AN

INTERNSHIP REPORT

ON

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

A SEMINAR REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by:
Avi Singh

Roll No. 1806820007

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEERUT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEERUT

Bypass Road Delhi Roorkee Highway, Meerut UP-250005

FEBRUARY, 2021

Page | I
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEERUT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEERUT

Bypass Road Delhi Roorkee Highway, Meerut UP-250005

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I Avi Singh, Roll No. 1806820009 student of B. Tech. (Electrical Engineering), hereby

declare that the dissertation titled “Internship Report” which is submitted by me to the

Department of Electrical Engineering, Meerut institute of Engineering & Technology, Meerut

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of

Technology, is a study of work without proper citation. This work has not previously formed

the basis for the award of any Degree, Diploma Associate ship, Fellowship or other similar

title or recognition.

Place: Meerut (AVI SINGH )

Date:

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEERUT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEERUT

Bypass Road Delhi Roorkee Highway, Meerut UP-250005

CERTIFICATE

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEERUT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEERUT

Bypass Road Delhi Roorkee Highway, Meerut UP-250005

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly grateful to the Department of Electrical Engineering, Meerut Institute of

Engineering & Technology (MIET) for providing this opportunity to carry out the

presentation work.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility

to complete this report. A special gratitude I give to our faculties, whose contribution in

stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped me to coordinate my project.

Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of the

Seminar Co-Ordinator Mr. Puneet Kumar, Mr. Bhupendra Sharma & Mr. Vipin Kumar.

Last but not least, many thanks go to the head of the department, Prof. (Dr.) Avinash

Chauhan (Head of department of Electrical Engineering) and Dr. R. C. Chourasia (Faculty

Guide, MIET College, Meerut) whose have invested his full effort in guiding the team in

achieving the goal. I have to appreciate the guidance given by other supervisor as well as the

panels especially in our project presentation that has improved our presentation skills thanks

to their comment and advice.

AVI SINGH

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 CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.
Cover Page.....................................................................................................................................................I
Declaration.....................................................................................................................................................II
Certificate.............................................................................................................................III
Acknowledgment.........................................................................................................................................IV
Introduction:
1. Energy: Production, Distribution & Safety............................................................................ 1-2
2. Basic Electricity: Concepts..................................................................................................... 3-4
3. Basic Electrical Properties.......................................................................................................4-5
4. Simple Circuits........................................................................................................................ 5-6
5. Ohm's Law................................................................................................................................ 6-8
6. AC Current................................................................................................................................ 8
7. Generation, Transmission, & Distribution: Substations & Transformers..........................9
8. Generation................................................................................................................................ 10-11
9. Transmission & Sub-transmission.......................................................................................... 11-12
10. Distribution............................................................................................................................. 12-13
11. System Design & Switching: Circuit Breakers..........................................................................14-15
12. Switches................................................................................................................................. 16
13. Double-Busbar & Switching Sequence.............................................................................. 16-17
14. Smart Grid Risks.................................................................................................................. 18-19
15. Smart Grid, Utilities & Consumers.................................................................................... 20-21
16. Smart Grid & the Environment........................................................................................... 22-23
17. Renewable Energy............................................................................................................... 23-24
Conclusion…..................................................................................................................... 25

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Introduction:
1. Energy: Production, Distribution & Safety
This is the most exciting time in the history of the energy industry. If you can imagine a
century ago, people like Edison, and Tesla, and others built the electric grid that we're still
using today. But a lot is now changing. The biggest change is the advance of clean, renewable
energy. We're bringing on more solar, and wind, and renewable gas onto our electric system
than ever before, and that requires new skills and provides new opportunities for students into
the future. It really creates a program that allows students to learn about renewable energy, to
learn about Greening the Grid, to learning about the challenges of ensuring that we always
provide safe, and reliable, and affordable energy, but more and more that it's clean and green,
and good for our local communities. These introductory courses were designed for anyone
interested in understanding and possibly entering the evolving and emerging energy industry.
Whether you're a high school graduate trying to figure out your career interests, or
professional contemplating a job change, or perhaps a small to medium size business owner
seeking insight, please join us on a journey about the 21st century energy revolution. The
biggest challenge we have in our industry right now is attracting the workforce of the future,
hopefully many of you. We are going through so many changes between technology,

renewable energy, and the changing demands of our customers and communities that we need
a new workforce. A workforce that is well-trained, that understands the dynamics of our
electric system, that understands the flow of our gas system, and that really wants to work
closely with the customers and the local communities that we provide such vital service to.
So, now is a wonderful time to learn about energy, to develop your skills, and to join us as we
prepare for the energy challenge of the future.
In these courses, collectively called a specialization, we will provide you with core concepts
of the energy industry. By applying the knowledge you obtained from these courses, you will
plan and implement a road map to take your first progressive step in your energy industry
career path. We're very confident that you will find it rewarding and exciting. Most important
of all, this specialization will give you the confidence you need to have an intelligent fact-
based dialogue with your friends, your colleagues, and perhaps your own organization's
management team, either in a nice and formal setting or in a formal job interview. The energy
industry fundamentals specialization is a collaboration between National Grid, the University
at Buffal Center for Industrial Effectiveness, and Stony Brook University's Advanced Energy
Training Institute.

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University at Buffalo and Stony Brook University are the two largest university research
centers within the State University of New York, which is known as SUNY for short. UB
Center for Industrial Effectiveness is an outreach center that supports the business community
by delivering operational, excellent services, training an average of 1,000 people per year
through its professional development offerings, and building massive open online courses
which are known as MOOCs for the Coursera platform. UB is a premier research intensive
public university and is the largest institution in the SUNY system and home to the most
comprehensive public school of engineering in all of New York State. Stony Brook
University's Advanced Energy Training Institute, which is part of the Center for Corporate
Education has conducted numerous clean energy programs and labor market studies directly
with the Department of Labor, Nicida, SUNY, and others. Over 2,000 professionals participate
in these programs annually. Stony Brook is one of America's most dynamic public universities,
a center of academic excellence, and an internationally recognized research institution.

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 2. Basic Electricity: Concepts

