PAPER

OPTICS
Reflectance
Light Scattering
Light Absorption
Whiteness

LINDA JOHANSSON
Dept of Science and Technology · Linköping University
Contents
INTRODUCTION 3
REFLECTANCE 3
The Reflectance Factor 3
The Reflectivity Factor 3
The Reflectance Factor Over a Black Background 3
Brightness 4
Opacity 4
LIGHT SCATTERING AND LIGHT ABSORPTION 4
Light Scattering in Paper 4
Light Absorption in Paper 5
Kubelka-Munk Theory 5
Measuring Reflectance for S- and K-Calculations 7
WHITENESS 7
The Ganz-Greisser Equation 8
The CIE Whiteness Equation 8
Flourescent Whitening Agents 8
Measuring Whiteness 9
Measuring Flourescence 10
REFERENCES 11

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1. Introduction
The optical properties of a paper affect the appearance of the paper sheet and
also influence the result when the paper is printed on. In order to be able to
produce paper with desired optical properties and to improve the quality of
paper in different aspects, it is essential to have a good knowledge of how
different structures of paper mixtures interacts with light. The optical
properties discussed in this short presentation are different reflectance
factors, light scattering, light absorption and whiteness.

2. Reflectance
When light strikes the paper surface, some of the light intensity reflects
back, and the rest enters the paper sheet. Inside the paper sheet the light
scatters in all directions and eventually some of the light reflects back from
the surface in many different angles. Some of the light transmits throught the
paper sheet and exits at the back of the paper, and the rest has been absorbed
by the cellulose and pigments. What we perceive when we look at the paper
surface is a matt white surface, diffuse surface reflection. The reflected,
transmitted, and absorbed intensities can be determined by reflectance
measurements. Below are some important reflectance factors, and the
reflectance values brightness and opacity. All these values are usually
expressed as percentages.

2.1 The Reflectance Factor

The reflectance factor, R, is defined as the radiation reflected by a paper
divided by the radiation reflected by the perfect reflecting diffuser under the
same conditions of irradiation and viewing [4 ]. There does not exist a
material with a diffuse reflectance of one hundred percent, so the reflectance
factor is often replaced in measurements by the reflectivity.

2.2 The Reflectivity Factor

The reflectivity, R•, is the reflectance factor of an opaque pile of paper, i.e.
when the reflectance is not affected by the background [4], see figure 1.

2.3 The Reflectance Factor Over a Black Background

The reflectance factor over a black background, R0, is defined as the
reflectance of a single sheet over a black background [4], see figure 1. This
reflectance factor is a measure of the non-transparency of the paper.

REFLECTANCE FACTOR
REFLECTIVITY, R• OVER A BLACK BACKGROUND, R0

Figure 1. The reflectance of an opaque pile of paper, reflectivity R•, to the left and
the reflectance factor for a single sheet over a black background, R0, to the right.

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 2.4 Brightness
The ISO Brightness is measured as the reflectivity, described above, with a
combination of an incandent lamp and an R457-filter which transmits light in
the blue region (400-500nm) of the spectrum. This is where the reflectivity
changes the most when the pulp is bleached. The equation for the ISO
brightness is given by:

R = Â R( l ) ⋅ F(l )

where R(l ) is the reflectance factor and F(l) is the weighting function (for
values for the weighting functions, see [4] page 24). The brightness value is
† expressed in percentage, and typical brightness values of printing papers are
70%–90%.

2.4 Opacity
The opacity is characterized as the degree of non-transparency, i.e. the
ability of the paper to hide the print on the back side of the sheet. It is
calculated as the measured amount of light reflected from a single sheet, R0,
over a black background, divided by the reflectivity. The equation for the
opacity is given by:

R0
Op = 100 ⋅
R•

For the paper to be acceptable, the opacity shall exceeds 80%, and a typical
value for the opacity is greater than 90%.
†
3. Light Scattering and Light Absorption
Producing paper with the right optical properties requires knowledge of how
light propagate in the paper and how different factors in the materials, in the
manufacturing process and in the paper structure interact with light. Splitting
up the light propagation into components of light scattering and light
absorption helps to determine optical properties for different paper mixtures.
Light scattering and light absorption are connected with a number of
different processes in pulp and paper manufacture that affect the amount of
light scattering and light absorption.

