ENGINEERING DESIGN AND CAD
LESSON 33:
TRANSFORMATIONS
Functions of Graphics Package
To fulfill its role in the software configuration, the graphics
package must perform a variety of different functions. These
functions can be grouped in to function sets. Each set accom-
plishes a certain kind of interaction between the user and the
system. Some of the common functions sets are:
• Generation of graphic elements.
• Transformations
• Display control and windowing functions
• Segmenting functions
• User input functions
We examine some of these functions in more detail in subse-
quent sections of this chapter. What we present in the sections
below is a brief description of each.
Generation Of Graphic Elements
A graphic element in computer graphics is a basic image entity
such as a dot (or point), line segment, circle, and so forth. The
collection of elements in the system could also include alphanu-
meric characters and special symbols. There is often a special
hardware component in the graphics system associated with the
display of many of the elements. This speeds up the process of
generating the element. The user can construct the application
model out of a collection of elements available on the system.
The term ‘primitive’ is often used in reference to graphic
elements. We shall reserve the use of this term to three-
dimensional graphics construction. Accordingly, a primitive is a
three dimensional wire frame models and solid modeling,
primitives are used as building blocks to construct the three-
dimensional model of the particular object of interest to the
user
Transformations
Transformations are used to change the image on the display
screen and to reposition the item in the database. Transforma-
tions are applied to graphic elements in order to aid the user in
constructing an application model. These transformations were
in the model. For example, if a bolt is to be used several places
in the construction of a mechanical assembly model. The use of
graphic cells is a convenient and powerful feature in the
geometric model construction.
Many of the editing features involve transformations of the
graphics elements or cells composed of elements or even the
entire model. In this section we discuss the mathematics of
these transformations. Two-dimensional transformations are
considered first to illustrate concepts.
Two-dimensional Transformations
To locate a point in a two-axis Cartesian system, the x and y
coordinates are specified. These coordinates can be treated
together as a 1 x 2 matrix (x, y). For example, the matrix (2,5)
would be interpreted to be a point, which is 2 units from the
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60
origin in the x-direction and 5 units from the origin in the y-
direction.
This method of representation can be conveniently extended to
define a line as a 2 x 2 matrix by giving the x and y coordinates
of the end points of the line. The notation would be
x y 
L= 1 1  ........................(1)
x2 y2 
Using the rules of matrix algebra, a point or line (or other
geometric element represented in matrix notation) can be
operated on by a transformation matrix to yield a new element.
There are several common transformations used in computer
graphics. We will discuss three transformations:
• Translation
• Scaling
• Rotation
Translation
Translation involves moving the element from one location to
another. In the case of a point, the operation would be
x’ = x + m, y’ = y + n ........................(2)
Where x’, y, = coordinates of the translated point
x, y = coordinates of the original point
m, n = movements in the x and y directions,
respectively
In matrix notation this can be represented as
(x’, y’) = (x, y) + T ............................(3)
Where
T = (m, n), the translation matrix ............................(4)
Any geometric element can be translated in space by applying
Eq. (3) to each point that defines the element. For a line, the
transformation matrix would be applied to its two end points.
Example 1
As an illustration of these transformations in two dimensions,
consider the line defined by
1 1
L =
2 4
Let us suppose that it is desired to translate the line in space by
2 units in the x direction and 3 units in the y direction. This
would involve adding 2 to the current x value and 3 to the
current y value of the end points defining the line. That is,
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 ENGINEERING DESIGN AND CAD
1 1 2 3 3 4 1 1 2 0 2 2
+ = . =
2 4 2 3 4 7 2 4 0 2 4 8

