Private International Law II Ders Notu I

Private International Law 16/17 Spring Zeynep Aysun Yıldız
06.02.17
CONFLICT OF LAWS
GENERAL VIEW
 As you remember from the first semester, we have four subjects. First one is International Civil Procedure that we
already done. And the second one is Nationality Law which is done by us too. Third and the fourth subject,
namely, conflict of laws(kanunlar ihtilafı) and alien law will be our subjects in this semester. Mainly, we’ll
examine conflict of laws. And if we have time, we gonna talk about alien law as well.
 Conflict of law rules shows which law is going to govern an issue when that issue has a foreign element.
 From Art 1 to Art 8 is the general rules for Turkish conflict of laws rules. So we have to know these Articles.
Especially, you have to know Art 2. Otherwise failing the exam is inevitable :(
 As you already know, we have Turkish Private International Law Act(TPIL). Art 1 to 40 of TPIL is about conflict
of law problems. These Articles lead us to laws that we gonna apply to issues. Art 40 and following is about
International Civil Procedure that we have seen last semester. So, we gonna talk about from Art 1 to 40.
 When we say “conflict”, there is not a conflict in a sense. Actually, the conflict signifies that a legal issue has
more than one law system involvement. And every state can have different laws for different issues, obviously.
 For example, when a Russian guy and Turkish lady wants to divorce in Istanbul, which law is going to be applied?
Russian or Turkish law? Or can parties demand Lebanese Law to be applied? These are the problems we are
going to deal. So, be aware that we’ll just show which country’s law is going to applied. Thus, we’ll not go
further. Because of we’ll just show which law is applied, we’ll see many different law subjects and which law is
going to be applied to them. Like marriage, property, inheritance and the many other issues that involves a
foreign element and the laws that are applied to them will be analyzed in this semester.
 As we can understand, the prior condition for emerging conflict of law rules is foreign element. The case must
have a foreign element. But there is not any definition for foreign element. We must determine case by case if
there is a foreign element or not.
 Simply, foreign element means a contact with another system of law other than law of forum. For example, if a
legal transaction concerns a foreign national, then there is a foreign element. Or if the habitual residence of a
party is in another country, then there is a foreign element as well. Or a tort or an accident happens to you in
another country, this includes a foreign element too. Or even though the parties are Turkish, performance of the
contract may be decided in another country, so this transaction also involves a foreign element.
 If there is a foreign element, Turkish judge MUST apply Turkish conflict of law rules. Conflict of law rules refer
us to apply either Turkish law or another country’s law.
 Why do we bother ourselves to apply another law system? Why don’t we simply apply Turkish Law? Because of
justice and fairness of PIL. The parties may have legal expectations that their law is gonna be applied them for
some legal transactions. And how do we provide fairness of PIL? We look at the law which has “the most
significant relationship” to the parties and events. Moreover, the possibility of forum shopping is the last and
maybe the most important reason to have conflict of law rules. As you remember, if the legal transaction has more
than one connection with other countries, most possibly those countries will have jurisdiction on that transaction
too. Thus, parties have a chance to file their case at the country which is the most beneficial for them and has the
most well-functioning law system. In this sense, if we only apply Turkish Law to the legal actions, nobody wants
to come here to file a case and trust our system. For example, an US airplane has crushed in Adana. So, the
parties can file the case in Turkey or USA, as there is a forum shopping. In this way, it is more beneficial to file
the case in USA, because there is not the prohibition of enrichment by compensation(tazminatla zenginleşme
yasağı) in USA.
 In shortly, we apply the law of the country which has the most significant relationship with the case and parties.
On the other hand, not only TPIL Act, but other laws -like Turkish Commercial Law, Turkish Code of Obligations,
Turkish Civil Law, Negotiable Instruments(kıymetli evrak) Law, Maritime Law- has rules on conflict of laws too.
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We don’t talk about them in detail. BUT unlike the TPIL Act, the aim of those substantive laws are different.
When TPIL Act want to provide fairness of Private International Law, those substantive laws are designed for
“fairness of concrete results”. Which means, they seek to reach a fair result. But in PIL, we do not care for
substantial or concrete results. We only look at the applicable law that have the most significant relationship with
the case and parties. We do not care the results of the applicable law.
INTERESTS
 Who decide which country has most significant relationship on the legal matters? Law-makers decide. TPIL Act
provisions lead us the which law is gonna be applied to the legal transactions. Law-makers are taken into account
some interests to provide fairness of PIL. The first interest is the parties’ interests. Especially, for personal and
family matters the interest of the parties are taken into account in TPIL Act. For instance, the first thing
law-makers look at is common nationality(müşterek tabiyet) at family law matters(yani aile hukuku
meselelerinde kanun koyucunun ilk baktığı menfaat müşterek tabiyet olup olmadığıdır). For example, two Iranian
wants to get a divorce in Turkey. Art 14 of TPIL Act stipulates that if the parties have common nationality, the
law of that nationality is applied for divorce.
 Sometimes there may not any solution on some matters, which means the Act does not refer us to any law. We’ll
see what we gonna do at that time later.
 The second interest is the transaction interest. For instance you make a contract. To find out whether it is legally
formal or not, we take into account transaction interest. Art 7 of TPIL Act regulates it.
 By the way, more than one interest may be combined in some articles as well.
 Hukuk kuralları koyulurken menfaatler dikkate alınır. Bazı maddeler yalnızca bir adet menfaat dikkate alınarak
düzenlenmişken bazıları birden çok menfaat gözetilerek düzenlenmiş olabilir. Ve bazı istisnalar da öngörülmüş
olabilir. Çünkü devlet bu yasaları kendi politik ve ekonomik çıkarları doğrultusunda şekillendirebilir.
 The third interest is the state interest. States may taken into account their interest through “overriding mandatory
rules”(doğruda uygulanan hükümler denir, bunu emredici olarak çevirmeyin) because of some economical and
political reason. Especially Art 6 and 31 are important in this way. These are called overriding mandatory rules.
