MTE 220 Course - Notes

University of Waterloo
Mechatronics Engineering
Sensors and Instrumentation

MTE 220
Lecture Notes
by
J.A. Barby
Fall 2020
© James Albert Barby

2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019,2020
Note: These notes are for the sole use of students registered in
MTE 220 and may not be used for any other purpose.
page F2020-2 18:44 22Aug2020 DRAFT MTE 220 Notes
Operational Issues
Why not the easy way out?

The Butterfly...... One day a small opening appeared on a cocoon. A man sat and watched for the butterfly for several hours as it
struggled to force its body through that little hole. Then it seemed to stop making any progress. It appeared as if it had gotten as
far as it could and it could go no further. So the man decided to help the butterfly, he took a pair of scissors and snipped off the
remaining bit of the cocoon. The butterfly then emerged easily. But it had a swollen body and small, shriveled wings. The man
continued to watch the butterfly because he expected that, at any moment, the wings would enlarge and expand to be able to
support the body, which would contract in time. Neither happened! In fact, the butterfly spent the rest of its life crawling around
with a swollen body and shriveled wings. It never was able to fly. What the man in his kindness and haste did not understand was
that the restricting cocoon and the struggle required for the butterfly to get through the tiny opening were God’s way of forcing
fluid from the body of the butterfly into its wings so that it would be ready for flight once it achieved its freedom from the cocoon.
Sometimes struggles are exactly what we need in our life. If God allowed us to go through our life without any obstacles, it would
cripple us. We would not be as strong as what we could have been. We could never fly.
Faculty of Engineering Course Responsibilities

Refer to
http://uwaterloo.ca/engineering/current-undergraduate-students/academic-support/course-responsibilities
for the various policies and procedures associated with courses offered in the Faculty of Engineering.
In Case of Absence
• Course attendance is not marked in MTE 220
• You must obtain a medical certificate if you miss an assignment deadline or an examination for health reasons
• Medical certificates can be obtained from Health Services
https://uwaterloo.ca/campus-wellness/sites/ca.campus-wellness/files/uploads/files/VIF-online.pdf
• If you must miss a laboratory session or an examination to participate in a co-op interview, it is your responsibility to inform
your lab instructor / teaching assistants prior to the absence
• When in doubt, consult your instructor / lab instructor / teaching assistants
University Rules and Policies

For descriptions of academic programs and rules, refer to the Online University Calendar
http://ugradcalendar.uwaterloo.ca
• Policy 71
http://www.adm.uwaterloo.ca/infosec/Policies/policy71.htm
provides some examples of academic offences: infringing unreasonably on work of others, violation of safety regulations,
cheating, impersonating another student, plagiarism, obtaining materials by improper means, falsifying academic records, oral
or written misrepresentations.

MTE 220 Notes 18:44 22Aug2020 DRAFT page F2020-3
Course overview and how it fits into the Mechatronics program
calendar description
Review of circuit theory; input-output relationships, transfer functions and frequency response of linear systems; operational
amplifiers, operational amplifier circuits using negative or positive feedback; diodes, operational amplifier circuits using diodes;
analog signal detection, conditioning and conversion systems; transducers and sensors, difference and instrumentation amplifiers,
active filters.
course learning objectives

Students will be able to design and build signal conditioning circuits for robot sensors and actuators.
course outline
(1) linear circuits, (2) operational amplifier circuits, (3) electronic devices, (4) filters, (5) negative feedback and opamp circuits, (6)
sensors (thermal,mechanical,optical), (7) transistor models, (8) logic gates at the transistor level, (9) current mirror circuits, (10)
single stage amplifiers, (11) output stages, (12) opamp at the transistor level.
mechatronics system
MTE 220 MTE 325
signal MTE 262

sensor interface MTE 360
conditioning
controller
signal
actuator interface
conditioning
MTE 320 MTE 325

MTE 420
discrete value sensor output continuous value sensor output

Linear Circuit Fundamentals
linear circuit components

• electric current
• flow of electrons
• measured in amperes, denoted by A
• voltage
• a force which causes electrons to flow
• measured in volts, denoted by V
• by definition, positive current flows from “+” to “-”
• independent voltage source
v
+
+
E E
- E
-
i
• specified voltage but arbitrary current

• parallel connect: identical voltages only
• independent current source

v
J
J i
• specified current but arbitrary voltage

• series connected: identical currents only

• resistor
v
v=Ri
R R i
• element which resists the flow of current, denoted by R

• measured in ohms, denoted by Ω
• conductance
• inverse of resistance, denoted by G
1
• G= so i=Gv
R
• measured in siemens, denoted by S
• capacitor
q(t) = C v(t)
C C d q(t) d v(t)
i(t) = = C
dt dt
• element that stores energy in the form of charge

• formed by two conductors separated by an insulator
• Charge is denoted by Q when independent of time, or q(t) when a function of time;
measured in coulombs, denoted by C
• inductor
Φ = L i(t)
L L d Φ(t) d i(t)
v(t) = = L
dt dt
• element that stores energy in the form of flux

• formed by coil of insulated wire, possibly placed into a core of magnetic material
• flux is denoted by Φ
measured in webers, denoted by Wb

two-port parameters:
• network with two pairs of terminals
• a port has the property that all the current going into the port comes out of the port
• current flows “+” to “-”
• described by two equations
I1 I2
+ network +
V1 or V2
- circuit -
I1 I2
controlled sources:
• voltage-controlled voltage source (VV)
• voltage-to-voltage transducer (VVT)
I1 I2
+ + equations:
V1 + V2= µ V1 I1= 0
V2
-
- - V2= µ V1
I1 I2
• an ideal voltage amplifier

• µ is unitless
• voltage-controlled current source (VC)

• voltage-to-current transducer (VCT)
I1 I2
+ + equations:
V1 I2= gV1 V2 I1= 0
- - I2= gV1
I1 I2
• also referred to as a transconductance

• g is measured in siemens

• current-controlled voltage source (CV)

• current-to-voltage transducer (CVT)
I1 I2
+ + equations:
V1 + V2= rI1 V1= 0
V2
-
- - V2= rI1
I1 I2
• also referred to as a transresistance

• r is measured in ohms
• current-controlled current source (CC)

• current-to-current transducer (CCT)
I1 I2
+ + equations:
V1 I2 =α I1 V2 V1= 0
- - I2 =α I1
I1 I2
• an ideal current amplifier

• α is unitless
• transformer
M
+ +
V1 L1 L2 V2
- -
• contains two (or more) coils (inductors) whose magnetic fields interact
d i1(t) d i (t)
v1 = L1 ±M 2
dt dt
d i2(t) d i1(t)
v2 = L2 ±M
dt dt

• operational amplifier (opamp)

I1 for the case of the opamp connected
in negative feedback mode (a signal
I2
+ path from the opamp output terminal
+
V1 to the opamp inverting input terminal)
+
- the equations are:
- V2
I1= 0
I1 -
V1 = 0
I2
• a voltage amplifier with infinite gain in the ideal case

• actual gain is finite and frequency dependent
power and energy

• energy is the amount of work a source can deliver
• it is denoted by W if constant or w(t) if time varying,
measured in joules, denoted by J
• power is the change in stored energy
• it is denoted by P if constant or p(t) if time varying,
measured in watts, denoted by W
d w(t)
p(t) =
dt
t2
w(t) = ∫ p(t) dt
t1
J
• note 1 W = 1
s
• power, voltage and current in a resistive circuit are related by
p(t) = v(t) ⋅ i(t)
v2(t) 2
p(t) = = i (t) ⋅ R
R
i2(t)
p(t) = v2(t) ⋅ G =
G

Kirchhoff ’s laws
• Kirchhoff current law (KCL)
sum of currents leaving a node is zero
• assume positive current is flowing away from a node
• a node is a connection of several elements/components
• used for nodal analysis/formulation
• Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL)
sum of voltage drops around a loop is zero
• recall positive current flows
from “+” to “-”
• a loop is a connection of elements/components that we can walk around and get back to the starting point
• used for mesh analysis/formulation
impedance for v(t) = Voest and i(t) = Ioest

• if v(t) & i(t) are exponential functions
d i(t)
i(t) = Ioest → = s Io est = s i(t)
dt
d v(t)
v(t) = Voest → = s Vo est = s v(t)
dt
d iL(t) v (t)
vL(t) = L = s L iL(t) → ZL = L = s L
dt iL(t)
iL(t) 1
YL = =
vL(t) s L
d vC(t) i (t)
iC(t) = C = s C vC(t) → YC = C = s C
dt vC(t)
vC(t) 1
ZC = =
iC(t) s C

sinusoidal v(t) and i(t)

• recall
d du d du
( sin(u) ) = cos(u) ; ( cos(u) ) = − sin(u)
dx dx dx dx
π π
cos( ω t ) = sin( ω t + ) ; sin( ω t ) = cos( ω t − )
2 2
• if v(t) & i(t) are sinusoidal functions
d v(t) π π
v(t) = Vpcos( ω t ) → = − ω Vpsin( ω t ) = − ω Vpcos( ω t − ) = ω Vpcos( ω t + )
dt 2 2
d i(t) π π
i(t) = Ipcos( ω t ) → = − ω Ipsin( ω t ) = − ω Ipcos( ω t − ) = ω Ipcos( ω t + )
dt 2 2
• recall
e j θ − e− j θ e j θ + e− j θ
sin( θ ) = ; cos( θ ) = ; e j θ = cos( θ ) + j sin( θ ) ; e− j θ = cos( θ ) − j sin( θ )
2j 2
b
w = a + j b = M ( cos( θ ) + j sin( θ ) ) = M e j θ = M / θ where M = √
 and θ = tan−1
→
; a2 + b2
a
giving us
w( t ) = M e j ( ω t + θ )
• recall
Re { e j ( ω t + θ ) } = cos( ω t + θ ) ; Im { e j ( ω t + θ ) } = sin( ω t + θ )
• let
 2 Vrmscos( ω t + θ ) = Re { Vp e j ( ω t + θ ) } = Re { ( Vrms e j θ ) ( √
v(t) = Vpcos( ω t + θ ) = √ 2 e j ω t ) }
• phasor
→
V = Vrms e j θ = Vrms / θ

impedance for phasors v(t) = Re{Vpe j(ω t+θ ) }
Since
2 e j ω t ) }
Re { ( √
is common to all waveforms for a single tone linear network, we set it aside and only use
Re { ( Vrms e j θ ) }
for calculation purposes.
→
V = Vrms e j θ = Vrms / θ
• voltage source
→ Vp
v(t) = Vpcos( ω t + θ ) → V = /θ
√2
• current source
→ Ip
i(t) = Ipcos( ω t + θ ) → I = /θ
√2
• inductor
d iL(t) π π
vL(t) = L =√
 2 ω L IL cos( ω t + ) = √
 2 VL cos( ω t + )
dt 2 2
VL / π /2 ω L IL / π /2
ZL = = = ω L / π /2 = j ω L
IL / 0 IL / 0
1 1
YL = =
ZL j ω L
• capacitor
d vC(t) π π
iC(t) = C =√
 2 ω C VC cos( ω t + ) = √
 2 IC cos( ω t + )
dt 2 2
IC / π /2 ω C VC / π /2
YC = = = ω C / π /2 = j ω C
VC / 0 VC / 0
1 1
ZC = =
YC j ω C

• resistor
vR(t) = R iR(t) = √
 2 VR cos( ω t )
vR(t) VR / 0 R IR / 0
ZR = = = =R
iR(t) IR / 0 IR / 0
1 1
YR = = =G
ZR R

time invariant vs. time varying

• time invariant: R(t) = constant
• time varying: R(t) = f(t) : varies with time
linear vs. nonlinear

• linear: v = R*i
• nonlinear v = R * i2
passive vs. active elements

• passive: net power consumed from network
• active: net power supplied to network
response of a single time constant circuit

• recall that if the initial conditions for a single time constant circuit are not zero, then
 
y( t ) = y( ∞ ) − y( ∞ ) − y( 0+ ) e− ( t / τ )
 

parallel/series connected resistor circuits

• effective resistance of series connected resistors is
n
Reffective = Σ Ri
i=1
1
Geffective = n 1
Σ
i=1 Gi
for example
I R1 R2 R3
+
V R4
R7 R6 R5
-
V 7
I Σ
Reffective = = Ri
i=1
• effective resistance of parallel connected resistors is

n
Geffective = Σ Gi
i=1
1
Reffective = n 1
Σ
i=1 Ri
for example
I
+
V R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
-
I 6 6 1
Geffective = = Σ Gi = Σ
V i=1 i=1 Ri
V 1
Reffective = =
I Geffective

capacitors
• stores energy in the form of charge
• formed by two conductors separated by an insulator
• Charge is denoted by Q when independent of time, or q(t) when a function of time;
measured in Coulombs, denoted by C
q
+
i(t)
C +
v(t) C Eo C
v -
-
voltage & current initial conditions
• linear capacitor charge and current

t 0 t t
d q(t)
i(t) =
dt
→ q(t) = ∫ i(τ ) dτ = ∫ i(τ ) dτ + ∫ i(τ ) dτ = qo + ∫0 i(τ ) dτ
− ∞ −∞ 0
for the case of a linear capacitor

d v(t)
q(t) = C v(t) → i(t) = C
dt
• linear capacitor voltage

t 0 t t
1 1 1 1
v(t) =
C ∫
−∞
i(τ ) dτ =
C
−∞
∫ i(τ ) dτ +
C ∫
0
i(τ ) dτ = Eo +
C ∫ i(τ ) dτ
0
where Eo is an independent voltage source modelling the capacitor’s initial voltage.
• stored energy
given p(t) = v(t) i(t) the energy stored in a capacitor is
t t t
d v(τ ) 1
wC = ∫ p(τ ) dτ = C −∫ v(τ )
dτ
dτ = C ∫ v(τ ) d v(τ ) = C v2(t)
2
− ∞ ∞ −∞

• parallel connected capacitors
i1(t) i2(t) i3(t)

j(t) C1 C2 C3
d v(t) d v(t) d v(t) d v(t) d v(t)

j(t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) = C1 + C2 + C3 = ( C1 + C2 + C3 ) = Cparallel
dt dt dt dt dt
for n capacitors connected in parallel

n
Cparallel = Σ Ci
i =1
• series connected capacitors
+
C1 v1(t)
-
+
+
e(t) C2 v2(t)
-
-
+
C3 v3(t)
-
i(t)
assuming the capacitors are initially discharged

t t t t t
1 1 1  1 1 1   1 
e(t) = v1(t) + v2(t) + v3(t) =
C1 ∫
0
i(τ ) dτ +
C2 ∫
0
i(τ ) dτ +
C3 ∫
0
i(τ ) dτ = + +
 C1 C2 C3  ∫
0
i(τ ) dτ =
 Cseries  ∫ i(τ ) dτ
0
for n capacitors connected in series

1 n 1
Cseries
= Σ
i =1 Ci

inductors
• stores energy in the form of flux
• formed by coil of insulated wire, possibly placed into a core of magnetic material
• flux is denoted by Φ
measured in Webers, denoted by Wb
i(t) Φ
flux Φ
+ +
L i(t)
v(t) L v(t) L Jo L
i
- -
flux voltage & current initial conditions
• linear inductor flux and voltage

t 0 t t
d Φ(t) d i(t)
v(t) =
dt
=L
dt
.. → Φ(t) = ∫ v(τ ) dτ = ∫ v(τ ) dτ + ∫ v(τ ) dτ = Φo + ∫0 v(τ ) dτ
− ∞ −∞ 0
for the case of a linear inductor

d i(t)
Φ(t) = L i(t) ; v(t) = L
dt
• linear inductor current

t 0 t t
1 1 1 1
i(t) =
L ∫
−∞
v(τ ) dτ =
L
−∞
∫ v(τ ) dτ +
L ∫
0
v(τ ) dτ = Jo +
L ∫ v(τ ) dτ
0
where Jo is an independent current source modelling the inductor’s initial current.
• stored energy
given p(t) = v(t) i(t)
the energy stored in an inductor is
t t t
d i(τ ) 1
wC = ∫ p(τ ) dτ = L ∫ i(τ )
dτ
dτ = L ∫ i(τ ) d i(τ ) = L i2(t)
2
−∞ − ∞ −∞

• series connected inductors
+
L1 v1(t)
-
+
+ L2
e(t) v2(t)
-
-
+
L3 v3(t)
-
i(t)
d i(t) d i(t) d i(t) d i(t) d i(t)

e(t) = v1(t) + v2(t) + v3(t) = L1 + L2 + L3 = ( L1 + L2 + L3 ) = Lseries
dt dt dt dt dt
for n inductors connected in series

n
Lseries = Σ Li
i =1
• parallel connected inductors
i1(t) i2(t) i3(t)

j(t) L1 L2 L3
assuming the inductors are initially discharged

t t t t t
1 1 1  1 1 1   1 
j(t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) =
L1 ∫
0
v(τ ) dτ +
L2 ∫
0
v(τ ) dτ +
L3 ∫
0
v(τ ) dτ = + +
 L1 L2 L3  ∫
0
v(τ ) dτ =
 Lparallel  ∫ v(τ ) dτ
0
for n inductors connected in parallel

1 n 1
Lparallel
= Σ
i =1 Li

initial and final values
t=0 t→∞
short open
circuit circuit
+
+ Eo open
Eo - circuit
-
open short
circuit circuit
Jo short
Jo
circuit
voltage and current dividers

I R1
voltage divider + +
V1 R2
V1 R2 V2 V2 = R2 I = R2 = V1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
- -
I
current divider +
I1 I2 I
1 1 R1 R2
V + I
R1 R2 R1 + R2 R1
R1 R2
I2 = V = = = I
- R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2

amplifier types and parameters
voltage amplifier RL Ri
Rsig Ii Io Vo = Av Vsig
Ro RL + Ro o Ri + Rsig
+ +
+ Vi Ri +
Vsig Av V Vo RL Vo
- - io
- - Av =
o Vi
RL = ∞
current amplifier
Ii Io Ro Rsig
Io = Ai I
RL + Ro s Ri + Rsig sig
+ +
Isig Rsig Vi Ri Ai I Ro Vo RL Io
s i
- - Ai =
s Ii
RL = 0
transconductance amplifier Ro Ri
Rsig Ii Io Io = Gm Vsig
RL + Ro s Ri + Rsig
+ +
+ Vi Ri Gm Vi Ro RL
Vsig Vo Io
- s
- - Gm =
s Vi
RL = 0
transresistance amplifier
RL Rsig
Ii Io Vo = Rm I
Ro Ri + Rsig sig
RL + Ro o
+ +
Vi Ri + Rm Ii RL
Isig Rsig Vo Vo
- o
Rm =
- - o Ii
RL = ∞
Note:
• subsctipt “o” refers to gain measure in open-circuit mode (load resistance is ∞).
• subsctipt “s” refers to gain measure in short-circuit mode (load resistance is zero).
Look-ahead:
• these 2-port models will be used in the transistor amplifier section of the course.
• they will reappear in tutorial 20 for a 4-stage amplifier.

