PE Chapter 1

Energy

Chemical – in the food we eat and stored in the body.

Potential – stored in the muscles.
Kinetic – via movement as we contract our muscles.

Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP!!)

 A high-energy compound which is the only immediately available source

of energy for muscular contraction.
 No other form of energy – the only usable form of it.
 Food is stored as Amino Acids, Triglycerides & Glycogen which when
metabolised is converted into ATP.
 When ATP is broken down energy is provided for cellular processes e.g.
Digestion, Nerve Transmission and Muscular Contraction.

Breakdown:
 Made up of one Adenosine and 3 Phosphates held together by bonds of
chemical energy.
 To break down (extract the energy) the Enzyme ATPase is released
which stimulates the final high energy bond to be broken.
 This is exothermic; releases energy for muscular contraction and leaves
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and a single Phosphate!

Resynthesis:
 Only lasts 2-3 seconds e.g. Sprinting, so in order to continue exercising
it must be resynthesised.
 To do this, energy from the surrounding area is absorbed to rebuild the
high-energy bond between ADP and the Single Phosphate.
 The energy required is from one of the 3 energy systems and is an
Endothermic Reaction.

*Enzyme – a biological catalyst which increases the speed of chemical

reactions.
*ATPase – an enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of ATP.
*Exothermic – a chemical reaction which releases energy.
*Endothermic – a chemical reaction which absorbs energy.
*ADP – a compound formed by the removal of a phosphate bond.
*Metabolism – a chemical process where some substances are broken down to
provide energy while others are resynthesised to store energy.

Energy Systems:
 They break down food fuels to provide the energy for ATP resynthesis.
One will dominate to maintain ATP resynthesis.
If fails = no energy for muscular contractions and fatigue occurs quickly.

1) ATP-PC SYSTEM – provides us with energy via a Coupled Reaction to

resynthesise ADP into ATP. Used during high intensity exercise and the
duration is 2-10 seconds.

1. ATP levels fall dramatically and ADP and P levels rise = the release of
Creatine Kinase.

2. This catalyses the breakdown of Phosphocreatine (PC) – the high

energy bond between Creatine and Phosphate is broken via an
Exothermic Reaction.

3. The energy given off is used to resynthesise ADP to ATP.

*This is a Coupled Reaction whereby the breakdown of PC releases a free

phosphate and energy used for resynthesis.
*Anaerobic and occurs in the Sarcoplasm.
*For every one mole of PC broken down, one mole of ATP can be
resynthesised (1:1).

-Creatine Kinase – an enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of PC.

-Phosphocreatine (PC) – a high-energy compound stored in the muscle cell
and broken down for ATP resynthesis.
-Sarcoplasm – the cytoplasm fluid within the muscle cell which holds stores of
PC, Glycogen and Myoglobin.
-Coupled Reaction – where the products of one reaction are used in another
reaction.

Advantages Disadvantages
No delay of Oxygen Low ATP Yield and small PC Stores = rapid
fatigue after 8-10 seconds.
PC is readily available in the muscle cell
Simple & Rapid breakdown of PC and
resynthesis of ATP
Provides energy for high intensity exercises
No fatiguing by-products = fast recovery

2) Glycolytic System (Lactic Acid System) – breaks down glycogen to provide

enough energy to resynthesise ADP to ATP. Has a 1:2 ratio, is used during
high intensity exercise up to 3 minutes.
 1. The body detects the decrease in PC stores and releases glycogen
phosphorylase which breaks down Glycogen into Glucose to maintain
its concentration in the blood stream.

2. PFK initiates the partial breakdown of Glucose into Pyruvic Acid (+

energy).
1 mole of Glucose yields 2 moles of ATP (1:2).

3. Anaerobic Glycolysis occurs as is at a high intensity hence LDH is

released which catalyses the conversion of Pyruvic Acid into Lactic
Acid, which accumulates and slows ATP resynthesis.

4. RESYNTHESIS: Energy + 2P + 2ADP = 2ATP

Advantages
No delay of O2 and large fuel stores in the
liver, muscles and blood stream
Relatively fast breakdown for ATP resynthesis
(but not as quick as the PC system)
Enough energy for max 3 minutes
Lactic acid can be recycled into fuel for
further energy production.
Disadvantages
By-product of Lactic Acid = Fatigue/OBLA,
which reduces PH & Enzyme Activity
Relatively low ATP Yield and recovery can be
lengthy

*Anaerobic and occurs in the Sarcoplasm.

-Phosphofructokinase (PFK) – an enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of

Glucose.
-Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) – an enzyme which catalyses the conversion of
Pyruvic Acid into Lactic Acid.