And according to these provisions, for some political and economical reasons, state’s law will be applied rather
than a foreign law. Import and export restrictions can be evaluated in this section. Mesela Rus uçağını
düşürdüğümüzde Rusların ithalat ve ihracatı durdurmaları da kendi overriding mandatory rules’larına dayanmıştır.
We’ll explain it later broadly.
 The fourth interest is the substantial law(maddi hukuk) interest. Which means, even though there are conflict of
law rules, we may apply Turkish law for some cases because of public policy. This is different from what we’ve
seen in the first semester. In the first semester, we said that judge cannot recognize and enforce a foreign
judgment if it is against the Turkish public policy. But here the situation is different. Here, as Art 5 of TPIL Act
regulates, an application of a foreign law is against Turkish public policy. We’ll see this later too.
SCOPE
 Art 1 says that if the legal relations or the transactions regarding private law has a foreign element, we gonna
apply TPIL to decide which law is applied.
 What if there is an international treaty regarding conflict of laws? For example there is an international treaty on
child abduction. Here, we have to apply that treaty as Art 1(2) of TPIL say us too. Because the rule says that the
provisions of international conventions to which the Republic of Turkey is a signatory are reserved.
 NOT every rule in TPIL Act are conflict of law rules. Some of them are “substantive private international law
rules”. Substantive private international law rules brings solution directly and do not refer to any law. For
example Art 20(3) says that “The State shall inherit estates situated in Turkey that do not have any inheritors”.
Türkiye'de bulunan mirasçısız tereke Devlete kalır. As you can see, it doesn’t refer us to any foreign law rules.
Yan, 1 - 39 arasındaki her kurala hemen kanunlar ihtilafı kuralı demeyeceğiz. Hemen hemen hepsi öyle fakat,
bazıları maddi milletlerarası özel hukuk kurallarıdır ve kanunlar ihtilafı kurallarının aksine bizi herhangi başka bir
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kanuna refere etmeden salt sonuç getirirler.
 Conflict of law rules DO NOT offer a solution. They merely determine the law which is applied to the issue. They
just show us which law is going to be applied. In other words, they stipulate the relationship and events with a
foreign element indirectly, so they point to the rules that judge supposes to apply. That law is either the domestic
law or a foreign law. Mesela yabancı unsur içeren bir boşanma söz konusu olduğunda ve dava Türkiye’de
görüldüğünde kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri bu davaya uygulanacak hukuku bize gösterir. Yerel/yabancı hukuku
uygula der. Şu kadar tazminat alır, şunlar boşanma sebepleridir vs. demez.
 Türkçe kitaplarda “kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları” ve “bağlama kuralları” ayrımını da alt sınıf olarak görebiliriz.
 Let’s analyze Art 14 of TPIL as an example. It says for the divorce case, if the parties have a common nationality,
then that common nationality law is applied. But if they do not have a common nationality, the provision brings
another way and says that the law of their common habitual residence is applied for divorce. As you can see, there
is just a reference. But as we gonna see later, spouses may have not a common habitual residence because of
business trips etc. In this case, Art 14 says if they do not have a common habitual residence, Turkish law is
applied.
 On Wednesday, we gonna talk about components of conflict of law rules, namely, “connecting factor” and
“connecting subject”. Bağlama konusu ve bağlama noktası olarak çevrilir.
08.02.17
 Conflict of law rules do not offer a solution for the issues themselves. They merely determine the rules which will
be applied to these issues. Thus, conflict of law rules stipulate relationship and events with a foreign element
indirectly, in other words, they point to the rules the judge is supposed to apply. For that reason, these rules may
be defined as a reference rules.
 Conflict of law rules refer either to domestic law(lex fori) or to the law of a foreign state, depends on the issue.
COMPONENTS OF CONFLICT OF LAW RULES: CONNECTING FACTOR & CONNECTING SUBJECT
 Conflict of laws rules definitively compressible two components. The first of these is defined as the connecting
subject whereas the other is named the connecting factor.
 For example Art 9 of TPIL states “the capacity to have rights and to act is subject to the national law of person
concerned”. In this article “the capacity to have rights and act” is CONNECTING SUBJECT and “the national
law of person concerned” is the CONNECTING FACTOR.
 Connecting subject(bağlama konusu): Connecting subject is the relationship or status for which the applicable
law is being sought. Shortly, connecting subject is the legal issue, relationship. Example for connecting subject:
legal incapacitation, ownership and other absolute property rights, ability to conclude the marriage... Terms
reminding the typical institutions of private (civil & commercial) law usually borrowed from a vocabulary of the
legislator’s own legal system.
 Connecting factor(bağlama noktası): Connecting factors(point of connection) enabling the connecting subjects to
be held subject to certain legal system, comprise certain facts, legal or actual factors. These factors define the
relationship which the issue at hand has with a certain legal order. Primarily, the relationship between persons,
subjects or actions regarding the issue and the legal orders are taken into consideration. The identifier which
appears at the end of the “law of the...” formula is traditionally known as a “connecting factor”, on the ground
that these points of contract are WHAT CONNECT an individual or an event to a system of law which will, in
principle, then be applied to determine the issue. Connecting factor bizi connecting subject’e uygulanacak olan
hukuka bağlar. Connecting factor’u genellikle “law of ....” , “shall be governed by...” , “is subjected to...” vb.
ibarelerinden anlarız. In the conflict of law, connecting factors, are facts which tend to connect a transaction or
occurrence with a particular law or jurisdiction. So, connecting factor refer us to which law is applied.
 Bağlama noktası: connecting factor. Bağlama konusu: connecting subject. Bağlama konusunu tespit ettğimizde
ona uygulanacak hüküm için bağlama noktasına bakarız. Bağlama noktalarını her devlet kendi ekonomik, siyasal
çıkarlarına göre, interest’lerine göre belirlemektedir. Hükümleri anlamak için bunları ayırt ederek hükmü analiz
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etmek faydalı olacaktır.