Opamp Circuits
inverting amplifier IR IR
1 R1 R2 2
v
v− ≈ v+ ≈ 0 → iR1 = iR2 = IN vIN vOUT
R1
VCC
v R
vOUT = − IR2 R2 = − IN R2 = − 2 vIN -
R1 R1
vOUT R +
Av = =− 2
vIN R1
VEE
summer IR IR
1 R1 Rn+1 n+1
v− ≈ v+ ≈ 0 vIN
1
vOUT
vIN1 vIN2 vINn
iR1 = ; iR2 = ... iRn = IR
2 R2
R1 R2 Rn vIN
2
k=n k=n vINk
iRn+1 = Σ iR
k=1
k
= Σ
k=1 Rk
.
..
IR
k=n vINk k=n R n Rn VCC
vOUT = − IRn+1 Rn+1 = − Σ Rn+1 = − Σ n+1 vINk vIN
k=1 Rk k=1 Rk
n
-
VEE
noninverting amplifier IR IR
1 R1 R2 2
vIN
v− ≈ v+ = vIN → iR2 = iR1 = vOUT
R1
VCC
vIN R2 + R1
vOUT = ( R2 + R1 ) iR1 = ( R2 + R1 ) = vIN -
R1 R1
vOUT R2 + R1 R vIN +
Av = = =1 + 2
vIN R1 R1
VEE

unity gain buffer

v OUT
V CC
v IN +
V EE
difference amplifier IR IR
1 R1 R2 2
R4 vIN
v− ≈ v+ = v 1
vOUT
R3 + R4 IN2
VCC
R4
vIN2
vIN1 − v+ vIN1 v+ vIN1 R + R4 -
iR2 = iR1 = = − = − 3
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 +
  VEE
vOUT = v− − R2 iR2
  vIN
2
R4
vIN1 − vIN2 IR R3 R4 IR
R4 R3 + R4 3 4
= vIN2 − R2
R3 + R4 R1
  R1 + R2   R4   R2 
= vIN2 − v
  R1   R3 + R4   R1  IN1
R2  
R4 = R2 and R3 = R1 → vOUT = vIN2 − vIN1
R1  
Note:
• Using super-position, if vIN2 is zero, then v+ will be zero, as will v− . For this, the impedance seen by vIN1 will be R1 .
• Using super-position, the impedance seen by vIN2 will be R3 + R4 .
• Since the impedance seen by the two signal sources, vIN1 and vIN2 , are not the same, the difference amplifier can not remove the
signal in common to both inputs. This is a problem if we have coupled the same amount of EMI (electro-magnetic interference)
on both input wires and want to cancel it.
• We need an amplifier which will cancel this EMI coupled onto the input wires.

instrumentation amplifier V CC
R3 + R4 R4 R R
vOUT = v4 − 4 v3 = 4 ( v4 − v3 ) v IN + v3
R3 R3 + R4 R3 R3 1
O1
vIN2 − vIN1 vIN2 − vIN1 - R3 R4
v4 = vIN2 + 2 R2 ; v3 = vIN1 − 2 R2 V EE
R1 R1 V CC
2 2
R1 2 R2 -
 vIN2 − vIN1   vIN2 − vIN1  O3 v OUT
v4 − v3 = vIN2 + R2 − vIN1 − R2 R1 R2 +
 R1   R1  2
  2 R2   V EE
= vIN2 − vIN1 + vIN − vIN1 V CC
  R1  2 
 2 R2    - R3 R4
= 1+ vIN2 − vIN1 O2
 R1    v IN + v4
2
R4  2 R2   
vOUT = 1+ v − vIN1 V EE
R3  R1   IN2 
When one looks into the O1 and O2 outputs, the impedance is close to zero (see tutorial 21 solution). As such, the input voltage divider from
R3 ( R3 + R4 )
page 20, in the O1 case is = 1. 00 , while in the O2 case is = 1. 00 . As a result, O3 does not have the issue we
0 + R3 0 + ( R3 + R4 )
saw on the previous page.
When used as a differential amplifier, by definition, the point between the two R1 /2 resistors will be zero voltage with or without the ground
connection. As such, we can remove the ground connection and merge the two R1 /2 resistors into a single R1 resistor.
V CC
v IN + v3
1
O1
- R3 R4
V EE
V CC
R2 -
R1 O3 v OUT
R2 +
V EE
V CC
- R3 R4
O2
v IN + v4
2
V EE
R1 is the gain control resistor, as all others require matching.

nonideal opamp parameters vOUT

VOS input offset voltage
IB input bias current L+
IOS input offset current
Ao DC open loop voltage gain Ao
ft unity gain frequency
L+ maximum output voltage vIN
L− minimum output voltage
  dv 
OUT 
SR slew rate max   
  dt   L-
V+ V- • VOS is the input voltage required for the opamp output

voltage to be zero.
-
+ V os • IB is the average opamp DC input current
DC I +I
& 2R cm Rd 2R cm IB =  + −  .
input  2 
model I+ I- • IOS is the opamp DC offfset current IOS =  I+ − I−  .
+V i -
• I+ = IB + 0. 5 IOS
- AV i • I− = IB − 0. 5 IOS
frequency +
& A
output • A= s o
model Ro +1
ωb
Vo
There are design techniques to reduce/null the IB effect. Since IB is normally orders of magnitude larger than IOS , nulling out the
IB goes a long way.
To null out the IB effect, we want the resistance I+ flows through and the resistance I− flows through to be the same. When that
happens V+ − V− = 0 , nulling out the IB effect.
R1 R2
v IN v OUT
I- V CC
V- -
Rb
+
V+
I+
V EE
want V+ = V− which requires IB ⋅ Rb = IB ( R1 || R2 ) which requires Rb = R1 || R2 .

zero reference Schmidt trigger

v IN v OUT
R1 R2
v IN
VTH
V CC L+
V TH
0 t
+ v IN
V v OUT
TL
-
L-
VTL
V EE
v+ > v− → vOUT = L+ ; v+ < v− → vOUT = L−

If we remove the opamp and solve for the voltage on the “+” terminal (using super-position) as a functon of vIN and vOUT
R1 R2 R1 R2
v IN v IN
V CC
v+ + v+
v OUT v OUT
v- - v-
V EE
we see that
R2 R1
for vOUT = 0 → v+ = v ; for vIN = 0 → v+ = v
R1 + R2 IN R1 + R2 OUT
for
R2 R1
v+ = vIN + v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 OUT
This positions us to determine the required input voltage for the circuit to change states for a given output voltage.
if vOUT = L+ to switch state we need v+ = 0 if vOUT = L− to switch state we need v+ = 0

R2 R1 R2 R1
0= vIN + L 0= vIN + L
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 + R1 + R2 R1 + R2 −
R2 R1 R2 R1
− vIN = L − vIN = L
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 + R1 + R2 R1 + R2 −
− R2 vIN = R1 L+ − R2 vIN = R1 L−
 R1   R1 
vIN = − L = VTL vIN = − L = VTH
 R2  +  R2  −

nonzero reference Schmidt trigger R1 R2

R2 R1 v IN v OUT
v+ = VREF = vIN + v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 OUT V CC VTH
L+
R1 R2 +
VREF − vOUT = v v OUT
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 IN v IN
V REF -
L-
V EE VTL
R1
VREF − v
R1 + R2 OUT R1 + R2 R
vIN = = VREF − 1 vOUT
R2 R2 R2
R1 + R2
R1 + R2 R R1 + R2 R
VTH = VREF − 1 L− ; VTL = VREF − 1 L+
R2 R2 R2 R2

Diode Circuits
ideal diode model

.
ideal diode
i
iD = 0 for vD < 0
reverse forward vD = 0 for iD > 0
anode cathode bias bias
+ -
v
10 V 10 V
for ideal diode circuits start by assuming the

1 kΩ 1 kΩ
diode current is zero and solve for the diode
voltage, if the diode voltage is negative then
the assumption was correct, otherwise set + +
the diode voltage to zero and solve for the 0 mA 10 V 10 mA 0V
diode current.
- -
vI
0 t
+
+
vI vO
-
- vO
0 t
vI
iD 12 V
0 t
+
+
vI 12 V
-
-
iD
0 t

nonideal diode model

iD iD
breakdown reverse
- VZK
vD vD
.7V
forward .5V
forward bias
vD k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1. 38 ×10−23 joules/kelvin
  kT
iD = IS e n VT −1 ; VT = ; T = temperature in kelvin
  q
q = electron charge = 1. 60 ×10−19 coulomb
vD
 iD 
iD ≈ IS e n VT → vD = n VT ln
 IS 
reverse bias
iD ≈ − IS
breakdown
complex function dependent on whether the diode is in zener or avalanche breakdown
piecewise linear diode model

iD
1 ideal diode
rD
nonideal diode ≈ VD
o
vD
VD
o
rD

zener diode
iD
- VZ0
- VZT - VZK
+ VZ0
iZ vZ vD
- IZK rZ
-
- IZT
VS
RS
VL = VZ
+
VL RL
VS - VZ
- IR =
S RS
special diodes
Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)
turn on voltage lower (0.3 V to 0.5 V), switchs off faster
Varactors
reverse bias diode as a voltage controlled capacitor
Photodiode
IS is a function of light resulting in diode current being a function of light shining on the diode junction material
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
converts current into light

diode signal conditioning circuits

peak detector
iD v vO
iL
+ 0 t
+ C RL vO vI
vI
-
-
iD
0 t
clamp
vI
C iL V PK
+ 0 t
+ RL vO - V PK
vI
-
-
vO
0 t
- V PK
-2 V PK
limiters vO
R 0.7
+
- 0.7
+ vO vI
vI
- 0.7
-
- 0.7
vO
R
+ 2.1
+ vO
vI
- - 1.4
vI
2.1
-
- 1.4

BJT
terminals
B is the base, C is the collector, E is the emitter
forward active region
vBE ≥ 0. 6 and vBC < 0. 4
vBE
 v  1
iC = IS e VT 1 + CE ; iB = iC ; iE = iC + iB
 VA  β
saturation region
vBE ≥ 0. 6 and vBC ≥ 0. 4 resulting in vCE = 0. 2 V
cut-off
vBE < 0. 6 results in iC = 0
C
iC
- iC
iB v BC +
B +
+ v CE
v BE -
- iE
v CE
-V A
C B C
iC R CE
- sat
iB v BC +
0.7
B + +
+ v CE - V CE
sat
+ v BE -
- - iE
E E
applications
voltage-to-current transducer
current-to-current transducer
photon-to-current transducer

MOSFET
D
iD
- iD
iG v GD +
G +
+ v DS
v GS -
- iS
v DS
-V A
D
iD
-
iG v GD +
G + +
+ v DS -
+ v GS -
- - iS
cut-off
vGS ≤ Vt → iD = 0
triode
 1 
vGS > Vt and vGD > Vt → iD = kn ( vGS − Vt ) vDS − v2DS
 2 
saturation
1  v 
vGS > Vt and vGD ≤ Vt → iD = kn ( vGS − Vt )2 1 + DS
2  VA 
applications
voltage-to-voltage transducer
voltage-controlled-resistor

side view of a MOSFET in four regions of operation

S G D
vSB = 0
n+ n+
vGS ≤ Vt
no channel
p-sub
iD = 0
S G D vSB = 0
vGS > Vt
n+ n+
vGD > Vt
vDS ≈ 0
p-sub
rectangular channel
iD = kn ( vGS − Vt )vDS
B
S G D vSB = 0
vGS > Vt
n+ n+
vGD > Vt
vDS >> 0
p-sub
trapezoidal channel
 1 
iD = kn ( vGS − Vt ) vDS − v2DS
 2 
B
S G D vSB = 0
vGS > Vt
n+ n+
vGD ≤ Vt
channel stops short of drain
p-sub 1  v 
iDS = nn ( vGS − Vt )2 1 + DS
2  VA 

Filters
Laplace transform basics

Laplace operator function scaling and shifting
L( f(t)) = F(s) 1 s
time scaling ; L( f(k t)) = F( )
k k
L−1 ( F(s)) = f(t)
value scaling ; L( k f(t)) = k F(s)
 d f(t) 
L = s F(s) − f(0) time shifting ; L( f(t − T)) = e− s T F(s)
 dt 
pulse: sum of time-shifted unit steps
 t  1
∫
pulse is
L f(τ ) dτ  = F(s)
  s f(t) = u(t) − u(t − T)
0
which transforms to
special functions of time 1 1
δ (t) = dirac impulse ; L( δ (t)) = 1 L( u(t) − u(t − T)) = − e− s T
s s
1 partial fractions
u(t) = unit step ; L( u(t)) =
s M
t = ramp ; L( t) =
1 Π ( s − zi )
F(s) = Ko i=1
s2 N
sine ; L( sin( ω t)) =

ω Π ( s − pi )
s2 + ω 2 i=1
s N Ki
cosine ; L( cos( ω t)) = 2 =Σ for N > M
s + ω2 i=1 s − pi
  1
exponential ; L e− a t = N Ki
  s+a = Ko + Σ for N = M
i=1 s − pi
n −1 −at
 t e  1
n×exponential ; L =
 ( n −1 )!  ( s + a )n  N 
L−1 ( F(s)) = Σ
 i=1
Ki e− pi t u(t)

for N > M
  ω
L e− a t sin( ω t ) =
  ( s + a )2 + ω 2  N

s+a
= Ko δ (t) +
 Σ Ki e− p t u(t)

i
for N = M
 
L e− a t cos( ω t ) =
i=1
  ( s + a )2 + ω 2

partial fraction using residue method


 
Ki = (s − pi ) F(s) 
 
 s = pi
example
(s +2)(s + 4) K K K
F(s) = = 1 + 2 + 3
( s +1 ) ( s + 3 ) ( s + 5 ) s +1 s + 3 s + 5

( − 1 + 2 ) ( − 1 + 4 ) (1 ) ( 3 ) 3
K1 = ( ( s +1 ) F(s))  = = =
 ( −1 +3)( −1 +5) (2)( 4) 8
 s = −1

( − 3 + 2 ) ( − 3 + 4 ) ( − 1 ) (1 ) 1
K2 = ( ( s + 3 ) F(s))  = = =
 ( − 3 +1 ) ( − 3 + 5 ) ( − 2 ) ( 2 ) 4
 s=−3

( − 5 +2)( − 5 + 4) ( − 3)( −1) 3
K3 = ( ( s + 5 ) F(s))  = = =
 ( − 5 +1 ) ( − 5 + 3 ) ( − 4 ) ( − 2 ) 8
 s=−5
resulting in
3 −t 1 −3 t 3 −5 t
L−1 ( F(s)) = f(t) = ( e + e + e ) u(t)
8 4 8
frequency domain
generalised frequency:
This is the total response from your ODE (ordinary differential equations) course. That is, the response includes the
transient and steady-state response.
+ jω )t
s = σ + jω ; est = e( σ = eσ t ⋅ e j ω t = eσ t { cos( ω t ) + j sin( ω t ) }
physical frequency:
This is the steady-state from your ODE (ordinary differential equations) course. That is, the response after all the transients
die down.
s = jω

impedances and admittances

the differential equations for L and C transform to
d v(t)
i(t) = C → I(s) = s C V(s)
dt
or just
dv
i=C → I = sCV
dt
di
v=L → V = sLI
dt
the integral equations for L and C transform to
t
1 1
v(t) =
C ∫0 i(τ ) dτ → V=
sC
I
t
1 1
i(t) =
L ∫ v(τ ) dτ
0
→ I=
sL
V
element admittance impedance

Y Z
resistor G R
1
capacitor sC
sC
1
inductor sL
sL

RC networks
Given a series connected R-C network 1 1
1 1
R Vout = s C E = E = RC E = E
1 sCR +1 1 τ s +1
+ R+ s+
+ sC RC
E C Vout
- 1
- substituting E =1 and s = j ω gives Vout(j ω ) =
jω τ +1
1
the absolute value (or magnitude) is  Vout  = 1
 2 2 2
since all the current through R goes through C, this is a voltage ω τ +1
ZC  
divider Vout = E . φ = − arctan( ω τ )
ZR + ZC the phase angle (or phase) is
Note “E” is an independent voltage source.
RL networks
Given a series connected R-L network L
sL s s τs
R Vout(s) = E= R E= E= E
R + sL L R τ s +1
+ 1+s s+
+ R L
E L Vout
- jω τ
- substituting E =1 and s = j ω gives Vout(j ω ) =
jω τ +1
1
 2 2 2
ω τ
 
since all the current through R goes through L, this is a voltage the absolute value (or magnitude) is  Vout  = 1
ZL  2 2 2
divider Vout = E . ω τ +1
ZR + ZL  
Note “E” is an independent voltage source. π
the phase angle (or phase) is φ= − arctan( ω τ )
2

RLC networks Given a series connected RLC network

L
R
+
+ C
E Vout
-
-
since all the current through R goes through L and in turn goes through C, this is a voltage divider,
1 1
ZC sC 1 LC ω o2
Vout = E= E= 2 E= E= ω E
ZR + ZL + ZC 1 s LC + sCR +1 R 1 s2 + s o + ω o2
R + sL + s2 + s + Qo
sC L LC
1
1 ωo R ωo L 1 L 1  L 2
from which we see that ωo = and = so Qo = = ωo = =
( L C )2
1
Qo L  R R ( L C )2 R R  C 
1
 L
at the resonant frequency, ω o , we have Vl(ω o) + Vc(ω o) = 0
1 1 1 1
as seen by s L I(s) = − I(s) → s2 = − → ( j ω o )2 = − ω o2 = − → ωo = 1
sC LC LC ( L C )2
E
so Vr(ω o) = E and I(ω o) = Ir(ω o) =
R
(maximum energy stored per period)
Q is the quality factor of an energy storage circuit. Q = 2π
(energy dissipated per period)
Qo is the tuned circuit quality factor at the resonant frequency.
I(s)
At resonance in a series tuned circuit Vc(s) = substituting s = j ω o
sC
 E 1 1 1
 R  R  R 1  L 2
 Vc  = = E= 1 E = E = Qo E
ωo C  1   C 2 R  C
C
 ( L C ) 12   L

Given a parallel connected RLC network 1 sL

Vout(s) = J= 2 J
1 s L C +s LG +1
+
G+sC+
sL
J G C L Vout
s
1  
- C  1  s J
= J=
1 1  C   s2 + s ω o + ω 2 
s +s
2 +  Qo o

RC LC
1
a KCL gives us (G +sC + ) V (s) = J
s L out
Note “J” is an independent current source.
1 ωo G
from which we see again that ωo = 1 and = so
(LC) 2 Qo C
1
ωo C 1 C 1  C 2
Qo = = ωo = =
 G G ( L C ) 12 G G  L 
 C
at the resonant frequency, ω o , we have Il(ω o) + Ic(ω o) = 0
1 1 1 1
as seen by s C Vout(s) = − V s2 = − → ( j ω o )2 = − ω o2 = − → ωo =
s L out LC LC 1
( L C )2
J
so Ir(ω o) = J and Vout(ω o) = Vr(ω o) =
G
Vout
at resonance in a parallel tuned circuit Il = substituting s = j ω o
sL
 J 1 1 1
 G  G  G 1  C 2
 Il  = = J= 1 J = J = Qo J
ωo L  1   L 2 G  L
L
 ( L C ) 12   C
 
