History

History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation")[2]
is the study and the documentation of the past.[3][4] Events before the invention of writing
systems are considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well
as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these
events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written
documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers.[5]

Herodotus (c. 484 BC—c. 425 BC), often considered the "father of history"

History is also an academic discipline which uses
Those who cannot remember the
narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze past
past are condemned to repeat it.[1]
events, and investigate their patterns of cause and
—George Santayana
effect.[6][7] Historians often debate which narrative best
explains an event, as well as the significance of different
causes and effects. Historians also debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its
usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.[6][8][9][10]

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales
surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends.[11][12] History
differs from myth in that it is supported by evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have
helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the
centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and
includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematic elements of
historical investigation. History is often taught as part of primary and secondary education, and
the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies.

Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the "father of history" in the
Western tradition,[13] although he has also been criticized as the "father of lies".[14][15] Along with
his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past
events and societies. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-
focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or
approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn
Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, although only 2nd-century BC texts have
survived.

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from the Ancient Greek ἱστορία[16] (historía), meaning "inquiry",
"knowledge from inquiry", or "judge". It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his
History of Animals.[17] The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns,
Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge"
or "witness", or similar). The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin as historia, meaning
"investigation, inquiry, research, account, description, written account of past events, writing of
history, historical narrative, recorded knowledge of past events, story, narrative". History was
borrowed from Latin (possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær ("history,
narrative, story"), but this word fell out of use in the late Old English period.[18] Meanwhile, as
Latin became Old French (and Anglo-Norman), historia developed into forms such as istorie,
estoire, and historie, with new developments in the meaning: "account of the events of a person's
life (beginning of the 12th century), chronicle, account of events as relevant to a group of people
or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events (c. 1240),
body of knowledge relative to human evolution, science (c. 1265), narrative of real or imaginary
events, story (c. 1462)".[18]

It was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan
stuck. It appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have become a common word
in the late 14th century, with an early attestation appearing in John Gower's Confessio Amantis
of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To this matiere an old histoire, | The which
comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The
restriction to the meaning "the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal
record or study of past events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century.[18] With the
Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis
Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about natural history. For him,
historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge
provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by
fantasy).[19]

In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese
史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In
(
modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly
synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both "history" and "story".
Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European
languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the
scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter,
or the word historiography.[17] The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from
1669.[20]

Description

The title page to The Historians' History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant
ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society.
In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the
formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production of narrative and analysis of past
events relating to the human race.[21] The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the
institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical
record.[22] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully
contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the
historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage
of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of
the historian's role is to skillfully and objectively utilize the vast amount of sources from the past,
most often found in the archives. The process of creating a narrative inevitably generates a
silence as historians remember or emphasize different events of the past.[23]

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times
as part of the social sciences.[24] It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas,
incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the
other classification.[25] In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the
study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in
the study of global history.

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an
oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written
documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also used such sources as
monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be
separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved,
and historians often consult all three.[26] But writing is the marker that separates history from
what comes before.

Archaeology is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which contribute to the
study of history. Archaeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing
its discoveries. Archaeology's methodologies and approaches are independent from the field of
history. "Historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archaeology which often contrasts its
conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the
excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA, has sought to understand the
contradiction between textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record,
demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the
study of the total historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically,
culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and
significant intersections are often present. It is possible for historians to concern themselves
with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward
specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal
patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but
also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity.[27]
 History and prehistory

The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around
the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory",
historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist,
or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and
other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record.
Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit
exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian
America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the
Western world.[28] In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is

crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become
consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History
begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the
carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of
the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.[29]

This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as
Indigenous Australians and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and
transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization.

Historiography
The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Historiography has a number of related meanings.[30] Firstly, it can refer to how history has been
produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move
from short-term biographical narrative towards long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can
refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval
historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the
1960s").[30] Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history. As a meta-
level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that
the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, world view, use of evidence, or
method of presentation of other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of
whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing
narratives.[31][32]

Historical methods
A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria

Historical method basics

The following questions are used by historians in modern work.

