PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS
TOPIC OUTLINE
A. Meridians
B. Expedient Methods of
Establishing Meridians
C. Units of Angular
Measurement
D. Designation of North
Points
E. Bearings
F. Forward and Back Bearings
G. Azimuths
H. Forward and Back Azimuths
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to define and
measure vertical and
zenith angles.
2. Identify directions for
horizontal angle
measurements.
3. To be able to compute
angles, bearings, and
azimuths.
OVERVIEW
A horizontal angle may be
described in one of several
different ways depending on how
it is measured. – An interior
angle is measured on the inside
of a closed polygon: an
exterior angle is measured
outside of the closed polygon.
– An angle turned (measured) in
a clockwise direction, from the
“rear” to the “forward” point
or station, is called an angle
to the right.
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Module No. 11
MERIDIANS
The direction of a line is
usually defined by the
horizontal angle it makes with
a fixed reference line or
direction. In surveying, this
is done with reference to a
meridian which lies in a
vertical plane passing through
a fixed point of reference and
through the observer’s
position. There are four types
of meridians: true, magnetic
grid, and assumed.
1. True Meridian. The true
meridian is sometimes
known as the astronomic or
geographic meridian. It is
generally adapted
reference line in
surveying practice. This
line passes through the
geographic north and south
poles of the earth and the
observer’s position.
2. Magnetic Meridian. A
magnetic meridian is a
fixed line of reference
which lies parallel with
the magnetic lines of
force of the earth. Its
direction is defined by a
freely suspended magnetic
needle of a compass held
at the observer’s
position.
3. Grid Meridian. A grid
meridian is a fixed line
of reference parallel to
the central meridian of a
system of plane
rectangular coordinates.
One central meridian,
which coincides with a
true meridian, is usually
selected and all other
meridians are made
parallel to this meridian.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

4. Assumed Meridian. An crotch made by two sticks

assumed meridian is an (Fig. 24-1).
arbitrarily chosen fixed
line of reference which is
taken for convenience.
This meridian is usually
the direction from a
survey station to an
adjoining station or some
well-defined and permanent
point.

EXPEDIENT METHODS OF
ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS
3. Determining True North by
the Rising and Setting of
The following are some
the Sun. From a convenient
expedient methods of
position or station,
determining or establishing
observe the rising and
meridians.
setting of the sun on the
same day or at setting on
1. Establishing Magnetic
one day and rising the
Meridian by Compass. The
next (Fig.)
magnetic meridian can be
established by setting up
the compass over any
convenient point and then
sighting a distant object
that marks another point
on the meridian. For an
accurate determination of
the desired meridian,
several sights should be
taken during the setup and
the compass must be
rotated about its vertical
axis and then positioned 4. Determining True North by
until the needle needs Polaris. The big dipper is
zero. The mean of the a useful reference
points thus established is constellation of the
taken as the magnetic northern hemisphere. As a
meridian. The observations star group, it is the most
should, however, be made familiar and easiest to
when the magnetic recognize. It has been so
declination is named because of the
approximately at its mean distinctive dipper-like
value. pattern formed by seven
bright stars. The two
2. Determining True North by stars, Merak and Dubhe,
Aid of Sun and a Plumb forming the side of the
Line. In a level piece of dipper which is farthest
ground, lean a pole from the handle are known
approximately toward the as the pointer stars. They
North and rest it in a point towards Polaris
which is also known as the

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS
north star, pole star, or
cynosure. Polaris lies
almost directly above the
earth’s north pole.
5. Determining True South by
the Southern Cross. The
southern cross (or crux)
is a constellation of the
southern hemisphere which
serves as a reference
group of stars for
determining the location
of the earth’s south pole.
UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT.
The magnitude of an angle can
be expressed in different
units, all of which are
basically derived from the
division of the circumference
of a circle. A purely arbitrary
unit is used to define the
value of an angle. The
principle system of units used
are.
1. The Degree. The
sexagesimal system is used
in which the circumference
of a circle is divided
into 360 parts or degrees.
The angle of one degree is
defined as the angle which
requires 1/360 of the
rotation needed to obtain
one complete revolution.
2. The Grad. The grad is the
unit of measure in the
centesimal system. In this
system the circumference
of a circle is divided
into 400 parts called
grads.
3. The Mil. The circumference
is subdivided into 6400
parts called mils, or 1600
mils is equal to 90
degrees. The mil will
subtend very nearly one
linear unit in a distance
of 1000 such units. It is
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Module No. 11
commonly used in military
operations as in fire
direction of artillery
units.
4. The Radian. The radian is
another measure of angles
used frequently for a host
of calculations. One
radian is defined as the
angle subtended at the
centre of a circle by an
arc length exactly equal
to the radius of the
circle.
DESIGNATION OF NORTH
POINTS
There is always a starting or
reference point to define
directions. Map users are
primarily concerned with the
north point for the
determination of directions and
the following are the commonly
used reference points.
1. True North. Is the north
point of the true
meridian. In maps and
sketches, it is portrayed
in the direction of the
actual location of the
earth’s north geographic
pole and is always shown
along a vertical line.
2. Magnetic North. A north
point that is established
by means of a magnetized
compass needle when there
are no local attractions
affecting it. At any point
on the earth’s surface its
direction is indicated by
the direction of the
magnetic lines of force
passing through the point
at a particular time.
3. Grid North. A north point
which is established by
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