 1  s J
returning to Vout(s) = we see that we have a bandpass transfer function
 C   s2 + s ω o + ω 2 
 Qo o


|T|
3 dB
F
Fl Fo Fu
recalling that
2 ) = 3 dB
20 log( √
we see that
 Vout( j ω o )   Vout( j ω o ) 
= =√
2
 Vout( j ω l )   Vout( j ω u ) 
Note that
   
 1  j ωo J =  1   j ω  J =  1   Qo  J
Vout( j ω o ) =
o
 C   ( j ω )2 + j ω ω ω
+ ω o2   C  −ω2 + jω + ω o2   C   ωo 
o o
 o o
Qo   o o
Qo 
After a number of algebraic operations, we get
1 1
ωo  1 2 ωo  1 2
ωl = − + ωo +1 and ωu = + ωo +1
2 Qo  4 Qo
2  2 Qo  4 Qo
2 
ωo ωo fo
3 dB bandwidth of the resonant peak = ∆ ω = ω u − ω l = and Qo = =
Qo ∆ω ∆f

network functions
(1) network must be linear and all Cs & Ls have zero initial conditions.
(2) connect source (E or J) to the input
(3) solve for desired output & divide by source
(4) avoid 1/s terms in network functions
(5) for frequency domain response: use phasor for E or J and set s = j ω
(6) for time domain response: use Laplace transform of E or J and inverse Laplace transform network function
output
network function =
input
V I
voltage transfer function: Tv = out transfer admittance: Ytr = out
Vin Vin
Iout Vin
current transfer function: Ti = input impedance: Zin =
Iin Iin
V I
transfer impedance: Ztr = out input admittance: Yin = in
Iin Vin
poles and zeros

m m
N(s) Σ Ai si Π ( s − zi )
Am
F(s) = = = K0 K0 = zi = α i + j β i and pi = γ i + j ζ i
i=0 i=1
n n where for practical circuits
Σ Bi si Π ( s − pi )
D(s) Bn
i=0 i=1
stability
n Ki n
F(s) = Σ → f(t) = Σ Ki et pi
i=0 s − pi i=0
if Re( pi ) > 0 then f(t) unstable. ; if Re( pi ) = 0 then f(t) is an oscillator. ; if Re( pi ) < 0 then f(t) stable.
frequency response from poles & zeros

m
Π ( s − zi )
F(s) = K0 i=1
recall that n
Π
i=1
( s − pi )
note that s, zi , and pi are complex numbers which can be viewed as vectors. ( s − z ) = ( 0 + j ω ) − ( α + j β ) = A e j φ
1
 2 ω −β
where A = ( ω − β )2 + α 2 φ = arctan
   −α 
recall that
 a   a 
log( a ⋅ b ) = log( a ) + log( b ) ; log = log( a ) − log( b ) ; φ( a ⋅ b ) = φ( a ) + φ( b ) ; φ = φ( a ) − φ( b )
 b   b 

s=0+jω
A
φ
z=α+jβ β
(0+jω)-(α+jβ)
A
=-α+j(ω-β)
φ
α
-z=-α-jβ
1
m  m
 
2
Π Az,i
 Π
i=1 
( ω − β i )2 + α i2

| F( j ω ) | = | K0 | =  K20
i=1

 2 + γ 2 
n n
Π Ap,i  Π ( ω − ζ )
i=1  
i

i
i=1
m n
20 log( | F( j ω ) | ) = 20 log( | K0 | ) + Σ 20 log( | j ω − zi | ) − Σ 20 log( | j ω − pi | )
i=1 i=1
m n
φ ( j ω ) = φ ( K0 ) + Σ φ z,i − Σ φ p,i
i=1 i=1
m
 ω − βi  n  ω − ζi 
= φ ( K0 ) + Σ arctan − Σ arctan
i=1  − α i  i=1  − γi 
m
 βi − ω  n  ζi − ω 
= φ ( K0 ) + Σ arctan − Σ arctan
i=1  α i  i=1  γi 

jω
( s - z 1)
( s - p 2)
j ωx
( s - p 1)
( s - p 3)
( s - z 2)
s - plane
( s − z1 ) ( s − z2 )
F( s ) = ; z2 = z1 and p3 = p2
( s − p1 ) ( s − p2 ) ( s − p3 )
Bode plots
1
(1) the dB magnitude plot is the summation of the dB magnitude plots of the individual K0 , ( s − zi ) and terms.
s − pi
1
(2) the phase plot is the summation of the phase plots of the individual K0 , ( s − zi ) and terms.
s − pi
these terms are one of:
(1) T( s ) = K0 ; T( j ω ) = K0
s jω
(2) T( s ) = τ s = ; T( j ω ) =
ωo ωo
1 ωo ωo ωo
(3) T( s ) = = ; T( j ω ) = =−j
τs s jω ω
 s   ω 
(4) T( s ) = ( τ s + 1 ) = +1 ; T( j ω ) = j +1
 ωo   ωo 
1 1 1
(5) T( s ) = = s ; T( j ω ) = ω
τ s +1 +1 j +1
ωo ωo
1  2 ωo  −ω jω
2 2
  s s  
(6) T( s ) = s + s + ω o2 = + +1 ; T( j ω ) = + +1
ωo 
2 Qo   ω o ω o Qo
2   ωo2 ω o Qo 
 
 1 = 1 1
(7) T( s ) = ω o2 ; T( j ω ) =
 s2 + ω o s + ω 2   s2 s   − ω 2 jω 
 Qo o
  ω 2 + ω Q + 1  ωo 2
+
ω o Qo
+1

o o o

1. T(s) = Ko
magnitude: since T(s) is a constant, the magnitude plot would be a horizontal line
magnitude
20 log( | Ko | ) dB
0 dB ω
phase: if T(s) ≥ 0 then the phase is a horizontal line at 0°
phase
0°
phase: if T(s) < 0 then the phase is a horizontal line at -180°
phase
0° ω
-180°

2. T(s) = τ s
magnitude: since the magnitude of T(s) will be increasing linearly with frequency,
it will be a straight line at 20dB/dec, crossing 0dB at 1/τ
That is, for each decade of frequency, the magnitude goes up a factor of 10.
That results in 20log(10) = 20dB .
magnitude [DB]
20 db/dec
0 ω
1
τ
phase: since the phase of T(s) is a constant 90°, the phase will be a
horizontal line at 90°.
phase [°]
+ 90°
0 ω

1
3. T(s) =
τs
magnitude: since the magnitude of T(s) will be decreasing linearly with frequency,
It will be a straight line at -20db/dec crossing 0dB at 1/τ
That is, for each decade of frequency, the magnitude goes down a factor of 10.
That results in 20log(10) = 20dB .
magnitude [DB]
0 ω
1
τ
-20db/dec
phase: since the phase of T(s) is a constant -90°, the phase will be a
horizontal line at -90°.
phase [°]
0 ω
- 90°

4. T(s) = ( τ s + 1 )
magnitude: for frequencies much less than 1/τ numerical methods says T(s) ≈ 1 or 0dB.
For frequencies much greater than 1/τ numerical methods says T(s) is growing
linearly with frequency or +20dB/dec.
The Bode plot approximation says to use straight lines to approximate the function.
The worse case error for this occurs at 1/τ and is 20log(sqrt(1+1))=3.01dB
magnitude [DB]
20db/dec
0db/dec
0 ω
1
τ
phase: for frequecies significantly less than 1/τ numerical methods says phase(T(s)) ≈ 0°.
For frequencies significantly greater than 1/τ numerical methods says phase(T(s)) ≈ 90°.
At the frequency 1/τ the slope of the phase plot is 45°/dec.
The Bode plot approximation says use straight lines to approximate the function.
0. 1 10  0. 1 
The worse case error will occur at and and will be tan−1 = 5. 71o
τ τ  1 
phase [°]
0°/dec
+ 90°
+45°/dec
0°/dec
0 ω
0.1 1 10
τ τ τ

1
5. T(s) =
τ s +1
magnitude: for frequencies much less than 1/τ numerical methods says T(s) ≈ 1 or 0dB.
For frequencies much greater then 1/τ numerical methods says T(s) is decreasing
linearly with frequency or -20dB/dec.
The Bode plot approximation says to use straight lines to approximate the function.
The worse case error for this occurs at 1/τ and is 20log(sqrt(1+1))=3.01dB
magnitude [DB]
0db/dec
0 ω
1
τ
-20db/dec
phase: for frequecies significantly less than 1/τ numerical methods says phase(T(s)) ≈ 0°.
For frequncies significantly greater than 1/τ numerical methods says phase(T(s)) ≈ -90°.
At the frequency 1/τ the slope of the phase plot is -45°/dec.
The Bode plot approximation says use straight lines to approximate the function.
0. 1 10  0. 1 
The worse case error will occur at and and will be tan−1 = 5. 71o
τ τ  1 
phase [°]
0.1 1 10
τ τ τ
0 ω
0°/dec
-45°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec

Using these five, we should be able do Bode plots for any function with all real poles and zeros. Since each of the above five are
piecewise linear, the plots will be made up of straight lines. Each plot will be a straight line with a given slope until it reaches the
next slope change. Given this, we would start at say zero frequency and draw the plot left-to-right as frequency increases.
We will work through five examples to see the various standard steps to Bode plotting with real poles and zeros.
It would be good to printout the previous five pages to have on the table in front of you as we work through these examples. You
will need to refer to them to understand how each of the slope changes happen and are used.
Before we get to those, a quick reminder from the quadratic formula about three possible cases for the roots of a quadratic term.
quadratic formula square root term is positive
In this case, the roots are real and unequal. For this case, the step response will exponentially approach the final value with
no overshoot. This is referred to as an overdamped response and Qo < 0. 5 .
quadratic formula square root term is zero
In this case, the roots are real and equal. For this case, the step response will approach the final value as fast as possible
with no overshoot. This is referred to as a critically damped response and Qo = 0. 5 .
quadratic formula square root term is negative
In this case, the roots are a complex conjugate pair. For this case, the step response will quickly approach the final value but
will overshoot. The response will be an exponentially decaying sinusoid. This is referred to as an underdamped response
and Qo > 0. 5 .
In the following seven examples:

over-damped response (Qo < 0. 5)
Examples 0, 1 and 2.
critically-damped response (Qo = 0. 5)
Examples 3 and 4.
under-damped response (Qo > 0. 5)
Examples 5 and 6.
initial phase (assuming Ko is possivite)

The “initial phase” (phase at f = 0), is
( ( number_of_τ s_terms_in_numerator ) − ( number_of_τ s_terms_in_denominator ) ) ⋅ 90°
final phase (assuming Ko is possivite)

The “final phase” (phase at f = ∞),
   
degree_of_numerator − degree_of_denominator ⋅ 90°
   
continued on page 155

example 1
Given the transfer function
( s + 102 )
T(s) =
( s + 1 ) ( s + 104 )
s
we first want to change the ( s + ωi ) terms into the form ω i ( + 1 ) . That is
ωi
 s 
+1
( s + 10 )
2
10  102
2

T(s) = = 4
( s + 1 ) ( s + 10 ) 10
4
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
Next we need to determine the starting (s = j 0) magnitude
 ( j0) 
+1
102  102 
T( j 0 ) = 4 = 10−2
10   ( j 0 ) 
( j0) +1 +1
   104 
| T( j 0 ) | = 10−2 → 20 log( 10−2 ) = − 40 dB

and the starting phase
φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
As a cross check for later, we want to determine the final (s = j ∞) magnitude and phase.
 ( j∞)   ( j ∞)
+1
10 2
 10 2   102  ( j∞) 1
T( j ∞ ) = 4 ≈ 10−2 ≈ 10−2 ≈ = − j0
10    ( j∞)     ( j ∞) ( j∞)2 j∞
( j∞) +1 + 1 ( j ∞   104 
)
   104  
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = − 90°
 0 
Next we want to order the magnitude plot slope changes: 10 , 102 , 104 , as well as, the phase plot slope changes:
 
 −1 
10 , 101 , 103 , 105 .
 
Note the phase plot slope changes are a decade before and after the slope changes on the magnitude plot. Now we are ready to
slope-by-slope draw the magnitude and then phase plots.

Given the initial magnitude is −40 dB and there are no τs terms in the numerator,
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
(see Ko term on page 44) the initial magnitude slope will be zero starting −40 dB.
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
- 40 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 60 dB
- 80 dB
- 100 dB
The first slope change will be at 100 . Since this term ( s +1 ) is in the denominator,
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
1
(see term on page 48) the incremental slope change will be −20 dB/dec. Since the previous slope is 0 dB/dec plus the incre-
τ s +1
mental change −20 dB/dec, the new slope will be −20 dB/dec.
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
- 40 dB ω
0 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec
- 60 dB
- 80 dB
- 100 dB

 s 
The second slope change will be at 102 . Since this term +1 is in the numerator,
 102 
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
(see “τ s + 1” term on page 47) the incremental slope change will be +20 dB/dec. Since the previous slope is −20 dB/dec plus the
incremental change +20 dB/dec, the new slope will be 0 dB/dec.
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
- 40 dB ω
0 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec
- 60 dB
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 100 dB

 s 
The third slope change will be at 104 . Since this term +1 is in the denominator,
 104 
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
1
τ s +1
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
- 40 dB ω
0 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec
- 60 dB
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
-20 dB/dec
- 100 dB
Given the initial phase is 0° and there are no τs terms in the numerator,
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
(see Ko term on page 44) the initial slope will be zero.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
0° ω
- 45°
0°/dec
-90°

The first slope change will be a decade before 100 or 10−1 . Since the term ( s +1 ) is in the denominator,
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
1
and we are one decade before the pole at 100 , (see term on page 48) the incremental slope change will be -45°/dec. Since
τ s +1
the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incremental change -45°/dec, the new slope will be -45°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
0° ω
-45°/dec
- 45°
0°/dec
-90°

The second slope change will be a decade after 100 which is a decade before 102 or 101 . Since the term ( s +1 ) is in the de-
nominator,
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
1
and we are one decade after the pole at 100 , (see term on page 48) the incremental slope change associated with it is
τ s +1
 s 
+45°/dec. Since the term +1 is in the numerator,
 102 
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
and we are one decade before the pole at 102 , (see “τ s + 1” term on page 47) the incremental slope change associated with it is
+45°/dec. Since the previous slope is -45°/dec plus the incremental change +45°/dec, plus the incremental change +45°/dec, the
new slope will be +45°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
0° ω
-45°/dec
- 45°
+45°/dec
0°/dec
-90°

 s 
The third slope change will be a decade after 102 which is a decade before 104 or 103 . Since the term +1 is in the nu-
 102 
merator,
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
and we are one decade after the pole at 102 , (see “τ s + 1” term on page 47) the incremental slope change associated with it is
 s 
-45°/dec. Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 104 
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
1
and we are one decade before the pole at 104 , (see term on page 48) the incremental slope change associated with it is
τ s +1
-45°/dec. Since the previous slope is +45°/dec plus the incremental change -45°/dec, plus the incremental change -45°/dec, the
new slope will be -45°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
0° ω
-45°/dec -45°/dec
- 45°
+45°/dec
0°/dec
-90°

 s 
The fourth slope change will be a decade after 104 which is 105 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 104 
 s 
+1
 102 
T(s) = 10−2
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
1
and we are one decade after the pole at 104 , (see term on page 48) the incremental slope change associated with it is
τ s +1
+45°/dec. Since the previous slope is -45°/dec plus the incremental change +45°/dec, the new slope will be 0°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
0° ω
-45°/dec -45°/dec
- 45°
+45°/dec
0°/dec 0°/dec
-90°
These steps are summarized on the next page.

example 1
 s 
+1
( s + 10 )2
10  102
2

T(s) = = 4
( s + 1 ) ( s + 10 ) 10
4
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 104 
102
| T( j 0 ) | = = 10−2 → − 40 dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
104
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = − 90°
mag
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
- 40 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 60 dB -20 dB/dec
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
-20 dB/dec
- 100 dB
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
0° ω
-45°/dec -45°/dec
- 45°
0°/dec +45°/dec 0°/dec

-90°

example 2
105 s
T(s) =
( s + 102 ) ( s + 105 )
s
ωi
s
105 s 102
T(s) = =
( s + 102 ) ( s + 105 )  s  s 
+1 +1
 102   105 
Since this has a τ s in the numerator, we want to match up the τs in the numerator with the (τ s + 1) in the denomina-
tor to guide the actual passband magnitude.
s  s  
10 s 5
10 2  10 2  1 
T(s) = = =  
( s + 102 ) ( s + 105 )  s  s    s   
s  
+1 +1 +1 +1
 102   105    102     105  
τs
A closer look at the has three pieces of information:
τ s +1
1
• the line associated with τs is coming up a 20 dB/dec crossing the 0 dB axis at
τ
1 1
• the line associated with is starting at 0 dB coming across at 0 dB/dec until when it goes down at −20 dB/dec
τ s +1 τ
τs 1
• is unity (0 dB) at .
τ s +1 τ
When we add these together we will get
mag
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 20 dB +20 dB/dec
- 40 dB

 s 
The second slope change will be at 105 . Since this term +1 is in the denominator,
 105 
 s  
 102  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 2    10 5  
the incremental slope change will be −20 dB/dec. Since the previous slope is 0 dB/dec plus the incremental change −20 dB/dec, the new
slope will be −20 dB/dec.
mag
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 20 dB +20 dB/dec -20 dB/dec
- 40 dB
Given there is a τs in the numerator,

 s  
 10 2  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 2    10 5  
the initial phase is +90° and the slope will be 0°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
45°
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
- 45°
- 90°

 s 
The first slope change will be a decade before 102 or 101 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 102 
 s  
 102  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 2    10 5  
and we are one decade before the pole at 102 , the incremental slope change will be -45°/dec. Since the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incre-
mental change -45°/dec, the new slope will be -45°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
-45°/dec
45°
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
- 45°
- 90°

 s 
The second slope change will be a decade after 102 or 103 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 102 
 s  
 102  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 2    10 5  
and we are one decade after the pole at 102 , the incremental slope change will be +45°/dec. Since the previous slope is -45°/dec plus the incre-
mental change +45°/dec, the new slope will be 0°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
-45°/dec
45°
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 45°
- 90°

 s 
The third slope change will be a decade before 105 or 104 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 105 
 s  
 102  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 2    10 5  
and we are one decade before the pole at 105 , the incremental slope change will be -45°/dec. Since the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incre-
mental change -45°/dec, the new slope will be -45°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
-45°/dec
45°
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
-45°/dec
- 45°
- 90°

 s 
The fourth slope change will be a decade after 105 or 106 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 105 
 s  
 102  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 2    10 5  
and we are one decade after the pole at 105 , the incremental slope change will be +45°/dec. Since the previous slope is -45°/dec plus the incre-
mental change +45°/dec, the new slope will be 0°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
-45°/dec
45°
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
-45°/dec
- 45°
0°/dec
- 90°

example 2
s  s  
105 s 1
=  s10  
10 2 2
T(s) = =
( s + 10 ) ( s + 10 )  s
2 5
 s   +1  s
+1 
+1 +1
  10   105 
2
 102   105
| T( j 0 ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = + 90°
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = − 90°
mag
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 20 dB +20 dB/dec -20 dB/dec
- 40 dB
phase
0°/dec
90°
-45°/dec
45°
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
-45°/dec
- 45°
0°/dec
- 90°
As an aside
105 s 105 s
T(s) = = → ω o2 = 105 102 → ω o = 3162 Rad/s
( s + 102 ) ( s + 105 ) s2 + (105 + 102 ) s + (105 102 )
= √