 The followings are the sample connecting factors that utilized in TPIL: Nationality, domicile, residence, the lex
actus, lex rei sitae(malın bulunduğu yer-where the property is situated), intent of the parties(tarafların
uygulanacak hukuk hakkındaki tercihi), etc. Yani, kanunlar ihtilafı kurallarında bağlama noktalarını kanun
koyucu devletin ekonomik, sosyal, siyasi çıkarları doğrultusunda düzenler. Bağlama noktaları dolayısıyla her
hükme göre farklılık gösterebilir. Kişinin hukukunda, aile hukukunda, eşya hukukunda vs. farklı olacaktır.
Nitekim, örneğin; eşyaya ilişkin hükümlerde malın bulunduğu yer bağlama noktası uygulanacak hukuk olarak ele
alınmıştır. Haksız fiilde haksız fiilin yapıldığı yer hukukunun uygulanağı esas alınmıştır. Aile hukukunda mutat
meskenin bulunduğu yer hukukunun uyuşmazlığa uygulanacağı söylenmiştir vs. Bunlar kanun koyucunu fairness
of PIL’i sağlaması ve devletin siyasi, ekonomik, sosyal çıkarlarını koruması etrafında şekillenmektedir.
a. Nationality as a Connecting Factor
a.1. Applicable Law on the Basis of Nationality
 Connecting factors are shaped by the state’s points of view. So it may change from state to state. For example
Turkey accept law of the nationality of the person for the personal matters. But in UK, US and other European
countries, we can see that the law of the habitual residence of the person is applied because of the politics in
regard to immigrants. Most probably, Turkey will change its law in 4-5 years as Turkey has become a center of
immigrants’ problems.(Türkiye göç veren bir ülke iken göç alan bir ülke durumuna geldiği için, uygulamada
çıkan sorunları azaltmak amacıyla, birkaç yıl sonra connecting factor olarak artık yabancının tabi olduğu ülke
hukuku değil; oturduğu yer hukukunun uygulanması şeklinde bir düzenleme getirilmesi elzem gibi duruyor.)
 When we are looking in TPIL Act, we can see nationality issues a lot. For example; Art 11 says that presumption
of death shall be governed by nationality of that person. OR marriage capacity or conditions are shall be governed
by national law of each parties... As we can see Turkish conflict of law rules generally are based on nationality of
the person for family and personal matters. Şahsın hukuku ve aile hukukunda biz tabiyet(vatandaşlık) hukunu
kabul etmişiz. Örneğin bir kişinin gaiplik kararı verilmesinde, evlenmede ehliyet için vatandaşlık hukukuna
bakılıyor.
 But there is an important problem. Even though we accept nationality as the connecting factor for family and
personal matters, there are still some people who are stateless, or refugees, or have temporary protection status etc.
These people do not have any nationality. Or some people have more than one nationality. Which nationality of
law is applied for them is a problem. Art 4 brings a solution for this.
 Art 4 of TPIL: “Unless provided otherwise in this Act, where the applicable law pursuant to the provisions of this
Act is determined on the basis of nationality: a) for the stateless and the refugees, the law of domicile, if they do
not have a domicile, the law of habitual residence, and if they do not have a habitual residence, the law of the
country(Turkey) where they on the date of suit, b) for persons with more than one nationality, Turkish law, if they
also have Turkish nationality, c) for persons with more than one nationality, but who do not have Turkish
nationality, at the same time, the law of the state which they are more closely connected shall apply.” Art 4’ü
stateless, birden çok nationality sahibi kişiler(Türk ve başka vatandaşlık veya Türk vatandaşlığı dışında birden
çok vatandaşlık şeklinde olabilir) için uygulayabilmemiz somut vakada bağlama konusuna baktığımızda bu konu
1)vatandaşlık temelinde bir konu olacak ve 2)o konu için kanunumuzda nationality law’un uygulanacağı
öngörülmüş olacak. Örneğin capacity için Art 9 nationality law’un uygulanacağını öngörmüş. O halde, statesless
biri veya birden fazla nationality sahibi olan kişi için capacity ile ilgili bir ihtilaf çıktığında hangi hukukun
uygulanacağını görmek için Art 4’e bakmamız gerekecek. MÖHUK 4: “Bu Kanun hükümleri uyarınca yetkili
olan hukukun vatandaşlık esasına göre tayin edildiği hâllerde, bu Kanunda aksi öngörülmedikçe; a) Vatansızlar
ve mülteciler hakkında yerleşim yeri, bulunmadığı hâllerde mutad mesken, o da yok ise dava tarihinde bulunduğu
ülke hukuku, b) Birden fazla devlet vatandaşlığına sahip olanlar hakkında, bunların aynı zamanda Türk
vatandaşı olmaları hâlinde Türk hukuku, c) Birden fazla devlet vatandaşlığına sahip olup, aynı zamanda Türk
vatandaşı olmayanlar hakkında, daha sıkı ilişki hâlinde bulundukları devlet hukuku, uygulanır.” şeklinde
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düzenleme yapmıştır. Öyleyse madde hangi düzenlemeyi getirmiş inceleyelim:
 A. If the person is stateless/refuge= 1. law of domicile, 2. if there is not a domicile, law of habitual residence 3. if
there is not a habitual residence law of Turkey where they on the date of suit is applied.
 B. Person who have more than one nationality and one is Turkish= Turkish law is applied
 C. Person who have more than one nationality and all is different than Turkish = The law of the state which they
are closely connected is applied. For example Mark has both German and French nationality. He claims that he
does not have legal capacity. Art 9 says law of nationality of that person is applied for capacity but he has more
than one nationality. So we go to Art 4 and Art 4(c) wants us to find out which nationality he is more connected.
To do this; we need to look at where Mark is living, where is his family, where does he run his business etc.
