Introduction

to Bridge Design

Lecture Notes
By Eng. Eric. K. Kiilu 
 2

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of a bridge

A bridge is a structure designed to span an obstacle such as waterway, road, canyon etc to
permit smooth and safe passage of vehicular/pedestrian or any form of traffic. Bridge’s
Global components consists of superstructure (deck; girders and slab) and substructure
(which supports the deck e.g. piers/towers, abutments, wing walls). The quality of bridge
design is measured by the success in satisfying the objectives implicit in its design.

1.2 Bridge History and Development

Bridges have been in existence from time immemorial and have evolved from the
simplest clapper bridge (simple plank of stone or tree across a valley/river barrier) to the
modern bridge type. From an historical perspective, the oldest semi modern bridge was
the Roman arch bridge build around 100BC and the Chinese great stone arch bridge build
around 700AD. The modern highway bridge was developed in the depression years of the
1930's, came of age in the 1950's to 1970's and have been greatly enhanced with greater
demand and methods of analysis and design in the 1980's and 1990's. The majority of the
bridges in the latter years mostly in the developed countries were constructed in an era
when the economic growth of these countries was expanding rapidly. Most of the modern
bridges are just but an enhancement of the old bridges made to span longer, have higher
capacity and with an improved aesthetical view. The trucking industry, as much a
beneficiary of the highway bridge as any other industry has continued to push the design
of bridge structures to the outside of the envelope due to their nature of size (height and
length) and weight (Gross axle loading). It is for this reason that design conditions must
consider the load capacities and clearances to allow for heavier and taller tracks/ double
deck vehicles to go through. Examples of modern bridges include the suspension and pre-
stressed bridges which possess enhanced structural form, functionality and span. The
modern bridge has pushed further methods of analysis and design with a greater
dependency on the use of automated analytical tools and design for ease and accuracy.

2.0 BRIDGE DESIGN PLANS

Planning for bridge is an important aspect of bridge design and construction. It occupies
the initial stages of design (feasibility and preliminary design) whereby an engineer
identifies a preferred bridge location and design requirements. In order to have proper
planning for design and construction of a bridge the following preliminary requirements
must be accomplished.

2.1 Reconnaissance
Tentative bridge sites are selected by carrying out a reconnaissance on all possible sites
(through site visits, aerial/satellite survey (GIS), maps, traffic in the adjacent/arterial
roads, traffic conflict sections etc.). The more promising site is further given detailed

Bridges
 3

evaluations (detailed survey- topographical) this applies for location of a bridge site for a
new route (road, rail etc.). However as for urban intersections where traffic weaving
occurs at grade, traffic analysis/simulations are undertaken to identify the most preferred
bridge system and location. The selection of the bridge specific locations on the general
site will be governed by both tactical (sound judgment) and technical considerations. (i.e.
loading, economy, traffic, topography, site conditions and other constraints specific to the
site). It should be noted that bridge location are at time dictated by the alignment of the
new or existing road.

2.2 Detailed Survey

Information for design and levels for construction must be obtained at this stage. It is
necessary to establish horizontal and vertical controls (grades) characteristics of the river
to be bridged, type of vegetation, visibility requirements, and general topography specific
to the bridge location area (contours). Visibility requirements (e.g. for bridge on grade
separation such as multilevel interchanges), possible traffic volume through to be
diverted or generated through the bridge, wind patterns and foundation surveys on strata
types bearing capacities etc for design of substructure.

2.3 Environmental concerns

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) must be prepared to show impact of the bridge
on the environment as well as indicate mitigation measures both during construction and
after (maintenance and service periods). In order to prepare an EIA, it is important to
evaluate the following; Drainage patterns, soil, Climate and existing and land use within
the vicinity of the bridge location. It is required that in the event of the bridge
construction, natural vegetation should be preserved, sensitive land, water areas that
provide quality benefits (e.g. wetlands etc.), heritage sites/building and areas susceptible
to erosion and sedimentation should be avoided whenever possible or provide mitigations
(i.e. preserve the riparian areas by establishing a site specific sedimentation and
vegetation control measures, in advance (planning for), other environment pollutants
specific to the bridge construction and use such as noise, dust, oil leaks etc must also be
controlled through an advance plan showing the mitigation measure against the same.