1
ωo ωo(107) 2 fo flp fhp
= 10 + 10
5 2
→ Q0 = 5 = = 0. 03159 ; Q0 =
Q0 10 + 102 105 + 102 flp + fhp flp + fhp

example 3
(104 )2
T(s) =
( s + 104 )2
s
we first want to change the ( s + ωi ) terms into the form ωi ( + 1 ) . That is
ωi
4 2
(10 ) 1
T(s) = =
( s + 104 )2  s 
2
+1
 104 
The initial magnitude and phase will be
| T( j 0 ) | = 1 → 20log( 1 ) = 0 dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
Given the initial magnitude is 0 dB and there are no τs terms in the numerator, the magnitude plot up to the first slope change
will be.
mag
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 80 dB
- 120 dB

 s 
The first slope change will be at 104 . Since this term +1 is in the denominator,
 104 
1
T(s) = 2
 s 
+1
 104 
and is a double pole, the incremental slope change will be 2 × ( − 20 dB/dec ) = − 40 dB/dec . Since the previous slope is
0 dB/dec plus the incremental change −40 dB/dec, the new slope will be −40 dB/dec.
mag
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 40 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 120 dB
Given there are no τs terms in the numberator and the intial phase is 0°, the phase upto the first slope change looks like.
phase
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 90°
-180°

 s 
 104 
1
T(s) = 2
 s 
+1
 104 
and we are one decade before the pole at 104 , and it is a double pole, the incremental slope change will be
2 × ( -45°/dec ) = -90°/dec. Since the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incremental change -90°/dec, the new slope will be
-90°/dec.
phase
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 90°
- 90°/dec
-180°
 s 
 104 
1
T(s) = 2
 s 
+1
 104 
and we are one decade after the pole at 104 , and it is a double pole, the incremental slope change will be
2 × ( +45°/dec ) = +90°/dec. Since the previous slope is -90°/dec plus the incremental change +90°/dec, the new slope will be
0°/dec.
phase
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 90°
- 90°/dec
0°/dec
-180°

example 3
(104 )2 1
T(s) = =
( s + 10 )
4 2
 s 
2
+1
 104 
| T( j 0 ) | = 1 → 0 dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = −180°
mag
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 40 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 120 dB
phase
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 90°
- 90°/dec
0°/dec
-180°
As an aside
(104 )2 108 108 ω o2
T(s) = = = = ωo
( s + 104 )2 s2 + 2 ⋅104 s + 108 104
s + 108 s + 0. 5 s + ω o
2 2
s2 +
0. 5
ω o = 104 and Qo = 0. 5
This will be important as example 3 is the starting point for example 5.

example 4
104 s
T(s) =
( s + 104 )2
s
we first want to change the ( s + ωi ) terms into the form ωi ( + 1 ) . That is
ωi
s
104 s 104
T(s) = =
( s + 104 )2  s 
2
+1
 104 
and then find the initial magnitude and phase.
| T( j 0 ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = + 90°
τs
Given the τs in the numerator, we want to move things around to get .
τ s +1
s  s  
10 s 4
104  104  1 
T(s) = = =   
( s + 10 )
4 2
 s 
2
  s    s  
+1 +1 +1
 104    104     104  
τs
As we saw in example two earlier with the , the magnitude plot upto the first slope change will look like.
τ s +1
mag
10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
- 20 dB
20 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 60 dB

 s 
The first slope change will be at 104 . Since this term +1 is in the denominator,
 104 
 s  
 104  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 4    10 4  
and is a double pole, the incremental slope change will be 2 × ( − 20 dB/dec ) = − 40 dB/dec . Since the previous slope is
+20 dB/dec plus the incremental change −40 dB/dec, the new slope will be −20 dB/dec.
mag
10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
- 20 dB
20 dB/dec - 20 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 60 dB
Given the τs in the numerator, the phase plot up to the first slope change will be +90°.
phase
0°/dec
90°
10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
-90°

 s 
 104 
 s  
 104  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 4    10 4  
and we are one decade before the pole at 104 , and it is a double pole, the incremental slope change will be
2 × ( -45°/dec ) = -90°/dec. Since the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incremental change -90°/dec, the new slope will be
-90°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
- 90°/dec
10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
-90°
 s 
 104 
 s  
 104  1 
T(s) =   
     
s s
+1 +1 
  10 4    10 4  
and we are one decade after the pole at 104 , and it is a double pole, the incremental slope change will be
2 × ( +45°/dec ) = +90°/dec. Since the previous slope is -90°/dec plus the incremental change +90°/dec, the new slope will be
0°/dec.
phase
0°/dec
90°
- 90°/dec
10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
-90°

example 4
s  s  
104 s 1
=  s10  
10 4 4
T(s) = =
( s + 10 )
4 2
 s 
2  +1  s
+1 
+ 1  104  104 
 104 
| T( j 0 ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = + 90°
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = − 90°
mag
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
- 20 dB
- 40 dB
- 60 dB
phase
0°/dec
90°
- 90°/dec
10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
-90°
As an aside
104 s 104 s 104 s ωo s
T(s) = = = = ω
( s + 104 )2 s2 + 2 ⋅104 s + (104 )2 10 4
s + (104 )2 s + 0. 5 s + ω o
2 o 2
s2 +
0. 5
ω o = 104 and Qo = 0. 5
This will be important as example 4 is the starting point for example 6.

example 5
(104 )2
T(s) =
s2 + 103 s + (104 )2
s
ωi
4 2
(10 ) 1 1
T(s) = = = −8 2
s2 + 103 s + (104 )2 s2 103 10 s + 10−5 s + 1
+ s +1
(104 )2 (104 )2
and then find the initial magnitude and phase
| T( j 0 ) | = 1 → 0 dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
A quick test with the quadratic formula indicates that the poles (roots of the denominator) are complex conjugate. As such, the
next step is to calculate ω o and Qo for these poles.
(104 )2 ω o2
T(s) = =
s2 + 103 s + (104 )2 s2 + ω o s + ω 2
o
Qo
ωo ωo 104
( ω o )2 = (104 )2 → ω o = 104 Rad/s ; = 103 → Qo = = = 10
Qo 103 103
At this point we note that example 3 is the Qo = 0. 5 case for example 5 (see page 77 for what this means).
If we compare examples 3 and 5 for frequencies significantly less than ω o , their magnitude and phase plots prefectly match.
If we compare examples 3 and 5 for frequencies significantly greater than ω o , their magnitude and phase plots prefectly match.
That is, they only differ for frequencies close to ω o .
From our analysis of a few days ago, at ω o , the magnitude will be 20 log(Qo) higher than the Bode plot for Qo = 0. 5 . This
will help us handle the case of Qo > 0. 5 .
Next we need to calculate the resonant peak’s lower and upper -3 dB frequencies.
BW
given Qo is much greater than 4, the resonant peak lower -3 dB frequency is = 9. 50 kRad/s
ωl ≈ ωo −
2
BW
given Qo is much greater than 4, the resonant peak upper -3 dB frequency is ωu ≈ ωo + = 10. 5 kRad/s
2
Again from our analysis of a few days ago, at ω o , the phase will be shifted 90°. In addition, we have seen that at a -3 dB frequen-
cy, the phase is shifted 45°. When we link all these pieces of information, for this example:
• for very low frequency, the phase will be 0°.
• for very high frequency, the phase will be -180°.
• at the frequency ω 0 the phase will be -90°.
• at the frequency ω l the phase will be -45°.
• at the frequency ω u the phase will be -135°.
giving us a template for the phase plot.

For the magnitude plot we start with the Qo = 0. 5 case (see page 77 for what this means).
mag
20 dB
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 20 dB
- 40 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 60 dB
Now we can add the resonated peak on this to get the magnitude plot.
mag
20 dB
17 dB
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 20 dB
- 40 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 60 dB

For the phase plot we start with the Qo = 0. 5 case (see page 77 for what this means).
phase
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec
-180°
Now we can add the phase using the template just developed.
• for very low frequency, the phase will be 0°.
• for very high frequency, the phase will be -180°.
• at the frequency ω 0 the phase will be -90°.
• at the frequency ω l the phase will be -45°.
• at the frequency ω u the phase will be -135°.
phase
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 45°
- 90°
- 135°
0°/dec
-180°
These steps are summarized on the next 2 pages.

Bode plot for quadratic terms with Qo > 0. 5

dB plot
1
 1 2
start with the Qo = 0. 5 case, sketch resonant peak on top, resonant peak at ω o + 1 ,
 4 Q2o 
ω
resonant peak is 20 log(Qo) higher/lower than Qo = 0. 5 case, and the 3 dB bandwidth of peak is o
Qo
phase plot
starting/ending phase same as Qo = 0. 5 case,
starting phase ± 45° at lower 3 dB frequency of resonant peak,
starting phase ± 90° at resonant peak,
starting phase ± 135° at upper 3 dB frequency of resonant peak
upper/lower 3 dB frequencies
1 1
ωo  1 2 BW  1 2
lower 3 dB freq is ωl = − + ωo + 1 = − + ω + 1
2 Qo  4 Q2o  2 o
 4 Q2o 
1 1
ωo  1  2 BW  1 2
upper 3 dB freq is ωu = + ωo + 1 = + ω + 1
2 Qo  4 Q2o  2 o
 4 Q2o 
What is meant by the Qo = 0. 5 case

In the “Qo = 0. 5 case”
• The numerator of the Qo = 0. 5 case and the numerator of the Qo > 0. 5 case are the same.
• The coefficient of s2 in the denominator of the Qo = 0. 5 case and the coefficient of s2 in the denominator of the Qo > 0. 5 case are
the same.
• The coefficient of s0 in the denominator of the Qo = 0. 5 case and the coefficient of s0 in the denominator of the Qo > 0. 5 case are
the same.
• The two only differ for the coefficient of s1 in the denominator.
Qo = 0. 5 case for example 5 (low pass filter)
ω o2 ω o2 ω o2
ωo → ωo =
s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + 2 ω o s + ω o2
Qo 0. 5
Qo = 0. 5 case for example 6 (band pass filter)
ωo s ωo s ωo s
ωo → ωo =
s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + 2 ω o s + ω o2
Qo 0. 5

example 5
(104 )2 1 1
T(s) = = = −8 2
s2 + 103 s + (104 )2 s2 103 10 s + 10−5 s + 1
4 2
+ 4 2
s +1
(10 ) (10 )
| T( j 0 ) | = 1 → 0 dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = −180°
ωo ωo 104
( ω o )2 = (104 )2 → ω o = 104 Rad/s ; = 103 → Qo = = = 10
Qo 103 103
from example 3 we know that the peak for the Qo = 0. 5 case is 0 dB
resonant peak is 0 dB + 20 log(Qo) = 0 dB + 20 log(10) = 20 dB
ω o 104
3 dB bandwidth of the resonant peak is = = 103 Rad/s
Qo 10
BW
given Qo is much greater than 4, the resonant peak lower -3 dB frequency is ωl ≈ ωo − = 9. 50 kRad/s
2
BW
2
mag
20 dB
17 dB
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 20 dB
- 40 dB/dec
- 40 dB
- 60 dB
phase
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
0°/dec
- 45°
- 90°
- 135°
0°/dec
- 180°

example 6
104 s
T(s) =
s2 + 103 s + (104 )2
s
ωi
s
104 s 104 10−4 s
T(s) = 2 = =
s + 103 s + (104 )2 s2 103 10−8 s2 + 10−5 s + 1
4 2
+ 4 2
s +1
(10 ) (10 )
Given the poles are complex conjugate, the next step is
ωo ωo 104
( ω o )2 = (104 )2 → ω o = 104 Rad/s ; = 103 → Qo = = = 10
Qo 103 103
A comparison between example 4 and example 6 show they have the same ω o but different Qo values.
Next we need to calculate the resonant peak’s lower and upper -3 dB frequencies.
BW
given Qo is much greater than 4, the resonant peak lower -3 dB frequency is ωl ≈ ωo − = 9. 50 kRad/s
2
BW
2
As we did with example 5, we will start with the magnitude plot for the Qo = 0. 5 case (see page 77 for what this means).
mag
20 dB
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10
6
0 dB ω
- 20 dB
- 40 dB
- 60 dB

Next we add the resonant peak to this
mag
20 dB
17 dB
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10
6
0 dB ω
- 20 dB
- 40 dB
- 60 dB
For the phase plot we start with the Qo = 0. 5 case (see page 77 for what this means).
phase
0°/dec
90°
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10
6
0° ω
0°/dec
-90°
Next we add the phase transition around ω o .
phase
0°/dec
+ 90°
+ 45°
2
10 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
- 45°
0°/dec
- 90°

example 6
s
104 s 104 10−4 s
T(s) = 2 = = −8 2
s + 103 s + (104 )2 s2 103 10 s + 10−5 s + 1
4 2
+ 4 2
s + 1
(10 ) (10 )
| T( j 0 ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = + 90°
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = − 90°
| T( j10 ) | = | j10−3 | → − 60 dB
the gain at the first corner is − 60 dB + ( 3 decades × 20 dB /decade ) = 0 dB
ωo ωo 104
( ω o )2 = (104 )2 → ω o = 104 Rad/s ; = 103 → Qo = = = 10
Qo 103 103
from example 4 we know that the peak for the Qo = 0. 5 case is 0 dB so the resonant peak is
ωo 104
0 dB + 20 log(Qo) = 0 dB + 20 log(10) = 20 dB and 3 dB bandwidth of the resonant peak is = = 103 Rad/s
Qo 10
given Qo is much greater than 4,
BW BW
ωl ≈ ωo − = 9. 50 kRad/s ; ωu ≈ ωo + = 10. 5 kRad/s
2 2
mag
20 dB
17 dB
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0 dB ω
- 20 dB
- 40 dB
- 60 dB
phase
0°/dec
90°
45°
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
0° ω
-45°
0°/dec
-90°

Filter types
low pass filter: passes low frequencies but blocks high frequencies
mag
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
ω
0 dB
0 dB/dec
high pass filter: blocks low frequencies but passes high frequencies
mag
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
ω
0 dB
0 dB/dec
band pass filter: blocks low and high frequencies but passes the frequencies in between
mag
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
ω
0 dB
0 dB/dec
band stop filter: passes low and high frequencies but attenuates the frequencies in between
mag
10 1 10
2
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
ω
0 dB
0 dB/dec 0 dB/dec
0 dB/dec

biquadratic filter functions
For biquadratic filter functions, the denominator is always of the form

ωo
s2 + s + ω o2
Qo
For a low pass filter, the numerator will only have the s0 term. That is
0 ⋅ s2 + 0 ⋅ s1 + ω o2 ⋅ s0 ω o2 s = j0 ω o2 ω o2
ωo = ωo ωo ≈ =1
s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + s + ω o2 → ( j 0 )2 + ( j 0 ) + ω o2 ω o2
Qo Qo Qo
For a high pass filter, the numerator will only have the s2 term. That is
1 ⋅ s2 + 0 ⋅ s1 + 0 ⋅ s0 s2 s = j∞ ( j ∞ )2 ( j ∞ )2
ωo = ωo ωo ≈ =1
s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + s + ω o2 → ( j ∞ )2 + ( j ∞ ) + ω o2 ( j ∞ )2
Qo Qo Qo
For a band pass filter, the numerator will only have the s1 term. That is
ωo
⋅( j0)
s = j0 Qo ( j0)
ωo ≈ =0
ωo ωo → ( j 0 )2 + ( j 0 ) + ω o2 ω o2
0 ⋅ s2 + ⋅ s1 + 0 ⋅ s0 ⋅s Qo
Qo Qo
ωo = ωo
s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + s + ω o2 ωo
⋅( j ∞)
Qo Qo s = j∞ Qo ( j∞)
ωo ≈ =0
→ ( j ∞ )2 + ( j ∞ ) + ω o2 ( j ∞ )2
Qo
For a band stop pass filter, the numerator will only have the s2 and s0 terms. That is
s = j0 ( j 0 )2 + ω o2 ω o2
ωo ≈ =1
→ ( j 0 )2 + ( j 0 ) + ω o2 ω o2
Qo
1⋅s + 0⋅s +
2 1
ω o2 ⋅ s0 s + 2
ω o2 s = j∞ ( j ∞ )2 + ω o2 ( j ∞ )2
ωo = ωo ω ≈ =1
→ ( j ∞ )2 + o ( j ∞ ) + ω o2 ( j ∞ )
2
s2 + s + ω o2 s2 + s + ω o2
Qo Qo Qo
s = j ωo ( j ω o )2 + ω o2 − ω o2 + ω o2
ωo ≈ =0
→ ( j ω o )2 + ( j ω o ) + ω o2 ω o2
Qo − ω o2 +j + ω o2
Qo

RLC passive filters
low-pass filter R L ωo =
1
+ 1 LC
+
Vo LC
Vi C Vo Av = =
Vi 1
- - s2 + R s + 1 Qo =
L
L LC R C
high-pass filter R C ωo =
1
+ + LC
Vo s2
Vi L Vo Av = =
Vi
- - s2 + R s + 1 Qo = 1 L
L LC R C
band-pass filter L C ωo =
1
+ + R LC
Vo s
Vi Vo Av = L
R =
Vi s2 + R s + 1 Qo = 1 L
- -
L LC R C
band-stop filter R ωo =
1
+ + 1 LC
Vo s2 +
Av = LC
L =
Vi
Vi Vo s2 + R s + 1 Qo = 1 L
C L LC R C
- -

single opamp active filters

generalized inverting amplifier
Zf
+ 15 V Z
Zi Vo f
Av = = -
Vi - Vi Z
Vo i
+
Z
b
- 15 V
low-pass filter Cf
Rb = Rf Ri
Rf
Rf
Z || Z -
+ 15 V Vo Z f Cf Rf Ri
Ri Av = = - = - =
Vi - Vi Z Z s R fC f + 1
i Ri
Vo
+
Rb
- 15 V
high-pass filter Rf
Rb = Rf
+ 15 V Rf
Ri Ci
ZR - s R iC i
Vo Z f Ri
Vi - f
Vo Av = = - = - =
Vi Z Z + Z s R iC i + 1
+ i Ri Ci
Rb
- 15 V
band-pass filter Cf
Rb = Rf
Rf
Rf
Z || Z - s R iC i
+ 15 V Vo Z f Cf Rf Ri
Ri Ci
Av = = - = - =
Vi - Vi Z Z + Z
i Ri Ci s R iC i + 1 s R fC f + 1
Vo
+
Rb
- 15 V

generalized inverter active filter limitations

If we are limited to
• Zf made up of R and C, then the low pass poles will be real. A complex conjugate pair of poles is not possible.
• Zi made up of R and C, then the high pass poles will be real. A complex conjugate pair of poles is not possible.
Given this, a different configuration will be required for biquadratic filters with Qo > 0. 5 .

