Dams– Introduction

Damsareprimaryintendedtoprovideadditionalstoragecapacity,produce
additionalheadanddiverttheriverflowintotheconveyancesystem.
• Today (2000) about 45 000 large dams (higher than 15 m) and an
estimated 800 000 smaller ones improve the living conditions of many of
the world's six billion people.
• Over 5000 years, dams have enabled people to collect water when it was
plentiful and save it for dry periods.
• In very many countries, increased food production is only possible
through improved irrigation. Irrigation is no longer only an option, but a
necessity for providing food for the rapidly increasing population.
• Hydropower is the only significant renewable natural energy resource
available.
• Flood control has always been a particularly significant motive for dam
and dyke construction.
• Looking ahead, people will continue to build dams for many purposes,
especially in the developing world.

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 3
Dams– History

~6000BC Zargos Mountains(Mesopotamia).Firstsmallweirs(woodandearthstructures)

toconcertwaterintheirrigationcanals
~4500BC Mesopotamia(Sumerians).NetworkofdamsandcanalsalonglowerTigrisand
Euphrates
~3000BC Jordan.RemainsofdamusedforwatersupplysystemoftownJawa.
~2500BC Egypt.WatersupplydamnearCairo.Washedawaybeforeconstructionhave
beenfinished(SaddelKafara Dam)
~0AD Mediteranian,MiddleEast,China,CentralAmerica.Stoneandearthdamsfor
irrigationandwatersupply
12th century SriLanka.Damwith15mheightand14kmlength– largestreservoirupto
beginningof20th century.Totallymorethan4000dams.
19th century Industrialrevolution.Morethan200dams(H>15m)werebuiltinBritain.
20th century Secondindustrialrevolution,energyproduction,risingpopulationneedfor
irrigationandfloodcontrol

http://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer#v
www.simscience.org iew=photo&position=8&with_photo_id=15607
661&order=date_desc&user=456186

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 4
Evolutionofdams
According to International
Commission of Large Dams a
large dam is the one that is
higher than 15 m, or has a
reservoir volume with more
than 1 million m³.

At the beginning of the 20th

century the total number of
large dams was only 427.

In 1992, a total number of

36,235 large dams in
operation were registered.

In the 21st century the dam

construction is expected to
maintain its rate of
development at least in Asia
and Latin America.
M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 5
Evolutionofdams
Maximaldamheightsaroundtheworld

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 6
Definitionoflargedam
Worldcommissionofdams(2000)andICOLDConstitutionStatuts (2011),page3:

Large dam is a dam with a height of 15 meters or greater from lowest

foundation to crest or a dam between 5 and 15 meters impounding more
than 3 million cubic meters

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 7
Concretedamevolution
• Predecessors of modern dams are
masonry dams dating back more than
2000 years.
Upstream and downstream faces
have been formed by dressed
masonry and the main body
comprises rubble masonry bedded in RCCdam
lime mortar;
• With the advent of Portland cement
the concrete dam has largely
replaced the masonry dam.
• Along the years the concrete dam has
developed into a number of specific
types such as the buttress and the
double curvature arch.
FSHD
• The use of earth moving plant has
firmly established roller compaction
as the frequently preferred method
for mass concrete construction.

In gravity structures the water thrust from upstream

is resisted through sliding resistance at the base.

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 8
Concretedamevolution

Attempts at economy have been made by

forming voids:
• hollow gravity dams;
• buttress dam, where a series of
"counterforts" are used to support a RCCdam
continuous facing.
The foundations between the
buttresses are open, thus
eliminating uplift pressure and the
upstream faces are sloped to
encourage additional hydraulic load
to improve overall stability
• arch dam transmits water load
primarily by means of thrust to the FSHD
abutments.
• Most recent revolution has been re
establishing the concrete gravity dam
as an economic alternative:
• roller compacted concrete
techniques
• "hardfill"dam
Upstreamfacingisrequired!

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 9
Concretedamevolution

www.panoramio.com/photos/original/25879088.jpg

Masonrydam– LaGrangeDam, USA(H=40m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 10
Concretedamevolution

Rubblemasonrydam– NewCrotonDam, USA(H=91m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 11
Concretedamevolution

Concretegravity– Friant Dam, USA(H=97m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 12
Concretedamevolution

Concreteslabandbuttress– Stoney Gorge Dam, USA(H=42m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 13
Concretedamevolution

Reinforcedconcretemultiplearchdam– Gem Lake Dam, USA(H=34m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 14
Concretedamevolution

Concretemultiplearchbuttressdam– Maniciuagan Dam, Canada (H=204m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 15
Concretedamevolution

Multipledomedam – Coolidge Dam, USA(H=76m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 16
Concretedamevolution