Hello, and welcome to Introduction to Electric Power Systems. We will start with basic
electricity concepts. Let's talk about nature and effects of electricity. Electricity is a term that
covers all the phenomena caused by either electric charge or by movement of charge and the
electrical and magnetic fields associated with that. Electricity is commonly understood to be a
form of energy, comparable to other energy forms such as heat, light, mechanical, or chemical
energy. Electrical energy has some major advantages over other forms of energy. First of all,
electrical energy can be easily conveyed over long distances. Power stations supply large areas
via overhead transmission lines. Electrical energy can easily be converted into other forms of
energy such as heat, light, or mechanical energy. It is therefore used commonly both
domestically and in industry. Let's talk about atomic models. All electrical states and processes
are linked to the presence of the tiny elementary particles known as an electron. An electron
carries a charge that corresponds to the smallest amount of electrical charge possible to have. It
is the elementary quantum of electricity. Electrons are a constituent of the atoms that make up
any chemical element, an atom from the Greek "atomos", meaning "indivisible", was long
thought to be the ultimate indivisible component of matter. Nowadays, it is known that atoms
are not indivisible. They actually possess a rather complex structure that we have tried to
envisage using atomic models. The atomic model developed by Niels Bohr is still the most
important of these. It perceives that structure of an atom as being in the nature of our solar
system. At the center lies the atomic nucleus in the way that the sun lies at the center of the
solar system, electrons that move in orbit around this nucleus like planets, atoms of various
elements differ in terms of the size of the nucleus, and the number of electrons that surround it.
The electron orbits can be elliptical or circular and are of different diameter and in different
planes, they make up the shell of the atom.
The diameter of an atomic nucleus is about 10,000 times smaller than the diameter of
the atom as a whole. Atoms consist of an atomic nucleus and an electron shell, and this is a
fundamental principle, electrons are negatively charged while the nucleus is composed of
uncharged neutrons, and positively charged protons. Its overall charge is thus positive. For this
reason, an atom should possess an equal number of electrons and protons to make it
electrically neutral. The following graphic depicts the atomic model in its entirety. That leads
us to conductors and insulators, the conductivity of a material is effectively related to the
number of free electrons in it. A distinction is usually made between conductors, insulators and
semiconductors which will have a special role of their own. Let's talk about conductors in
more details. Electric current can only occur in materials that contain charge carriers, usually
free electrons that are free to move within the substance. Those materials that contain many
such free electrons that are able to move with little resistance are called conductors of
electricity. Solid conductors are most likely to be metals such as gold, silver, copper,
aluminium, or iron. One non-metallic conductor is the graphite or a specific form of carbon.
Liquids can also conduct electricity for instance metallic mercury. Indeed, any molten
metal or aqueous solution of salts or acids can do the work. Insulators, these are materials that
contain very few free electrons and usually are called non-conductors or insulators, they can't
conduct next to no current. Let's take a look at the graphics that illustrates that. You can see
that while node just few free electrons compared with conductors that have many. Among the
solid materials that do not conduct well in fact, are glass, porcelain, amber, rubber, paper,
cotton, and plastics. They are suitable for insulating one conductor from another. These
substances do however possess a certain but slight conductivity. So, in fact there are no perfect
insulators. For this reason there is no actual well- defined boundary between conductors and
insulators, instead there exist a continuous spectrum of conductivity. That brings us to
semiconductors, these are materials that fall into the category of semiconductors and occupy a
special position between conductors and insulators. They are

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particularly important in the manufacture of electronic components such asdiodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits. The main materials with the requisite properties are silicon and
germanium, the conductivity of these materials can be altered by a process called doping.
Which introduces impurities into a substance that can lead either to a surplus of free electrons
or a relative absence of them. The absence of an electron, results in the so-called hole in the
atomic structure.

3. Basic Electrical Properties

Let's continue with basic electrical properties and start with electric charge. If an atom
contains its usual number of electrons, the atom or groups of similar atoms display no
electrical properties. Such an atom or atoms are called electrically neutral. If electrons are lost
or captured by the atoms, they become electrically charged. Positively or negatively charged
atoms or combinations of atoms are called ions. Charged objects are attracted or repelled by
forces that depend on the nature of the charges. Objects with the same charge repel one
another, while objects with different charges attract each other. The following animation
illustrates the relationship. Give the two balls various charges by dragging a charge into either
ball with a mouse and see what happens.
Let's talk about electric field. The forces exerted on one another by electric charges are
related to an electric field that surrounds any charged body. The magnitude of this field is
given by the electric field strength, E. If a charge, Q, is present within an electric field
resulting from another different charge, it is subject to a force, F. The relationship between
the force and the field strength is given by the following expression: E equals F divided by Q.
The force itself is determined from the following equation; F equals E times Q. The force on
the charge in an electric field is therefore stronger when the field is stronger and when the
charge itself is greater.
Electric field is not solely defined by the magnitude of the force on the charge, but by
its direction as well. Electric fields are thus portrayed in the form of field line diagrams that
indicate the direction of the force as seen at the following images. Note the direction of the
force and how it depends on the polarity of the charge. Let's talk about voltage. In current
sources, such as batteries or generators, positive and negative charges that exist in all
materials are separated from one another by the effect of some energy. One terminal of the
source has an excess of electrons, the negative pole, while the other displays a deficit or the
positive pole. An electric field exists between these two charges and the system will try to
even this imbalance, so the charges flow from one terminal to the other and generate a so-
called electric current.
If both poles are connected via conductors, the charges seek to even out by passing
along these conductors and giving rise to a current. This involves the source, such as a
battery, exerting an amount of work, W, on the charge, Q, that has been transported. The
voltage, V, of the source is now defined as the quotient of the work and the charge. So, V
equals W divided by Q. The unit of electrical voltage is called the volt, or V for short. A
voltage can only exist between two points, such as the poles of the electricity source. The
meaning of the concept of voltage can be illustrated by an analogy from the world of physics.
The electricity source is equated with the water pump. A pump is able to exert an amount of
lifting work on each gallon of water it raises up to a certain maximum height. So, for each
gallon of water, it provides a certain amount of energy. Let's take a look at the case sketched
in the following graphic. Pump P2 has to exert twice the amount of work on each gallon as
pump P1 since the height is twice as high. The quotient of the work and the volume is thus
twice as large. The analogy with electricity would then suggest that the right-hand pump has
double the voltage. That leads us to DC voltage sources. If the polarity of an electrical energy
source doesn't change over time, it is called a direct current source. If the magnitude of the
voltage is invariable, the source is termed as being fixed voltage source. Let's take a look at
the graphics that depicts the circuit diagram symbol for such a source. We all know about
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galvanic elements. The principle of a galvanic element involves using electrochemical
processes to generate a voltage. Such an element contains two materials of different
conductivity, such as zinc and carbon that are used as electrodes immersed in the so-called
electrolyte. Elements of this kind are called primary elements. The magnitude of the voltage
produced by a galvanic element depends on the material used for the electrodes. Among the
examples of such galvanic elements are common household batteries. These are available
nowadays in a variety of shapes and forms. A typical voltage output is one and a half volts or
some multiple of this number, three volts or nine volts. Let's talk about power supplies. A
power supply provides power supplied from the AC network, which has a specified voltage,
currently defined in North America is 120 volts. This usually involves using a transformer to
step the voltage down to the required voltage for the appliance. In a stabilized power supply, a
controller or voltage stabilizer will ensure that the output voltage remains generally constant
in spite of changing load or input. Such power supplies are also available in many forms, such
as adjustable laboratory power supply shown here or the fixed voltage supply that is often
used for toys or music and games equipment. Other forms include plugin power supplies or
the power supply in the computer that provides various different but constant voltage outputs.
Now, let's talk about electric current. As we discussed earlier, conductors possess large
number of free electrons that are able to move between atoms in the atomic framework.

If there is no voltage across the conductor, the movement of such electrons is purely arbitrary.
So, there is no overall direction of motion or specific destination as shown in the following
graphic. If a DC voltage is applied to the conductor, the electrons now flow in a specific
direction through the conductor, and electric current flows from one pole of the voltage
source to the other. We will start with direction of electron flow. Electrons flow in a
conductor in the circuit outside of the voltage source from the negative of the source, where
electrons are in surplus, to the positive pole, where there is a relative deficit of electrons.
Inside the source, the electrons are forced away from the positive pole towards the negative.
Take a look at the graphics. The source ensures that there is always a potential difference
between the two poles. The electrons are not actually created by the source. The source
merely sets existing free electrons in the conductors of the circuit in motion. Similarly, the
electrical devices being powered, that are generally called loads, such as lamp in the circuit
that you can see, they do not actually use up electrons. They just use some of the energy that
the moving electrons carry. That leads us to direction of conventional current. Before the
theory of electrons was developed, even though the terminology positive and negative has
been chosen, it was assumed that any carrier of current was actually in excess as the positive
pole, and in deficit at the negative, so that current would flow from positive to negative.
Despite the more recent knowledge about electricity, the assumptions about the direction of
flow had been well-established and it was not practical to stick to the convention that current
flows from positive towards negative pole. Thus, the direction of an electric current is by
convention in the opposite direction to the electron flow. It is common to speak of
conventional current as illustrated in the following figure. To sum it up, electric current flows
by convention from positive pole to negative pole in any circuit external to a voltage source.