Sallen-Key single opamp biquadratic filters

low-pass filter C
Vo ωo =
1
RC
+ 15 V
R R 2
+ V ωo
Av = o = A 1
+
C - Vi ωo Qo =
s2 + s +ω 2 3-A
Vi Qo o
- - 15 V
2 R = r || ( (A-1) r )
r (A-1)r
high-pass filter R
Vo 1
ωo =
+ 15 V RC
C C
+ Vo s2
Av = = A 1
+
R - Vi ωo Qo =
s2 + s +ω 2 3-A
Vi Qo o
- - 15 V
R = r || ( (A-1) r )
r (A-1)r
band-pass filter R
Vo 1
ωo =
+ 15 V RC
R C ωo
s
+ V Qo
A v = o = AQ o
+
C 2R - Vi ωo Qo = 1
Vi s2 + s +ω 2 3-A
Qo o
- - 15 V
2 R = r || ( (A-1) r )
r (A-1)r
band-stop (notch) filter 2C

Vo
ωo =
1
+ 15 V RC
R R
2
+
Av =
Vo
= A s 2 +ω o
+ C C - Vi ωo Qo = 1
s2 + s +ω 2 4-2A
Qo o
Vi
- 15 V
- R/2
r 2 R = r || ( (A-1) r )
(A-1)r

other single opamp biquadratic filters

low-pass filter C / ( 9 Q 2o )
band-pass filter R
Vo Vo
R R C C
R 1 R1 1
ωo = ωo =
Vi RC Vi RC
+ 15 V C + 15 V
R = R + ( R || R ) 2
b R 1 =R / ( 4 Q o )
- -
R R
b
+ - ωo
2
+ Vo - 2 ω oQ o s
Av = Av = =
ωo Vi ωo
- 15 V s2 + s+ω2 - 15 V s2 + s+ω2
o Qo o
Qo
notch filter R
ω 2o R
a= -1 R3 =
2
C C ωn ( 2 + a ) 2Q 2o
R3
Vi R2 ( 2 + a ) Q 2o
+ 15 V aC = =α
R1 + R2
( 2 + a ) Q 2o + 1
R1 -
Vo R1 R2 = R
+
Vo ω 2o s 2 + ω 2n
R2 - 15 V 1 Av = =α
ωo =
RC Vi ωn
2 ωo
s2 + s+ω2
Qo o
high-pass filter R all-pass filter C / ( 4 Q 2o )

Vo
Vo
C C
R R
C
Vi
R1
+ 15 V R1 R2 = 2R
+ 15 V -
1
R1 ωo =
+ RC
-
C C1
s2 R 2 - 15 V ωo
Vi + s2 - s+ω2
Av = o
ωo Vo Qo
R R s2 + s+ω2 Av = =α
- 15 V Qo o Vi ωo
s2 + s+ω2
Qo o
1 2
ωo = C 1 =C / ( 4 Q o )
RC R2 Q 2o
R 1 =R / ( 4 Q 2o ) =
2 =α
R1 + R2 Qo + 1

two opamp biquadratic filters
2
low-pass filter + 15 V Vo ωo
Av = = 2
Vi ωo
s2 + s+ ω2
- + Qo o
- 15 V
RQ o
R C R
Vi
C R
+ 15 V R 1
+ - ωo =
RC
- 15 V
Vo
high-pass filter + 15 V
Vo s2
Av = = 2
Vi ωo
s2 + s+ ω2
- + Qo o
- 15 V
C R C
Vi
R R
+ 15 V R 1
+ - ωo =
RQ o RC
- 15 V
Vo
band-pass filter ωo
+ 15 V s
Vo Qo
Av = = 2
- + Vi ωo
- 15 V s2 + s+ ω2
RQ o R C Qo o
Vi
R R
+ 15 V R 1
+ - ωo =
C RC
- 15 V
Vo

all-pass filter ωo
+ 15 V s2 - s+ ω2
Vo Qo o
Av = =
- + Vi ωo
- 15 V s2 + s+ ω2
C R C Qo o
Vi
R R
+ 15 V + R
RQ o -
1
ωo =
RC
- 15 V
Vo
low-pass notch filter 2

+ 15 V Vo ωo s2 + ω2
n
R1 Av = =
Vi Vi ωn ωo
- + s2 + s+ ω2
- 15 V Qo o
C1 R C
ωn
α= ≥1 R 1 = 2R Q o
R R ωo
+ 15 V R
C2 R1
+ - α2+ 1
1 C1 = C
ωo = 2
RC 2α
- 15 V
Vo
α2- 1
C2 = C
2
2α
high-pass notch filter

+ 15 V Vo 2-α2 s2 + ω2
n
R1 Av = = 2
Vi Vi 3-α2 ωo
- + s2 + s+ ω2
- 15 V Qo o
C R C
ωn
R4 α= ≤1 α2+ 1
R R3 ωo R1 = QoR
+ 15 V R 2
+ - α
R2
1
ωo =
RC R 2 =( α 2 + 1 ) Q o R
- 15 V
Vo
2
2α 2α2
R3 = R R4 = R
1+α2 1-α2

three opamp biquadratic filters

R 2
V lp ωo
A lp = = k
Vi ωo
QoR s2 + s+ ω2
Qo o
C R C r r V bp ωos
R
A bp = = k
k Vi ωo
Vi + 15 V + 15 V + 15 V s2 + s+ ω2
Qo o
- - - R R
b1 = QoR
k
+ + + 1
ωo =
R = R RC
R R b2
R - 15 V V b2 - 15 V b3 - 15 V
b1 V lp
bp
R = r || r
b3
R
R = R1 QoR
b1
QoR
Vo R = R R2
b2
C R C r r
R = r r R3
b3
+ 15 V + 15 V + 15 V
- - -
+ + +
R Rb R
b1 - 15 V 2
- 15 V b3 - 15 V
C1 R1 R2 R3
Vi
C1 1 1 r 1
s2 + - s +
C C R1 R3R 2
Vo R 2R C
Av = =
Vi 1
1
s2 + s +
QoR C 2 2
C R

R1
V lp R lp
Rf R C R C
RF
V bp R bp
+ 15 V + 15 V + 15 V
+ 15 V
- - - V hp R hp
R2
-
Vi + + + Vo
+
- 15 V - 15 V - 15 V
R R
b2 b3
- 15 V
R
b4
R3
ωo
s 2
V hp V bp V lp ωo
s2 Qo = k
A hp = = k A bp = = k A lp =
Vi ωo Vi ωo Vi ωo
s2 + s+ ω2 s2 + s+ ω2 s2 + s+ ω2
o o Qo o
Qo Qo
Rf R 3 = 2Q RF RF RF
k=2- 1 ωo =
1 = 1 o -1 Vo = - V lp + V bp + V hp
Qo RC R1 R2 R lp R bp R hp
R2 R3 = R1 Rf Rb = R R = R R = R lp R bp R hp RF
2 b3 b4

Sensors and Process Control
analog data representation

measurement errors
difference between the actual value and the measured value
measurement accuracy
measured variable ± accuracy
percentage error of full scale
percentage of instrument span
percentage of actual reading
system accuracy
take into account all the individual errors
sensitivity
change in output signal for a change in input signal
hysteresis
the relationship between the input and output signals depends on whether the input signal is increasing or decreasing
reproducibility
same output sequence each time the input sequence repeats
resolution
minimum measurable value of the input signal
linearity
for a given input, one unique output value cm = m ⋅ c + co
sensor time response

first-order response
sensor response is dominated by a first-order differential equation
second-order response
sensor response is dominated by a second-order differential equation
sensors and transducers

transducer
converts physical measured energy (radiant, mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, chemical) into electrical energy
passive sensors
passive sensors modify an applied voltage or current
active sensors
active sensors produce an output signal (voltage or current) directly
physical effects
L
resistance R=ρ
A
A
capacitance C = εo εr
d
N2 A
inductance L = µo
d

Analog Signal Conditioning
analog signal conditioning terms

change signal level (amplify or attenuate)
change signal bias or offset value
linearization: straight line approximation of the sensor response
conversions: e.g. change in R seen as a change in V
signal transmission: transport signals
filtering
impedance match between sensor and signal conditioning circuit and/or load
sensor loading by signal conditioning circuit
signal conditioning circuit loaded by process controller input
passive circuits
I R1
voltage divider + +
V1 R2
V1 R2 V2 V2 = R2 I = R2 = V1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
- -
I
current divider +
I1 I2 I
1 1 R1 R2
V + I
R1 R2 R1 + R2 R1
R1 R2 I2 = V = = = I
- R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2
bridge
R1 R2
+ R3R2 - R1R4
Vs + Vb - Vb = Vs
-
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R3 R4

operational amplifier circuits

current-to-voltage converter voltage-to-current converter with floating load
i IN R1 v IN
v OUT = - R 1 i IN iL =
R1
R1 RL
+ 15 V v IN
- + 15 V
+ -
- 15 V +
- 15 V
voltage-to-current converter with floating load voltage-to-current converter with non-floating load
+ 15 V
+ R1 R1 R2 vL
O1
-
+ 15 V v IN
- 15 V v IN - iL =
iL = - R2
ZL R1 v IN vO
O1
+ ZL
+
+
v IN + 15 V
R1
- 15 V
- +
O2
R1 R1 -
+ 15 V
- - 15 V
O2
+
- 15 V

active diode circuits

super-diode
v
OUT
+ 15 V
v +
IN
v
OUT 1
-
1
- 15 V v
IN
15 V
opamp goes open-loop when diode is off resulting in a dead_time = = 30 µs while the opamp slews from
0. 5 V/ µs
- 15 V to 0 V for the diode to turn back on. If the bandwidth of the signals being handled is 3 kHz or less, then fine, if not,
then the
precision rectifier
R1 R2
v IN
v OUT
D1
+ 15 V R2
R1
D2
-
R3 v OUT v IN
+
- 15 V
is required. When the opamp’s output is positive, diode D2 will turn on and the opamp feedback path would be (D2, R2 ), so
the circuit works as an inverting amplifier. When the opamp’s output is negative, diode D1 will turn on and the opamp
feedback path would be (D1 ). For this case D2 is off and vOUT is zero.

nonideal frequency dependent operational amplifier model
opamp data book values using ±15 V supplies

Ao
description values
min typical max
input offset voltage 2 mV 3 mV
input bias current 80 nA 500 nA
input offset current 20 nA 200 nA
- 20 dB / decade
differential input resistance 300 kΩ 2 MΩ
output resistance 75 Ω 150 Ω
0 dB ω
output swing ±12 V ±14 V ωb ωt
V V
slew rate 0. 3 0. 5
µs µs typical opamp open loop gain function
unity gain frequency 0.4 MHz 1.0 MHz
DC voltage gain 90 dB 106 dB
V+ V-
- Vos
+ I+ = IB + 0.5 IOS
DC
& 2 Rcm Rd 2 Rcm
I- = IB - 0.5 IOS
input
model I+ I-
+ Vi -
-
frequency A Vi
+ Ao
& A =
output s
Ro + 1
model ωb
Vo
model using frequency depenent VVT
ω b in the above is a pole that comes with the opamp.

V+ V-
- Vos
+
2 Rcm Rd 2 Rcm
input
stage I+ I-
+ Vi -
+
gain g1 Vi Cb Rb Vb
stage -
output Ro g2 Vb
stage
Vo
model using frequency independent components
1
ωb = in the above is referred to as a “parasitic_pole” as it comes with the opamp, we did not design it in.
Cb Rb
Ao
A (opamp open loop gain)
Ri Rf - 20 dB / decade
Vi
-
A Vo A v (closed loop gain of circuit)
+
0 dB ω
ωb ωt
ω -3dB
opamp open and closed loop gains

Ri Rf Ri Rf
Vi Vi
- V-
A Vo Vo
+
Vo
Note Vo = − A V− or V− = − .
A
Define β to be the fraction of the opamp’s output fed back to the opamp’s input. For the above circuit
Ri 1 1
β = = =
Ri + Rf R + R R
1+ f
i f
Ri Ri
The gain around the feed-forward,feed-back loop is − A β .
For the above circuit start with a KCL at the opamps’ inverting input terminal
V− − Vi V− − Vo
+ =0
Ri Rf
Vi  1 1  V  1 1   Vo  Vo  1 1 1 1 
= + V− − o = + − − =− + + V
Ri  Ri Rf  Rf  Ri Rf   A  Rf   Ri Rf  A Rf  o
1 R R
− − f − f
V Ri Ri Ri ideal_gain
Av = o = = = =
Vi  1 1  1 1  f
R  1 1 1
+ + +1 +1 1 + 1+
 Ri Rf  A Rf  Ri A Aβ Aβ
Given

Ao A A ω ω
A= s → A ≈ so = o b = t
+1  s s
ωb  s = j ω >> j ω b ω b
then
Rf R R R R R
− − f − f − f − f − f
Ri Ri Ri Ri Ri R
Av = = = s = ≈ s = s i
1+
1
1+
1 +1 s  1  +1 +1
ω + 1+ ω b Ao β ω −3dB
Aβ Ao
β 1+ b ω b A o β  Ao β 
s Ao β
+1
ωb
Given ω t ≈ ω b ⋅ Ao , then ω −3dB ≈ ω t ⋅ β .
Note this ω −3dB is referred to as a “parasitic_pole”. We can adjust the value of this pole, but not control the fact that it is there.

The frequency dependent finite gain has an impact on the maximum stage gain in a multi-stage amplifier. There are different ways
the specifications may be supplied:
(1) response time: maximum time will be specified for the circuit to settle to the correct value
(2) filtering function: bandwidth specification
ft
Given the opamp’s open loop voltage gain is dropping off at 20 dB/decade, the approximation BWstage = holds.
Avstage
tst
If the maximum settling time is specified, then τ ≈ resulting in the multi-stage over-all bandwidth requirement of
5
1 5 ft ft ft f 2 π tst
f−3dB = = = → Av = = = t
2π τ 2 π tst Av f−3dB  5  5
 2 π tst 
Basically, the settling time specification drives the maximum overall voltage gain independent of the number of stages. However,
to meet that settling time specification the stage bandwidth must be higher to compensate for the - 3 dB loss at the corner in each
stage of the multistage amplifier. If we pad the bandwidth requirement by 10 ×, then the f−3dB corner loss per stage will be
 1
20 log right) = − 40. 0 m dB
 √

0. 12 + 12
rather than
 1 
20 log = − 3. 01 dB
 √
12 + 12 
As such, the standard claculation would be
tst 1 ft
τ = ; f−3dB = ; Avstage =
5 2π τ ceiling
10 ⋅ f−3dB

open-circuit time-constant method

When solving for the approximate − 3 dB low-pass frequency of a large/complex network,
+ replace all low-pass capacitors with an open-circuit
+ then for each low-pass capacitor,
dq
replace it with a = ∆ i source, where ∆ v is the voltaged across the ∆ i current source
dt
 ∆v 
solve for
 ∆i  i
 ∆v 
τ i = Ci
 ∆i  i
set it back to an open-circuit
i=n
+ τ lp ≈ Σ τi
i =1

xs xi = xs - xf = xs - xo β xo = xi A
+
Source Σ A Load
-
xf = xo β
β
1 1
x A A Aβ β 1
xo = A xi = A ( xs − β xo ) → ( 1 + A β ) xo = A xs → Af ≡ o = = = ≈
xs 1 + A β 1 + A β 1 1 β
1+
Aβ Aβ
 A  Aβ
xf = xo β = xs β = xs
 1+Aβ  1+Aβ
Aβ ( 1 + A β ) xs Aβ 1
xi = xs − xf = xs − xs = − xs = x → xs = (1 + A β ) xi
1+Aβ 1+Aβ 1+Aβ 1+Aβ s
gain desensitivity
d Af 1 dA d Af dA 1+Aβ 1 dA
= ; d Af = ; = =
d A ( 1 + A β )2 ( 1 + A β )2 Af (1 + A β)2 A 1 + A β A
bandwidth extension
dB magnitude
A
+ 20 dB/dec - 20 dB/dec
(1+Aβ)
Af
(1+Aβ) (1+Aβ)
f
fL fL fH fH
f f
fL
fLf = ; fHf = fH (1 + A β )
1+Aβ

Rsig Io
+ basic + basic +
+ Vsig Vi voltage Vo RL Isig Rsig current Vo RL
- amplifier amplifier
- - -
- Vf +
feedback If feedback Io
network network
Io
Rsig RL
1
+ Vo Q2 RL
2
+ A
Vsig -
- Io
Q1
R2 R1
R1 Vf R2 Isig Rsig
If
series-shunt topology shunt-series topology
Rsig Io
basic +
+ basic + Isig transresistance Vo RL
+ Vsig Vi transconductance Vo RL Rsig
- amplifier -
- amplifier -
- Vf +
If feedback
feedback Io
network
network
Io
RL RL
2 Rf
Q3 3
RL
1
Q2 Io -
Rsig Vsig A
Q1 α3 Isig = + Vo
Rf Rsig
+ Vf Rsig
Vsig
-
RE RE
1 3
series-series topology shunt-shunt topology

voltage mixing, voltage sampling current mixing, current sampling
Is Ro Is Ii Io
+ + + +
+ V + A A Ii
- s Vi Ri
- V Vo Is Vi Ri Ro Vo
i
- - - -
Rif Rof Rif Rof

+ +
+
V
f β Vo Vo β Io Io
- If
- -
Vs Vs V (1 + A β ) Vi Vs Vi Ii Ri Ii Ri Ri
Rif = = = s Ri = Ri = (1 + A β ) Ri Rif = = = = =
Is Vi / Ri Vi Vi Is Is Is (1 + A β ) Ii 1 + A β
Vs = 0 → Vi = − β Vo Is = 0 → Ii = − β Io
Vo Vo Vo Ro Vo ( Io − A Ii ) Ro Io − A ( − β Io )
Rof = = = = Rof = = = Ro = (1 + A β ) Ro
Io Vo − A Vi Vo − A ( − β Vo ) 1+Aβ Io Io Io
Ro Ro
voltage mixing, current sampling current mixing, voltage sampling
Is Io Is Ii Ro
+ + + +
+ V +
s Vi Ri A Vi Ro Vo Is Vi Ri A Ii V
- - o
- - - -
Rif Rof Rif Rof

+ +
+
V
f β Io Io β Vo Vo
- If
- -
Vs Vs V (1 + A β ) Vi Vs Vi Ii Ri Ii Ri Ri
Rif = = = s Ri = Ri = (1 + A β ) Ri Rif = = = = =
Is Vi / Ri Vi Vi Is Is Is (1 + A β ) Ii 1 + A β
Vs = 0 → Vi = − β Io Is = 0 → Ii = − β Vo
Vo ( Io − A Vi ) Ro Io − A ( − β Io ) Vo Vo Vo Ro
Rof = = = Ro = (1 + A β ) Ro Rof = = = =
Io Io Io Io Vo − A Ii Vo − A ( − β Vo ) 1+Aβ
Ro Ro

summary for feedback systems

general
1
xo A β 1
Af ≡ = = ≈
xs 1 + A β 1 β
1+
Aβ
bandwidth increases by 1 + A β as gain decreases by 1 + A β .
voltage mixing, voltage sampling (voltage amplifier)
Rif = (1 + A β ) Ri
1
Rof = Ro
1+Aβ
current mixing, current sampling (current amplifier)
1
Rif = R
1+Aβ i
Rof = (1 + A β ) Ro
voltage mixing, current sampling (transconductance amplifier)
Rif = (1 + A β ) Ri
Rof = (1 + A β ) Ro
current mixing, voltage sampling (transresistance amplifier)
1
Rif = R
1+Aβ i
1
Rof = Ro
1+Aβ