3.1 Light Scattering in Paper

Light scattering in paper arises when the light is reflected and refracted from
fibre surfaces and filler particles. In the paper making industry high light
scattering is good since the paper then becomes more opaque and whiter.
There are different ways of increasing the light scattering in the paper, for
example by adding fillers and coatings. The maker of fine papers can also
add mechanical pulp. To increase the strength of the paper, chemical pulp is
beaten. During the beating new fibre surfaces are exposed, but during the
drying phase the fibre surfaces disappears, and the light scattering decreases.
This is a problem in the paper making process, since the paper strength
increases, but at the same time the light scattering decreases.

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 3.2 Light Absorption in Paper
Light absorption in paper arises when a proportion of light is absorbed by
the paper material. The more light is absorbed, the darker the paper appears
to the eye. When the absorption is different at different wavelengths, we
perceive the material to be colored. The light absorption in the paper is
decreased when the pulp is bleached.

3.3 Kubelka-Munk Theory

The Kubelka-Munk theory was published in 1931 by Paul Kubelka and
Franz Munk, and it describes the optical properties of a material and relates
the total diffuse reflection from the material to constants of light scattering,
S, and light absorption, K. The dimensions for the constants are m-1.
Kubelka-Munk is a two-flux theory, which means that the radiation is
assumed to be composed of two oppositely directed radiation fluxes divided
into an upper- and a low-hemisphere by the paper sheet.

z It Ir
R it ir-(S+K)irdz
z=d
PAPER Sitdz

r(z) dz Kirdz
Kitdz

Rb Sirdz
z=0
BACKGROUND it-(S+K)itdz ir

Figure 2. Principle of the Kubelka-Munk theory.

Figure 2 shows a homogeneous sheet of thickness d that contains randomly

distributed particles that scatter and absorb light that is placed over a
background with reflectance factor Rb. The sheet is illuminated with light of
intensity It, and the intensity of the reflected light is I r. The incident,
reflected and transmitted intensities are all assumed to be perfectly diffuse.
The reflectance R is given by:

Ir
R=
It

Inside the paper at distance z from the background is one thin paper layer
with thickness dz. This layer also has a downward and upward light flux, i t
† and i t respectively. When the light passes through the layer dz downwards,
some of the light is absorbed which reduces the light intensity by Kitdz, and
some of the light is scattered, which reduces the light intensity by Sitdz. The
light intensity is increased by the scattering of the light in the opposite
direction, Sirdz. There are two one-dimensional streams of light intensity, it
and ir, and the total light intensity change can be summarized in two
differential equations for it and ir:

-dit = -(S + K)it dz + Sir dz

dir = -(S + K)ir dz + Sit dz

†
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 The negative sign for dit is due to the fact that the i t light flux is in the
opposite direction from z.
To solve the equations, the first differential equation is divided by it and the
second is divided by ir, and then they are summed. This gives the equation:

dir dit i Êi i ˆ
- = d ln r = -2(S + K)dz + SÁ t + r ˜dz
ir it it Ë ir it ¯

The reflectance for the thin layer dz is r=ir/it, and the substitution of
dlnr=dr/r gives:
†
dr
= Sdz
Ê S+Kˆ
r 2 - 2Á ˜ r + 1
Ë S ¯

The boundary conditions for the variable r=ir/it is: at z=0, the reflectance
r=Rb, and at z=d, the reflectance r=R. The equation is then solved by partial
† fractions. The left side is integrated from Rb to R, and the right side is
integrated from 0 to d.
The reflectance R• of an infinitely thick layer is given by setting d=• which
gives:

K Ê K ˆ2 K
R• = 1+ - Á ˜ + 2⋅
S ËS¯ S

The reflectance factor for a sheet with thickness d is given by:

† Ê 1 ˆ È Ê 1 ˆ˘ (R - R )
R•Á - Rb ˜ expÍSdÁ - R• ˜˙ + b •

Ë R• ¯ Î Ë R• ¯˚ R•
R=
Ê 1 ˆ È Ê 1 ˆ˘
Á - Rb ˜ expÍSdÁ - R• ˜˙ + (Rb - R• )
Ë R• ¯ Î Ë R• ¯˚