4. Simple Circuits
Now let's talk about simple circuits. A simple circuit is a circuit that has one source,
one load, and the conductor that connects them. And this conductor displays a property of
electrical resistance. So let's talk about electrical resistance. If electric current flows through a
conductor, the free charge carriers, free electrons, move between the atoms of the atomic
framework. In the process, collision frequently occur, deflecting the free electrons, and
rerouting their motion. The conductor thus, exerts a resistance on the electric current that
must be overcome

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by the voltage. Let's take a look at the illustration that demonstrates how the electrons move
through the conductor. A conductor with a low resistance is better at conducting electric current,
whereas a conductor with higher resistance is not so good at conducting current. The unit of
electrical resistance is named after the German physicist, Georg Simon Ohm. The following
statement hold true. The electrical resistance denoted by letter R, has the unit, ohm, which has the
symbol Greek letter, Omega. The reciprocal of resistance is the so-called, conductance. Electrical
conductance denoted by letter G, has the unit, Siemens, or S. Thus, the following is true. G equals
1, divided by R. The resistance of a conductor is also temperature dependent. Let's discuss
components of an electric circuit. A simple electric circuit consists of the following components,
as I mentioned before. The voltage source, such as a battery, or power supply. Consumer of load,
such as an incandescent lamp. And connections between the voltage source and the load, such as
cables and leads. A switch to open and close the circuit may be present, or may be omitted. If the
load is connected to the voltage source, via leads, the

circuit is closed, and current flows from the voltage source through the load. In electrical
engineering, circuits are usually depicted in technical drawings known as circuit diagrams,
whereby the individual components are represented by standardized circuit symbols. Here,
additional pointer. Arrows have been included to show the directions of the source voltage, and
the current being conducted. Let's talk about measuring voltage. Electrical voltage is measured
with a voltmeter. The graphics illustrates the circuit symbol of a voltmeter, it's a circle with a
letter V inside it. And you can also look at the pictures of the analog voltmeter, as found in a
motor vehicle, where it is used to display the battery voltage. A conventional multimeter which
may be used to measure voltage and other properties, and is normally provided with a variety of
measurement ranges. To perform the measurement, the voltmeter has to be connected to the
voltage to be measured. A voltage can only exist between two points, such as between the
terminals of the voltage source, or load. To measure this, the voltmeter is connected in parallel to
the component across which the voltage is to be determined.

5. Ohm's Law
Let's continue with Ohm's law and electric power. We just discussed the basic
properties of electric circuits such as voltage, current, and resistance. To be able to make
meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we need to be able to describe their
quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass, temperature, volume, length, or any
other kind of physical quantity. For mass, we might use the unit of kilogram or gram. For
temperature, we might use degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are the standard units
of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance. Each unit of measurement is
named after a famous experimenter in the electricity. The Amp after Frenchmen Andrea
Ampere, the Volt after the Italian Alessandro Volta, and the Ohm after the German George
Simon Ohm. The symbols E and V are interchangeable for the most part, although some texts
reserve E to represent voltage across the source such as a battery or generator, and V to
represent voltage across anything else.
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If you wish to determine mathematically what is happening in electrical terms in simple or
even complex circuits, you have to know that the current I is dependent on the two factories,
the voltage V and the resistance R. This dependency was described in Ohm's law named after
the German physicist George Simon Ohm as we discussed before. Ohm's law is a very simple
and useful tool for analysing electric circuits. It is used so often in the study of electricity and
electronics that it needs to be committed to memory by the serious students. For those who
are not yet comfortable with algebra, there was a trick to remembering how to solve for any
quantity given the other two. First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in the triangle like this. If
you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate R from the picture and see what is
left. R equals E divided by I. If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate

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I and see what's left. I equals E divided by R. lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E,
eliminate E and see what's left. E equals I times R. Let's talk about electrical power. The power
generated by a turbine at a hydroelectric power plant, depends on the amount of energy stored per
kilogram or gallon of falling water, such as height that the waterfalls, and the quantity of water
flowing per second through the turbine. The energy stored in one kilogram of water is analogous in
electrical consumer such as mortar M in the circuit diagram Illustrated. It's analogous to the energy
stored per unit of charge, such as electrical potential. Thus, the current of water is analogous to an
electric current. Electrical power, P is proportional to the values of the voltage and current, and is
determined by the following equation, P equals V times I. The unit of electrical power is named
Watt after the English inventor. One Watt is the power generated by one Amp at a DC voltage of
one Volt. The power consumed by a device can be measured indirectly with a voltmeter and an
ammeter. Power is measurable directly by means of a wattmeter, which possesses two terminals
each for the voltage and current, or total of four terminals. The part of a wattmeter distribute the
voltage to be measured is applied, is termed the voltage path. The path through which the current
to be measured flows is termed the current path. Rated power or nominal power are frequently
specified for electrical devices, such as incandescent lamps and mortars. This value indicates the
power which the component can handle under regular operating conditions. Substituting the
product I times R, for the voltage V according to Ohm's law in the power equations that we saw
before, results in the following relationship. Substituting the quotient V over R for the current I,
results in the following equation, P equals v square divided by R. Let's take a look at the following
example. A heater consumes a current of ten amps at a voltage of 120 Volts. Its power
consumption is P equals V times I, or 120 Volts times 10 Amps is 1200 Watts or 1.2 kilowatts.

6. AC Current
Now, let's move from DC to AC, and we will start with some basic definitions for AC.
Systematic research in the field of electricity began in the 19th century with experiments
purely on DC. Separation of charge caused by friction between two materials was one source
of DC voltage. Early machines generating very low levels of electric power such as
electrostatic machines, inductance machines, and belt generators, as well as batteries
developed during this period produce DC voltages as well. Today, DC voltages are mainly
used to supply electronic circuits such as radios, pocket calculators, and PCs. DC voltage and
current are defined as follows. A DC voltage is a voltage of constant magnitude and direction.
For loads of constant resistance, this type of voltage gives rise to direct current or DC. The
following figure provides an example of direct current characteristic. Large amounts of
electrical energy are commonly produced by converting mechanical energy into electrical

energy by means of electromagnetic induction using generators. The same principle is