1. When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?

2. Where was it produced (localization)?

3. By whom was it produced (authorship)?

4. From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?

5. In what original form was it produced (integrity)?

6. What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

The first four are known as historical criticism; the fifth, textual criticism; and, together, external
criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary
sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC—c. 425 BC)[33] has generally been acclaimed as the "father
of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (c. 460 BC—c. 400 BC) is credited with having
first approached history with a well-developed historical method in his work the History of the
Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the
choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result
of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).[33] In
his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral point of view, and
that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also
viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[34]

There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and
medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by
the Han dynasty court historian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Records of the
Grand Historian (Shiji). For the quality of his written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as
the Father of Chinese historiography. Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in
China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical
literature.

Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the
medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied
through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.[27]

In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn
Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this
criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn
Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of
relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible
to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational
principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition
and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the
study of history, and he often referred to it as his "new science".[35] His historical method also
laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and
systematic bias in history,[36] and he is thus considered to be the "father of historiography"[37][38]
or the "father of the philosophy of history".[39]

In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th
centuries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert Spencer summarized these
methods:

From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians]

diligently gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon
everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle like children over
their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that
ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous
volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of
rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden truths
might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought[40]

By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, Henry Thomas Buckle
expressed a dream of history becoming one day science:

In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and

capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in
accordance with certain fixed and universal laws. This have been done
because men of ability and, above all, men of patient, untiring thought
have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if
human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right
to expect similar results[41]

Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods
became Leopold von Ranke in Germany. He limited history to “what really happened” and by this
directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected
carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures “are
merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out
order and regularity in the data being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws about
them.”[42]
 As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it,
no, history is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the
manner in which he practices his craft, it cannot be considered a
science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing science, then,
whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The traditional
Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is
not a science.[43]

In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which
often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses of social
and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was a
tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as an art, which traditionally had
been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history as a social science were a diverse
collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le
Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay,
Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social
science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach. Braudel combined history with
geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with economics, Gay history with
psychology, Trigger history with archaeology while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le
Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography,
anthropology, and economics. Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to
produce a theory of history. So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a
professional Historian.[44] Whatever other theories of history we have, they were written by
experts from other fields (for example, Marxian theory of history). More recently, the field of
digital history has begun to address ways of using computer technology to pose new questions
to historical data and generate digital scholarship.

In sincere opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh
Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued
that the key to the historians' work was the power of the imagination, and hence contended that
history should be understood as an art. French historians associated with the Annales School
introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were
prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual
historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the
significance of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on
formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. Another genre of social history to
emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as
Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like
for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.

Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre,
Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J.
Mayer and Christopher Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from
a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians such as
François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner and Robert
Conquest have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians such as Joan
Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda
Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the
experience of women in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity
and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal
interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of History, Richard J. Evans defended the
worth of history. Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian
historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.

Today, most historians begin their research process in the archives, on either a physical or digital
platform. They often propose an argument and use their research to support it. John H. Arnold
proposed that history is an argument, which creates the possibility of creating change.[5] Digital
information companies, such as Google, have sparked controversy over the role of internet
censorship in information access.[45]

Marxian theory

The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises that society is fundamentally determined
by the material conditions at any given time – in other words, the relationships which people
have with each other in order to fulfill basic needs such as feeding, clothing and housing
themselves and their families.[46] Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have identified five
successive stages of the development of these material conditions in Western Europe.[47]
Marxist historiography was once orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the collapse of
communism there in 1991, Mikhail Krom says it has been reduced to the margins of
scholarship.[48]

Potential shortcomings in the production of history

Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded with bias because events
and known facts in history can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Constantin Fasolt suggested
that history is linked to politics by the practice of silence itself.[49] He also said: “A second
common view of the link between history and politics rests on the elementary observation that
historians are often influenced by politics.”[49] According to Michel-Rolph Trouillot, the historical
process is rooted in the archives, therefore silences, or parts of history that are forgotten, may
be an intentional part of a narrative strategy that dictates how areas of history are
remembered.[23] Historical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect
on historical records. Information can also purposely be excluded or left out accidentally.
Historians have coined multiple terms that describe the act of omitting historical information,
including: “silencing,”[23] “selective memory,”[50] and erasures.[51] Gerda Lerner, a twentieth
century historian who focused much of her work on historical omissions involving women and
their accomplishments, explained the negative impact that these omissions had on minority
groups.[50]

Environmental historian William Cronon proposed three ways to combat bias and ensure
authentic and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known fact, they must make
ecological sense (specifically for environmental history), and published work must be reviewed
by scholarly community and other historians to ensure accountability.[51]

Areas of study
Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as history of
science, history of mathematics and history of philosophy.