3) Aerobic System is used during low to moderate intensity and uses 95% of
potential energy in glucose through 3 distinct phases. Has a 1:38 ratio, is used
at low to moderate intensity from 3 minutes onwards.

 Aerobic Glycolysis:

Converts glycogen into glucose (via glycogen phosphorylase), which is then

converted into pyruvic acid (via PFK). As oxygen is in sufficient supply it isn’t
converted into lactic acid, and goes through a link reaction and is converted
into Acetyl CoA (via CoEnzyme A). Hence it allows access from the
Sarcoplasm to the Mitochondria. (1:2)

 KREB’S Cycle:

Acetyl CoA combines with Oxaloacetic acid to form Citric Acid, which is
oxidised through a cycle of reactions (Kreb’s Cycle). Co2 and Hydrogen are
given off and it resynthesises 2 ATP. This occurs in the Mitochondria Matrix.
(1:2)
  Electron Transport Chain:

The Hydrogen atoms are carried through the electron transport chain by NAD
and FAD (H Carriers), splitting them into ions (H+) and electrons (H-).
Hydrogen ions (H+) are oxidised and removed as H2O. Hydrogen electrons (H-)
are carried by NAD (NADH2) release 30 moles of ATP or by FAD (FADH2) which
releases 4 moles of ATP. (1:34)

Overall, one mole of glucose yields 38 moles of ATP (1:38). Hence is used for
long duration activities e.g. Marathon Runners.

Strengths Weaknesses
Large fuel stores Delay for oxygen delivery and complex series
of reactions
High ATP Yield and long duration of energy Slow energy production limits activity to sub-
production maximal intensity
No fatiguing by-products Triglycerides or FFA’s demand 15% more O2
for Breakdown

Energy Continuum:

The relative contribution of each energy system to the overall energy

production depending on intensity and duration.

ATP-PC System will be used at maximal intensity (<10 secs) contributing up to

99% of energy for ATP Res. E.g. Athletic Jumps, Throws and Sprints.

Glycolytic (Lactic Acid ) System will be used at high intensity (10 secs to 3
mins) contributing up 60-90% of energy for ATP resynthesis. E.g. 400m and
Squash.

Aerobic System will be used at moderate and constant intensity (>3mins)

contributing up to 99% of energy for ATP resynthesis. E.g. Marathons and
Triathlons.

Intermittent Exercise:

It is where the intensity alternates either during interval training/ a game. E.g.
A rugby player alternates between walking, running, standing etc. This
requires much more energy than continuous training. A threshold is reached
when energy production moves from one energy system to another.

 ATP-PC/Glycolyctic Threshold – A rugby player sprints out to receive

the ball, which he then loses and has to man mark for a minute to win
back. [The PC Stores quickly deplete and the glycolytic system takes
over.]
  Glycolyctic/Aerobic Threshold – A players jogs back into position ready
for the centre to be taken. [The intensity is reduced and hence the
aerobic system takes over.]

Recovery Periods:

 Anaerobic activities rely heavily on ATP-PC and Glycolytic Systems, and

although PC Stores quickly deplete (8 secs), they are also quickly
replenished (50% in 30secs; 100% in 3mins).
 Likewise O2 stored in the myoglobin can be replenished within 3 mins.
 Blood Lactate levels can rise dramatically with high-intensity bouts as
well as with repeated use of the glycolytic system.
 But with the correct W:R ratios and sufficient O2 supply, lactic acid can
be broken down and removed. It is also aided by low-intensity activity
which maintains blood flow and oxygen transport. Hence during
Intermittent exercise lactic acid levels can fluctuate, building up and
initiating fatigue.
 Recovery periods help partially clear lactic acid (fatigue), rehydrate and
glycogen/glucose replenishment e.g. Cyclists use glucose tablets, gels
etc.

Fitness Levels:

 High Aerobic Capacity/VO2 Max = Efficient CV & Respiratory System to

inspire, transport and utilise great volumes of Oxygen. Some
advantages are:
Increased Intensity at which they perform before OBLA is
reached.
Increased Buffering Capacity which limits the effects of lactic
acid accumulation.
Sufficient Oxygen will also arrive onsite earlier than in untrained
performers, minimising the time spent in the glycolytic system
accumulating lactic acid.
The use of FFA’s which demand 15% more O2 to break down.

Factors affecting the contribution of the Energy Systems:

 Position of the Player – e.g. a GK may have only a small % of ATP-PC

System for the intense dives, but predominately made up of the Aerobic
System.
 Tactics and Strategies Used – e.g. man-marking will raise the intensity
and will require more from the anaerobic energy systems.
 Level of Competition – e.g. tough competition = higher intensity =
increased contribution from the anaerobic energy systems.
 Structure of the Game – e.g. rugby is played on a large pitch = increased
duration and lower intensity = increased contribution from the aerobic
energy systems.