The reflectance factor over a black background, R0, occurs when Rb=0,
and is given by:
†
È Ê 1 ˆ˘
R• ⋅ expÍSdÁ - R• ˜˙ - R•
Î Ë R• ¯˚
R0 =
È Ê 1 ˆ˘ 2
expÍSdÁ - R• ˜˙ - R•
Î Ë R• ¯˚

To determine S and K from reflectance measurements of a paper with a

thickness d the equations used are:
†

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 1 R• Ê R ⋅ (1- R ⋅ R ) ˆ
0
S= ⋅ ⋅ lnÁ • •
˜
d 1- R• 2 Ë R• - R0 ¯

1 1- R• Ê R• ⋅ (1- R0 ⋅ R• ) ˆ (1- R• ) 2 ⋅ S
K= ⋅ ⋅ lnÁ ˜ or K =
2d 1+ R• Ë R• - R0 ¯ 2R•

In the calculation of the Kubelka-Munk equations, the paper thickness d is

replaced by the basis weight of the paper b, and the reflectance values are
† expressed as decimal fractions, i.e. values between 0 and 1. The scattering
and absorption coefficients have units of m2/kg. The absorption coefficient is
usually much smaller than the scattering coefficient. K-values are typically
smaller than 4 m2/kg, while S-values are greater than 40m2/kg [2].
There are several assumptions of the Kubelka-Munk theory. The conditions
are never satisfied in real life, but the assumptions are at least approximately
valid for a large number of cases:
4 The sample is a plane layer of finite thickness, but infinite length and
width.
4 The sample is assumed to be homogeneous in the respect that the
optical inhomogenities are incomparably smaller than the thickness of
the layer and are uniformly distributed in the material.
4 The illumination is assumed to be perfectly diffuse and the
illumination is homogeneously incident on the surface and the
material is spectrally non-selective.
4 The only interaction of light with the medium is assumed to be
isotropic (i.e. independent of the angle between the incident and
scattering directions) scattering and absorption.
4 It is assumed that no external or internal surface reflections occur.

The Kubelka-Munk theory has limitations, and one is that if there exists
absorption in the paper sheet, oblique rays will be attenuated more than
vertical rays when passing through the paper, and then the light is no longer
diffuse everywhere in the medium. Also, the description of the incident and
reflected light by the two symmetric differential equations will no longer be
valid when the light fluxes have different angular distributions [6].
Another limitation is that when a material is highly translucent and there is a
large proportion of light that passes straight through the material without
scattering, then the Kubelka-Munk theory will not be valid [6].

Measuring Reflectance for S- and K-Calculations

When measuring reflectance for calculating S and K, the reflectance can be
measured spectrally for each wavelength, or it can be calculated with
different functions such as R457 or YC/2°. It is important to indicate how the
factors have been calculated, as for example S(420), S(R457) or S(YC/2°).
The R457-function is often used to monitor the bleaching process and how it
affects the light absorption K. In order for the lignin to be less yellow, the
light absorption in the blue region has to be lowered. The YC/2°-function is
used to monitor the effect of adding bluish dye additives and how this affects
the light absorption K. The dye gives an absorption top in the 500-650 nm

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 interval of the spectrum, which is the same interval were the YC/2°-function
is defined.
During the measurements the 420nm filter must be used since the Kubelka-
Munk theory is based on the assumption that only scattering and absorption
take place and no fluorescence emission.

4. Whiteness
Whiteness is a special color attribute of the paper that is related to lightness
and the abscence of any hue. Theoretically the whitest white should be the
perfect reflecting diffuser, i.e. a sample which reflects all light, but in
practice most people perceive a sample with a slightly bluish tone as more
white. The perception of whiteness is a subjective and chromatic phenomena
and the whiteness value must take this into account. The definition of
whiteness has been developed during the last 70 years and resulted in
hundreds of whiteness formulas.
A high whiteness is an important property of a paper since it is required to
give good contrast in the printed image and to be able to produce light hues
in their right nuance.

4.1 The Ganz-Griesser Equation

One of the more well-known whiteness equation is the one developed by
Granz and Griesser. It is a general whiteness and tint equation that take into
account how reflectivity level and chromaticity influence the whiteness.
The whiteness equation, WG, is given by:

WG = D ⋅ Y + P ⋅ x + Q ⋅ y + C

where D=1, Y is the tristimulus value, P, Q and C are constants, and x and y
are the chromaticity co-ordinates. The higher the value of WG, the greater is
† the indicated whiteness.
The tint equation, TG, is expressed by:

TG = m ⋅ x + n ⋅ y + k

where m, n and k are constants, and x and y are the chromaticity co-
ordinates. The constants are determined using a set of calibration samples,
† and are only valid for a specific calibrated instrument This equation gives
the possibility to adjust the constants differently for different instruments so
that the instruments can be compared [4].

