ft
(see the figure shown below):

- Bulk volume Vb = 25.31 cm3

- Grain volume, Vg = 19.19 cm3
- Dry weight of the core sample, Wd = 50.85 g

a) What is the porosity of this core sample?

b) What is the grain density of this sample?

c) Given that the pores of the rock are filled with brine of density
1.20 g/cm3, find the porosity of the rock from the density log.

ii. Core sample B was extracted at a depth of 5099 ft (see the same figure). The
extracted core was coated with paraffin and immersed in a container of liquid.
Upon immersion, 12.30 cm3 of the liquid was displaced. The dry weight of this
sample was measured to be 25.30 g, and the weight of the sample coated with
paraffin was measured to be 27.13 g. The density of paraffin is 0.9 g/cm3.

a) What is the bulk volume of this sample?

b) The paraffin was removed from the core, and the core was
subsequently saturated with oil of density 0.85 g/cm3. The saturated
weight of the core is 26.53 g. What is the porosity of this sample?

c) What is the grain density of this sample?

d) Given that the pores of this rock are filled with brine of interval transit
time 190 µs/ft, find the porosity of this rock from the sonic log.

40
iii. Determine the lithology of core samples A and B, and give two justifications
for each.

RHOB
Depth, 2.0 g/cc 3.0 DT
ft NPHI 140 μs/ft 40
0.3 -0.10

5020

5040

5060

5080

5100

5120

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