2.4 Type of bridge and its functional requirements ( Conceptual Plan)

The type of bridge to be designed and constructed must be considered at the planning
stage, based on the results of the reconnaissance and detailed survey. The functional
requirements of the bridge type selected must be identified (preliminarily) for detailed
design purposes. These include identification of the possible bridge span, support types,
vertical and horizontal clearance/alignments (e.g. high water levels, headroom in case of
grade separations/roads at grade), hydraulic adequacy (flood levels/freeboard, afflux
levels) in the case of river bridges, structural materials, Aesthetics and serviceability
aspects. Upon decided on the type and functional requirements, it may be prudent to

Bridges
 4

create model bridges either physical or architecturally for purposes of assessing the
aesthetical aspect as well as preliminary theoretical rating of its functionality (e.g.
analysis by FEM, wind model tests etc.).

2.5 Time Plan/schedule

A time frame within which the various aspects of bridge design, construction and
maintenance (for a period) are required to be implemented must be made. The time plan
must indicate the scheduling of the feasibility studies/reconnaissance, detailed survey,
preliminary and detailed designs, tendering and finally construction process. A separate
more detailed schedule for the actual construction must also be prepared after the final
design and tendering processes have been completed. This is often a basic requirement
from a winning bidder for its construction.

2.6 Financial resources

Prior to identifying and designing a bridge, the sources of funds must be established. It
should be noted that the amount of funds available will determine to some extend the
type of bridge, location materials to be used, preliminary investigation as well as its
design. Insufficiently funded projects will often lead to either compromise in the design
to be implemented and or stalling of the projects which can lead to claims (contract/
Pending bills).

3.0 BRIDGE STRUCTURAL FORMS AND AESTHETHICS

3.1 Bridge types
There are about four major types of bridges which are further categorized depending on
the structural and material form.
3.1.1 Simply supported Beam/Girder bridges
This consists of horizontal beams/girders supported simply/pinned at each end by piers
(columns) or abutments (bridge landing end supports) depending on the span. Structurally
the longer the span of the beam the weaker the structure becomes. This is why beam
bridges rarely span more than 75m. Simply supported Beam/Girder bridges are the
simplest type of bridge. It could be anything as simple as a crossing of plank of wood to a
complex structure such as composite bridge (RC deck on steel girders). There are two
common types of girders; I beam and Box girder. Examples of steel girder and their
advantages;
Box plate Girder Beam/ I Girder
 Increased stability  Simple design
 Increased resistance  Works well with most applications
 Used for longer bridges with curves  Easy fabrication

Bridges
 5

Steel Box Girder Bridge Steel I Girder Bridge

NB Both I and Box girder bridges can be referred to as Plate girder bridges

Curved Pre-stressed RC Box Girder Bridge ( Las Vegas)

RC box Girder Bridge (interchange – Chonqging China)

Fig 2.1 Different structural forms of Girder bridges

Bridges
 6

3.1.2 Arch bridge

An arch bridge is a semicircular pined structure with abutments on each end. Depending
on the structural material it can be either an RC arch bridge or a steel truss arch bridge.
The design of the arch is such that the load is carried outward along two paths curving
towards the ground by compression. The greater the degree of curvature, the greater the
effect of compression.

Fig 2.2 Different Structural forms of Arch bridges

Arch bridges are made of steel or concrete and they can span up to 800 feet (240m)
depending on the structural form and material. However beam/girder bridge, effects of
span will eventually overtake the natural strength of the arch.

3.1.3 The suspension bridge

Suspension bridge is one where cables (wire strands/ ropes/chain) are strung across the
river or whatever the obstacle and the deck is suspended from there cables. The M type of
suspended bridge is one were cables are slung through/over tall towers. Another form of
a suspension bridge is the cable stayed bridge. As opposed to the M shaped suspension
bridge, cable stayed bridge has an A shaped form, in which the cables are run from the
roadway up to a single tower, where they are secured. The deck is suspended by the
cables over the tower.