Ancient history: the study of history from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle
Ages.

Atlantic history: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean.

Art history: the study of changes in and the social context of art.

Comparative history: the historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to
national boundaries.

Contemporary history: the study of recent historical events.

Counterfactual history: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different
causal circumstances.

Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.

Digital history: the use of computing technologies to do massive searches in published

sources.

Economic history: the use of economic models fitted to the past.

Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and
their development over time.

Maritime history: the study of maritime transport and all connected subjects.

Material history: the study of objects and the stories they can tell.

Modern history: the study of Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.

Military history: the study of warfare, historical wars, and Naval history, which is sometimes
considered to be a sub-branch of military history.

Oral history: the collection and study of historical information by utilizing spoken interviews
with people who have lived past events.

Palaeography: the study of ancient texts.

People's history: historical work from the perspective of common people.

Political history: the study of politics in the past.

 Psychohistory: the study of the psychological motivations for historical events.

Pseudohistory: studies about the past that fall outside the domain of mainstream history
(sometimes equivalent to pseudoscience).

Social history: the study of the process of social change throughout history.

Women's history: the history of female human beings. Gender history is related and covers the
perspective of gender.

World history: the study of history from a global perspective, with special attention to non-
Western societies.

Periods

Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of
time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and
classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.[52] The names given to a period can vary
with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period.
Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the
dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value
judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them
can affect the way they are viewed and studied.[53]

Prehistoric periodisation

The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archaeologists, who have entirely different sets
of tools and theories. In archaeology, the usual method for periodisation of the distant
prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the Stone Age,
Bronze Age and Iron Age, with sub-divisions that are also based on different styles of material
remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could
unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology.[54] This narrative content
could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodisations, however,
that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus
devoid of any specific meaning.

Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and other
scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established
schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighbouring cultures with writing have
left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodisation, however, is not viewed
as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently
start and stop (combinedly) at periodisation boundaries" and that different trajectories of
change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural
phenomena.[55]

Geographical locations

Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents,
countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this,
historians often turn to geography. According to Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de France
(1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on
air."[56] Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the
people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful
civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the
banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could
help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not
have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.
There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth Huntington and Ellen Churchill
Semple cited as a crucial influence on the course of history. Huntington and Semple further
argued that climate has an impact on racial temperament.[57]

Regions
History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent,
continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation
states.

History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central
America and the Caribbean.
History of North America is the study of the past passed down from generation to
generation on the continent in the Earth's northern and western hemisphere.

History of Central America is the study of the past passed down from generation to
generation on the continent in the Earth's western hemisphere.

History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains
have been found.
 History of South America is the study of the past passed down from generation to
generation on the continent in the Earth's southern and western hemisphere.

History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra
Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.

History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the
Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of
the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European
continent to the present day.

History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal
regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the
Eurasian steppe.
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to
generation in East Asia.

History of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now
known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia
(Iraq).

History of India is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation
in the Sub-Himalayan region.

History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional

players and foreign powers.

History of Oceania is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands.
History of Australia starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with
Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast.

History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and
settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links
and land.

History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Military

Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat.[58]
The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals,
with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and
culture.[59]

Religious

The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for
centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include
Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from
political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.[60] This subject studies
religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.[61]

Social

Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of
ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.[62] In its "golden age" it
was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in
history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history
in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the
proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[63] In the history departments of British
universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social
history while political history came next with 1425 (25%).[64]
The "old" social history before the
1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political
movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system.
Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great
men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and
political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political
history unintelligible."[65] While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the
politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in".[66]

Subfields

The chief subfields of social history include:

Black history

Demographic history

Ethnic history
 Gender history

History of childhood

History of education

History of the family

Labour history

LGBT history

Rural history

Urban history
American urban history

Women's history

Cultural

Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically
combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural
traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and
narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples
constructed their memory of the past is a major topic.
Cultural history includes the study of art
in society as well is the study of images and human visual production (iconography).[67]

Diplomatic

Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy
and the causes of wars.[68] More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It
typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the
driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the
conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.
Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced
constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important,
most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies."[69] She adds that after 1945, the trend
reversed, allowing social history to replace it.

Economic
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years
academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from
traditional history departments.[70] Business history deals with the history of individual business
organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on
society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is
related to economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.[71]

Environmental

Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the
environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.[72] It is an
offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's Silent
Spring in the 1960s.

World

World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is
primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States,[73]
Japan[74] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader
exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.