 Notebohm Decision(ICJ): In this case, the defendant has 3-4 nationalities. Here, ICJ says that the state must look
at the most closely connected nationality to apply law. “Most closely connected state” kriterinin temeli zaten bu
case. Kişinin birden fazla vatandaşlığı var. Evlenme, boşanma, capacity vb aile ve kişi hukuku konularında hangi
vatandaşlığının bağlı olduğu ülkenin hukukunu uygulayacağımızı bulmak için kişinin en sıkı ilişkisinin
bulunduğu ülkenin vatandaşlığına bakarız. Bunun için de o kişi nerede oturuyor, ailesi neredei işyeri nerede vb
kriterlere bakarız. Uluslarası Adalet Divanı da İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrasında verdiği Notebohm Kararı’nda
“gerçek tabiyetlik esası” kriterini getirmiştir. Bu da en sıkı ilişki içinde olunan ülkenin hukukunun uygulanacağını
öngörmektedir. Yani bu kriterin temeli aslında bu karardır.
 Asla unutmayın, Art 4 sadece ve sadece kanunlar ihtilafının vatandaşlığı temel aldığı hallerde kişi vatansızsa,
birden fazla vatandaşlığı varsa uygulanan istisnai ve uygulamada sık rastlanılan bir hükümdür.
b. Changes in Connecting Factor: conflict mobile
b.1. Variable Disputes
 Some laws may bring nationality, or domicile, or habitual residence as the connecting factor. Those 3 factors are
“mobile connecting factors”, because they can be change in time. While the case is going on, people can change
their nationality, domicile or habitual residence to make possible to apply other laws, or prevent taxation etc. This
is called “abuse of PIL”. But people can change their nationality, habitual residence or domicile without no
intention of abusing law. For example, going to another state for business.
 So what will happen? For example when the cases is started the party was living in Istanbul, but he moved to
Germany while the case is going on.
 Art 3 of TPIL says, “Where the applicable law is determined pursuant to nationality, domicile or habitual
residence, the nationality, domicile or habitual residence at the date of suit is taken into account, unless enacted
otherwise.” It means that if the applicable law is based on nationality, habitual residence, or domicile, then “the
date of the case is filed” is taken into account(unless there is an exception). For instance you file the case in 2012
and you change your domicile in 2014, we take into account the situation in 2012.
 BUT as the Art 3 says “unless enacted otherwise” we understand that there can be exceptions. Sometimes law can
give definite time, so we may not be able to apply the date of the suit. For example, Art 13 of TPIL says that
marriage capacity and conditions shall be governed by the national law of each parties at the time of marriage. So,
when a spouse claims there was not any legal capacity when they are married, at that time, we DO NOT apply the
law of the nationality of that person at the date of suit. We apply the law of the nationality at the time of marriage
as said in Art 13. Another example is Art 16. It says that establishment of descent shall be governed by the
national of child at the time of birth.
 Kanunda bazı ihtilaflar için vatandaşlık, mutat mesken veya yerleşim yeri bağlama noktaları, yani o ihtilafa
uygulanacak hukuku belirlemek için saptanmış noktalar olarak belirlenmiş olabilir. Bu 3 bağlama noktası
değişebilen bağlama noktalarıdır. Art 3 davanın açıldığı tarihteki durumun esas alınacağını belirtmiştir. Ama
bazen kanun koyucu buna istisna getirmiş olabilir. Mesela Art 13 evlenmenin ehliyet ve şartlarına dair ihtilaflarda
tarafların evlenme anındaki milli hukukun uygulanacağını söylemektedir. Söz gelimi boşanma davasında evlenme
ehliyetinin hiç olmadığı iddia ediliyorsa, ehliyetin hangi kanuna göre belirleneceği davanın açılması sırasında tabi
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olunan vatandaşlığın hukukuna göre değil; MÖHUK 13 gereği evlenme tarihinde tabi olunan vatandaşlığın
hukukuna göre belirlenecektir. Ya da MÖHUK 16 başka bir örnek olarak verilebilir. Bu maddede çocuğun
soybağının doğum tarihinde tabi olduğu vatandaşlığın hukukuna göre belirleneceği ifade edilmiştir. Kısaca, dava
tarihini esas alabilmemiz için istisnai bir hüküm olmamalıdır.
 So Art 3 prevents abuse of PIL in a sense.
c. Main Technical Problems: Characterization(/Categorization/Qualification)
 Before the correct connecting factors can be identified we need to know into which legal category the facts of the
case, or the particular issues, are properly placed.
 Some of the issues may not be governed by our state law or other states’ law. Or some of the issues may be
regulated in different aspects.
 It is necessary to characterize the issue that is before the court. You will note that characterization is also called
“classification”. It is a basic analytical tool.
 The process of categorization or characterization presents a special problem. Some issues may be considered
procedural while the others are substantive. For example, prescription(/statute of limitation, zamanaşımı) is
considered as a substantive matter in Turkey, as Art 8 mentioned. However, other countries may have different
regulations. For example, in Turkish Civil Law, there is returning the gifts(hediyelerin iadesi) provisions in the
case of break of engagement. However, France do not have any rules on that issue. So suppose that you have a
French fiance(e) and you bought a car to him/her. However, she/he has broken the engagement, so you want the
car back. In this case, we cannot apply Turkish Civil Law directly, because there is a foreign element. We gonna
apply Turkish conflict of law rules. According to which law system do we categorize/characterize the issue?
French or Turkish? Breaking of engagement is a tort in French law while engagement is a legitimized subject as a
contract in Turkish law. So if we say it’s a tort, then we gonna apply Art 34 which regulates tort. However, if we
characterize it as regards to Turkish law, then we gonna apply Art 12 which is a specific article regulates
engagement.
 Generally, Turkish legal system and other countries are based on lex fori for characterization. In other words,
forum state’s law is applied for characterization/categorization. So, let’s go back to the French-Turkish
engagement example above. If the case regarding returning of gifts is filed in Turkey, then Turkish judge
categorizes the issue according to Turkish law system and says this a engagement, so Art 12 is applied.
 There is also another theoretical doctrine which says lex causae must be applied to characterize the issue. Lex
causae means the applicable law. According to this approach, judge firstly and hypothetically should find the
applicable law that is applied for the case, then he/she should characterize the issue according to that country’s
law. But this is just a theoretical approach. Because if we apply lex causae for characterization, then forum state
do not have any power for cases that is filed in its territory.