employed on a smaller scale in the bicycle dynamo, for example. In this case, the generators
of rotation produces an AC voltage. The magnitude and direction of which changes over time.
Applying this voltage to a load like a bicycle lamp causes an alternating current to flow
through the lamp. AC voltage and current are defined in general as follows. An electrical
potential, the magnitude and direction of which change over time, is termed an AC voltage.
The current produced by such a voltage in a load
is called alternating current or AC. The unit of frequency is named Hertz abbreviated to Hz
after the German physicist. One hertz corresponds to one oscillation per second.
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7. Generation, Transmission, & Distribution: Substations & Transformers
Now, as we learn few things about basic electricity, it's time to move to generation
transmission and distribution of electric power. Let's start with substations and transformers.
Electrical energy is transmitted and distributed via overhead lines, and underground cables,
operating at different voltage levels. It is necessary to mesh networks to ensure dependable
supply for consumers, even if individual transmission paths fail. Points in such a network,
where two or more lines meet, are called buses.
Present at each of these buses are switching devices, which isolate affected lines,
and/or equipment, for the purpose of eliminating faults or performing maintenance and
repairs. The special arrangement of the facilities necessary for measurements, monitoring,
protection, and ancillary tasks, is known as a switch gear. If the arrangement includes
transformers for changing voltage levels, one speaks of a substation. Let's talk about a
transformer. A transformer is a device that transforms AC voltage from high to low, that
would be step down transformer, or from low to high that will be step up transformer. A
transformer is simply made of two sets of wire coils wrapped around a soft iron core. The coil
on the side where the voltage comes in is called the primary coil.
The coil on the side where the voltage goes out is called the secondary coil. Winding
on each coil change the magnetic field within the iron core, which in turn, changes the
voltage. The voltage is changed in proportion to the number of windings on each coil. If the
primary coil has more windings than the secondary coil, the voltage is decreased. This is
referred to as a step down transformer. If the secondary coil has more windings than the
primary coil, the voltage is increased. This is referred to as a step up transformer.
Transformers are very important in power systems. Voltage generated at power plants is an
order of six to 20 kilovolts. To deliver vast amounts of generated power over long distances,
it should be stepped up, and here, step up transformers do their job by converting generated
voltage to high levels such as 115 to 750 kilovolts, or sometimes even more. This is very
economical for several reasons. Let us recall the power wheel presented earlier. Since
resistance of a line connecting generating plants with load centers is constant for a given line,
the higher the voltage across the line, the lower the current through the line. You remember
that I equals V over R, that's the Ohm's law.
At the same time, if current is flowing through the line, it creates power losses that are
dissipated as heat, and you recall that P equals I square R. Since power is not free and costs
money, the lower the losses, the higher are the savings. Therefore, it is much more
economical to transmit electric power at large distances, at higher voltages. Also, recall that
resistance of a line is directly proportional to the length of the line. So that, the longer the line,
the higher its resistance. Now, as we know a little bit about transformers, let's move to
substations. As mentioned before, transformers, one or more, and switch gear, comprise a
substation. Substations are used to branch from one or several incoming lines, into several
outgoing lines that have their paths and connect with other substations at the same or different
voltage levels. This figure illustrates substations at various voltage levels and branching of
power lines. In this figure, high voltage transmission line enters a substation on the left. You
can see three long insulators through circuit breakers and switches, which we will discuss
later, connections are made to a step down power transformer in the middle. Finally, through
another set of switches and circuit breakers, connections are made to three outgoing
transmission lines, at lower voltage level on the right side of the figure.

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8. Generation
Let's start talking about generation of electric power. Generating electricity has been
the primary function of electric utilities since their creation. Electricity can be generated
through a wide variety of processes, although far and away the most common is by the
rotation of a generator shaft or router through opposing magnetic fields. Shaft rotating
induces the flow of electricity in the generator. Power can be either direct or alternating
current, DC or AC. Power is delivered to consumers in the United States as alternating
current. So, shaft rotation literally turns an alternator rather than a generator. A thermal
generator creates electricity by using heat from the burning of fuels, or nuclear energy to
create steam which turns a turbine which rotates the generator shaft through opposing
magnetic fields. The waste heat can be released through a cooling tower or used in co-
generation applications in factories. External energy source or prime mover is required to
rotate the generator shaft and that can come from a wide variety of sources. One of the prime
movers is a turbine generator.
In 1831, scientist Michael Faraday, discovered that when a magnet is moved inside a
coil of wire, an electric current flows in the wire. An electricity generator is a device that
converts a form of energy into electricity. Generators operate because of the relationship
between magnetism and electricity. Generators that convert kinetic or mechanical energy into
electrical energy produced nearly all of the electricity that consumers use. A common method
of producing electricity is from generators with an electromagnet. A magnet produced by
electricity not a traditional magnet. The generator has a series of insulated coils of wire that
form a stationary cylinder. The cylinder surrounds the rotary electromagnetic shaft. When the
electromagnetic shaft rotates, it induces a small electric current in each section of the wire
coil. Each section of the wire coil becomes a small separate electric conductor. The small
currents of the individual sections combine to form one large current. This current is the
electricity that moves through power lines from generators to consumers. An electric power
plant uses a turbine or other similar machine to drive these types of generators. Other types of
turbines are steam turbines, gas combustion turbines, water turbines and wind turbines. A
turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, liquid or gas to mechanical energy.

In a turbine generator, a moving fluid pushes a series of blades, mount it on the shaft
which rotates the shaft connected to a generator. The generator in turn converts the
mechanical energy to electrical energy based on the relationship between magnetism and
electricity. Steam turbines that use biomass, coal, geothermal energy, natural gas, nuclear
energy and solar thermal energy produce about 70 percent of US electricity generation. These
types of power plants are about 35 percent efficient. Which means that for every 100 units of
primary heat energy that goes into a power plant, only 35 units are converted to usable
electrical energy. Other types of devices that generate or produce electricity include
electrochemical batteries, fuel cells, solar photovoltaic cells, and thermoelectric generators.
Most of the electricity in the United States is produced using steam turbines. The steam
turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, liquid or gas, to mechanical energy.
Most of US electricity is generated using fossil fuels.
In 2016, natural gas was the largest energy source for the four trillion kilowatt-hours of
electricity generated in the United States. Natural gas was the source of about 34 percent of
US electricity generation in 2016. In addition to burning natural gas to heat water for steam, it
is also burnt to produce hot combustion gases that pass through a gas turbine spinning the
turbine's blade to generate electricity. Coal was the second largest energy source for US
electricity generation in 2016, about 30 percent. Nearly all coal-fired power plants use steam
turbines. If you coal-fired power plants convert coal to a gas for use in the gas turbine to
generate electricity. Petroleum can be burned to produce hot combustion gases to turn a
turbine or to make steam that turns a turbine. Residual fuel and petroleum coke, products
from refining crude oil, are the main petroleum fuels used in steam turbines. Distillate or
diesel is used in diesel engine
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generators. Petroleum was the source of less than one percent of US electricity generation in
2016. Nuclear power provides about one-fifth of US electricity. Nuclear power plantsproduce
electricity with nuclear efficient to create steam that spins the turbine to generate electricity.
Nuclear power was the source of about 20 percent of US electricity generation in 2016.
Renewable energy sources provide 15 percent of US electricity. Hydropower, the source of
about seven percent of the total US electricity generation. About 44 percent of electricity
generation from renewable energy in 2016, is a process in which flowing water spins a
turbine connected to a generator. Most hydropower production is at large facilities built by
thefederal government, such as the Grand Cooley Dam, also Lewiston power plant. Many of
the largest hydroelectric dams are in the western United States, but many hydropower
facilities operate around the country.