8
7 •(4, 7) • (4, 8)
7
6 Translated Line
6
5
(2, 4) 5 2 x scaled line
4 • •(3, 4) (2, 4)
4 •
3
Original Line 3
2
1 2 •(2, 2)
•(1, 1)
x 1 • Original line
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 (1, 1)
x
Figure 1 Results of Translation in Example 1. x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Scaling
Scaling of an element is used to enlarge it or reduce its size. The Figure 2 Results of scaling in Example 2.
scaling need not necessarily be done equally in the x and y
Rotation
directions. For example, a circle could be transformed into an
In this transformation, the points of an object are rotated
ellipse by using unequal x and y scaling factors.
about the origin by an angle 0. For a positive angle, this rotation
The points of an element can be scaled by the scaling matrix as is in the counterclockwise direction. This accomplishes rotation
follows: of the object by the same angle, but it also moves the object. In
(x’, y’) = (x, y)S ............................(5) matrix notation, the procedure would be as follows:
Where (x’, y’) = (x, y)R .....................(7)
m 0 Where
S= (6) Cos 0 sin 0
0 n R= ..........(8)
This would produce an alteration in the size of the element by -Sin 0 cos 0
the factor m in the x-direction and by the factor n in the y
Defining the Graphic Elements
direction. It also has the effect of repositioning the element
The user has a variety of different ways to call a particular
with respect to the Cartesian system origin. If the scaling factors
graphic element and position it on the geometric model. Table
are less than 1, the size of the element is reduced and it is
lists several ways of defining points, lines, arcs and other
moved closer to the origin. If the scaling factors are larger than
components of geometry through interaction with the ICG
1, the element is enlarged and removed farther from the origin.
system. These components are maintained in the database in
Example 2 mathematical form and referenced to the three-dimensional
For the same original lines as in example 1, let us apply the coordinate system. For example, a point would be defined
scaling factor of 2 to the line. The scaling matrix for the 2 x 2 simply by its x, y and z coordinates. A polygon would be
line definition would therefore be defined as an ordered set of points representing the corners of
2 0 the polygon.
T = A circle would be defined in the x-y plane by the equation
0 2 (x-m) 2 + (y-n) 2 = r 2
The resulting line would be determined by Eq. As follows This specifies that the radius of the circle is r and the x and y of
the center are m and n. in each case, the mathematical definition
The new line is pictured in figure 2
can be converted in to its corresponding edges and surfaces for
(x’, y’) = (x, y) S filing in the database and display on the CRT screen.

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7.235 61
 Editing the Geometry
ENGINEERING DESIGN AND CAD
Example 3
We will use our same line and rotate the line about the origin by A computer aided design system provides editing capabilities to
300. make correction and adjustment in the geometric model. When
cos 30 sin 30 0.866 0.500 developing the model, the user must be able to delete, move,
copy and rotate components of the model. We have previously
R = =
discussed some of these adjustments in our discussions of the
-sin 30 cos 30 - 0.500 0.866 functions of the graphics package. The editing procedure
The new line would be defined as: involves selecting the desired portion of the model (usually by
means of one of the segmenting functions), and executing the
1 1 0.866 0.500 0.366 1.366
appropriate command (often involving one of the transforma-
. = tion functions).
2 4 -0.50 0.866 -0.268 4.464 The method of selecting the segment of the model to be
The effect of applying the rotation matrix to the line is shown modified varies from system to system. With cursor control, a
in figure 3 common method is for a rectangle to be formed on the CRT
y screen around the model segment. The rectangle is defined by
7 entering the upper left and lower right corners of the rectangle.
Another method involving a light pen is to place the pen over
6
the components to be selected. With the electronic pen and the
5 tablet, the method might be to stroke a line across the portion
of the model, which is to altered.
(-0.268, 4.464)•
•(2, 4) The computer must somehow indicate to the user which
Rotated Line 3 portion of the model has been selected. The reason for this is
verification that the portion selected by the computer is what
2 Original Line the user intended. Various techniques are used by different ICG
(0.366, 1.366) •
1 • (1, 1) systems to identify the segment. These include: placing a mark
on the segment, making the segment brighter than the rest of
x the image, and making the segment blink.
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 3 Results of Rotation in Example 3

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62 7.235