 Şöyle söyleyelim, yabancı unsur ihtiva eden bir davada connecting subject dediğimiz bağlama konusunu
vasıflandırmamız çok önemli. Uyuşmazlığın ne olduğunu bilmemiz için o konuyu vasıflandıramız lazım. Yani
konu ne, problem ne onu bulmamız gerekiyor. İşte biz vasıflandırmayı lex foriye göre yapıyoruz. Yani davanın
açıldığı ülkenin hukukuna göre bağlama konusunu kategorize ediyoruz. Mesela Fransız Hukuku’nda nişanlılık
kurumu olmadığı için, nişanın bozulması halinde hediyelerin iadesi haksız fiil olarak karakterize edilirken; Türk
Hukuku’nda nişanlılık zaten bir sözleşme olarak tanındığı için, nişanın bozulması da ayrıca bir kurum olarak
tanınmıştır. Bu bakımdan Fransız ve Türk taraflar nişanın bozulmasından sonra hediyelerin iadesi için Türkiye’de
dava açmışsa, lex fori uygulanacağından burada Fransız Hukuku’na göre bir haksız fiil vardır o zaman MÖHUK
34’te düzenlenen haksız fiil hükümleri uygulanır DEMİYORUZ, lex foriye yani davanın görüldüğü yer olan Türk
Hukuku’na göre bu nişanlılık kurumudur, öyleyse MÖHUK 12’de düzenlenen nişanlılığa ilişki hüküm uygulama
bulur diyoruz.
 Doktrinde lex causae’nin uygulanması gerektiğine dair bir yaklaşım var. Fakat bu çok teorik ve uygulaması
neredeyse hiç olmayan bir görüş. Yargıtay’ın çok eski bir kararında bir kere uygulanmış.
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 As short, we apply lex fori for connecting subject.
13.02.17
 Conflict of law rules have two elements: connecting subject and connecting factor. In order to apply conflict of
laws rules we need to know these elements.
 Connecting factor is depends on the law-makers of countries. It might be nationality, habitual residence, common
nationality, domicile etc.
 Connecting subjects like marriage, adaption, capacity, and the others can be differently categorized in different
countries. For example, statute of limitation is considered as a substantive matter in Turkey. Art 8 of TPIL refer us
to a law rule that we gonna apply for statute of limitation issues. But in USA, statute of limitation is considered as
a procedural issue. And for procedural issues, lex fori is applied.
 So, we always need to characterize the issue firstly. Characterization is done by lex fori.
 We talked about characterization of connecting subjects. What about connecting FACTORS? Are connecting
factors characterized according to lex fori? For example, Art 9 says the legal capacity of the person shall be
governed by his/her national law. As we can see, legal capacity is the connecting subject and nationality is the
connecting factor. Or, in other articles, we see different connecting factors like where the property is located, or
habitual residence, or domicile. The question is, according to which law do we characterize these connecting
factors? For example, it may be possible that domicile is interpreted differently in different countries. Art 19 and
following Articles of Turkish Civil Code says that to have a domicile there must be intent, residing in one place
and so on. However, the conditions for domicile may be different in other countries. So, are we going to
characterize connecting factors according to lex fori or lex causae? Generally, connecting factors are
characterized according to where it’s written, therefore lex fori. So, if the connecting factors are written in Turkish
conflict of law rules and we apply Turkish conflict of law rules, then we characterize it according to lex fori.
 Exception: Nationality is the only exception among connecting factors that lex fori is NOT applied. Because,
every state has its own conditions for acquiring or losing nationality regarding sovereignty. For instance, an
English man called John, is an alcoholic and disturbing his neighbors. So, we gonna restrict his legal capacity and
place him under guardianship. Art 10 of PIL stipulates that “The legal reasons underlying decisions issuing or
revoking a tutelage or guardianship are governed by the national law of the person who is the subject of the said
decision.” Here, the connecting subject is: issuing guardianship. Connecting factor: nationality of the person. So
when we characterize connecting factor -which is nationality- we do not do it according to our law. As we said,
all countries regulate its own law acquiring their nationality. In our example, we do not apply Turkish law to find
out whether John is English or not.
 Bu konu biraz karışık ve sınavda çıkar. Ama sorunun içinde gizlidir, o yüzden biz bulacağız. Bağlama
noktalarının yorumlanması sorun çıkarabiliyor. Bağlama noktaları o konuya hangi hukukun uygulanacağını
göstermektedir. Milli hukuk, yerleşim yeri, mutat meskenin bulunduğu hukuk uygulanır gibi çeşitli şekillerde
karşımıza çıkabilir. Çünkü fairness of PIL bunu gerektirir. Ama sorun şu ki, biz bu bağlama noktalarını neye göre
yorumlayacağız? Kural: hangi kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları uygulanıyorsa-ki bu doğal olarak lex fori olacaktır-
connecting factor ona göre vasıflandırılır. İstisna: vatandaşlık. Çünkü her devlet kendi vatandaşlık kurallarını
kendi düzenler. Bir ihtilaf olup bu ihtilafta MÖHUK’a göre nationality law uygulandığını gördüğümüz zaman
kişinin o nationality’e sahip olup olmadığını kendi hukukumuza göre değil; o kişinin bağlı olduğu devletin
nationality law kurallarına göre vasıflandırıyoruz.
 Bununla beraber nationality law dışında bazı istisnai bazı durumlarda da, ki bu gellikle şahsın hukuku veya aile
hukuku konuları olur, connecting factorler o devletin kurallarına göre yorumlanır. Buna renvoi denir. Bunu
detaylı olarak zaten önümüzdeki derslerde göreceğiz. O yüzden şu an anlatmıyoruz.
APPLICATION OF FOREIGN LAW BY TURKISH COURTS
a. Hypothetical Cases
 A South Korean couple have been living in Istanbul since 2010. They want to divorce in Turkey and Hui-Kim
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filed a divorce case in Turkish family court against his wife, Huifen Kim. Which law is going to be applied? Can
parties ask from the Turkish court to apply Turkish law in this case?