4.2 The CIE Whiteness Equation

The CIE whiteness equation, WCIE, was published in 1983, and is today an
ISO standard and the most used whiteness equation. It is expressed by:

WCIE = Y + 800 ⋅ (x 0 - x) + 1700 ⋅ (y 0 - y)

where Y is the tristimulus value, x 0 and y0 are the chromaticity co-ordinates

for the D65 illuminant, and x and y are the chromaticity co-ordinates. The
† higher the value of WCIE, the greater is the indicated whiteness.

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 The tint equation, TCIE, is given by:

TCIE = 900 ⋅ (x 0 - x) - 650 ⋅ (y 0 - y)

A positive value of TCIE indicates greenishness, and a negative value

reddishness.
† The sample is considered to be white if:

40 < WCIE < 5 ⋅ y - 280 and - 3 < T < 3

4.3 Flourescent Whitening Agents (FWA)

† Pulp and natural raw fibers have a yellowish tint, and in order to decrease the
yellowness the pulp is bleached. To further reduce the yellowish hue of the
pupl and to increase the appeared whiteness shading colorants and
Flourescent Whitening Agents (FWA) are used.
FWAs are organic materials which absorbs ultraviolet and invisible radiation
at 300-400 nm and transforms it to visible blue light at 400-500 nm. The use
of FWAs increases the reflectance, and thus the lightness, of the paper and it
also changes the tint from yellowish to bluish, which makes the paper look
whiter.

Figure 3. Reflectance spectra for a paper with FWA (dashed line) and without FWA
(solid line).

Figure 3 shows the reflectance spectra for a watercolor paper without FWA
(solid line) and an office paper with FWA (dashed line). The paper with
FWA has a low reflectivity in the UV-range where the energy is absorbed.
And in the visible blue part of the spectrum where the UV-radiation is
reflected, the total radiance exceeds 100%.

4.4 Measuring Whiteness

The whiteness measurement is very sensitive to how much UV-radiation is
produced by the lamps. To control this, the spectrophotometer has a variable
UV-filter, which can be lowered in front of the xenon lamps.

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There are two different ISO-methods for measuring whiteness called outdoor
whiteness (ISO 11475) and indoor whiteness (ISO 11476). The measuring
conditions for the outdoor whiteness is CIE illumination D65, 10° observer
and a UV-filter corresponding to D65. The measuring conditions for the
indoor whiteness is CIE illumination C, 2° observer and a UV-filter
corresponding to C. The standard illuminant D65 corresponds to outdoor
illumination with a relatively high proportion of UV-radiation compared to
standard illuminant C.

4.5 Measuring Flourescence

To measure the effect of the flourescent whitening agents, measurements are
made with and without a cut-off-filter and the difference is calculated. It is
the difference in measured whiteness that is taken as a measure of
flourescence. Unfortunately the cut-off filter never completely removes the
effect of the fwa. The most used cut-off filter is the 420 nm filter.

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5. References
[1] R. Federer, L. Ohlsson, Efficient Use of Flourescent Whitening Agents
and Shading Colorants in the Production of White Paper and Board,
2002.
[2] K. Niskanen, Paper Physics, (Chapter 4), Fapet Oy, Helsinki, Finland,
1998.
[3] P. Kubelka, F. Munk,, An Article on Optics of Paint Layers, 1931.
[4] N. Pauler, Paper Optics, (Chapter 5,7), MoDo Paper, Markaryd, 1993.
[5] S. Rydefalk, Conditions for Whiteness and Brightness, STFI-report
No PO 265, 2000.
[6] S. Rydefalk, M. Wedin., Literature Review on the Color Gamut in the
Printing Process, (Chapter 5, Appendix B), PFT-report No 32, 1997.
[7] L. Yang, Ink-Paper Interaction: A Study in Ink-Jet Color
Reproduction, PhD Thesis, (Chapter 4), Dissertation No. 806,
Linköping University, 1997.

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