Bridges
 7
Suspension bridge Cable stayed bridge

Fig 2.3 Different Structural forms of suspension bridges

The cables of suspended bridges are mainly in tension and the tower is under
compression. Suspension bridges are applied in cases where very large spans are
required, in fact they can span up to 600m -2000m way further than any other type of
bridges. Most suspension bridges have deck truss which helps to stiffen the deck and
reduces the tendency of the roadway to sway (under wind effects and traffic vibrations).
Because of the fact that the deck is suspended (hanging from cables), suspension bridge
are susceptible to torsion especially in high winds are although all suspended bridges
have deck stiffening trusses which can eliminate the effects of torsion. Wind tunnel tests
are generally conducted on the bridge models to determine the bridge resistances to
effects of wind e.g. torsion and vibrations. Aerodynamic truss and deck forms, diagonal
suspender cables and exaggerated ratio between the depths of the stiffening truss to the
lengths of the span are some of the methods employed to mitigate the effects of torsion.
Wind and live loads on a bridge especially suspension bridges can cause resonance (a
vibration caused by an external force that is in harmony with the natural vibration of the
original structure). If this force is unchecked it can be fatal to a bridge e.g. Tacoma bridge
which fell apart in 1940 in a 64kph wind speed. Resonance vibration, travel through the
bridge in form of waves. Another force to be checked on all bridges (depending on the
location) is Seismic or earthquake load.

3.1.4 Steel truss bridges

Truss bridges are an assembly of steel section in triangulations to form truss Girders/,
lattice girders or open web girders. They are efficient and economical structural systems,
since the members experience essentially axial forces and hence the material is fully
utilized. Members of the truss girder bridges can be classified as chord members and web
members. Generally, the chord members resist overall bending moment in the form of
direct tension and compression and web members carry the shear force in the form of
direct tension or compression. Due to their efficiency, truss bridges are built over wide
range of spans. They are generally used for bridge spans between 30m and 150m where
the construction depth (deck soffit to road level) is limited.Truss bridges compete against
plate girders for shorter spans, against box girders for medium spans and cable-stayed

Bridges
 8

bridges for long spans. Some of the most commonly used truss patterns suitable for both
road and rail bridges are illustrated in Fig 2.4

(a) Warren truss

(b) Howe truss

(c) Pratt truss

(d) Double Warren truss

(e) Varying depth Warren truss

Fig. 2.4 some of the trusses that are used in steel bridges
High fabrication and maintenance costs due to rusting, connections strengthening, labour
etc has made the truss type deck less popular. The main advantage of truss bridges is that
the form of construction allows the bridge to be fabricated in small sections off site which
also makes transportation easier particularly in remote areas. The common forms of truss
bridges consist of the under slung, half through truss and through truss bridges as shown
in Fig 2.5.

Fig 2.5 Different Structural forms of truss bridges

Under-slung truss bridge is the most economical as the deck provides support for the
live load and also braces the compression chord. There is however the problem of the
headroom clearance required under the deck which generally renders it only suitable
for unnavigable rivers or over flood plains. Where under-slung trusses are not possible,
and the span is short, it may be economical to use a half-through truss. Restraint to the

Bridges
 9

compression flange is achieved by U frame action. When the span is large, and the
under slung truss cannot be used, then the through girder provides the most
economical solution. Restraint to the compression flange is provided by bracing
between the two top chords; this is more efficient than U frame support. The bracing
therefore has to be above the headroom requirement for traffic on the deck.

3.2 Types of bridge decks

All bridge types carry a deck of one form or another. The deck in this contest implies
the superstructure part of the bridge (slab and its supportive system). It can be either a
pure RC deck or a composite type with different forms of structural strengthening.

3.2.1 Cast insitu reinforced concrete decks (solid, voided and beam and slab)
The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are:

Solid Slab

Voided Slab

Beam and Slab

Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or multi-span bridges and are
easily adaptable for high skew. Voided slab and beam and slab bridge decks are used for
larger, single or multi-span bridges. In circular voided decks the ratio of [depth of void] /
[depth of slab] should be less than 0.79; and the maximum area of void should be less
than 49% of the deck sectional area.

3.2.2 Pre-stressed concrete decks ( often pre-cast)

Bridges
 10

These comprise Pre-tensioned beams with insitu-concrete deck (voided or solid) and
Post-tensioned concrete beams with insitu-concrete deck (voided or solid). The term
pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of pre-stressing in which the tendons are
tensioned before the concrete is placed, and the pre-stress is transferred to the concrete
when suitable cube strength is reached. Post-tensioning is a method of pre-stressing in
which the tendon is tensioned after the concrete has reached a suitable strength. The
tendons are anchored against the hardened concrete immediately after pre-stressing.