 Maximilano, French national, went to soccer game in London and he fought with his boss Emre, Turkish national,
and Maximilano was injured and he filed a case in Istanbul against Emre for compensation. Who has the burden
of proof for determination of the connecting factor in this case?
 And who has the burden of proof for determination of the connecting factor is another issue...
 Art 2(1) of TPIL: “(1) The judge shall ex officio(resen) apply the Turkish conflict of law rules and the applicable
foreign law pursuant to these rules. The judge may demand the assistance of the parties in determining the
content of the applicable foreign law.” It means judge shall ex officio apply Turkish conflict of law rules and if
the conflict of law rules refer him/her to foreign law, then judge must apply that applicable foreign law as well. In
that way, for our first example, in the case of Turkish PIL refer the judge to foreign law, Hui and Huifen Kim
cannot ask Turkish law to be applied. Because, Art 2 says the judge shall ex officio apply foreign law pursuant to
these rules. So, the reason is not public policy but ex offico execution. (But there are some exceptions that parties
are free to choose applicable law like contracts, matrimonial properties etc.)
 The main purpose of this article is based on the fairness of PIL. If the judicial forum law is the most proper law
for every case, then we do not need to have PIL at all. In order to achieve fairness of PIL, Turkish court shall
apply foreign law if the dispute consists foreign element and Turkish conflict of law rules refer to foreign law. But
Turkish conflict of law rules do not always refer to foreign law, it may refer to Turkish law as well. If that so, then
judge must apply Turkish law.
 It should be noted that if Turkish conflict of law rules requires the application of foreign law, the judge shall
apply this law. However, this law never become a judge’s law, it remains as a foreign law. However, the countries,
like UK and USA that have Anglo-Saxon legal system regard (conceptualize) foreign law as a <<fact>> not as a
law. If it is not raised (pleaded) or proved, the court will not apply these countries’ law. The burden of proof is on
the party who bases his claim or defense on foreign law. In UK, the foreign law must be proved by expert advice.
But in Turkey, and many other countries, foreign law is not a fact, it is a law. So parties do not have a burden of
proof for applying foreign law. Judge must apply foreign law, if Turkish conflict of law rules refer.
b. The Rule of Jura Novit Curia
 The rule of jura novit curia which is the obligation of the judge to know the law, is not applicable in foreign law
application. Hakim hukuku bilir anlamına geliyor. However, it is obvious that we cannot expect Turkish judge has
to know every law is applied all around the world. Therefore, the Turkish judge only has to ascertain the
applicable substantive law rules. Judge cannot say i do not know Turkish conflict of law rules. Jura novit curia is
applied for our conflict of law rules, not for foreign laws.
 In the ascertaining process, he can get help from the parties of the dispute, but he doesn’t need to apply the parties
founding.
 It should be noted that, the judge firstly find out which law is the applicable through applying Turkish conflict of
law rules and in this step, the rule of jura novit curia will apply and the judge cannot argue that he does not know
the TPIL rules. The judge must apply Turkish conflict of law rules ex officio, then find the applicable law. The
applicable law can be a foreign law or it can be the forum law.
 When there is a transaction occurs and this transaction has a foreign element, firstly we apply Turkish conflict of
law rules. That conflict of law rules refer us to either a foreign law or Turkish law.
 But; we see so many different connecting factors like nationality, where the delivery occurs, where the contract is
made, where the property is located etc. And these connecting factors are “facts” not “law”. Parties must prove
these facts. As we know, proving the procedural matters are the duty of parties, not judge. There is not any
provision in TPIL regarding this, but, Art 25 of Turkish Civil Procedural Law says party who claim the fact also
proves that. So burden of proof for connecting factors belongs to parties. “Principle of party presentation” is one
of the important principle in our Civil Procedural Law. Because, as we remember form first semester, judge must
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apply lex fori for proving of facts. In this way, Turkish Civil Procedural Code says that judge cannot ex officio
consider or state anything, unless it is stated to courts by one of the parties(HMK 25-taraflarca getirilme ilkesi).
Hakim şu delili unutmuşsun diyemez. Parties must prove there is a foreign element and connecting factor. After
they prove, judge apply Turkish conflict of law rules and find out which law is referred.
 Example: A tort act, let’s say a traffic accident, between a German and Turkish citizen is happened in Bulgaria.
Parties must prove that this tort act is happened in Bulgaria.
 On the other hand, principle of ex officio examination is also accepted for some situations. It means that parties
do not bring proof but the judge ex officio gets evidences for same cases that is related with public policy and
public interest such as family law cases like divorce, separation, declaration of disappearance. In this time, parties
do not have to prove, judge must ex officio find out the connecting factor. Because, Art 31 of Turkish CPC brings
“duty of judge to clarifying the action principle”(hakimin davayı aydınlatma ödevi) for some issues. This article
states that principle of determination by the court is situated where clarification of the dispute is necessary, the
judge may request the procurement of evidence. So, judge has the power to find out the factual issues if it is
related with public policy. For example, even though parties made a separation agreement, the judge must seek
out for the actual situation and facts. To sum, if the case has a foreign element and the connecting subject is like
divorce, separation, paternity etc., public interest is taken into account, so judge must find out ex officio the facts.
 There are two system for investing the facts and evidences: 1. Inquisitorial system = An inquisitorial system is a
legal system where the court or a part of the court is actively involved in investigating the facts of the case. Here,
judge has the all power. 2. Adversarial system= Judge has a passive control in this system. Parties has the main
power to bring evidences and prove facts.
 Turkish legal system accepts adversarial system as principle, but as Art 31 mentioned, inquisitorial system is also
accepted for some family and personal cases.
 Bağlama noktalarını belirleyen konular, yani vakalar, taraflarca ispat edilir. Örn/ haksız fiil şu ülkede gerçekleşti,
sözleşme gereği şu hukuk uygulanacak gibi. Taraflar bağlama noktalarını vaka olarak ispat ettikten sonra hakim o
somut olaya uygulanacak hukuku bulur.
c. Ascertaining the content of the Foreign Law
 As we said Turkish conflict of law rules may refer to a foreign law. But, how does judge ascertain that foreign
law? How can judge know the content(muhteva) of that law?