9. Transmission & Subtransmission

Power generated at power plants has to be delivered to the customers. So, let's talk
about transmission and subtransmission. People tend to be more familiar with the distribution
lines in their neighborhoods than with high voltage transmission lines. Typically, transmission
lines are located in remote areas so they can run for long distances in a straight line as it is
much cheaper to build that way. In contrast, distribution lines have to be close to the customer
and consequently, they are more numerous. In general, distribution lines are radial or run
away from the transmission lines to a dead end. Power typically flows from a generator along
the transmission grid to a substation where it is transformed or stepped down to a lower
voltage for distribution. The voltage reduction allows the utility to use smaller wires and
shorter polls for distributing power to consumers. Power on the distribution line flows to
customer, homes and businesses but it gets stepped down again as it comes off the
distribution lines.
The stability of the electricity grid requires the electricity supply to constantly meet
electricity demand, which in turn requires coordination of numerous entities that operate
different components of the grid. The US electricity grid consists of three large
interconnected systems that operate to ensure its stability and reliability. To ensure
coordination of electric system operations, the North American Electric Reliability
Corporation developed and enforces mandatory grid reliability standards that the Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission approved. Local electricity grids are interconnected to form
larger networks for reliability and commercial purposes. At the highest level, the US power
systems in the lower 48 states is made up of three main interconnections, which operates
largely independently from each other with limited transverse of electricity between them.
The Eastern Interconnection encompasses the area east of the Rocky Mountains and portion
of the Texas Panhandle. The Western Interconnection encompasses the area from the Rockies
to the west. The Electric Reliability Council of Texas or ERCOT covers most of Texas. The
Eastern and Western Interconnections in the United States are also linked with the Canadian
power grid. The network structure of the interconnections helps maintain the reliability of the
grid by providing multiple roads for power to flow and allowing generators to supply
electricity to many load centuries. This redundancy helps prevent transmission line or power
plant failures from causing interruptions in service to retail customers. Transmission lines that
carry electricity at long distances differ by function based on their voltage levels.
Transmission lines and corresponding transformers, typically at high voltages of 750
kilovolts, 500 kilovolts, 230 kilovolts, 115 and 69 kilovolts, are known as transmission
system. Sub transmission is that part of the utility system which supplies distribution
substations from bulk power sources such as large transmission substations or generating
stations. In turn, the distribution substations supply primary distribution systems. Sub
transmission has many of the characteristics of both transmission and distribution in that it
moves relatively large amounts of power from one point to another like
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transmission, and at the same time it provides area coverage like distribution. In some utility
systems, transmission and sub transmission voltages are overlapping. For example, 230
kilovolts, 115 or 69 kilovolt lines can be part of transmission and sub transmission systems.
While sub transmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines, in urban areas buried
cable may be used. The lower voltage sub transmission lines use less right of way and simpler
structures. It is much more feasible to put them underground where needed. Higher voltage
lines require more space and are usually above ground since putting them underground is very
expensive. There is no fixed cut-off between sub transmission and transmission or sub
transmission and distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 23 kilovolts,
69 kilovolts, 115 kilovolts and country 38 kilovolts are often used for sub transmission in
North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were
used for sub transmission, and sub transmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like
transmission, sub transmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution
sub transmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point.

10. Distribution
After transmission, transmission, let's discuss electric power distribution. This is the
final stage in the delivery of electric power. It carries electricity from the transmission system
to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system. And
lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 and 35 kilovolts with
the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to
distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers,
again, lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment or
households. Often, several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary
distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary
distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of
power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level. Distribution lines have
lower voltage ratings such as 69, 34.5, and 13.8 kilovolts. For convenience, many in the
industry refer to ratings of 115 kilovolts and above as transmission. Things are not that
simple. Because lower voltages are often used for transmission in rural areas, where power
transfer requirements are less. A functional definition is also used. Typically, transmission
lines serve the bulk power system, and distribution lines serve retail customers.
This distinction is also compromised as large industrial customers often receive retail services
over high voltage lines.
Let's talk about distribution networks. Distribution networks are usually one of two different
types, radial or interconnected. Radial distribution networks are systems with a single power
source for a group of distribution customers. In radial systems, distribution lines stem from a
single power source and continue through the service area without a conduction to additional
power supplies. This is the cheapest type of distribution network. But also the least reliable as
there are no redundant or back up power sources. This type of system is more common in
remote locations or in locations where a low population density.
Interconnected distribution networks are composed of multiple connections to power supply
sources. Interconnected systems might be configured in the loop with power sources located
in various locations along the loop. They may also be configured in a web with power sources
interconnected within the complex framework. Interconnected systems are more expensive
than radial systems, but they offer a much higher level of reliability due to the redundancy of
power sources. The transition from transmission to distribution happens in the power sub-
station. As we discussed before, sub-stations are fenced in areas that contains switches,
transformers, and other specialized electrical equipment that convert electric power

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from the transmission system to distribution voltage level. Distribution substations are where
distribution circuits ordinate, are monitored, and are adjusted.
Distribution substations have the following functions. Circuit breakers and switches enable
the substation to be disconnected from the transmission grid or for distribution lines to be
disconnected. Transformers step down transmission voltages, 34.5 kilovolts or more, down to
primary distribution voltages. These are medium voltage circuits, usually 600 to 34,500 volts.
From the transformer, power goes to the bus bar that can split the distribution power off in
multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which fan out to
customers. Urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in common utility ducts.
Rural distribution is mostly above ground with utility poles and suburban distributionis a mix.
Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps the primary distribution power down
to a low voltage secondary circuit usually 120, 240 volts in the US for residential customers.
The power comes to the customer via a service drop and electricity meter. The final circuit in
an urban system may be less than 50 feet, but may be over 300 feet for a rural customer. The
electricity that comes to homes and businesses must be metered. Once the electricity reaches
its final destination, it runs through a meter for billing purposes. These meters have
traditionally been electromechanical devices that measure the electricity as it
passes through. Historically, an employee of the distribution company, a so-called meter
reader, would come to read how much power had been used during the billing
cycle. Today, meters are frequently more high tech, and can communicate with the
distribution company without a meter reader going to the trouble of checking each meter
individually. These new technologies are commonly referred to as Smart Meters. Smart
meters use advances in information technology to allow the various pieces of the power grid,
generators, distributors, and consumers, to communicate more effectively, and in real time.
Collectively, these technology-enabled communications between different parts of the grid
are referred to as the smart grid. As electric utilities convert analog features to digital, the grid
is becoming smarter and allowing for new types of communication. For example, the smart
grid allows customers with smart meters to change their consumption patterns, if they choose,
by reacting to real time prices in the wholesale power market. It also allows power companies
to better detect grid abnormalities or outages. However, replacing the existing infrastructure
with a smarter one is expensive and can make the grid more susceptible to cyber security
threats.