Pre-Stressed Ribbon
pedestrian bridge deck

3.2.3 Composite decks

Composite bridge decks usually refer to the decks designed and constructed in such a
way that there is interaction in load transfer between insitu reinforced concrete
(usually the slab deck) and structural steel (usually the beam/girder). The three main
economic advantages of composite construction are:

i. For a given span and loading system a smaller depth of beam can be used than for
a concrete beam solution.
ii. The cross-sectional area of the steel top flange can be reduced because the
concrete can be considered as part of it.
iii. Transverse stiffening for the top compression flange of the steel beam can be
reduced because the restraint against buckling is provided by the concrete deck.

Typical composite deck

3.2.4 Truss deck
Truss deck is made up of a system of truss assemblage and the concrete slab it can be
composite or non-composite. This type of deck can also be used as form the
superstructure of suspension bridges, arch bridges and or truss bridges.

Bridges
 11

4.0 PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS FOR BRIDGE DESIGN AND EVALUATION

4.1 Design Philosophy
4.1.1 Functional/Safety
The ideal structure must not collapse while in use hence should be capable of carrying the
loading requirements during its life span. Moreover should accommodate the intended
and or forecasted traffic volume without creating a bottle neck.

4.1.2 Structural and material requirements

Selection of materials and structural form for the superstructure and its substructure (i.e.
deck and piers/abutments) must be considered in such a way that the prevailing load as
well as span requirements are satisfied, e.g. use of a composite bridge deck, would be
beneficial than a purely R.C deck, use of a suspension bridge would be beneficial in long
spans as opposed to traditional beam bridge.

4.1.3 Serviceability
The ideal structure must not suffer from serious local deteriorations/failure, excessive
deflections or vibrations and it must not interfere with sight or roads above or below it. A
bridge can be rendered un-usable by deteriorations and or shortcomings even if the bridge
is still structurally robust and safe.

4.1.4 Economy
The bridge structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; it must cost as
little as possible to build and maintain while satisfying functional and safety requirements
of the bridge.

4.1.5 Aesthetics/appearance
The structure must be pleasing from a sight point of view. The type of the bridge has a
significant impact on the surrounding landscape. To achieve this preliminary design must
consider form and materials. Thus it must be designed to harmonize with the natural
surroundings and neighboring structures etc.

4.1.6 Planning & location

The design of a bridge demands that attention be paid to the following;
 Route location ( established at feasibility stage in road designs)
 Potential traffic flow ( As above )
 Type of bridge (potential spans, form & materials)
 Characteristics of river beneath

Bridges
 12

4.2 Methods for bridge design and evaluation

Bridge design is undertaken based on the recommended guidelines given in bridge design
references key being the design codes/Standards which vary depending on a country. For
example, in Kenya, and most of the Anglophone countries, British Standards (BS 5400
1990) and lately Euro codes are applied. European countries currently have fully
switched to the use of Euro codes as from the 2011, although the development started
way back in the year 1992. The minor hindrance but not a limitation of Euro codes usage
in non EU countries is the lack of the National Annexes (Applicable parameters e.g for
wind, earthquake etc). Other guidelines such as those of the American Association of
State Highways and Transport Officials (AASHTO) can also be used or any other proven
standard or guideline provided it is acceptable nationally and or internationally.

Generally the basic analysis and design principles are the same however for any design
problem, however, there are deviations in formulae and loading approach. The basic
design approach is to apply the commonly known principle of Ultimate Limit State
(ULS) design with checks using Serviceability Limit State (SLS) for cracking in
reinforced concrete bridges and stress limits in steel bridges. Design loads from each of
the applicable normal load is multiplied by the appropriate partial safely factors to take
care of inaccurate load effects such as shear, moments, assessment of loading as well as
construction variations respectively. However, the design strength of the bridge materials
at each limit state (ULS or SLS) are obtained from the characteristic strength (strength at
which 95% chance of being exceeded exist- limit) by dividing by the strength by a
material partial safety factors
Verification of structural adequacy for a satisfactory design is to check and ensure that
the design resistance (e.g. moment of resistance, shear strength) exceeds the load effects.

5.0 HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN LOADS AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION.