Fourier Series
given
f(t) = f( t + n T ) n = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, . . .
N N
= ao +
n=1
Σ bn sin( n ω o t )
Σ an cos( n ω o t ) + n=1
N
= co + Σ cn cos( n ω o t
n=1
+ θn )
then
symmetry Fourier coefficients
odd function an = 0 for all n
T/2
4
f(t) = − f(−t) bn =
T ∫ f(t) sin( n ω o t ) dt
0
T/2
4
even function an =
T ∫ f(t) cos( n ω o t ) dt
0
f(t) = f(−t) bn = 0 for all n
half-wave symmetry a0 = 0
 T
f(t) = − f t + an = 0 for even n
 a
bn = 0 for even n
T/2
4
an =
T ∫ f(t) cos( n ω o t ) dt
0
for odd n
T/2
4
bn =
T ∫ f(t) sin( n ω o t ) dt
0
for odd n
4A ∞ 1
square wave with peak A and period T f(t) =
π
Σ
n=1 2 n − 1
sin( ( 2 n − 1 ) ω 0 t )
2A 4A ∞ 1
full-wave rectified with peak A and period T f(t) =
π
−
π
Σ 2 cos( n ω 0 t )
n=1 4 n − 1
A A ∞ sin( n ω o t)
saw-tooth wave with peak A and period T f(t) = − Σ
2 π n=1 n
A 4A ∞ 1
triangular wave with peak A and period T f(t) = − 2 Σ cos( ( 2 n − 1 ) ω 0 t )
2 π n=1 ( 2 n − 1 )2

large-signal vs small-signal
d vOUT
If ≤ SR = slew_rate for all frequencies of interest in the Fourier Series, then small signal analysis can be used (which
dt
assumes linear systems response). That is, if we can make the amplitude small enough, that above can be statisfied (avoiding
unacceptable harmonic distortion) small-signal analysis can be used, otherwise large signal operation occurs and the opamp’s slew
rate restricts the amplitude and/or frequency.
sine wave
d Vpk sin( ω t )
= ω Vpk cos( ω t ) ≤ ω Vpk ≤ SR = 0. 5 V/ µs
dt
triangular wave
Vpk T SR SR
SR = → Vpk = SR = → f=
T/4 4 4f 4 Vpk
V pk
0 t
T T 3T
4 2 V pk
4
slope =
- V pk T/4

analog signal-conditioning design guidelines

define the measurement objective
parameter
What is the nature of the measured variable: pressure, temperature, flow, level, voltage, current, resistance, ... ?
input range
What is the range of the measurement?
accuracy
What is the required measurement accuracy and/or resolution?
linearity
Is the measured output signal to be linear?
measurement noise
What is the noise level and frequency spectrum of the measurement environment?
select a sensor
parameter
What is the relationship between the sensor output and the measured variable: resistance, voltage, current, ... ?
transfer function
What is the relationship between the sensor output and the measured variable?
time response
What is the time response of the sensor: first-order time constant, second-order damping, frequency, ... ?
sensor output range
What is the range of the sensor parameter output for the given measurement range?
power requirement
What is the power specification of the sensor: resistive dissipation maximum, current draw, ... ?
design the analog signal-conditioning
parameter
What is the nature of the desired output: voltage, current, frequency, ... ?
circuit output range
What is the desired range of the output parameter?
input impedance
What input impedance should the signal-conditioning circuit present to the sensor?
output impedance
What output impedance should the signal-conditioning circuit present to the output load circuit?
analog signal-conditioning tips
(a) If the input is a resistance change and a bridge or driver must be used, be sure to consider both the effect of output
voltage nonlinearity with resistance and the effect of current through the resistive sensor.
(b) For the opamp portion of the design, the easiest design approach is to develop an equation for the output versus input.
From this equation, it will be clear what types of circuits may be used. This equation represents the static transfer
function of the signal-conditioning.
(c) Always consider any possible loading of voltage sources by the signal-conditioning. Such loading is a direct error in
the measurement system.

Thermal Sensors
metal temperature versus temperature devices

energy bands
metal
The conduction and valence bands overlap so there are free electrons to conduct current independent of temperature.
semiconductor
There is a small energy gap between the conduction and valence bands so a small amount of energy is required for
electrons to make the jump and conduct current.
insulator
There is a very large energy gap between the conduction and valence bands so a very large amount of energy is
required for electrons to make the jump and conduct current.
resistance-temperature detector (RTD)
l
R(T) = ρ (T)
A
where
R = resistance to electric current (Ω)
ρ = resistivity (Ω ⋅ m)
l = length (m)
A = cross-sectional area (m2 )
T = temperature which is constant
temperature versus temperature approximation
ρ is a nonlinear function of temperature for most metals.
over a small enough temperature range we can linearize ρ vs T
R( T ) = R( To )  1 + α o ⋅ ∆T
 
where
R( T ) = approximation of R at temperature T
R( To ) = R at temperature To
∆T = T − To
α o = slope of R vs T curve at To
also use a quadratic approximation
R( T ) = R( To )  1 + α1 ⋅ ∆T + α 2 ⋅ ( ∆T )2 
 
where values of α o , α1 , and α 2 are available in tables for a given metal
resistance-temperature detectors (RTD)
∂ρ
sensitivity
∂T
response time is 0.5 s to 5 s for metal to stabilize at new T and is a function of thermal conductivity
RTD is a length of wire possibly a coil of wire to increase sensitivity
use a bridge with compensation lines to detect ∆R
bridge results in I2 R losses heating up the RTD changing R known as self-heating, as such to correct for this
P
∆T =
PD
where
∆T = temperature rise due to self-heating (°C)
P = power dissipated in RTD (W)

PD = dissipation constant (W/°C)

RTD have a range of - 180°C to 300°C
thermistors (semiconductors)
RTD resistance increases with temperature
thermistors resistance decreases with temperature
thermistor resistance is a highly nonlinear function of temperature
sensitivity: 10% per °C
construction: bulk semiconductor material doped to adjust resistance range
range
melting: less than 300°C
package: thermistor package material limits temperature range
nonlinear: - 80°C R > 3 MΩ
response time: 0.5 s to 10 s or higher depending on the package material
signal conditioning: must keep power dissipation low
self-heating: 1 mW/°C to 10 mW/°C
thermocouples (TC)
RTD and themistors are passive devices
thermocouples are active devices, emf varies with temperature
thermoelectric devices with emf approximately linear in T
based on electron movement vs temperature dependent on metal type
sensitivity: 6 µV/°C to 50 µV/°C
range: - 150°C to 1765°C
response time:
10 s to 20 s for large industrial units
10 ms to 20 ms for small-gauge wire units
signal conditioning:
voltage amplification required as measured voltage ˜ 50 mV
noise issues given high impedance → differential amplifier required
reference compensation
controlled temperature reference block
reference compensation circuits
software reference correction
noise issues
low voltage, high impedance, ... in noisy industrial environment
use twisted pair in a grounded metal or foil sheath
measurement junction is 0 V (ground)
instrumentation amplifier with high common-mode rejection
other thermal sensors

bimetal strips
metals expand differing amounts for the same temperature
bimetallic sensor as an on/off switch
gas thermometers
if volume constant, pressure varies with temperature

vapour-pressure thermometers
converts temperature measurement into pressure measurement
liquid-expansion thermometers
use liquid expansion with temperature in a small column to measure temperature
V( T ) = V( To )  1 + β ⋅ ∆T
 
where
V( T ) = volume at temperature T
V( To ) = volume at temperature To
∆T = T − To
β = volume thermal expansion coefficient
solid-state temperature sensors

range: - 50°C to 150°C
response time: 1 s to 5 s
dissipation constant: 2 mW/°C to 20 mW/°C
accurate to 1°C
application; reference temperature sensor for thermocouples
thermal sensor system design consideration

1. identify the nature of the measurement
2. identify the required output signal
3. select an appropriate sensor
4. design the required signal conditioning

Mechanical Sensors
dispacement, location, position sensors

potentiometric sensors
linear position translated into resistance and then into a voltage
problems with: wear, electronic noise, limited resolution
capacitive sensors
A
C = εo εr
d
where
ε o = permittivity of free space = 8.85 pF/m
ε r = relative permittivity of dielectric (dielectric constant K)
A = plate common area
d = plate separation
can vary C by
1. vary d
2. vary A
3. vary ε r
use an impedance bridge to measure ∆C
inductive sensors
N2 A
L = µo µ r
d
where
µ o = permeability of free space
µ r = relative permeability of core
N = number of turns
A = cross sectional area
d = distance
example: eddy current inspection instrument
variable-reluctance sensors
LVDT: linear variable differential transformer
level sensors
mechanical level sensors
float and linkage to a variable R or LVDT
electrical level sensors
use liquid level to vary capacitor dielectric
ultrasonic level sensors
transmit and receive the reflection
use length of time from transmit to receive as a gauge of distance to surface level

strain sensors
terms
deformation: change of shape/dimension due to force
stress: applied force
strain: resulting deformation
tensile stress-strain
F
tensile stress =
A
where
F = applied force in N
A = cross-sectional area of sample in m2
tensile stress: elongate or pull apart
∆l
tensile strain =
l
where
∆l = change in length in m
l = original length in m
compression stress-strain
F
compression stress =
A
where
compression stress: compress or push together
∆l
compression strain =
l
where
∆l = change in length in m
l = original length in m
shear stress-strain
F
shear stress =
A
where
shear stress: push/pull perpendicular
∆x
shear strain =
l
where
∆x = deformation in m
l = original width of sample in m
stress-strain curve
stress F/A
E= =
strain ∆l/l
where E is the modulus of elasticity for tensile or compression in N/m2

stress F/A
M= =
strain ∆x/l
where M is the modulus of elasticity for shear in N/m2
strain gauge principles
lo
Ro = ρ
Ao
where
Ro = sample resistance in Ω
ρ = sample resistivity in Ω ⋅ m
lo = length in m
Ao = cross-sectional area in m2
V = lo Ao is volume in m3
V = lo Ao = ( lo + ∆l) ( Ao − ∆A)
l + ∆l l  ∆l 
R=ρ o ≈ ρ o 1+2
Ao − ∆A Ao  lo 
∆l
∆R ≈ 2 Ro
lo
∆l 1 mm
example: Rnom = 120 Ω, = , ∆R = 0. 24 Ω
lo m
temperature effects
R( T ) = R( To )  1 + α o ⋅ ∆T
 
∆RT = Ro ⋅ α o ⋅ ∆T
where
∆RT = resistance change due to ∆T
α o = 0.004/°C
∆T = change in temperature
R( To ) = nominal R at reference temperature T
example: Rnom = 120 Ω, α o = 0.004/°C, ∆T = 1°C, ∆RT = 0.48 Ω
∆RT can be double ∆R due to strain
metal strain gauges
∆R/R ∆R/R fractional change in resistance
Gauge Factor = GF = = =
strain ∆l/l fractional change in length
GF tends to be around 2 but could go as high as 10
Rnom = { 60, 120, 240, 350, 500, 1000 } Ω, typically Rnom = 120 Ω
use active and dummy strain gauge for temperature compensation bridge measurement
one-arm bridge
V ∆l
∆V = − s GF
4 l
two-arm bridge
V ∆l
∆V = − s GF
2 l
four-arm bridge
V ∆l
∆V = − s GF
1 l
semiconductor strain gauges
higher (negative) gauge factor but highly nonlinear

signal conditioning uses a bridge but still must correct nonlinearity
motion sensors
t t
d x(t) d v(t) d2 x(t)
v(t) =
dt
→ a(t) =
dt
=
dt2
→ v(t) = v(0) + ∫ a(t) dt
0
→ x(t) = x(0) + ∫ v(t) dt
0
g ≈ 9.8 m/s = acceleration of gravity

spring-mass system
k
m ⋅ a = k ⋅ ∆x → a= ⋅ ∆x
m
where
k = spring constant in N/m
∆x = spring extension in m
m = mass in kg
a = acceleration in m/s2
natural frequency and damping

√
1 k
fN =
2π m
where
fN = natural frequency in Hz
k = spring constant in N/m
m = seismic mass in kg
giving rise to
XT(t) = Xo e− α t sin( 2π ⋅ fN ⋅ t )
where
XT(t) = transient mass position
α = damping coefficient
vibration effects
m ⋅ Xo 2 fN
a(t) = − ω 2 ⋅ Xo ⋅ sin(ω t) ; ∆X = − ω sin(ω t) ; valid up to
k 2. 5
accelerometers
potentiometric: spring mass attached to wiper arm of potentiometer (30 Hz)
LVDT: LVDT core itself is the seismic mass (80 Hz)
variable reluctance: geophone (100 Hz)
piezoelectric: spring mass attached to piezoelectric crystal (5 kHz) but output in millivolt range
pressure sensors
terms
F  N
pressure = force per unit area
A  m2 
statics pressure: fluid is not moving
dynamic pressure: fluid is in motion
N
pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = 1 2
m
1 psi ≈ 6.895 kPa

atmosphere (atm) 1 atm = 101. 325 kPa ≈ 14. 7 psi

gauge pressure
pg = pabs − pat
where
pg - gauge pressure
pabs = absolute pressure
pat = atmospheric pressure
head pressure
p = ρ ⋅ g⋅ h
where
p = pressure in Pa
kg
ρ = density in 3
m m
g = acceleration due to gravity (9. 8 2 )
s
h = depth in liquid in m
or
p = ρw ⋅ h
where
lb
p = pressure in
ft2
lb
ρ w = weight density in 3
ft
h = depth in ft
sensor types for p > 1 atmosphere
diaphragm pressure sensors
 
F = p2 − p1 ⋅ A
 
Bellows pressure sensors
Bourdon tube
solid-state pressure sensors
mV
sensitivity 10 to 100
kPa
response time 10 ms (10% to 90% response time)
linear voltage vs pressure
3-terminals: DC power, ground, sensor output voltage
sensor types for p < 1 atmosphere
Pirani gauge
thermocouple
ionization gauge
range: 10−3 atm to 10−13 atm
flow sensors
sensor types
solid flow
WR
Q=
L

where
kg lb
Q = flow in or
min min
W = weight of material on section L in kg or lb
m ft
R = conveyor speed in of
min min
L = length of weighing platform in m or ft
liquid flow
Q
V=
A
where
V = flow velocity
Q = volume flow rate
A = cross-sectional area
and
F = ρ ⋅Q
where
F = mass or weight flow rate
ρ = mass density or weight density
restriction flow sensors
Q = K√∆p
where
K = a constant for the pipe and liquid type
∆p = drop in pressure across the restriction
pitot tube
obstruction flow sensors
magnetic flow meter

Optical Sensors
terms
speed of propagation
c=λf
where
c = 2. 998 ⋅ 108 m/s ≈ 3 ⋅ 108 m/s in a vacuum
λ = wave length in m
f = frequency in Hz
index of refraction
c
n=
v
where
v = velocity of EM in a given material in m/s
photon
h⋅c
Wp = h ⋅ f =
λ
where
Planck’s constant h = 6. 63 ⋅ 10−34 J ⋅ s
Wp = photon energy in J
1 eV = 1. 602 ⋅ 10−19 J
light intensity
P
I=
A
where
W
I = intensity in
m2
P = power
A = beam cross-sectional area in m2
divergence
θ angle the beam diverges
maximum divergence
P
I=
4 π R2
where
R = radius of sphere
photodetectors
photoconductive detectors
h⋅c h⋅c
Ep = = ∆Wg → λ max =
λ max ∆Wg
where
λ max = maximum detectable radiation wave length in m
photovoltaic detectors
Vc = V0 ln ( 1 + IR )
where

Vc = open-circuit cell voltage

V0 = material constant
IR = light intensity
Isc varies linearly with light intensity
photodiode detectors
phototransistors
photoemissive detectors
photomultiplier tube
gains of 105 to 107
pyrometry
total radiation
E α T4
E in J/s per unit area or w/m2
T temperature in K
wide band for noncontact temperature measurement
optical sources
LASER = light amplification by stimulated emission radiation

large signal and small signal concept

vDS = VDS + vds
iDS = IDS + ids
where
vDS is the time domain total drain-to-source voltage
VDS is the time domain DC drain-to-source voltage
vds is the time domain small-signal drain-to-source voltage
Vds is the frequency domain small-signal drain-to-source voltage
and
iDS is the time domain total drain-to-source current
IDS is the time domain DC drain-to-source current
ids is the time domain small-signal drain-to-source current
Ids is the frequency domain small-signal drain-to-source current
Taylor series expansion of the nonlinear circuit

The "DC" circuit is the 0th term of the Taylor series expansion.
The "ac" circuit or small-signal circuit is the 1st term of the Taylor series expansion.
The signal voltage is assumed small enough that the balance of the Taylor series components are approximately zero.
We start with a nonlinear circuit model and replace it with the sum of two separate circuit models, the "DC" circuit model plus the
"ac" circuit model. The solution of the "DC" circuit model supplies the parameter values for the "ac" (small-signal) model.
DC ac
nonlinear linear
= nonlinear +
circuit circuit
circuit
We solve the DC (nonlinear) circuit which supplies the ac (linear) circuit component values. We then solve the ac (linear) circuit many times.

MOS models, biasing, negative feedback

D D S S
G B G G B G
S S D D
4-terminal NMOS symbol 3-terminal NMOS symbol 4-terminal PMOS symbol 3-terminal PMOS symbol
mode voltage criteria drain current

cut-off vGS < Vt iD = 0
W 1 
triode vGS > Vt and vDS < vGS − Vt = vOV , vGD > Vt iD = µ n Cox ( vGS − Vt ) vDS − v2DS
L  2 
1 W
saturation vGS > Vt and vDS > vGS − Vt = vOV , vGD < Vt iD = µ n Cox ( vGS − Vt )2 ( 1 + λ vDS )
2 L
ε ox  F 
Cox = is the gate oxide capacitance per unit area
tox  m 
2
F
ε ox   is the permitivity of silicon dioxide
 m
tox [ m] is the oxide thickness
µ n is the electron mobility
W [ m] is the gate width
L [ m] is the gate length
1
λ= where VA is the Early voltage
VA
kn′ = µ n Cox
W
kn = µ n Cox
L
vDS 1
rDS = = for vDS << 2 ( vGS − Vt )
iDS W
µ n Cox ( vGS − Vt )
L
Use the 3-terminal model when the source is connected to supply (rail) voltage, otherwise use the 4-terminal model.

