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CHAPTER # 2
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LITRATURE REVIEW

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2.1 Literature review:

Organizations are due to the presence of human beings. People give their time, skills and
knowledge for the benefit of their organization. It is quite obvious that among all resources the
most important resource is the human resources. There is no doubt in the importance of
human beings but it also the most expensive and difficult task to retain them inside the
organization.

Utuka(2001) and Schultz’s (1980), found that the most important for the formation of wealth is
the human capital. This acts like a base to do so. It is the agent who produces wealth and
money by exploiting natural available resources to generate, organize and develop each type of
organizations including social, political, and economic organizations and they give programs for
the development of a nation.

Therefore it is the responsibility of a country to develop and polish the skills of their people and
utilize them at their maximum. This proves the importance of education. Previous research
shows the importance of human capital, and a nation should possess at 70 percent of their
population literate. In Pakistan there is only 45% literate population including those people that
can only write their name.

Seniwoliba A. J.(2013), Teacher is the most important part of the human capital in a country.
There is no doubt that in the success of any educational development program, infrastructural
facilities are important but it is the teacher that’s work will determine the success or failure of
organization’s program. Presence of a teacher determines the credibility of an organization.
Wicke (1964) teacher is the key person through which the knowledge is produced and spreads
and skills are polished. There for the part of the teacher for emerging the human capital is of
central importance, and it’s the responsibility of an organization to lift and hold the moral of a
teacher. After all it is proved that teacher is the incarnation and the strait through which the
human capital of a nation is developed.

Therefore the teacher’s job satisfaction and motivation have more importance than other thing
for the long term progress and expansion of any educational institute or a system. Filak and
Sheldon (2003), they rank alongside core competencies, all available resources for the
institution and strategies. Proficient knowledge and services occur when one senses effective in
his behavior. All above mentioned things can be seen when he has acceptance and grasping
challenging tasks fixed at educational success and performance.

Dwek(1999), all above mentioned factors shows the efficacy, and, it is well determined that
many teacher lose their self-efficacy within the organization. Like all others teacher also
perform his job to satisfy and fulfill his needs. Similarly job satisfaction is in the context that the
ability of the teaching profession to full fills basic needs and also development of professional
skills. For decades the focus of research was on job performance and job satisfaction, but now
job motivation and job satisfaction are of the main interest. A satisfied employ is more
productive than an unsatisfied employ. According to koutelios (2001), the research on job
satisfaction has been conducting since 65 years. According to him it is estimated that over 5000
studies of job satisfaction has been conducted since 1992. Mainly the potential reason for
previous studies was supposition that, cause of absenteeism, high worker turn-over and the
bad experiences of the job is job dissatisfaction.

Ingersoll (2001), who conducted the study in both public and private school, explore that

Staffing problems in the schools is not due to the retirement of the old teachers, but it is due to
the different factors. Ingersoll along with Maslach and leiter (1997), verify that there are four
factors due to which teachers may change their job place, that include insufficient support from
the administration, discipline problems inside the school campus, insufficient participation in
the decision making and low salary packages. According to Oshagbemi (2003), a lot of research
has been done on job dissatisfaction in the business field but a very few in the educational
sector. Hence it is required sufficient research in this sector.

Similarly as have mentioned earlier there are different factors due to which teachers in the
Bahria School and college system looks dissatisfied from their jobs. So as a large organization it
requires some study to resolve such issues which has not been done earlier. This study will
support further research for issues, in schools and colleges under the surveillance of armed
forces or trusts governed by armed forces.

Different variables which have been chosen in this research are:

1. Job Satisfaction
2. salaries
3. Directive style of management
4. Work distribution
5. Communication gap
6. Discrimination

Theoretical perspective and conceptual framework on all above mentioned variables is as

follows.