 As mentioned above, According to the Art 2 of PIL “The judge may demand the assistance of the parties in
determining the content of applicable foreign law.” In other words, judge can get help from the parties .
 Under this article, foreign law is applied ex officio, and its content is established ex officio by the court. This may
be the main rule, but the judge is still empowered to request the assistance if the parties in establishing the content
of foreign law.
 The judge may have recourse to any source of information in order to determine the applicable law, either
personally of officially.
c.1. The methods for ascertaining the content of foreign law
 The judge has a discretionary power to apply following methods in order to determine the content of foreign law:
 1. The Court can directly ask the content of foreign to the General Directorate for International Law and Foreign
Relations.
 2. The court will obtain the information from the Turkish embassies and consulates that are in the state its law
concerns through the ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Justice or that state’s embassy or consulate in
Turkey.
 3. The courts will ascertain the content of foreign law through expert(bilirkişi- who has a law degree cannot be an
expert according to our new Expert Law, unless if he/she is specialized in another area) or legal/specialized
opinion(hukuki/uzman görüş- these can be lawyers, law professors etc.).
 4. The courts will determine the content of foreign law through Private International Law Department of School
9
of Laws or other relative institutions(such as comparative law institutions).
 *5. Turkey is a part to “European Convention on Obtaining Information Regarding Foreign Law” dated 7 June
1968 which established a system enabling judicial authorities to obtain information on foreign law. The system
preferred at present is obtaining information such as universities and from experts(Çarşamba günü bunu ayrıntılı
ele alacağız).
 Apart from that the parties also have the right to prove the content of foreign law with any kind of available
evidence.
15.02.17
 As we said, Art 2 is a mandatory rule for judge. And it says that Turkish judge ex officio apply Turkish conflict of
law rules. And if this Turkish conflict of law rules refer to a foreign law, then judge must apply that foreign law
rules as well.
 In our International Civil Procedural Law class, we said judge must apply lex fori for procedural issues.
 We also said foreign law is accepted as “law” not a “fact” in our system. However, whether the case has a foreign
element or not, connecting factors, where the act is happened, choice of law by parties in an agreement,
contractual obligations etc. must be proved by the parties thanks to Art 25 of Turkish CPC. For example, if the
tort act is happened in Bulgaria and parties file the case in Turkey, Turkish court will apply its own evidence law
for evidences. In this way, Art 25 of Turkish CPC says parties must prove the facts. And connecting factors are
material issues not a “law”. Besides that, if the issue is related with public policy such as family or personal law
issues, judge must ex officio check for connecting factors and foreign elements.
 We were explaining ascertaining/obtaining of foreign law. We said that Turkish conflict of law rules may refer us
to either Turkish law or a foreign law. And if it refer us to a foreign law how will judge apply the content of the
foreign law to the case? As we said jura novit curia(hakim hukuku bilir) is not applied for conflict of law rules
that want us to apply a foreign law. Because we cannot expect judge to know every law in the world. So, how we
gonna find out the content of the foreign law? According to Art 2 of the PIL, “The judge may demand the
assistance of the parties in determining the content of the applicable foreign law.” It means judge has the
responsibility to find out content of the foreign law. We have a similar Article in Turkish CPC as well. So, even
though we did not have this article, still judge may demand for assistance of the parties thanks to Turkish CPC
anyway. Last week we also talked about 5 discretionary(ihtiyari) ways that how the judge may demand for
assistance of parties in order to find out the content of the foreign law(i have mentioned above, so i do not write
again, but we’ll talked about the 5th way in detail just in a minute). These are not compulsory ways. The
information given to judge through that ways are NOT binding. Judge can still decide different from the
information that has given to him.
 Ayrıca taraflar da kendi uzman kişilerinden aldıkları bilgiyi de hakime sunabilirler. Hatta sunmalılar.
 Let’s explain the 5th way. As I said, the 5th way declares an international treaty called “European Convention on
Obtaining Information Regarding Foreign Law” which Turkey is also party. And according to this treaty, every
contracting state must organize a central authority within its boundaries. Also, regarding applying this Convention,
in 2008 a Circular(genelge) is issued by General Directorate for International Law and Foreign Relations which is
organized under Turkish Ministry of Justice. If the country which we apply its law is a part of this international
convention, Turkish judge sends a request regarding ascertaining that foreign law to the Turkish Ministry of
Justice and Ministry of Justice sends this request to the central authority of that country which is established
under that European Convention. And that central authority sends the information back to the Turkish judge
through Ministry of Justice. As we can see, it is the fastest way. Furthermore, according to this Convention, the
reply given by the central authority should provide information in an “objective” and “impartial” manner. The
reply contains relevant legal texts and relevant judicial decisions and may be accompanied by any additional
documents, such as extracts from doctrinal works, travaux préparatories or explanatory commentaries (Art 7 of
the Convention). The information in the reply is NOT BINDING on the requesting judicial authority(Art 8 of the
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Convention). So, Turkish judge does not bind with the reply given by the central authority of that state.
 The court must officially establish the content of the foreign law. Parties are often invited to express an opinion
on the foreign law and usually comply with this request. This does not alter the fact that the court itself continues
to be responsible for that which it accepts as the content of the foreign law.
 The scope of the ascertaining of the contents of foreign law includes all the relevant applicable foreign legislation,
together with the exist court or other authorities practice with regard to their correct interpretation as well as
application.
 The foreign law is ascertained, interpreted and applied in the same way it is interpreted and applied in its country
of origin. That’s why specialized opinions are really important.
 Suppose that Turkish judge tried all methods but could not get any information. Art 2 of TPIL says that “Where
the provision of foreign law relating to the case may not be determined despite all the investigations, Turkish law
shall be applied.” However, even on Google we can get any information about foreign law. It is not very likely
for judge to say he/she could not find any information about the content of that foreign law.