1.2: The Recovery Process

Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption:

When performance ends, the body’s in a state of fatigue:

 Myoglobin has lost its stores of O2, ATP, PC and Glycogen Stores.
 Lactic acid levels may be high.
 Feelings of exhaustion

Post-exercise the body enters a period of recovery which aims to return the
body to a pre-exercise state (where all stored fuels are complete) and where
the blood and muscle tissues are free of by-products. But… ENERGY is
required!! This is fulfilled by continued aerobic energy production and is
termed excess post-exercise O2 consumption (EPOC) aka Oxygen Debt (the
vol of 02 post exercise to return the body to a pre-exercise state).

Oxygen consumption can be plotted vs time to show oxygen deficit. General

Graph:

EPOC is always present regardless of the intensity of exercise, and needs to

be large enough to counteract the oxygen deficit and provide O2 to saturate
myoglobin and satisfy additional energy requirements.
But the size of the Oxygen Deficit (vol of 02 to complete an activity entirely
aerobically) and the EPOC may differ depending on the intensity and duration.

E.g. Low-Intensity – small oxygen deficit as steady-state oxygen

consumption is quickly met, limiting the use of the anaerobic energy
systems and lactic acid accumulation.
E.g. High-Intensity – large oxygen deficit as oxygen supply does not
meet demand and lactic acid does accumulate, reaching OBLA quickly.

Graphs 1.2.2 and 1.2.3

Fast Alactacid Component of Recovery:

First stage of recovery, accounts for 10% of EPOC and shows the volume of
Oxygen as 1-4 litres to return the body to a pre-exercise state, including:

 Replenishment of blood and muscle oxygen – as O2 dissociates from

haemoglobin in the blood stream and muscle cells to fuel aerobic
glycolysis and aerobic energy production.
{In the 1st minute of EPOC, O2 resaturates the blood stream, associating
with haemoglobin and within 3 minutes restoring the oxy-myoglobin link
in the muscle cells.}
 Resynthesis of ATP and PC Stores – Within 3 minutes of EPOC, aerobic
energy production continues, providing the energy to resynthesize ATP
and PC. The restoration of muscle phosphagen (P) is essential for the
resynthesis as it provides the phosphates required to restore the high-
energy bonds to ADP and Creatine (30 secs for 50%; 3 mins for 100%).
{Energy + P + ADP = ATP} and {Energy + P + C = PC}

Slow Lactacid Component of Recovery:

After the first stage, it enters this one and shows the volume of Oxygen as 5-8
litres to complete the more complex and time-consuming jobs to return the
body to a pre-exercise state, including:

 Ventilation and Circulation – respiratory rate, depth and HR increases to

provide the muscle cells with O2 for energy production. In post exercise
these remain elevated, then decrease gradually to maximise O2 delivery
and CO2 removal in the plasna e.g. Carbonic Acid and
Carbaminohaemoglobin. This helps continue aerobic energy production
but comes at an energy cost of around 1-2% of EPOC.
 Body Temperature – common for heat production > Heat Removal =
Core Body Temp to increase. For every 1 celcius increase, the metabolic
rate increased by 13-15%. Post exercise the elevated temp remains
accounting for as much as 60-70% of the slow lactacid component of
EPOC.
 Removal of Lactic Acid and Replenishment of Glycogen – during
anaerobic/high-intensity bouts lactic acid will accumulate within the
muscles and capillary beds, causing local muscular fatigue as an athlete
hits OBLA. Post exercise Lactic Acid converts back to Pyruvic Acid and
is then either Oxidised, converted into Glycogen or into Protein:
1. 50-75% of Pyruvic Acid is oxidised in the mitochondria, re-
entering the Kreb’s Cycle and electron transport chain to produce
CO2, H20 and energy aerobically.
2. 10-25% of Pyruvic Acid is reconverted into glucose, to top up
blood supplies and glycogen to be stored in the muscles and liver
via processes called Gluconeogenesis and glyconeogenesis.
3. Small amounts are converted into Protein by Cori Cycle in the
liver and removed from the body in the sweat and urine.
The removal of Lactic Acid relies on the Buffering Capacity of the blood which
neutralises its effects. Hydrogen Carbonate ions produced by the kidneys
absorb hydrogen ions released by lactic acid and form Carbonic Acid. This is
broken down to form CO2 and H20 for removal at the lungs.
Removal of Lactic Acid normally takes about 1 hour, max 24 hours depending
on the intensity of exercise, volumes of lactic acid accumulated and recovery
methods used.