” Verbund,Austria

Concretearchgravitydam– Mosserboden Dam,Austria(H=98m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 17
Concretedamevolution

” Verbund,Austria

Doublecurved archdam– Drossensperre Dam, Austria (H=120m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 18
Concretedamevolution

Rollercompactedconcrete(RCC)– LaPuebladeCazalla, Spain (H=70m)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 19
Embankmentdamevolution
The earliest dams, and even today the
simplest dams, are homogeneous earth
embankments:
That is, the material used for the
construction remains essentially
constant throughout.
Homogenous
Embankment
The inevitable development was the
zoned dam.
In the case of the zoned earthfill or
rockfill dam, materials are selected Zoned
and used for their specific Embankment
properties and in proportions
guided by local site availability.

The next great change came with the

increased compaction effected by Embankment
vibratory rollers that permitted the
construction of faced rockfill dams. with
Waterproof
In such dams, the principal body is Facing
composed entirely of rockfill, and
the waterproof membrane is placed
on the sloping upstream face.
Modern facings tend to be of
reinforced concrete or asphalt

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 20
Embankmentdamevolution

Homogeneousearthfilldam

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 21
Embankmentdamevolution

Claycoreearthfill

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 22
Embankmentdamevolution

Inclinedcoreearthfill

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 23
Embankmentdamevolution

Claycorerockfill

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 24
Embankmentdamevolution

ConcreteFaceRockfill

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 25
Embankmentdamevolution

AsphalticcoreRockfill

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 26
Embankmentdamevolution

AsphalticFaceRockfill

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 27
DamTypes

Dams

Concrete
Filldams
dams

Homogeneous Waterproof
facing Zoneddams Gravitydams Buttressdams Archdams
dams

Asphalt Natural Artificial

materials materials Fulldams Hollowdams Platebuttress Cylinderdams

Concrete Asphalt Massivehead Doublecurved

Concrete dams
buttress

Concrete Multiplearch
RCC
buttress

(Steel)
Archgravity
dams

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 28
DamTypeSelection
Damtypeselectionisacomplexdecisionmakingprocessthatrequiresasignificant
inputandeffortfromexpertsandspecialistsfromdifferentfields,takinginto
considerationopinionsandinferencesandrulesofthumb.
SelectionCriteria:
• Topography:valleyshape,accessibilityandconstructability,riverinplane(curveor
straight),abutmentscharacteristics(steepness,variability),reservoiravailability
• Submergence:suitabilityofareatobefloodedandrestrictions(settlement,forest,
industry,mining,archaeologicalfindsetc.)
• Geologyandgeotechnics:foundationconditionsonstrataandunderlyinglayers,
strengthcharacteristics,deformability,permeability,faultsandfissures,stabilityof
abutments,landslideindamandreservoirarea,seismicity
• Availabilityofconstructionmaterial:neededcharacteristicsandneededamount
butalsotransportdistanceandtransportpossibility,constructionwaterindry
climates
• Locationforauxiliarystructures:riverdiversionduringconstruction,bottom
outlet,spillwaystructure
• Costs

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 29
DamTypeSelection
SelectionCriteria(cont.):
• Environmentandpublicopinion
• Possibilityforfloodinundationduringconstruction
• Economicalconditionsofthecountry: availabilityofcement,steel,equipment,
electricity,etc.
• Availabilityoflocaltrainedpersonal– constructionandengineering
• Climateandconstructionrequirements
• Damheightandheadandtailwaterdifference,uplifteffects
• Reservoirfunctionandintentionforreservoirwateruse:floodcontrolorstorage
• Constructiontimeandstagingconstruction
• Contracts,standards,countrytradition,courageofengineers,safety
• Waveandiceactionondam,effectofaggressivewater
• Layoutandpositionofpowerplant:intakethroughdam,powerhouseondamtoe
• Dangerofwarorsabotage

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 30
Failuresofdams

Malpasset,France(1959),double
curvedarchdam,421peoplekilled,
reasontectonicfaultfilledwithwater

Teton dam,USA(1976),earthfilldam,
11peoplekilled,seepedwatercaused
washingoutandcollapseofthedam

Kahrun III,Iran cofferdam (2005)

earthfilldam,overtoppingand
http://www.safetyofdams.com/TetonDamFailure2USBREd.jpg
destructionby100yearflood.

