A.

Computer Networks

A computer network is a broad term for one of the biggest technological advances in computer
science over the last 40 years. The basic definition of a computer network is that a computer
network connects parts of a distributed architecture, whether those parts are made up of
hardware, or virtual or logical resources.

Networks are commonly categorized based on their characteristics.

The earliest computers had no networks — they were monoliths that crunched numbers through
basic mechanical and electrical components.

Then, slowly, as the technology evolved, we figured out how to link one physical computer to
another.

Early Computer Networks

Early simpler computer networks were situations where individual computers and workstations
and servers got connected one by one, first by Ethernet and other cabling, and later through
wireless connection technologies.

In the beginning, those machine-to-machine connections were the only kinds of networking that
were available. The traditional computer network saw each physical hardware piece as a node in
a connected infrastructure.

In order to affect these kinds of early networks, engineers used a range of physical network
topologies. A bus topology connected all of the nodes to a single dimensional channel. A star
topology sent traffic to and from each node, to a central hub in the middle.

Ring topologies sent a token laterally among a circle of nodes, with or without a hub. All of these
topologies presented different control methods and connectivity models for the same types of
hardware networks, where computers first learned to “talk” to each other and share data and
resources.
In the 1990s, the types of cutting-edge computer networks adopted by wealthy institutions like
corporations and universities features a set of “virtual drive” identifiers, where a user at a
workstation could click into, for example, “drive Z” to access data resources housed on another
connected computer’s hard drive.

Over time, the hardware developed — for instance, pioneers like Cisco created sophisticated
network switches and advanced node handling setups.

Then the technology world exploded with the rise of virtual networking.

Virtual Computer Networks

In newer virtual types of networks, the hardware that was connected to each other is replaced by
structural resources handled by software programs that create widespread networks independent
of hardware.

The tools used to orchestrate all of these resources are different than those topologies used for
earlier networks. Instead of computers cabled together, the network data traffic moves in packets,
through a wireless or distributed virtual environment, and often, through the web to and from
vendor services, like AWS.

Virtualization resources include containers and other models where engineers clone an operating
system to various nodes and synchronize activity between them.

Cloud and Software as a Service Computer Networks

Cloud and Software as a Service (Saas) technologies further abstracted networking, which is now
an extremely diverse industry. New developments include the rise of network segmentation,
where parts of the network are walled off with firewalls for security purposes, and edge
computing, where data transfers take place at strategic points in a sophisticated network, also for
security purposes.

Other key network security tools involve defenses “beyond the perimeter,” where, for instance,
advanced monitoring algorithms look for errant or unusual network activity in order to identify a
threat.
 A modern computer network professional doesn’t just need to know how to tether computers
together, but they have to understand the difference between a LAN (local area network) and a
WAN (wide area network).

They have to understand the emergence of the software-defined WAN or SD-WAN.

All of this contributes to the modern computer networking field, where there is so much
progress, and so much rapid evolution.

Reference: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/25597/computer-network

B. Purpose of Computer Networks

Setting up a computer network is a fast and reliable way of sharing information and resources
within a business. It can help you make the most of your IT systems and equipment.
Advantages of computer networking
Main benefits of networks include:

 File sharing – you can easily share data between different users, or access it remotely if
you keep it on other connected devices.

 Resource sharing – using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners

and copiers, or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
 Sharing a single internet connection – it is cost-efficient and can help protect your
systems if you properly secure the network.
 Increasing storage capacity – you can access files and multimedia, such as images and
music, which you store remotely on other machines or network-attached storage devices.
Networking computers can also help you improve communication, so that:
 staff, suppliers and customers can share information and get in touch more easily
 your business can become more efficient - eg networked access to a common database
can avoid the same data being keyed multiple times, saving time and preventing errors
 staff can deal with queries and deliver a better standard of service as a result of sharing
customer data

Cost benefits of computer networking

Storing information in one centralised database can also help you reduce costs and drive
efficiency. For example:
 staff can deal with more customers in less time since they have shared access to customer
and product databases
 you can centralise network administration, meaning less IT support is required
 you can cut costs through sharing of peripherals and internet access
You can reduce errors and improve consistency by having all staff work from a single source
of information. This way, you can make standard versions of manuals and directories available to
them, and back up data from a single point on a scheduled basis, ensuring consistency.
Reference:https://www.omnisecu.com/basic-networking/why-we-need-computer-
network.php
C. Types of Computer Networks

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small places such

as school, hospital, apartment etc.

2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus the data

which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.

3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere from 100

to 100Mbps.

4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that allows

local area network to work on a wireless connection.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In

Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with each other through

telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than

WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is larger

than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet

connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections

such as 3G, 4G etc.

Reference: https://beginnersbook.com/2019/03/types-of-computer-network-lan-man-and-

wan/
 D. Network Topology

Network topology is the arrangement of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) Of a communication

network. Network topology can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of

telecommunication networks, including command and control radio

networks, industrial fieldbuses and computer networks.

Network topology is the topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically or

logically. It is an application of graph theory wherein communicating devices are modeled as

nodes and the connections between the devices are modeled as links or lines between the

nodes. Physical topology is the placement of the various components of a network (e.g., device

location and cable installation), while logical topology illustrates how data flows within a

network. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, or signal types

may differ between two different networks, yet their topologies may be identical. A network’s

physical topology is a particular concern of the physical layer of the OSI model.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology

Types of Topology

There are five types of topology in computer networks:

1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a
dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for
the two connected devices only. Let’s say we have n devices in the network then each device
must be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n
devices would be n (n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is
only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not
possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required
must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a
dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike
Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices; a device
must have to communicate through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has
to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with
hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Fewer amounts of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub
only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star
topology.
Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable through
drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the
data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable
can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.

2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.

Ring Topology
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are two
dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This structure
forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device
then it sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received
data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended device
receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are required
to be changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Hybrid topology

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our concern
then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks with
different topologies.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.

2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Reference: https://beginnersbook.com/2019/03/computer-network-topology-mesh-star-bus-
ring-and-hybrid/

E. OSI Model

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing
functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability
between different products and software. In the OSI reference model, the communications
between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data
Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.

Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was published in 1984 by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Though it does not always map directly
to specific systems, the OSI Model is still used today as a means to describe Network
Architecture.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically transmitting raw
unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of the sending device to the
physical layer of the receiving device. It can include specifications such as voltages, pin layout,
cabling, and radio frequencies. At the physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as
network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems.

Data Link Layer

At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node data transfer
where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects errors that may have
occurred at the physical layer.

The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access control
(MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions over a network. The
second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control over the physical medium
as well as identifies line protocols.

Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and delivering
them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside the frame.
The network layer finds the destination by using logical addresses, such as IP (internet protocol).
At this layer, routers are a crucial component used to quite literally route information where it
needs to go between networks.

Transport Layer

The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It regulates the size,
sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems and hosts. One of the most
common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the Transmission Control Protocol.
Session Layer

The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or
connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. Session layer services
also include authentication and reconnections.

Presentation Layer

The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the syntax or
semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax layer.
This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by the application layer.

Application Layer

At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the software
application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user applications such as a web
browser or Office 365. The application layer identifies communication partners, resource
availability, and synchronizes communication.

Reference: https://www.forcepoint.com/cyber-edu/osi-model