Generation, Transmission, & Distribution

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11. System Design & Switching:

Circuit Breakers

As we discussed in substations and transformers lecture, transmission lines are usually

branched out into several outgoing lines and connect with other substations. We also talked about
interconnections to form large reliable networks and the role of switchgear in these
interconnections and branching. The switchgear components are; bus bars, switches, circuit
breakers, current and voltage transformers, surge arresters, grounding switches. These components
are rated in accordance with relevant requirements, as well as expected mechanical and electrical
loads. Because modern systems are predominantly remote controlled, they are accompanied by
additional facilities for control and monitoring. Besides measuring and calculating the quantities of
energy supplied to consumers, these systems also incorporate mechanisms, providing protection
against overvoltage, overcurrent, and short-circuit. At the core of any switchgear is the bus bar.
Designed usually as a short open strip, the bus bar can also take the form of a conduit called
internally by oil if very high currents need to be conducted. Serving as a network node in physical
terms, the bus bar constitutes the start and the end of the individual lines, which are called branches
similar to tree branches. The branches can be connected and disconnected via switching devices
called circuit breakers. A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical device designed to
protect and the electrical

circuit from damage caused by excess current typically resulting from an overload or short
circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse,
which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset either manually
or automatically to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from
small devices that protect low current circuits or individual household appliance, up to large
switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function
of a circuit breaker or a fuse is to automatically remove power from a faulty system. When
switching device disconnects a circuit under load or even at no load, but with voltage present,
an arc will appear between the contacts. The higher the voltage or current, the bigger is the arc.
The arc is very dangerous for personnel and equipment and must be extinguished. At low
voltages, the arc is de-energized in the air between the contacts. Circuit breakers are available
for low voltage, medium voltage, and high voltage applications. Low voltage, less than 1,000
volts, these types are common in domestic, commercial, and industrial applications. Medium
voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kilovolts, maybe assembled into metal
enclosed switchgear line-ups for indoor use or maybe individual components installed
outdoors in a substation.
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 Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high voltage
breakers.
They are usually 69 kilovolts or higher. High voltage breakers are nearly always
solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current
transformers. In substations, the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment
and buses from various types of overload and faults.
High voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc; oil, air
blast, vacuum, SF6, CO2. Due to environmental and cost concerns, over insulating oil spills,
most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc.

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12. Switches
In power systems, a disconnect switches, or disconnectors, are used to ensure that an
electric circuit is completely deenergized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often
found in electrical distribution and industrial applications. Where machinery must have its
source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair.
High voltage switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus, such
as the circuit breakers, transformers and transmission lines for maintenance.
The switches are usually not intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for safety
isolation. They can be operated either manually or automatically. Unlike circuit breakers,
disconnect switches lack a mechanism for suppression of electric arcs. Which occur when
conductors carrying high currents are electrically interrupted. Thus, they are off-load devices,
intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other control device,
such as a circuit breaker.
Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnect switch while it
supplies a circuit. Standards require lockable overloads, which can be padlocked. Disconnect
switches have provisions for lockout, tag out, so that inadvertent operation is not possible. In high
voltage or complex systems, these locks may be part of a trapped key interlock system to ensure
proper sequence of operation. In some designs, the disconnect switch has the additional ability to
ground the isolated circuit, thereby, providing additional safety.
They are called grounding switches. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits with
interconnect power distribution systems, where both ends of the circuit need to be isolated.
Circuit breakers and disconnect switches are equally capable of preventing the return of
power, once they are opened and properly logged and tagged. The real difference is that a
circuit breaker can trip open when it detects an overcurrent situation. Disconnect switches are
usually installed on both sides of the equipment or line upon which work is to be done. They
should not be operated while the circuit in which they are connected is energized. But only
after the circuit is deenergized. As a further precaution, they may be opened by means of an
insulated stick that helps the operator keep a distance from the switch.
Although, not designed to be closed to energize the line or equipment with which they are
associated. In certain circumstances, they may be closed using special care to close them
firmly and rapidly.
High voltage switches are available for the highest transmission voltages up to 1 million volts.
This switch is operated, so that all three phases are interrupted at the same time.

13. Double-Busbar & Switching Sequence

Let's talk about double-busbar and switching sequence. Circuit breakers are
complicated electromechanical devices and must be serviced regularly. So that work on them
can be perform safely, switches are installed before and after them. In contrast to circuit
breakers, switches must only be operated in the de-energized state, which means only after
the circuit breakers have been opened. To avoid faulty switching, the switches and associated
circuit breakers are mechanically interlocked with each other. The switches also serve as
visible separation points as opposed to circuit breakers contents which are situated in an
arching chamber. Visible separation points are a required safety measure during
disconnection of line segments. In accordance with its various functions, every switchgear
system and substation is divided into individual fields, distinctions being made here between
incoming feeders, outgoing feeders, and tie panels. These fields are represented entirely in the
form of one-line diagrams using standard symbols.

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You can see in the figure the symbols and proper explanations, what do they mean?
The circuits shown applies to incoming and outgoing feeders.
The two switches are used to disconnect the circuit breakers, including the current andvoltage
transformers. Current and voltage transformers acquire the data needed for metering and
protection.
The grounding switch is used to protect the line against effects of adjacent lines during
maintenance work and lightning strikes.
We can take a look at the diagram of a simple system consisting of one bus bar, one incoming
feeder that will be number 1 and two outgoing feeder’s number 2 and 3. To ensure reliability
of electrical service, redundancy is achieved by arranging buzz bars into several sections. If
one line is out of service due to the fault or maintenance, the circuit breaker connecting two
sections, quote, tiebreaker, will close and ensure no interruption of power to loads connected
to the other section.
For the sake of clarity, the figure that you can see now and subsequent illustrations will no
longer show the current, voltage, transformers, or grounding switches. They can be used to
connect both bus bars to form a single bus. This allows bus bars to be changed without
interrupting operations. Incoming and outgoing feeders can be switched to the individual bus
bars as needed without interrupting the supply.
For the diagram shown, let's discuss switching sequence.
What you can see is that source 1 is connected to bus 1 via circuit breaker 1 which is
designated as CB1 and source 2 is connected to bus 2 via CB3.Load 1 is connected to bus 1
via CB2 and load 2 is connected to bus 2 via CB4.
In the absence of mechanical, electrical and program controlled interlocks, the switch over
actions success or failure depends on the operator, switching foreman, technician or engineer.
Incorrect operation of breakers can result in electric sparks which cause significant damage
and failure to the power supply in the affected area.
For this reason, basic skills in handling switching devices forming part of switch gear are
crucial in protection of switch gear against switching errors has a very high priority.

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14. Smart Grid Risks
Let's talk about the grid as it stands today, and what is at risk. Our nation's electric
power infrastructure that has served us so well for so long, also known as the grid, is rapidly
running up against its limitations. Our lights may be on, but systematically, the risks
associated with relying on an often over text grid, grow in size, scale, and complexity every
day. From national challenges like power system security to those global in nature such as
climatic change, our near term agenda is formidable. So, what is at risk? Since 1982, growth
in peak demand for electricity driven by population growth, bigger houses, bigger TV's, more
air conditioners, and more computers, has exceeded transmission growth by almost 25 percent
every year. Yet spending on research and development, the first step toward innovation and
renewal, is among the lowest of all industries. While hundreds of thousands of high voltage
transmission lines cross through the United States, only 668 additional miles of interstate
transmission have been built since 2000. As a result, system constraints worsen at a time
when outages and power