5.1 Application of loads

Loads must be applied in such a way that the worst effects of the loads (i.e moments
shear forces etc.) are obtained. The structure is then designed for their worst case scenario
influence lines often used in bridge design and thus the design load (particularly live load
& superimposed dead loads) should be applied to the adverse parts of the influence line
(deflected profile of the effect of a moving load along the structure span and not to the
relieving parts).
Normal loads due to fill material e.g. on Abutments should be determined by
conventional principals of soil mechanism (i.e. determine lateral soil pressure capacities).

Bridges
 13

5.2 Primary Bridge Loads

a) Live loads - BS5400 part 2 Clause 6.1~6.4
The primary design loads to be considered are given in clause 6.1~ 6.4. The bridge and
its elements shall be designed to resist the worst loading effect of mass traffic load (HA)
and Knife edge load KEL (stimulates the shearing and bending effect of traffic load and
has a fixed value of 120KN which can be distributed across the notional lane). An
alternative to the HA loading is the wheel load with a fixed value of 100KN applied at
critical areas of the deck to yield the worst case scenarios of the load effects. A combined
HA (normal mass traffic loading applied uniformly along the deck slab) and HB
(Abnormal loading due to heaviest truck load (see clause 6.4 for distribution which acts
at various axle configurations) can also be applied particularly in higher classes of roads
e.g class A where possibility of abnormal traffic load could occur.

Details of these loadings and their distributions are found in the code as follows: HA,
KEL, wheel load B500Part2 clause 6.2 and HB Load BS5400Part 2 clause 6.3. NB the
approximate worst loading effect for HB occurs on a simply supported Bridge when the
axles are close as possible (6m spacing), while for a continuous bridge occurs when axle
occupies the widest spacing (26m). The above primary loads are considered to account
for an allowance for impact

b) Permanent loads BS5400 part 2 clause 4.3.4

These mainly consists of dead loads, superimposed dead loads due to filling material etc.
these loads are applicable to all bridges. They are applied as distributed loads and
concentrated loads acting on parts or whole of the superstructure and substructure.

5.3 Secondary Highway loads

a) Centrifugal Load (secondary live load) BS5400 clause 6.5
Centrifugal loads occur in curved bridges with a horizontal curve. It results from a
vehicle traveling on a bridge while following a curvilinear path. It can be estimated from

(5.1)
Where is the centrifugal force?
is the live load in KN (vehicle weight)
is the design speed in Km/h)
R is the radius of the curve in m
Or as given in BS 5400 Part 2, clause 6.5.1 where

(5.2)
Where r is the radius of curvature of lane mm and is considered to act as point load on
a radial direction at surface of carriageway.

Bridges
 14

b) Longitudinal braking part 2 clause 6.10 (secondary live load)

Longitudinal braking forces as applied at the level of the road surface. The nominal HA
load is 8kN/m plus 250kN with a limit of 750kN. It is applied in one notional lane over
the entire loaded length and in combination with full HA loading in that lane.

c) Skidding
New loading considered as nominal point load of 250 KN acting in one notional lane in
any direction and in combination with HA loading.

d) Thermal loads BS 5400 part 2 clause 5.4 & Part 4, 3

These consist of loads due to variation in temperature of the structure and the air
temperature. These loads induce stresses in the structure. Local temperature variation
across the deck depth can be determined based on BS 5400 Part 2 clause 5.4. However
longitudinal movement due temperature change (expansion) can be estimated from;
(5.3)
Where L is span of the bridge, is the change in structure surface temperature
(temperature variation) and is a coefficient of expansion for the type of structure
material. This can be used to establish the extent of expansion joint required.

e) Wind loading BS 5400Part 2 clause 5.3

Wind load offers a complicated set of loadings conditions. Thus they are idealized in
order to provide a workable design wind loads. They are approximated to static load or
uniformly distributed and acting at the centroid of an exposed parts of the bridge
elevation. BS5400 part 2 Clause 5.31 indicates that wind loading generally will not
generally not be significant in its effects on many highway bridges, such as concrete slab
or slab on beam bridge of about 20m or less in span 10m or more in width and at normal
height above ground. Checks should be made with a 6kN/m 2 applied to the vertical
projected area of the bridge or structural element under consideration neglecting those
areas where the load would be beneficial. Clause 1.4 indicates that wind and temperature
should be considered for the relevant local data. NB the given parameter values in the
codes are relevant to United Kingdom only.

f) Buoyancy (Not indicated in BS)