It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee,
among others.

The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since
1990.[75] The H-World discussion list[76] serves as a network of communication among
practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi,
bibliographies and book reviews.

People's

A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events
from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the
story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in
other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised,
the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors
are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History
Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.[77]

Intellectual

Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on
the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as
disembodied objects with a career of their own.[78][79]

Gender

Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the
perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's history stemmed from
many non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan
W. Scott, “Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived
differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power”,[80]
meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the
sexes and how all genders utilize allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite
being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of
history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of
gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people
who identify outside of that binary. LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances of same-
sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations, and involves the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual
and transgender (LGBT) peoples and cultures around the world.[81]

Public

Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in
the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings.
Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival
science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be
used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly
professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are
museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television
companies, and all levels of government.[82]
 Historians

Benedetto Croce

Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.
Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about
past events. They discover this information through archaeological evidence, written primary
sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In lists of historians,
historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is
not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists,
though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

Judgement

Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the
"judgement of history".[83] The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to
those of legal judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final.[84] A
related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of collective memory.

Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart
from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions.
It is
closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions
from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national,
political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching

Scholarship vs teaching

A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place
of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.
Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the
system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes
than the professors, fought back in defence of their system saying that it successfully produced
Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was
as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World
War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester
University, where Thomas Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate
programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a
thesis.[85][86]

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities,
while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A
tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly
productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly
relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.[87]

Nationalism

From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to
promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a
strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as
to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly
moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western
cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.[88]

At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social
science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as
disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for
teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation
pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children
should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of
the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers
should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the
immense happiness of discovery." Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization
of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists
protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of
French patriotism and national identity.[89]

Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries’ history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give
students the official narrative about national enemies.[90]

In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written
to put the national heritage in the most favourable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the
Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given
cursory treatment. Other countries have complained.[91] It was standard policy in communist
countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.[92][93]

In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from
state to state.[94] An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the
country is the history of the Southern states, where slavery and the American Civil War are
treated as controversial topics. McGraw-Hill Education for example, was criticised for describing
Africans brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.[95]

Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes
with success.[96][97]

In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is

characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately
unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as
UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace."
The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to
develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace,
tolerance and Europeanness."[98]

See also
Methods
Auxiliary sciences of history

Archival research

Bibliography

Computational history

List of history journals

Popular history

Topics
Historiography of Argentina

Atlantic history

Historiography of Canada

Classics
Greek historiography
Historiography of Alexander the Great

Roman historiography
Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

Historiography of the Cold War

Chinese historiography

Historiography of the French Revolution

Annales School, in France

Historiography of Germany
Bielefeld School, in Germany

Historiography of early Islam

Historiography of Japan

Middle Ages
Dark Ages (historiography)

Historiography of the Crusades

 Historiography of Switzerland

Historiography in the Soviet Union

Historiography of the United States

Frontier Thesis

Historiography of the United Kingdom

Historiography of Scotland

Historiography of the British Empire

World history

Historiography of the causes of World War I

Historiography of World War II

Other themes
List of history awards

History of the book

Historiography of science

Subaltern Studies, Regarding post-colonial India

Whig history, History portrayed as the story of continuous progress

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Further reading

Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical
Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language
history books in all fields and topics.

Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.

Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-97701-7.

Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling" (http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm) . American

Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F118.1.1) .
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.h
tm) from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2016; Discussion of the impact of the end of
the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study
and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.

Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31959-8.

Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide.

Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text search (https://www.amaz
on.com/dp/0195337557/) .
Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the
United States" (https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78) . The Oxford History of
Historical Writing. Volume 4: 1800–1945. pp. 78–. ISBN 9780199533091. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20150915192900/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78) from the
original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students;
excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/) .

Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.

Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. 2. Garland Reference Library of the
Humanities; excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Referenc
e-Humanities/dp/0815315147/) .

Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World (https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sF
AAAAIAAJ) . Book 1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174251/https://books.google.co
m/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ) from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015; This is
Book 1 of 25 Volumes.

External links

Best history sites .net (http://www.besthistorysites.net/)

BBC History Site (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history)

Internet History Sourcebooks Project (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/) See also Internet

History Sourcebooks Project. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts
for educational use

The History Channel Online (http://www.history.com)

History Channel UK (http://www.history.co.uk)

History at Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary

Media from Commons News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote

Texts from Wikisource

Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=History&oldid=1065666393"

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