quality issues are estimated to cost american businesses, more than $100 billion on average
each year. In short the grid is struggling to keep up. Five massive blackouts, over the past 40
years, three of which in the past nine years. More blackouts and brownouts are occurring due
to the slow response times of mechanical switches, a lack of automated analytics, and poor
visibility, a lack of situational awarene ss on the part of grid operators. This issue of blackouts
has far broader implications. Today, the irony is profound. In a society where technology
reigns supreme, America is relying on the centrally-planned uncontrolled infrastructure
created largely before the age of microprocessors that limits our flexibility and puts us at risk
on several critical fronts. What about efficiency? If the grid where just five percent more
efficient, the energy savings would equate to permanently eliminating the fuel and greenhouse
gas emissions from 53 million cars. Considered this two, if every American household
replaced just one incandescent bulb, Edison's pride and joy, with a compact fluorescent bulb,
the country would conserve enough energy to light three million homes, and save more than
$600 million annually. Opportunities are terrific. Let's see the impact on national economy.
An economy relentlessly grown digital in the 1980's, electrical load from sensitive electronic
equipment, such as chips and automated manufacturing was limited. In the 1990's, chip share
grew to roughly 10 percent. Today, load from chip technologies and automated
manufacturing has risen to 40 percent, and the load is expected to increase to more than 62
percent by 2018.
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What about affordability? As rate caps come off in state after state, the cost of electricity has
doubled or more in real terms, less visible but just as harmful. The costs associated with an
underperforming grid are borne by every citizen, yet these hundreds of billions of dollars are
buried in the economy and largely unreported. Rising fuel costs made more acute by utilities
expiring long-term coal contracts are certain to raise their visibility. Let's talk about security.
When the blackout of 2003 occurred, the largest in US history, those citizens not startled by
being stuck in dark and suffocating elevators, turned their thoughts towards terrorism, and not
without cause. The grid's centralized structure leaves us open to attack. The interdependencies
of various grid components can bring about a domino effect. A cascading series of failures
that could bring our nation's banking, communications, traffic, and security systems among
others to a complete standstill. Environment and climate change also play their role. From
food safety to personal health, a compromised environment threatens us all. The United States
accounts for only four percent of the world's population and produces 25 percent of its
greenhouse gasses. Half of our countries electricity is produced by burning coal. A rich
domestic resource, but a major contributor to global warming. If we are to reduce our carbon
footprint and clean Global Environmental Leadership, clean renewable sources like solar,
wind, and geothermal must be integrated into the nation's grid. Without appropriate enabling
technologies linking them to the grid, their potential will not be fully realized. Regarding
global competitiveness, Germany is leading the world in the development and implementation
of photovoltaic solar power. Japan has similarly moved to the forefront of distribution
automation through its use of advanced battery storage technology. The European Union has
an even more aggressive smart grids agenda, a major component of each has buildings
functioning as power plants. Generally, however, these countries don't have a legacy system
on the order of the grid to consider or grapple with.

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15. Smart Grid, Utilities & Consumers
Let's talk how smart grid is applied to utilities and consumers. A smarter grid offers
valuable technologies that can be deployed within the very near future, or are already
deployed today. In the short term, a smarter grid will function more efficiently, enabling it to
deliver the level of service we've come to expect more affordably in the era of rising costs,
while also offering considerable societal benefits, such as less impact on our environment.
The smart grid represents the longer term promise of a grid remarkable in its intelligence and
impressive in its scope, although it is universally considered to be a decade or more from
realization. Longer term, expect the smart grid to spur the kind of transformation that the
Internet has already brought to the way we live, work, play, and learn. So what is the smart
grid? Transformation from a centralized producer-controlled network to one that is less
centralized and more consumer interactive, change of the industry's entire business model and
its relationship with all stakeholders, involving and affecting utilities, regulators,

energy service providers, technology and automation vendors, and all consumers of electric
power. A smarter grid makes this transformation possible by bringing innovative
philosophies, concepts, and technologies that enables the Internet to the utility and the electric
grid. Technologies already in place are, advanced metering infrastructure, visualization
technology, phasor measurement units, distributed generation, peak demand, smart grid
versus smart meter, an array of technological approaches that will make it work. Devices such
as wind turbines, plug- in hybrid electric vehicles, and solar arrays are not part of the smart
grid. The smart grid encompasses the technology that enables us to integrate, interface with,
and intelligently control these innovations and others. Once again, in short, smart grid is
intelligent, efficient, accommodating, motivating, opportunistic, quality-focused, resilient,
and green. Let's examine how smart grid applies to utilities. Utilities are dedicated to
providing for the public good by operating, maintaining, and building additional electrical
infrastructure. The cost associated with such tasks, billions of dollars annually, and the
challenges associated with them are enormous. Additional infrastructure must be built, smart
or not. Investment totalling approximately $1.5 trillion will be required between 2010 and
2030 to pay for this infrastructure. The smart grid holds the potential to be the most affordable
alternative to building out, by building less and saving more energy.

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Energy efficiency on the load side, consumers capable of exercising usage control are
suddenly and simultaneously also able to exercise their environmental stewardship, resulting
in tremendous consumer side energy efficiencies.
Let's talk about avoidance of new construction. Increased asset optimization means more
reliance upon the most efficient power plants, and less reliance upon the least efficient peaker
plants. It allow utilities to defer new generation investment. The ability to effectively manage
load with existing transmission and distribution infrastructure means that, ultimately, utilities
would no longer have to build, or could at least defer infrastructure to account for rapidly
increasing peak demand.
Let's discuss integration of renewable energy sources. Given the significant concerns regarding
climate change, the need for distributed solar and wind power is critical. According to the
European Wind Energy Association, integrating wind or solar power into the grid at scale, at
levels higher than 20%, will require advanced energy management techniques and approaches at
the grid operator level. The smart grid ability to dynamically manage all sources of power on the
grid means that more distributed generation can be integrated within it.
Talking of preparation for the future, a smarter grid is a necessity for plugging in the next
generation of automotive vehicles, including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, to provide
services supporting grid operation. Let's talk about smart grid and how it applies to
consumers. For most consumers, energy has long been considered as passive purchase. A
typical electric bill is largely unintelligible to consumers and delivered days after the
consumption actually occurs, giving consumers no visibility into decisions they could be
making regarding their energy consumption. Electric bill includes a hefty mortgage payment
to pay for the infrastructure needed to generate and deliver power. As much as 33% to 50% of
electric bill is non-negotiable. With demand estimated to double by 2050, and more power
plants, transmission lines, transformers, and substations to be built, the cost of this big iron
will also show up on your bill in one way or another. Global demand for construction material
will rise substantially, driving prices up. Connecting to consumers by means of the right price
signals and smart appliances, for example, a smarter grid can reduce the need for some of that
infrastructure, while keeping electricity reliable and affordable.
Enabling consumers to automatically reduce demand for brief periods through new
technologies and motivating mechanisms like real time pricing, the grid remains reliable, and
consumers are compensated for their help. Ultimately, tapping the collaborative power of
millions of consumers to shed load will put significant breaks on the need for new
infrastructure at any cost. Instead, utilities will have time to build more cost efficiencies into
their sighting and building plans. Given new awareness, understanding, tools and education
made possible by smarter grid, consumers will be able to make choices that save money,
enhance personal convenience, improve the environment, or all three.
Research indicates that consumers are ready to engage with the smart grid, as long as their
interface with the smart grid is simple, accessible, and in no way interferes with how they live
their lives. At the residential level, smart grid must be simple, set it and forget it technology,
enabling consumers to easily adjust their own energy use. Equipped with reach useful
information, consumers can help manage load on peak to save money and energy for
themselves, and ultimately for all of us.