CMOS inverter
VDD VDD VDD VDD
VDD
PU RON ROFF
p p
vI vO vI vO vI vO vI vO
PD ROFF RON
n n
vO
NML NMH VOH = output high level
VDD
VOL = output low level
VOH
VIH = max input for high output
-1
VIL = min input for low output
+ +
vI NM = noise margin
vO
- - -1 NM = VOH - VIH
H
VOL NML = VIL - VOL
vI
VOL VIL VIH VOH
vI
tPHL tPLH
100%
50%
tPHL = high-to-low propagation delay
0% t
tPLH = low-to-high propagation delay
vO
tr = 10% to 90% rise time
100% tf = 90% to 10% fall time

90%
50%
10%
0% t
tf tr

vO R3
VDD R1 R2 R4 R5
VDD region QN QP
VDD R1 cut-off triode

+ Vt
2
vI vO R2 saturation triode
VDD
2 R3 saturation saturation
VDD
- Vt R4 triode saturation
2
R5 triode cut-off
0 vI
0 Vt VDD VDD
2
iD iD
VDD - Vt
vGS = VDD vSG = VDD
n p
KCL satisfied KCL satisfied
vSG = 0 vGS
p n = 0
vO vO
VDD VDD
output low output high
  1 2
for vO ≤ vI − Vtn iDn = kn v − Vtn vO − vO
 I  2 
2
1  
for vO ≥ vI − Vtn iDn = k v − Vtn
2 n I 
  1 
for vO ≥ vI +  Vtp  iDp = kp VDD − vI −  Vtp  ( VDD − vO ) − ( VDD − vO )2
      2 
2
1  
for vO ≤ vI +  Vtp  iDp = k V − vI −  Vtp 
  2 p  DD   
...
1 1
NMH = VOH − VIH = ( 3 VDD − 2Vt ) ; NML = VIL − VOL = ( 3 VDD − 2Vt )
8 8

iD
3
VDD 4
vGS = VDD
n
2
vI vO
C
5
1
vSG = 0
p
vO
VDD VDD
2 VDD - Vt
at t = 0+ , vI goes from 0 to VDD and the NMOS device goes from point 1 to point 2
from point 2 to point 3 the NMOS device is operating in saturation region
from point 3 to point 4 to point 5 the NMOS device is operating in the triode region
That is, from point 2 to point 3 the capacitor is discharged with a constant current, while from point 3 to point 5 the capacitor dis-
charge current is decreasing with the output voltage.
1. 6 C 1. 6 C
vt = 0. 2 VDD → tPHL = and tPLH =
kn VDD kp VDD
Energy to charge/discharge capacitor
dq dv dv
Q = CV → =C → iDn = − C
dt dt dt
1 1
C V2DD to charge C to VDD ; C V2DD to discharge C to 0 → Pdynamic = f C V2DD
2 2

V1
C1 R1
V2
C2 R2
1
V2 G2 + s C2
=
V1 1 1
+
G1 + s C1 G2 + s C2
G1 + s C1
=
G1 + s C1 + G2 + s C2
G1 + s C1
=
( G1 + G2 ) + s ( C1 + C2 )
C
1+s 1
G1 G1
=
G1 + G2 C1 + C2
1+s
G1 + G2
C1 C1 + C2
if = then
G1 G1 + G2
1
V2 G1 R1R2
= = =
V1 G1 + G2 1 1 R2 + R1
+
R1 R2

MOS current mirrors
a way to deal with MOSFET parameter variation
iD iD -1
ID RS
ID
VG
ID
1
RS ID
1
ID
2
v ID v
GS 2 GS
V GS VG
V DD V DD V DD
I REF V DD
RD RD
R REF I REF
R REF
Q2 Q1
RG ID RG
Q2 Q1
V SS V SS V SS
(W/L)2 V SS V SS
I D = I REF
2 (W/L)
1

channel length modulation effect
Output current is impacted by the output voltage.
V DD
IO
I REF R IO 1/r o
2
I REF
VO
Q1 Q2
+
V GS VO
- V OV V GS V
V DS DS2
1
 W  W
 L 2  VDS2 − VDS1   L 2  V − VGS 
IO = ⋅ IREF ⋅ 1 + = ⋅ IREF ⋅ 1 + O
 
W  VA2   
W  VA2 
 L 1  L 1
The channel length modulation effect has minimal impact on the DC solution. As such, it is normally ignored when designing the
bias current network. However, the channel length modulation effect supplies the “ac” load when used to bias an amplifier.

multiple sourcing and sinking currents
V DD V DD V DD
Q1 Q3 Q5
I3 I5
I REF R
I4 I6
Q2 Q4 Q6
V SS V SS V SS
Q3 , Q5 source current.
 W  W
 L 3  VSD3 − VSG1   L 3
I3 = ⋅ IREF ⋅ 1 + ≈ ⋅ IREF
 
W  VA3   W
 L 1  L 1
 W  W
 L 5  VSD5 − VSG1   L 5
I5 = ⋅ IREF ⋅ 1 + ≈ ⋅ IREF
 W  VA5   W
 L 1  L 1
Q4 , Q6 sink current.
 W  W
 L 4  VDS4 − VGS2   L 4
I4 = ⋅ IREF ⋅ 1 + ≈ ⋅ IREF
 W  VA4   W
 L 2  L 2
 W  W
 L 6  VDS6 − VGS2   L 6
I6 = ⋅ IREF ⋅ 1 + ≈ ⋅ IREF
 W  VA6   W
 L 2  L 2

MOS small signal models
low frequency MOS model in satuartion region

2 2
1 1   1   1 2  vgs 2
iD = kn ( vGS − Vt )2 = kn VGS + vgs − Vt = kn VOV + vgs = kn VOV 1+
2 2   2   2  VOV 
 vgs 2  vgs  vgs  

2
iD = ID 1 + = ID  1 + 2 + 
 VOV  VOV  VOV  

2
 vgs  vgs
small-signal: << 2 or vgs << 2 VOV
 VOV  VOV
 vgs  I 2 ID ID
iD ≈ ID 1 + 2 = ID + 2 D vgs = ID + gm vgs = ID + id → gm = =
 VOV  VOV VOV  OV 
V
 2 
vDS = VDD − iD RD = VDD − ( ID + id ) RD = VDD − ID RD − id RD = VDS + vds

vds
vds = − id RD = − gm RD vgs → Av = = − gm RD
vgs

1 2  vDS  d iD  ID 1
iD = kn vOV 1+ → go =  = → ro =
2   VA   d vDS   VA  go
 Q
D
rg = ∞ +
id
i
rd = ro
G + D
+
ro v ds
v gs g m v gs G +
ro v ds 1
v gs i 1
S
- -
S
gm rs =
S - - gm
S

∂ iD 
gmb = 
∂ vBS  vGS = VGS
 vDS = VDS
id
G B
+ + +
vgs vds gm vgs ro gmb vbs vbs
- - -
S S

MOSFET high-frequency model

Refer to page 33 for the shape and size of the channel region, as well as, the pn junction capacitors.
triode region (channel from source to drain):
1
Cgs = Cgd = W L Cox
2
saturation region (channel does not reach the drain):
2
Cgs = W L Cox
3
Cgd = 0
cut-off region (no channel region):
Cgs = Cgd = 0
Cgb = W L Cox
overlap capacitance:
Cov = W Lov Cox ; 0. 05 L ≤ Lov ≤ 0. 1 L
L ov L ov
S G D
n+ n+
p-sub
PN junction capacitance:
Csbo
Csb = 1
 VSB  2
1+
 Vφ 
Cdbo
Cdb = 1
 VSB  2
1+
 Vφ 
C gd
G D
+ +
Ii V gs C gs g m V gs r o V ds I o = g m V gs - s C gdV gs ≈ g m V gs
- -
S S
Ii Ii Io gm
Vgs = ; Io ≈ gm Vgs = gm ; =
s ( Cgs + Cgd ) s ( Cgs + Cgd ) Ii s ( Cgs + Cgd )
I  gm gm
for  o  = 1 = → fT =
 Ii  2 π fT ( Cgs + Cgd ) 2 π ( Cgs + Cgd )

MOS transistor active load amplifiers
low frequency common source configuration input = vgs , output = vds so source is in common to input and output ports.
V DD V DD
Q3 Q2 Q3 Q2
I REF R I REF R
vO VO
vI Q1 Q1
V SS V SS
original circuit DC circuit
S3 S3 S2 S2
+ + + +
v sd 3 ro g v v sg v sg g m v sg 2 ro v sd
3 m 3 sg 3 3 2 2 2 2
- - - -
D3 G3 G2 D2
G1 D1
vi + + vo
v gs g m v gs 1 ro v ds
1 1 1 1
- -
S1 S1
ac circuit

process linking DC and ac circuits

(1) solve the DC circuit for: ID1 , ID2 , ID3 , VOV1 , VOV2 , VOV3 , VDS1 , VSD2 , VSD3 .
(2) Using these DC values, solve for small signal: gm1 , gm2 , gm3 , ro1 , ro2 , ro3 .
(3) solve the ac circuit for: low frequency voltage gain, input resistance, output resistance, (amplifier’s - 3 dB frequency).
low frequency common source configuration

VDD
Q3 Q2
ro R
IREF out
R 2
vo
vO vi
+
vI Q1 vgs gm vgs ro 1
Rin 1 1 1
-
VSS
iD iD
1
2 1/ro
2
IREF
vSD vDS
V VSG 2 vO vO VDD
1
OV2 2
min max
assume Q2 and Q3 are matched ; vOmax = VDD − | VOV2 | ; vOmin = VOV1
1
 2
| VA1 | | VA2 | 2 ⋅ ID
ro1 = ; ro2 = ; VOV =  ; Rin = ∞ ; Rout = ro1 || ro2
IREF IREF  W
 µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ L 
vo  
Av = = − gm1 ⋅ ro1 || ro2
vi  

high frequency common source configuration (less Cdb1 , Csb1 , Cdb2 & Csb2 )
RL is the input impedance of the next amplifier stage. CL is the input capatiance of the next amplifier stage.
V DD V DD
Q3 Q2 Q3 Q2
I REF R I REF R
vO VO
R sig R sig
Q1 RL CL Q1 RL
+
- v sig
V SS V SS
original circuit DC circuit
S3 S3 S2 S2
+ + + +
v sd3 ro g m v sg3 C gs v sg3 v sg2 C gs g m v sg2 ro v sd
3 3 2 2 2
3 2
- - - -
D3 C gd G3 G2 C gd D2
3 2
R sig G1 C gd1 D1
+ + vo
v sig + C gs g m v gs1 ro v ds RL CL
- v gs1 1 1 1 1
- -
S1 S1
ac circuit

high frequency common source configuration (including Cdb1 & Cdb2 )
V DD
Q3 Q2
I REF R
C gd ro C db
R sig C gd 2 2 2
vO 1 Vo
R sig +
Q1 V sig + v gs C gs g m1 v gs1 ro RL C db CL
RL CL - 1 1 1 1
+ -
- V sig
V SS
original circuit high frequnecy small-signal circuit
R sig Vx Ix Vx Vx
r gs = r gd1 = rd =
1 Ix R sig Ix 1 Ix
+
+ + - Vx + R L, V x
0 Ix
Vx Ix g m v gs R L,
v gs -
- 1 1 1
resistance seen by C gs resistance seen by C gd resistance seen by C d

1 1 1
Keep in mind, RL for these amplifiers is either ∞ or on the order of ro . These amplifiers are not used to drive low impadance
loads.
Vo  
AM = = − gm1 ⋅ ro1 || ro2 || RL = − gm1 ⋅ RL′
Vsig  
define
Cd1 = Cgd2 + Cdb1 + Cdb2 + CL
using the open-circuit time constant method (see page 101)
τ H = Cgs1 rgs1 + Cgd1 rgd1 + Cd1 rd1
dq Vx
To calculate a capactior’s charging/discharging resistance, replace the capacitor with a source (current source), and solve .
dt Ix
The Cgs1 rgs1 and Cd1 rd1 terms are straight forward, as one side of the capacitor in each case is connected to “ac” ground. Calculating
their charging/discharging resistance is shown in the above diagram.

rgs1 = Rsig ; rd1 = RL′

The Cgd1 rgd1 term requires more work as the Cgd1 capacitor is between in the input and output terminals. As such, it will take more
work to determine the Cgd1 charging/discharging resistance rgd1 .
We start by replacing the Cgd1 with a current source Ix (as shown in the above diagram) and then calculate the voltage across it Vx .
V
Given this, rgd1 = x
Ix
The voltage on the left side of Cgd1 is

vgs1 = − ix Rsig
The voltage on the right side of Cgd1 requires more work.
        
ids1 = gm1 vgs1 = gm1 − ix Rsig ; vds1 = ix − ids1 RL′ = ix − − gm1 ix Rsig RL′ = ix RL′ + gm1 Rsig RL′
        
Given the voltage on both side of Cgd1
         
vx = vdg1 = vds1 − vgs1 = ix RL′ + gm1 Rsig RL′ − − ix Rsig = ix RL′ + gm1 Rsig RL′ + Rsig = ix 1 + gm1 RL′ Rsig + RL′
         
Given we have both Vx and Ix
vx  
rgd1 = = 1 + gm1 RL′ Rsig + RL′
ix  
Note this effective resistance rgd1 is a function of the amplifier stage gain. This is going to make the effect of the capacitor much larger than
Cgd1 . This is know as the “Miller Effect”.
We can now insert this into the τ H equation.

τ H = Cgs1 rgs1 + Cgd1 rgd1 + Cd1 rd1
    
= Cgs1 Rsig + Cgd1 1 + gm RL′ Rsig + RL′ + Cd1 RL′
    
    
= Cgs1 + Cgd1 1 + gm RL′ Rsig + Cgd1 + Cgd2 + Cdb1 + Cdb2 + CL RL′
    
Showing τ H as a function of Rsig and RL′.
1 1
ω −3dB = = 2 π f−3dB → f−3dB =
τH 2 π τH

low frequency common gate configuration input = vsg , output = vdg so gate is in common to input and output ports.
VDD
ro R
2 out
Q3 Q2 vo
+ +
IREF vgs gm1 vgs1 ro gmb vbs vbs
R Rsig 1 1 1 1 1
- vi -
vO +
VBIAS Q1 - Vsig
Rin
Rsig
+ VSS
+ vI
- Vsig - ro 2 R
out
vo
( gm + gmb ) vi ro 1
1 1
Rsig
+
+ vi
- Vsig
Rin -
Note that vgs1 = − vi , as such the arrow on the voltage-controlled-current-source is flipped and when we make it a function of vi rather
than vgs1 .
Av ≈ ( gm1 + gmb1 ) ( ro1 || ro2 )
ro1 + ro2 2
Rin = ≈
1 + ( gm1 + gmb1 ) ro1 ( gm1 + gmb1 )

vo     
Rout = = ro1 + 1 + ( gm1 + gmb1 ) ro1 Rsig || ro2 ≈ ro2
io     
 vsig = 0
 
vi  v0 
Ri = =∞ ; Ro = = ro1 || ro2
ii  i0 
 RL = ∞  vi = 0

high frequency common gate configuration

V DD
Q3 Q2
I REF R
vO
V BIAS Q1
RL CL
R sig
+ V SS
+ vI
- V sig
-
C gd ro C db
2 2 2
Vo
C gd i C db RL CL
1 1
r o1
i
1
C gs
1 ( g m + g mb )
1 1
R sig
C sb
1
+
V sig
-
using the open-circuit time constant method
    
τ H = Cgs1 + Csb1 Rsig || Rin + Cgd1 + Cgd2 + Cdb2 + Cdb1 + CL ( Rout || RL )
    
 
= Cs1 Rsig || Rin + Cd1 ( Rout || RL )
 

low frequency cascode configuration

G4 G3 G2 G1
D4 S4, S3 D3 B3 , B4 B1 , B2 D2 S2 , D1 S1
p+ p+ p+ n+ p+ n+ n+ n+
n-well p-sub
VDD
ro 3
Q4 Q3 R
out
R
out 3
vo
Rout
IREF R 2
vO
( gm + gmb ) vi ro
2 2 2 2
VBIAS Q2
Rsig Rin
vi 2
Q1 2
+ Rsig R
+ vi out 1
Vsig vI
- - +
V VSS + vgs gm vgs ro
- Vsig 1 1 1 1
GS 1
-
Rin
  ro2 + ro3 2
Rout3 = ro3 ; Rout2 = ro2 + ( gm2 + gmb2 ) ro2 ro1 ; Rin2 = ≈
  1 + ( gm2 + gmb2 ) ro2 gm2 + gmb2
2 2
Rout1 = ro1 ; rd1 = Rout1 || Rin2 ≈ ro1 || ≈ ; Rin = ∞
gm2 + gmb2 gm2 + gmb2
 
Rout = Rout3 || Rout2 = ro3 || ro2 + gm2 ro2 ro1 ≈ ro3
 
    
Av ≈ − gm1 r + gm2 ro2 ro1 || ro3 ≈ − gm1 ro3
  o2    
2 2 gm1 2 gm
Av1 = − gm1 rd1 ≈ − gm1 ≈− ≈− = −1. 67
gm2 + gmb2 1. 2 gm2 1. 2 gm

high frequency cascode configuration
V DD
Q4 Q3 C gd ro C db
3 3 3
Vo
I REF R C gd C db CL
i 2
RL
2
vO ro
2
i
1
V BIAS Q2 RL CL C gs
2 ( g m + g mb )
2 2
R sig R sig C gd
1
Q1 C sb
+ + 2
+ vI + v gs
V sig V sig C gs g m v gs ro C db
- - - 1 1 1 1 1 1
V SS -
   
τ H = Cgs1 rgs1 + Cgd1 rgd1 + Cgs2 + Cdb1 + Csb2 rd1 + CL + Cdb2 + Cgd2 + Cgd3 + Cdb3 ( Rout || RL )
   
= Cgs1 rgs1 + Cgd1 rgd1 + Cd1 rd1 + Cd2 ( Rout || RL )
  
= Cgs1 Rsig + Cgd1 1 + gm1 rd1 Rsig + rd1 + Cd1 rd1 + Cd2 ( Rout || RL )
  