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 31
Failuresofdams
• Vajont,Italy(1963),doublecurvedarchdam,notadamfailure– damstill
inoperation,2000peoplekilled,reasonlandslideinthereservoirduring
firstfillingcause“tsunami”overtoppingthedamandcausingflood(water
andmud)inthevalleydownstream
• Peruca dam,Croatia,(1993),earthfill damwithclaycore,notacollapse
butjustdistortionbyexplosiveinthebottomgalleries

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 32
Failuresofdam
Taum Sauk,USA(2005).Taum Saukhydroscheme
ispurepumpbackhydropowerplantBuiltin
beginningof60’swith2pumpturbineswith175
MWeach(upgradedon2*225MWin1999).Inthe
nightofDecember14th 2005acomputersoftware
problemcausedthatthereservoirpumpscontinue
fillingoftheupperreservoireventhoughitwas
alreadyatitsnormallevel,causingovertoppingof
theearthfilldamwithsurfacesealing.Thedamwas
notequippedwithoverflowspillway,andmostof
delugewascaughtinlowerreservoirNofatalities.

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 33
Mosuldam Iraq
• largest dam in Iraq,onthe Tigrisriver
upstreamofthecityof Mosul
• Thedamservestogenerate
hydroelectricityandprovidewaterfor
downstreamirrigation
• fullcapacity,thestructureholds
about11.1km³
• hydropowercapacity750MW
• Damfoundedonthegypsumlayer
(dissolvinginwater)
• Continuousrepairfromconstruction
time(1981)

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 34
Lessonslearned– Leadingcausesofdamfailure
OVERTOPPING:
• Overtoppingoccurswhenthelevelofareservoirexceedsthecapacityorheightofthedam.Thiscanbe
causedbyaninadequateordysfunctionalspillwayorbysettlementofthedamcrest.Overtoppingoccurs
whenwaterlevelsriserapidlyandwithoutadequatewarning(forexample,duetoflashfloods,heavyrains,
alandslideinthereservoirthatcreatesatsunami,orifadamupstreamcollapses).Theresultcan
compromisethestructuralintegrityofthedamoritcanquicklyerodethelandoneithersideofthedam,
ineffectdisengagingthedamfromitsriverslopeembankments.Inearthendamsthemaincauseoffailure
iserosioncausedbyovertoppingorafailedspillway.
• Approximately1/3ofallfailures
FOUNDATIONDEFECTS
• Defectscanoccurinthefoundationsupportingthedam.Forexample,themoreweightofadamstructure
hasanimpactonthegroundunderneath.Ifthisweightisnotproperlytakenintoaccountinthe
engineeringofthedam,thegroundunderneathcansettleunequallyandcompromisethefoundation
(imaginetheleaningTowerofPisa).Similarly,damsbuiltonslopesmustbeproperlyengineeredtoavoid
issueswithinstabilityorlandslides.Anyeventcausingthemovementofafoundation,suchasan
earthquake,canalsocompromiseadam’sfoundation.Themaincauseofconcretedamfailureisa
problemwiththefoundation.Highupliftpressuresanduncontrolledfoundationseepagecanalso
compromisethedam’sfoundation.
• Approximately1/3ofallfailures

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 35
Lessonslearned– Leadingcausesofdamfailure
PIPINGANDSEEPAGE
• Embankmentdams– whicharegenerallysemipermeable– canbecompromisedwhentoomuchwater
seepsorleaksthroughthestructure.Damfailurecanoccurwhenthestructurebecomesweakenedfrom
internalerosion,aneffectreferredtoaspiping.Thiscanoccuralonghydraulicstructures,spillways,
conduits,orcracks.Suchseepageorleakagecanevenbecausedbyananimalburrowinginandaround
earthendams.
• Approximately1/5ofallfailures
OTHERFAILURES
• Damswhichareimproperlymaintainedorbuiltwithinadequatematerialsorunsounddesigncanresultin
structuralweaknessesthatleadtocatastrophicdamfailure.(Damfailureduetoimpropermaintenance
andstructuralweakness
©HPPTaum Sauk,USA,HydroRewiew,April2011

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 36
Futureofdams– lastprojects

” POYRY ” POYRY ” POYRY

Ermenek,Turkey,H=210m,Tsankov Kamak,Bulgaria,H=125mNamNgum II,DRLao,H=185m

http://parazinet.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/
http://3pillarsofwits.wordpress.com/2008 usinaitaipubinacional.jpg
/10/26/
ThreeGorges,PRChina,H=101m,39.3km³,22500MWItaipu Dam,Brasil/Paraguay,H=197m,29km³,14000MW

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 37
Questions
• Maintypesofdams
• Embankmentdamstypesbaseon
sealing
• Concretedamtypes
• Whichparametersareimportant
fordamtypeselection?
•” POYRY ” POYRY
Whatarethemostfrequentdam ” POYRY

failuretypes?

• Discussion

http://parazinet.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/
usinaitaipubinacional.jpg

Enguri dam,Georgia– archgravitydamH=271m

M.Marence:DamsandReservoirs– Introduction 38