2.1.1 Job Satisfaction:

Muhammad Jamal Shah, Musawwir-Ur-Rehman, Gulnaz Akhtar, Huma Zafar, Adnan Riaz(2012),
The annual salary increments, bonuses and other compensations and allowances keep
teacher’s moral high and make them more satisfied with their jobs.(Kuhlen, 1963), the
perception a person gains about that his will full fill his needs is considered to the job
satisfaction. While according to the price (2001), job satisfaction can be defined as the affective
positioning that one feels for his job. Okpara (2004), says there is an effective research has been
done on job satisfaction. But George et al (2008), says that now the research inclined is towards
different angles of the job satisfaction. Ho et al (2009) different researchers are on the point
that organizational commitment which is very important for both employ and organization can
influence favorably the job satisfaction. (Khan et al., 2011), it is observed that there is a
difference between the salaries of the young and old employees of an organization. Young
employees are more satisfied with their salaries. While experienced employees feel that they
are not properly numerated according to their function. So they are not satisfied with their
jobs. (Ho et al., 2009; Porter and Lawer, 1973; Castle, Engberg and Anderson, 2007), this
dissatisfaction will not give positive outcomes for the organization. Job satisfaction depends
upon the difference between the expectation of what person wants and what a person in real
gains. (Omme et al, 2009; Spector, 1997; Williams, 2004), job satisfaction is actually the view in
the mind of a parson positive or negative about different features of the job e.g. working
environment, job duration, structure, assigned tasks and association with colleagues. According
to (Kamal &Hanif, 2009), key element in the job satisfaction is the salary. It is also the feelings
of a person about his job. (Khan et al., 2011), in any organization it is the responsibility of the
management to give worth to the human capital. (Sargent &Hannum, 2005), is of the view that
disposition, affection and enthusiasm are the key variables which determine the extent of job
satisfaction. (Haiyan, 1995; Weiqi, 1998; Sargent &Hannum, 2005), see job satisfaction in a
different way like it is the absentees and friction in his or her job. (Sargent &Hannum, 2005),
are of the view that teacher’s job satisfaction depends upon different factors like size if the
school, behavior of the administration, way or quality if the supervision and what they fell they
will grow there or not, either they are happy with their salary or not .similarly work itself also
contributes to the job satisfaction. (Tead, 1920), tells that no work is good or bad it is the acuity
in the mind of the employee. Ther is no charm or dreary in the job, relationship does matter
only.

2.1.2 Unequal salaries:

Saqib Usman et al (2013), salaries play a vital role in job satisfaction. It is shown that if salaries
are not given on time and proper they will be dissatisfied with the organization and eventually
will think to leave the organization soon. Akram (2012), it is not an easy job for the
organizations to retain the competitive employees. But it is the necessary for the organizations
to make them able to provide them proper salaries, good working environment and security. In
all above mentioned variables the most important variable is the salary as everyone requires
dough to full fill the needs of families. Kabir and Parvin(2011), concluded that job satisfaction
depends mainly upon salaries and compensation, working conditions, hierarchy of the system
to expel forward, supervision, work load and mixing. Andrew Clark et al (1996), have founded a
valuable relationship among different variables including salary satisfaction, work load and job
satisfaction, founded a U-shaped relationship among them. For the growth and development of
an organization it is very central that the employees should be provided competitive
remuneration to Muhammad Rafiq, (2012). He research on call center employees and further
explore that there are some extrinsic and intrinsic factors that can affect the job satisfaction
and concluded that extrinsic factors or rewards more suggestively affects the job satisfaction.

The work of Kabir et al (2011), concludes that relations at job place, work efficiency,
management style and salaries affects significantly on job satisfaction of employees. He worked
on the pharmaceutical sector of the Bangladesh and uses different variables like type of
pharmaceutical, experience, age, gender difference and job satisfaction.

Waheed and Tan Teck-Hong, (2011), used Herzberg’s hygiene factors and motivators on the
sales force working environment and appreciations affects a lot on job satisfaction. He also did
his work with respect to the mentality of the workers and founded that workers who love
money will be more satisfied if there is an increase in their salary.

Oyebamiji Florence Funmilola (2013), founded that different dimensions

of the job satisfaction relate directly and separately with the leadership style of the
management, opportunities for the promotion and working conditions. (Vieira Serrana 2005),
research on the job satisfaction of employees having differences in their salaries in European
Union (EU). Their results found an important point that high pay employees are more satisfied
with respect to the low paid employees. Their result also concluded that low and high paid
employees’ job satisfaction level is expanded in Southern European countries.