lines on a map which are

parallel to a selected
central meridian.
4. Assumed North. Is used to
portray the location of
any arbitrarily chosen
north point.
BEARINGS
The direction of a line may be
described by giving its
bearing. The bearing of a line
is the acute horizontal angle
between the reference meridian
and the line. A quadrantal
system is used to specify
bearings such that a line may
fall under one of the following
quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and SW.
FORWARD AND BACK
BEARINGS
Using the quadrantal system,
any line on the surface of the
earth may be defined by two
directions which differ from
each other by exactly 180
degrees. The direction will
depend on which and the line is
observed in the direction in
which the survey progresses, it
is referred to as a forward
bearing, if the bearing of the
same line is observed in an
opposite direction is called
the back bearing.

AZIMUTHS

Another common method used in

designating the direction of a
line is by the use of azimuths.
Bearings may also be designated
The azimuth of a line is its
in a different manner when the
direction as given by the angle
directions of a line lie in the
between the meridian and the
same direction as the reference
line measured in a clockwise
meridian or reference parallel.
direction from either the north
If the line lies parallel to
or south branch of the
the meridian and south, it is
meridian.
written as due south; if
perpendicular to the meridian
and east, it is written as due
east.

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS
Azimuth (from North) of Lines
Azimuth (from South) of Lines
FORWARD AND BACK
AZIMUTHS
Any line established on the
earth’s surface has two
azimuths – a forward azimuth
and a back azimuth. Depending
on which end of the line is
considered, these directions
differ by 180 degrees from each
other since the back azimuth is
the exact reverse of the
forward azimuth. To determine
the back azimuth when the
forward azimuth is known, the
following rules are used:
RULE 1: If the forward azimuth
of the line is greater than 180
degrees, subtract 180 degrees
to obtain the back azimuth.
RULE 2: When the forward
azimuth of the line is less
than 180 degrees, add 180
degrees to determine the back
azimuth.
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Module No. 11
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Problem 1. Convert 270° into
its equivalent value in grads,
mils, and radians.
Problem 2. The value of an
observed interior angle in a
closed traverse is 350 grads.
Convert the angle into its
equivalent value in degrees,
mils, and radians.
Problem 3. Convert 1600 mils
into its equivalent value in
grads, degrees, and radians.
Problem 4. Compute the angles
AOB, COD, EOF, and GOH from the
following set of lines whose
magnetic bearings are given:
a) OA, N 39°25’ E and OB, N
75°50’ E
b) OC, N 34°14’ E and OD, N
53°22’ W
c) OE, S 15°04’ E and OF, S
36°00’ W
d) OG, N 70°15’ W and OH, S
52°05’ W
Problem 5. Convert the
following bearings to
equivalent north and south
azimuths.
a) AB, N 25°25’ W
b) BC, due East
c) CD, S 50°10’ E
d) DE, S 45°50’ W
e) EF, N 66°30’ W
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

SUMMARY

Bearings are another system for

designating directions of
lines. The bearing of a line is
defined as the acute horizontal
angle between a reference
meridian and the line. The
angle is observed from either
the north or south toward the
east or west, to give a reading
smaller than 90°.The letter N
or S preceding the angle, and E
or W following it shows the
proper quadrant. Thus, a
properly expressed bearing
includes quadrant letters and
an angular value.

Azimuths are horizontal angles

observed clockwise from any
reference meridian. In plane
surveying, azimuths are
generally observed from north,
but astronomers and the
military have used south as the
reference direction.

REFERENCES

Elementary Surveying
Alfeo La Putt

Prepared by:

ENGR. ELMAR T. ANTOLIN

Faculty, Civil Engineering
Department
College of Engineering and
Architecture