    
= Rsig Cgs1 + Cgd1 1 + gm1 rd1 + rd1 Cgd1 + Cd1 + ( Rout || RL ) Cd2
    
  2 gm1  2  
≈ Rsig Cgs1 + Cgd1 1 + + Cgd1 + Cd1 + ( Rout || RL ) Cd2
  gm2 + gmb2  gm2 + gmb2  
if Rsig ≈ Rout and RL ≈ ∞ then
  2 gm1  2  
τ H = Rout Cgs1 + Cgd1 1 + + Cgd1 + Cd1 + ( Rout || ∞) Cd2
  gm2 + gmb2  gm2 + gmb2  
  2 gm1   2  
= Rout Cgs1 + Cgd1 1 + + Cd2 + C + Cd1
  gm2 + gmb2   gm2 + gmb2  gd1 
fT = fH AvDC

low frequency common drain (source follower) configuration

input = vgd , output = vsd so drain is in common to input and output ports.
V DD
R sig R in
Q1
i r o1
+ R sig
- v sig
V SS i
+ 1
- v sig
vO ( g m + g mb )
1 1
RL
I REF R vo
ro RL
2
Q3 Q2
R
out
V SS V SS
R sig
+
+ v gs g m v gs g mb v bs ro
- v sig 1 1 1 1 1 1
- vo
-
ro v bs RL
1
2 +
Note for a test current into the source terminal of Q1 (output terminal of the amplifier), vgs1 = vbs1 , so the gm1 and gmb1 controlled current
sources are in parallel. However, for a test voltage on the gate terminal of Q1 (input terminal of the amplifier), vg1 = vgs1 − vbs1 . As such,
some of the current from gm1 vgs1 flows through gmb1 vbs1 , so the gmb1 controlled current source is in parallel with RL′ as a negative re-
sistance given vs1 = − vbs1 .
1
Rin = ∞ ; Rout ≈ ; RL′ ≈ RL || ro1 || ro2
gm1 + gmb1
 1 
R ′−
 L gmb1  RL′
Av ≈ ≈ ≈1
 1  1
RL′ +
1
RL′ − +
 gmb1  gm1 gm1

high frequency common drain (source follower) configuration

V DD
R sig
Q1
C gd i r o1
+ R sig 1
- v sig
V SS i
+ 1
v sig C gs C sb
vO - 1 ( g m + g mb ) 1
1 1
RL CL
I REF R vo
C gd ro C db RL CL
2 2 2
Q3 Q2
V SS V SS
1 1
Rout = || r || r || RL ≈
gm1 + gmb1 o1 o2 gm1 + gmb1
R′L = ro1 || ro2 || RL
Rsig + R′L
rgs1 =
1 + ( gm1 + gmb1 ) R′L
     
τ H = Cgd1 Rsig + Cgs1 rgs1 + Cgd2 + Cdb2 + Csb1 + CL Rout
     
 
≈ Cgd1 Rsig
 

amplifier comparison
amplifier type CS CG cascode CD
input resistance high low high high
output resistance high high high low
voltage gain inverting yes no yes no
voltage gain magnitude high high high unity
frequence response poor good good good

amplifier output stage design
motivating amplifier output stage requirement

• The voltage amplifier stages we have been designing so far require very large output impedance to achieve their high voltage
gain. If they are used to drive lower impedance loads, most of their voltage gain is lost. To resolve this, a unity gain buffer is
required with high imput impedance, lower output impedance, and the ability to supply reasonable current to a load device. We
refer to these as “amplifier output stages”. These “amplifier output stages” protect the “voltage amplifier stages” from the low
impedance loads.
• These “amplifier output stages” are grouped into classes (A,B,A/B,C,...) depending on their structure and inherent preformance
trade-offs. This course only looks at (A,B,A/B) output stages. The specialized higher efficiency output driver stages are left for
more advance courses. You may see some of these in your power electronics courese MTE.320.
• There are various design performance trade-offs for each of these “amplifier output stages”, some of which will be looked at
inside the scope of this course.
three main measures of an amplifier output stage performance

(1) power-conversion efficiency
load_power (PL)
η≡
supply_power (PS)
(2) output voltage swing
(3) total harmonic distortion (THD) in the load voltage
i=∞
Σ
i=2
rms_power_of _harmonic_i
THD ≡
rms_power_of _fundamental

class A output stage

η max = 25%
V DD V CC
R sig R sig
Q1 Q1
+ +
- v sig - v sig
V SS
vO vO
RL RL
I REF R I REF R
Q3 Q2 Q3 Q2
V SS V SS V EE V EE
• A “class A output stage” is effectively a “common-drain” or “common-collector” amplifier stage. These are also know as
“source-follower” or “emitter-follower” stages.
• Note that the maximum current we can sink from RL is the DC drain current in Q2 . Q1 maybe able to source more current into
RL , but once we design the DC bias current mirror (RREF, Q3, Q2), there is a ceiling on how much current we can sink from the
load.
• Because there is always current flowing in Q1 , there is always a signal path between the vSIG and the vO nodes. As such, there is
no “cross-over distortion”. However, this comes at the cost of low “power-conversion efficiency”.

class B output stage

η max = 50% to 78. 5% depending on voltage swing
V CC V CC
Q1 Q1
V CC
-
vI vO vO
vI +
RL RL
V EE
Q2 Q2
V EE V EE
• A “class B output stage” sources current to the load via Q1 and sinks current from the load via Q2 , with only one transistor on
at-a-time. As such, we avoid a current running through the “output stage” from VCC to VEE . This results in higher “power-con-
version efficiency”. This higher “power-conversion efficiency” comes at a cost of “cross-over distortion”. That is, for a vI in
± 700 mV
the ± 700 mV range, vO remains at 0 V. This dead-zone of ± 700 mV can be reduced to by using an opamp voltage
200k
follower as seen above on the right. For vI positive, the opamp will output a large enough output voltage to reduce the opamp’s
differential input voltage to zero.
• As shown below, for small input voltages, “cross-over distortion” can be significant. However, if the input voltage was swing-
ing ± 50 V, then “cross-over distortion” will be insignificant.
vI vO
+1 +1
t t
-1 -1

BJT class AB output stage

V CC
V CC
Q3
V CC
Q7
Q1
Q4
R REF vI vO
Q5 RL
Q2
Q8
V EE
Q6
V EE
V EE
• Note in the above vB7 = vI + VBE4 and vB8 = vI − VEB5

• To reduce/avoid the “cross-over distortion” of the “class B output stage”, we level shift the input voltage by one diode drop to
avoid both Q7 and Q8 being off at the same time. By correctly sizing Q4 and IC4 , VBE4 is just large enough to prevent Q7 from
turning off for vI = 0 V. Similarly, by correctly sizing Q5 and IC5 , VEB5 is just large enough to prevent Q8 from turning off for
vI = 0 V.
• The trade-off here is how small we can make (IC3, IC4, IC5, IC6 ) to reliably avoid Q7 and Q8 being off at the same time. This
(IC3, IC4 , IC5, IC6 ) current is referred to as the “bleed-current”. The smaller the “bleed-current”, the higher the “power-conversion
efficiency”. However, if the “bleed-current” is too small, there is a risk of Q7 and Q8 being off at the same time.

MOS class AB output stage

V DD V DD
V DD
Q1 Q3
Q7
Q4
V SS
V SS
R REF vI vO
V DD
RL
V DD
Q5
Q8
Q2 Q6
V SS
V SS V SS

MOS transistor differential amplifiers
low frequency operation with active load

V DD
Q3 Q4
iD iD iD -iD
3 4 4 2
2 R cm
vD iD iD vD v+ R out v
1 2 o
1 2
vG vG +
1 2
v id R + A
+ Q1 + d - d v id
v GS Q2 v GS -
1
- V - 2
SS v-
V DD 2 R cm
i REF R REF i TAIL
Q6 Q5
V SS V SS
+
v sg g m v sg r o3 ro g m v sg
3 3 3 4 4 3
- id -id
vd vd
4 2 vo
1 2
vg vg
1 + + 2
v gs g mb v bs g m v gs ro ro g m v gs g mb v bs v gs
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
- -
- -
v bs r o5 v bs
1 2
+ +

W W
By design =
 L 1  L 2
Given this, gm1 = gm2
Given vid ≡ vg1 − vg2
since the two source terminals are half-way between vg1 and vg2 , then vs1 = vs2 = 0 for a differential input signal.
1
Given this, vgs1 = − vgs2 = vid and vbs1 = vbs2 = 0
2
which means both gmb1 and gmb2 disappear from the ac circuit diagram (when in differential mode).
W W
By design =
 L 4  L 3
Given this, gm4 = gm3
1 
Given this, id4 = id3 = id1 = gm1 vgs1 = gm1 v
 2 id 
 1 
However, id2 = gm2 vgs2 = gm2 − vid = − id1
 2 
As we have seen before, for this configuration rout = ro2 || ro4
   1   1 
so vout = id4 − id2 rout = gm1 v −g − v r
    2 id  m2  2 id   out
but gm2 = gm1
 1   1  1 1 
so vout = gm1 v −g − v r = gm1 v + v r = gm1 vid rout
  2 id  m1  2 id   out  2 id 2 id  out
v  
so Ad ≡ out = gm1 rout = gm1 ro2 || ro4
vid  
vout
Given the above matching, if we ignore channel length modulation (Early_voltage = ∞), then Acm = =0
vg1 + vg2
Ad
so CMRR ≡ =∞
Acm

high frequency operation with active load
G3 G4 B1,B2 , G1 G2 G5 G6
D3 S 3 ,S 4 D4 B3,B4 B5,B6 D1 S 1 ,S 2 D2 D5 S 5,S 6 D6
p+ p+ p+ n+ p+ n+ n+ n+ n+ n+ n+
n-well p-sub
V DD
Q3 Q4
iD iD iD -iD
3 4 4 2
v iD iD
D1 1 2 vD
2
vG vG
1 2
V DD + +
v GS Q1 Q2 v GS
1
- V -
2
SS
i REF R REF
i TAIL C M = C db + C gs + C db + C gs
1 3 3 4
C = C db + C db + C x
L 2 4
Q6 Q5 C S = C sb 1+ C sb 2+ C db5+ C gd5
V V
SS SS
-
v sg g m v sg ro C Mr o4 g m v sg C
3 3 3 3 4 3 L
C gd vo
+
4
vg C gd C gd vg
1 1 2 2
+ +
v gs g mb v bs C gs g m v gs ro ro g m v gs C gs g mb v bs v gs
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
- -
- -
v bs v bs
1 2
ro C
+ 5 S +

1 1 gm3
in general CM and CL dominate the frequency response, fp1 ≈ and fp2 ≈ = .
2 π CL Rout 1 2 π CM
2 π CM
gm3
2 gm3
CM also results in a pole-zero combination associated with the Q3 and Q4 current mirror fz ≈ = .
2 π CM
gm
Recall that the transistors unity current gain frequency is fT ≈ which is around fz . This zero lift’s the am-
2 π ( Cgs + Cgd )
plifier’s phase as it approachs fT to avoid unwanted positive feedback.

multi-stage amplifiers
V DD V DD
V DD
Q6 Q5
Q8
I REF
I TAIL 2 R cm
v+ R out v
V SS V DD o
v- v+ +
vo + A
v id Rd d v id
Q1 Q2 -
CC -
v-
2 R cm
Q7
Q3 Q4
V SS
V SS V SS
+ +
v sb ro v sb r o8
1 5 2
- -
+ v tail +
v sg g mb1 v sb g mv sg ro ro g mv sg g mb v sb v sg
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
v- - - vo
CC
v+
+ +
v gs g mv gs ro ro g mv gs v gs g mv gs r o7
3 3 3 3 4 4 3 7 7 7
- -
CC
+ + + +
v id vi G m1v i R1 C1 vi G m2v i R2 C2 vo
1 1 2 2
- - - -

 W  W
1  L 5  L 8
ID8 = I → =2
2 D5  W  W
 L 6  L 6
VSS + VOV4 + Vt2 ≤ v+ ≤ VDD − VOV5 − Vt2 − VOV2
VSS + VOV3 + Vt1 ≤ v− ≤ VDD − VOV5 − Vt1 − VOV1
VSS + VOV7 ≤ vO ≤ VDD − VOV8
cascaded transconductance amplifier

Rd = ∞ ; Rcm = ∞ ; Rout = ro7 || ro8
     
Ad = A1 A2 = Gm1 R1 Gm2 R2 = − gm1 ( ro2 || ro4 ) − gm7 ( ro7 || ro8 )
     
C1 ≈ Cgd2 + Cdb2 + Cgd4 + Cdb4 + Cgs7 ; C2 ≈ Cdb7 + Cdb8 + Cgd8 + Cload
Gm2
ωz ≈
CC
1 1 1
ω p1 ≈ ≈ ≈
      R1 CC Gm2 R2
R1 C1 + CC 1 + Gm2 R2 + R2 ( CC + C2 ) R1 C1 + CC 1 + Gm2 R2
     
Gm2 CC Gm2 CC Gm2 Gm2

ω p2 ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈
C1 C2 + CC ( C1 + C2 ) CC ( C1 + C2 ) C1 + C2 C2
 
ω t = Gm1 R1 Gm2 R2 ω p1 = Ao ω p1
 
Want ωt < ωZ and ω t < ω p2

opamp transistor grouping

continued from page 49

example 0
( s + 103 )
T(s) =
( s + 1 ) ( s + 106 )
s
ωi
 s 
+1
( s + 103 ) 103  103 
T(s) = =
( s + 1 ) ( s + 106 ) 106  s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
Next we need to determine the starting (s = j 0) magnitude
 ( j0) 
+1
10 3
 10 3 
T( j 0 ) = 6 = 10−3
10   ( j 0 ) 
( j0) +1 +1
   106 
| T( j 0 ) | = 10−3 → 20 log( 10−3 ) = − 60 dB

and the starting phase
φ ( T( j 0 ) ) = 0°
As a cross check for later, we want to determine the final (s = j ∞) magnitude and phase.
 ( j∞)   ( j ∞)
+ 1
10 3
 103   103  ( j∞) 1
T( j ∞ ) = 6 ≈ 10−3 ≈ 10−3 ≈ = − j0
10    ( j∞)     ( j ∞) ( j∞)2 j∞
( j∞) +1 +1 ( j∞)
   106     106 
| T( j ∞ ) | = 0 → − ∞ dB ; φ ( T( j ∞ ) ) = − 90°
 0 
Next we want to order the magnitude plot slope changes: 10 , 103 , 106 , as well as, the phase plot slope changes:
 
 −1 
10 , 101 , 102 , 104 , 105 , 107 .
 
Note the phase plot slope changes are a decade before and after the slope changes on the magnitude plot. Now we are ready to
slope-by-slope draw the magnitude and then phase plots.

Given the initial magnitude is −60 dB and there are no τs terms in the numerator,
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
(see Ko term on page 44) the initial magnitude slope will be zero starting at −60 dB.
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
- 60 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 100 dB
- 120 dB
- 140 dB
- 160 dB
- 180 dB

The first magnitude plot slope change will be at 100 . Since this term ( s +1 ) is in the denominator,
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
1
τ s +1
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
- 60 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 20 dB/dec
- 100 dB
- 120 dB
- 140 dB
- 160 dB
- 180 dB

 s 
The second magnitude plot slope change will be at 103 . Since this term +1 is in the numerator,
 103 
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
(see “τ s + 1” term on page 47) the incremental slope change will be +20 dB/dec. Since the previous slope is −20 dB/dec plus the
incremental change +20 dB/dec, the new slope will be 0 dB/dec.
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
- 60 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 20 dB/dec
- 100 dB
0 dB/dec
- 120 dB
- 140 dB
- 160 dB
- 180 dB

 s 
The third magnitude plot slope change will be at 106 . Since this term +1 is in the denominator,
 106 
 s 
+1
 104 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
1
τ s +1
mag
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
- 60 dB ω
0 dB/dec
- 80 dB
- 20 dB/dec
- 100 dB
0 dB/dec
- 120 dB
- 140 dB
- 20 dB/dec
- 160 dB
- 180 dB

Given the initial phase is 0° and there are no τs terms in the numerator,
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
(see Ko term on page 44) the initial slope will be 0°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
- 45°
- 90°
0°/dec
The first phase plot slope change will be a decade before 100 or 10−1 . Since the term ( s +1 ) is in the denominator,
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
1
(see term on page 48) and we are one decade before the pole at 100 , the incremental slope change will be -45°/dec. Since
τ s +1
the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incremental change -45°/dec, the new slope will be -45°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
- 45° - 45°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec

The second phase plot slope change will be a decade after 100 which is 101 . Since the term ( s +1 ) is in the denominator,
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
1
(see term on page 48) and we are one decade after the pole at 100 , the incremental slope change associated with it is
τ s +1
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
- 45° - 45°/dec
0°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec
 s 
The third phase plot slope change will be a decade before 103 which is 102 . Since the term +1 is in the numerator,
 103 
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
(see “τ s + 1” term on page 47) and we are one decade before the pole at 103 , the incremental slope change associated with it is
+45°/dec. Since the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incremental change +45°/dec, the new slope will be +45°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
- 45° - 45°/dec
+ 45°/dec
0°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec

 s 
The fourth phase plot slope change will be a decade after 103 which is 104 . Since the term +1 is in the numerator,
 103 
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
(see “τ s + 1” term on page 47) and we are one decade after the pole at 103 , the incremental slope change associated with it is
-45°/dec. Since the previous slope is +45°/dec plus the incremental change -45°/dec, the new slope will be 0°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
0°/dec
- 45° - 45°/dec + 45°/dec
0°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec
 s 
The fifth phase plot slope change will be a decade before 106 which is 105 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 106 
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
1
(see term on page 48) and we are one decade before the pole at 106 , the incremental slope change associated with it is
τ s +1
-45°/dec. Since the previous slope is 0°/dec plus the incremental change -45°/dec, the new slope will be -45°/dec.
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
0°/dec
- 45° - 45°/dec + 45°/dec - 45°/dec
0°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec

 s 
The sixth phase plot slope change will be a decade after 106 which is 107 . Since the term +1 is in the denominator,
 106 
 s 
+1
 103 
T(s) = 10−3
 s 
( s + 1) +1
 106 
1
(see term on page 48) and we are one decade after the pole at 106 , the incremental slope change associated with it is
τ s +1
phase
-1
10 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
0° ω
0°/dec
- 45° - 45°/dec + 45°/dec - 45°/dec
0°/dec 0°/dec
- 90°
0°/dec
continued on page 50

MTE 220 Course - Notes

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University of Waterloo

Sensors and Instrumentation

© James Albert Barby

Why not the easy way out?

Faculty of Engineering Course Responsibilities

University Rules and Policies

© James Albert Barby

Course overview and how it fits into the Mechatronics program

course learning objectives

signal MTE 262

MTE 320 MTE 325

discrete value sensor output continuous value sensor output

© James Albert Barby

Linear Circuit Fundamentals

linear circuit components

• specified voltage but arbitrary current

• independent current source

• specified current but arbitrary voltage

© James Albert Barby

• element which resists the flow of current, denoted by R

• element that stores energy in the form of charge

• element that stores energy in the form of flux

© James Albert Barby

• an ideal voltage amplifier

• voltage-controlled current source (VC)

• also referred to as a transconductance

© James Albert Barby

• current-controlled voltage source (CV)

• also referred to as a transresistance

• current-controlled current source (CC)

• an ideal current amplifier

© James Albert Barby

• operational amplifier (opamp)

• a voltage amplifier with infinite gain in the ideal case

power and energy

© James Albert Barby

impedance for v(t) = Voest and i(t) = Ioest

© James Albert Barby

sinusoidal v(t) and i(t)

© James Albert Barby

impedance for phasors v(t) = Re{Vpe j(ω t+θ ) }

© James Albert Barby

© James Albert Barby

time invariant vs. time varying

linear vs. nonlinear

passive vs. active elements

response of a single time constant circuit

© James Albert Barby

parallel/series connected resistor circuits

• effective resistance of parallel connected resistors is

© James Albert Barby

• linear capacitor charge and current

for the case of a linear capacitor

• linear capacitor voltage

where Eo is an independent voltage source modelling the capacitor’s initial voltage.

© James Albert Barby

• parallel connected capacitors

i1(t) i2(t) i3(t)

d v(t) d v(t) d v(t) d v(t) d v(t)

for n capacitors connected in parallel

• series connected capacitors

assuming the capacitors are initially discharged

for n capacitors connected in series