2.1.3 Directive style of management:

Leader’s style of management has pronounced effect on the satisfaction level of the employees.
Leadership behavior can be defined as the ability of the leader to influence the employees to
give them their higher output.(Ivancevich & Matteson, 1993), studied and suggest two types of
the leadership style. These are initiating and consideration. Fleishman (1953), and his cohorts
also founded these two types and defined as the consideration is the behavior if the leader ship
behavior in which he shows friendship and respect for the subordinates. While in initiating
leader define and direct the tasks. Holdnak, Harsh, and Bushardt (1993), discovered two
important relations between leadership style and satisfaction. There is a positive relationship
between consideration and job satisfaction. It has a positive impact on the subordinates.
Holdnak et al (1993), also discovered negative relation between job satisfaction and initiating
style of the leadership. According to him initiating style will decrease employees’ job
satisfaction level. Childers et al. (1990), also found strong and positive relationship between
consideration and job satisfaction. Similarly other researchers also found similar type of
relationships (Bordieri et al., 1988; Vecchio, 1988). Based on above discussion it can be easily
told that consideration has a positive relationship with job satisfaction and initiating has
negative. (Mosadeghrad 2003b, 2004), there are several style of leader ship including
autocratic, bureocratic, lassiez-faire, charismatic, democratic, participative, situational, and
transformational. Ali Mohammad Mosadegh Rad Mohammad Hossein Yarmohammadian,
(2006), there is no consensus on any one leadership style of management to be the most
effective. There are different situations which require different type of approaches to handle.
There is not a particular type of leaser ship style to apply in all the situations. It’s the ability of
the leader and his skills to act effectively in a particular situation.

2.1.4 Performance assessment:

Muhammad Jamal Shah et al (2012), according to them in comparison with the salary the
teachers are more satisfied with command and performance assessment. He further told that if
teachers are allowed to participate in the process of decision making and performance
recognition, they will be more satisfied, spirited and passionate towards their work. In all
sectors including education, there is a connection between the performance valuation and
obligation to the work. Performance assessment and resulting reward and recognition are very
important in the job satisfaction and inspiration of the teachers. Ali & Ahmed (2009), with
respect to the statistics performance assessment, approval and motivation show important
connection. Awarding money to the employees without any recognizable work of them will
decrease its importance. But if they are rewarded with respect their performance after
monitoring that will make them more contented (Weinstein, 1997). Assessment and
recognition have a deep relation with satisfaction and motivation. By changing assessment
process employees can be made more fulfilled and driven, and will definitely change their
attitude towards their work (Ali & Ahmed, 2009).

Ali and Ahmed (2009), found an important relation between job motivation, performance and
assessment and recognition. These findings were same as of (Katou 2008), who told that for an
employ reward and recognition are the most important things. If they are competitively
assessed and rewarded they will show more satisfaction, cooperation with their jib mates,
motivation, dedication and show more responsibility. Performance assessment can be judged
on a single scale and will be more satisfactory for the employees. Measurement of a good act is
not an easy task but resulting in the pleasant behavior, helping collogues or punctuality (Flynn,
1998; Ali & Ahmed, 2009). Assessment and then recognition can be the measure of motivation.
Recognition is an important factor that is the admiration for some ones in front of others
(Fisher, & Ackerman, 1998).
Fisher& Ackerman (1998), it is not of much importance and of significance for teachers to be
awarded them. Important is that they should be assessed for their professional skills and
competence. A teacher requires being recognized and assessed for their competitiveness and
accomplishments (Sargent & Hannum, 2005). Fisher, & Ackerman (1998), it cannot be denied
the importance of the recognition, but it works more to pay something to them. Although the
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards both work for satisfaction but if they are not paid competitively
then the importance of financial rewards increases. Therefor the importance of intrinsic
rewards like salutations, veneration and endorsement decreases with that argument (Hafiza et
al., 2011).

Okpara (2004);Opeke ( 2002), in the whole word number of working women are increasing but
till now the gender difference are existing and growing with respect to the working
environment and monitory conditions. The Situation is same in the Pakistan.

2.1.5 work distribution and satisfaction:

Andrew Sayer (2009), unequal work is not only the issue, but inequities in the avalibility of the
meaningful work does mater aswel. Contributive justice make sures about what people can do
that can enhance their abilities and skills. Contributive justice tell us about weither the all the
members of a team are pulling the actual weight what they in actual deserve. So the main
question is that either the employees are fulfilling their everyday jobs of free-riding on others’
shoulders. Murphy (1993), it is very clear that employees with mind less activities for long time,
usually under estimate their abilities to tackle the difficult tasks. he further supplement that
only the protection from physical harm is not the goal but protection from harms of mental
illness is also required. Rawls (1971), all the other things being constant it is obvious that people
enjoy the repeatation of their realized abilities. That is satisfaction and enjoyment increases as
more the capacity is realized. He called it as the ‘the Aristotelian principle’. Sayer (2007), dignified
works within the distribution of work, except other things, the employees feel self-control,
responsibility and trust on each other. Gomberg (2007), highlighted another dimension saying
that if works of keen interest, pleasant and fulfilling are joined with the particular jobs only
rather that to distribute among employees, this will not fulfill the desire of to get equal
opportunity to enjoy their work and feel satisfaction. Empowerment at the work place
enhances the job satisfaction ( heather k. spence laschinger et al 2004). Empowerment is an
ipmportant factor in work distribution which gives the chance to employee to do work in his
own way which increases the satisfaction level. Resaechers view that empowerment provide
the chances to the employees to think about themselves (Thorlakson & Murray, 1996).
Empowerment teaches the employees to how to take initiative and respond promptly (Quinn &
Spreitzer, 1997). Quinn and Shepard (1974), performed his research asking questions from the
working peoples. He concluded that people like the work having characteristics, interesting,
good working hours, competive salaries, promotions and proper supervision.

2.1.6 communication gap and satisfaction:

Communication is the activity in an organization that links the and join the people together.
One of the important movable in an institute is communication. Porter & Roberts (1976),
communication in an organization is a vibrant portent which very difficult to measure. Many
studies have been conducted to explore different factors related to an organization i.e. effect of
task related to work (Schneider & Hall, 1972), importance of organizational structure
(Schneider & Bartlett, 1970; Payne & Pheysey, 1971) and training to make good relations
(Golembiewski, 1970; Hand, Richards, & Slocum, 1973). Related to this is explored by Lawler,
Hall, and Oldham (1974). According to them communication patterns used in an organization
have deep impact on the life of an employe. Campbell et al (1974), sightsaw that there are
many varibles including climate dimension dealing with organizational structure. It looks very
real that climate dimension relates to the institutional communication dimension. It means that
communication should be accurate. As both of them relates to the employees. While other
dimensions related to both climate and communication dimensions shoe very little coherence.

Studies in different (Johannesson, 1973; Downey, Hellriegel, Phelps, & Slocum, 1974; LaFollette
& Sims, 1975), have explored the realtion between different dimensions of the climate of the
organization and different dimensions of the job satisfaction. It has been concluded that job
satisfaction and organization climate or comuunication are terminated concepts. While La-
Follette and Sims (1975), disagree from these conclusion. Nader Sheykh Al Eslami Kandlousi
(2010), organization communication behavior determines the destination of the organozaation.
So its very important that managers to amplify the role of employees in this. Communication in
an organization can be dividing in to two i.e. formal and informal communications. (Anderson &
Narus, 1984; Carriere & Bourque, 2009).

Formal communication is the channels constructed by the organization for flow of information
upward and downward (Anderson & Narus, 1984). Informal communication is based on the
relationships in the society among different people (Anderson & Narus, 1984; Litterst & Eyo,
1982; Guffy, Rhoddes, & Rogin, 2005). Research founded that there is a positive relationship
between communication and job satisfaction (Yammarino & Naughton, 1988).

2.1.7 Discrimination and satisfaction:

Gökhan Özer and Mehmet Günlük* (2010), the allocation of the prompt reward without any
discrimination is necessary in an organization. (Adams, 1963; Thibaut and Walker, 1975;
Leventhal, 1980; Moorman, 1991), justice is a wel known social value in all the socities (Adams,
1963; Thibaut and Walker, 1975; Leventhal, 1980; Moorman, 1991). (Folger and Cropanzano,
1998; Umphress et al., 2003) orgazational justice can be defined as the perception on an
employ about of his assessment of whether he is treated justily or not. Johnson (2007), the
base of the organization justice is fair resource distribution, including salary, raises and results
after any dispute. Job satisfaction is heavily effected by perceived discrimination. When an
individual perceive that he is not treated fairly in his group then he became angry and isolated
(Ellen et al., 2001). Parker and Kohlmeyer III (2005), perceived discrimination is the employ’s
perception about the extent up to which the organization is biased in respects of salary and
advancements. Sanches and Brock (1996), also concluded that the belief of an employ that he is
being treated unfairly will produce negative job related outcome i.e. decrease job satisfaction
and organizational obligation.