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16. Smart Grid & the Environment
While the nation's transportation sector emits 20% of all the carbon dioxide we
produce, the generation of electricity emits 40%. Clearly presenting an enormous challenge
for the electric power industry in terms of global climate change. Smart grid deployment is a
key tool in addressing the challenges of climate change.
Ultimately, and significantly reducing greenhouse gases and criteria pollutants such as NOx,
SOx, and particulates. A smarter grid delivers and use conservation and efficiency thanks to
its ability to establish more focused and pervasive consumer participation from a behavioural
perspective. There is measurable energy savings when consumers participate. Approximately
6% in the residential sector. Awareness on the part of consumers to manage peak load by
virtue of a feedback mechanism may incite greater attention to consumption patterns and
result in savings. Proving that timing is everything, a smarter grid can capture carbon savings
from peak load shifting even if energy is not being saved. When peak load is reduced by
means of demand response many peaking plants and the carbon that they emit are kept on the
side-lines. The Smart Grid's single biggest potential in delivering carbon savings is in
providing cost effective and increasingly clean energy to plug in electrical vehicles including
plug in hybrid electric vehicles.

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Although, the vehicles will be producing the saving rather than the Smart Grid, only Smart
Grid technologies will allow us to tap the fundamental potential. The idle production capacity
of today's grid could supply 73% of the energy needs of today's cars, SUVs, pickup trucks,
and vans with existing power plants. Additional benefits include the potential to displace 52%
of net oil imports, or 6.7 million barrels per day, and to reduce CO2 emissions by 27%.
Furthermore, by enabling the sale of more electricity over the same infrastructure, the Smart
Grid has the potential to lower electric rates. These benefits accrue, however, only if these
vehicles are charged strictly off peak. Charging electric vehicles on peak would only further
stress the grid. In terms of carbon emissions, the nation's vehicles produce a substantial
amount of them. By moving their emissions from millions of tailpipes to far fewer
smokestacks, the Smart Grid could dramatically reduce the size and complexity of the
industry's ongoing clean-up detail. That is, rather than wondering how to handle hundreds of
millions of four-wheeled emitters, Smart Grid functionality enables us to shift focus to
challenges ranging from carbon management to the use of more renewable sources of
electricity. Wide spread adoption of hybrid vehicles will cut greenhouse gases including CO2.
In the process, it will work towards improving the general health of the United States as well
as lessening our dependence on foreign oil.
The full exploitation of renewable energy sources such as wind and PV solar, is critical to
managing our collective carbon footprint. However, when viewed against the limitations of
the current grid, both technologies phase barriers to full scale deployment. A Smarter Grid
enables grid operators to see further into the system, and allows them the flexibility to better
manage the intermittency of renewables. This in turn, surmounts a significant barrier,
enabling wind and solar to be applied rapidly, and in larger percentages.
So what is the next step? Action or inaction? If we do nothing, an environmental study shows
that U.S. carbon emissions are expected to rise from 1,700 million tons of carbon per year
today to 2,300 million tons of carbon by the year 2030. The same study shows that utilities
through implementation of energy efficiency programs and use of renewable energy sources
could not only displays that growth. But actually have the opportunity to reduce the carbon
output to below 1,000 million tons of carbon by 2030. If we do nothing about engaging the
consumer, we can expect to run out of both choices and time, drastically limiting our ability
to meet future energy challenges. If we do nothing the incidence of massive and crippling
blackouts will likely increase. If you do nothing, rates will increase dramatically to pay not
only for electricity but also for increase transmission constraints, ever higher peak loads, and
the mortgages on outdated assets. If we do nothing all of us will pay substantially more for
the electricity, to say nothing about the resulting plight of those who can least afford to pay.

17. Renewable Energy

We discussed renewable energy sources when we were talking about a generation. Let's
concentrate on wind and solar. What role does renewable energy play in the United States?
Up until the mid-1800's, wood supplied nearly all of the nation's energy needs. As more
consumers began using coal, petroleum, and natural gas, the United States relies less on wood
as an energy source. Today, the use of renewable energy sources is increasing especially bio-
fuels, solar, and wind. Most recently, about 10 percent of total US energy consumption was
from renewable energy sources, or about 10.2 quadrillion British thermal units. One
quadrillion is the number one followed by 15 zeros. Renewable energy plays an important
role in reducing greenhouse

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gas emissions. When renewable energy sources are used, the demand for fossil fuels is
reduced. Unlike fossil fuels, non-biomass renewable sources of energy such as hydro-power,
geothermal, wind, and solar, do not directly emit greenhouse gases. The consumption of bio-
fuels and other non-hydroelectric renewable energy sources, more than doubled during the
last decade mainly because of state and federal government mandates and incentives for
renewable energy. Why don't we use more renewable energy? In general renewable energy is

more expensive to produce and to use than fossil fuel energy. Favorable renewable resources
are often located in remote areas, and it can be expensive to build power lines from the
renewable energy sources to the cities that need the electricity. In addition, renewable sources
are not always available. Clouds reduce electricity from solar power plants. Days with low
wind reduce electricity from wind farms. Droughts reduce the water available for hydro-
power. Let's talk about wind energy a little bit. Wind is caused by uneven heating of the
Earth's surface by the sun. Because the Earth's surface is made up of different types of land
and water, it absorbs the sun's heat at different rates. One example of this uneven heating is
the daily wind cycle. During the day, air above the land heats up faster than air over water,
warm air over land expands and rises, and heavier cooler air rushes in to take its place
creating wind. At night, the winds are reversed because air cools more rapidly over land than
it does over water. Let's briefly talk about energy from the sun.
The sun has produced energy for billions of years, and is the ultimate source for all of the
energy sources and fuels that we use today. People have used the suns rays, solar radiation for
thousands of years for warmth and to dry meat, fruit, and grains. Over time, people develop
devices to collect sun energy as thermal or heat energy. An example of an early solar energy
collection is the solar oven, a box for collecting and absorbing sunlight. In the 1830's, British
astronomer John Herschel, used a solar oven to cook food during an expedition to Africa.
People now use many different technologies for collecting and converting solar radiation into
useful heat energy for a variety of purposes. We use solar thermal energy systems to heat
water for use in homes, buildings or swimming pools, heat the inside of homes, greenhouses
and other buildings, heat fluids to high temperatures in solar thermal power plants. Solar
photo-voltaic systems convert sunlight into electricity. Solar photo-voltaic or PV devices or
solar cells, change sunlight directly into electricity. Small PV cells can power calculators,
watches, and other small electronic devices. Arrangements of many solar cells in PV panels
and arrangements of multiple PV panels in PV arrays, can produce electricity for an entire
house. Some PV power plants have large arrays that cover many acres to produce electricity
for thousands of homes. The two main benefits of using solar energy are; solar energy
systems do not produce air pollutants or carbon dioxide. Solar energy systems on buildings
have minimum impact on the environment. The main limitations of solar energy are; the
amount of sunlight that arrives at the earth surface is not constant.
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 Conclusion

"Imagination has brought mankind through the dark ages to its present state of civilization.
Imagination led Columbus to discover America. Imagination led to discover electricity. -L.
Frank Baum"

The discovery of electricity was a turning point of history because without it we wouldn’t live
in the world that we live in today which is filled with life changing technology but it all needs
and uses electricity. Without electricity you wouldn’t be able to view this page or be on a
computer at this very moment. Electricity is something that we all live by whether we notice
it or not, some of us wouldn’t be able to survive without it because it is a must needed source
to our everyday lives. It is used to help save people, in education, hospitals, cities, etc., we
live by this incredible creation that Mother Nature has given us and we have been able to
control it with our very own hands throughout centuries. Especially in this crazy changing
world where things are being invented and created every day, it would not be possible without
"Electricity".

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