Bridge with components which are submerged under water (e.g. piers) can sometimes
suffer the effects of buoyancy. This is generally a problem only for large structures.
Buoyancy can have considering effects on piers footings and piles. Buoyancy forces
should be considered depending on the extent of submergence.

g) Dynamic water pressure

This constitutes the horizontal force exerted on submerged portions of substructure
because of water currents where the horizontal forces P is given by

Bridges
 15

or (kN) (5.4)
Where = 0.7 KN (current against rectangular faces of pier), 0.4(current against Curved
or triangular faces of the pier), 0.2 (against oval shape of pier) or =1.5 for square
ended piers, 0.66 for circular cut & ease water face and 0.9 for triangular cut &ease water
face. = maximum current velocity m/see, = vertically project area of bridge pier
m2 (water depth H), = unit weight of water, = acceleration due to gravity.

h) Collision forces
When there is a possibility for drift objects and other items to collide with bridge,
collision force shall be calculated from the following equation

(5.5)
Where P is collision force kN, is weight of drifting item (kN), is the surface
velocity of water (m/s).

i) Earthquake loads
Earthquake loads are dynamic loads that act on the bridge structure through its
substructure. The consequences are serious if not considered in design. Analysis for
design for earthquakes can be done based on two approaches; namely, dynamic analysis
for its responses in terms of vibration frequencies, deflections, modes shapes, stresses (by
using of software analysis such as FEM) and equivalent static analysis (an equivalent
static load is applied at the centroid of the superstructure) and analyzed for design forces
in addition to the normal design forces. Earthquake design is only critical in countries or
areas where there exist frequent seismic activity such as in Japan, Peru, Iran etc.
Generally design considerations for earthquake loads lead to increased reinforcement
detailing which enhance ductility of the structure to withstand the dynamic action of the
Seismic force.

6.0 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS FOR LOAD EFFECTS

Although analysis using influence lines for moving loads (transient) yield realistic
loading effects, analysis for design can also be simplified by applying influence line but
with use of static loading for both dead and live loads. This is the case where analysis is
carried out manually. However detailed analysis for loading effects can be conducted
using analysis software cable of simulating the transient loading. Moreover, global
picture of the bridge response to various loading conditions (live, dead, wind etc) can be
simulated. Analysis will also depend on the type of load and arrangement ( i.e either
wheel load, HA, HB or combined)
The stability of the bridge substructure (e.g. Abutments piers) against overturning should
also be determined at the ultimate limit state. The criterion is that the least restoring
moment due to factored normal loads should be greater than the greatest overturning

Bridges
 16

moment due to design loads. Foundations should be designed considering the reaction
form the soil (bearing capacities) with the use of the appropriate factors of safety.
Guiselines for analysis and design for stability of the bridge structure is contained in
BS5400 Pt2 clause 4.6.1. Stability is determined at Ultimate Limit State against
overturning. The least restoring moment due to un-factored nominal loads should be
greater than the greatest overturning moment due to design loads. Restoring load is the
sum of the following un-factored.
 Dead load of pier
 Dead load of footing
 Soil weight
 Live load of superstructure
While overturning forces is the sum of the following factored
 Buoyancy force
 Braking force
 Dynamic water pressure
 Collision force.

7.0 RESISTANCE/STRENGTH OF MEMBERS, CONNECTIONS AND STRUCTURAL

SYSTEMS
Bridge elements transmit live and dead load through a network of structural elements
forming the structural systems designed materially, geometrically and interactively in
order to maximize load transmission efficiency. All bridges derive their resistive
mechanism through the interconnectivity of the deck, Girders, piers/ abutments and the
foundation. The deck primarily being in most cases reinforced concrete resists, bending,
shear, braking and the induced dynamic load effect of the live loads (traffic and wind).
Concrete being weak in tension is reinforced in tension and shear (where necessary) with
steel to carry the bending and shear stress while concrete would carry the compressive
stresses as well as shear. Similarly the girders resist the same loading effects as the deck,
however, in the case of a steel girder; it is more tolerant to the dynamic effect due to its
material ductility but to adequate flexural limit. Moreover, shear is primarily resisted
through bolted connections comprising of bolts and gusset plates. Piers and abutments
primarily resist compressive, bending forces (arising out of lateral loads such as braking,
earth pressure etc.), overturning forces and seismic forces.

Bridges