 A friendly suggestion; if you become a judge and face such a situation like this, always check on the internet if
the foreign law is updated or not. Because the Consulate, central authority or other institutions may give
non-updated provisions, so you can be in trouble.
d. Appeal System
 There are two main grounds to appeal court decision regarding application of foreign law:
d.1. Misapplication of Turkish Conflict of Law Rules
 Either Turkish Judge does not apply the conflict of law rule at all, or he/she applies it wrongfully. For example a
conflict of law rule in TPIL says that nationality law is applied, but the judge applies the law of where the
domicile is.
 Art 371 of Turkish CPC provides parties to go to appeal in that situation. HMK 371/1,a: “(1) Yargıtay, aşağıda
belirtilen sebeplerden dolayı gerekçe göstererek temyiz olunan kararı kısmen veya tamamen bozar: a) Hukukun
veya taraflar arasındaki sözleşmenin yanlış uygulanmış olması.”
 The applicable law is not correctly determined by the judge, if it happens, it means that the Turkish Conflict of
law rules will be applied wrongly. Thus, A party may appeal a local courts judgment on the following grounds:
“misinterpretation or inappropriate application of the applicable laws and regulations or the provisions of the
agreement between the parties(CCP Art 371(1)(a))”.
d.2. Misapplication of Foreign Law
 As mentioned above, Art 371(1) of the CCP will be applicable here since misapplication of applicable law
consists also foreign law. Foreign law considered as a “law” for that case.
 P.S.: Intermediate Appeal System(istinaf) is accepted. So parties firstly go to an intermediate appeal court, then
they can go to court of appeal if they wish to.
e. Summary: Scope of the Turkish Courts Duties and Obligations
 Turkish conflict law rule has an obligatory/mandatory character.
 Application of a foreign law is not the “fact” but just the “law”.
 The judge must apply ex officio of the foreign applicable law. The party is not obliged to request the application
of the foreign law.
 The court has to take into consideration at any stage of proceedings(even on appeal) whether there is a foreign
element etc.
 Courts errors in (mis)applying a foreign law are appealable.
RENVOI
 An American couple live in Turkey. They want to divorce here. The American man files the divorce case. Which
law is going to be applied? Firstly we must apply Turkish conflict of law rules. Art 14 of TPIL says that grounds
of the divorce and separation shall be governed by the common nationality of law. So, American law is applied.
11
Are we going to apply American substantive law regarding divorce? Are American conflict of law rules applied
with too? Assume that American conflict of law rules says that domicile law is applied for divorce case. In this
case, domicile law is Turkey, because they live here. So the problem is, does foreign law include conflict of law
rules with substantive law together? That is why the meaning of foreign law creates renvoi problem.
 Renvoi is a French word meaning sending back or remaining unsettled. All countries may have different conflict
of law rules. So we need a harmonization for renvoi to get fairness of PIL.
 Renvoi is emerged in France by a Cassation Court decision named FORGO Case in 1878. Forgo was a
Bavarian(Bavyera-O zamanlar ayrı bir ülkeydi, şimdi Almanya’nın bir eyaletidir) national. He married with a
French woman, so he came to France for living. He is also very rich. After he died, the succession case is filed to
find out his heirs. He didn’t have any child, his only heirs were some distant relatives of his mother. And those
relatives were Bavarian nationals. These relatives claimed that they are true heirs according to Bavarian Law. But
French Court said that there is a foreign element, so conflict of law rules are applied, French conflict of law rules
says Bavarian law must be applied. But Bavarian conflict of law rules was saying inheritance cases shall be
governed by law of domicile or where the estate is. So, Bavarian conflict of law rules designated French law as
applicable. At last, French court decided that not only Bavarian substantive law, but also Bavarian conflict of law
rules are applied, as these Bavarian conflict of law rules referred, French law is applied, so heirs cannot get the
succession, French government gets.
 Türkçe: 1878 Yılında Fransız Kasasyon Mahkemesi’nin verdiği bir karar ile renvoi ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu karara
göre, Forgo diye zengin bir adam Bavyeralı ama Fransa’da yaşıyor ve orada ölüyor. Miras bakımından Fransız
kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları ilgilinin milli hukukunun uygulanacağını söylüyor. Sorun Bavyera Hukuku’nun sadece
mirasa ilişkin hükümlerinin tek başına mı uygulanacağı yoksa mirasa ilişkin kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerinin de
bununla beraber uygulanıp uygulanmayacağı noktasında çıkıyor. Fransız Mahkemesi Bavyera kanunlar ihtilafının
da uygulanması gerektiğine karar veriyor. Bavyera kanunlar ihtilafı ise miras bakmından ilgilinin yerleşim yeri
hukukunun uygulanacağını söylüyor. Bu nedenle miras bakımından Fransız hukuku uygulanarak, Forgo’nun
mirası Fransız hükümetine kalıyor. Kısaca bir ülkede renvoi kabul edilmiş ise bu o ülkenin kanunlar ihtilafı
hükümlerinin refer ettiği diğer ülkenin hem conflict of law rule’larını hem de substantive law’unu yabancılık
unsuru ihtiva eden olaylarda uygulayacağını kabul etmiş anlamına gelmektedir. Ama renvoi kabul edilmemiş ise
bu bize diğer ülkenin sadece substantive law kurallarının uygulanacağının kabul edildiğini gösterir.
 Peki A ülkesinin kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları B ülkesine gönderdi. B ülkesi de A ülkesine gönderdi ise bunlar böyle
sonsuz bir döngü halinde birbirilerine mi gönderecekler? Hayır. B ülkesinin A ülkesine geri gönderdiği zaman
kesilir. Ama Türkiye’de 2007 yılına kadar sonsuz bir döngü halindeydi.
 Bir sorun da şöyle çıkabiliyor: A ülkesi B ülkesi hukuku uygulanır diyor, B ülkesi de diğer bir C ülkesi hukuku
uygulanır diyor. Bunu daha sonra açıklayacağız.
 Some of the countries accept renvoi while some do not. Also we can see that renvoi is generally not accepted by
any international codification. Especially, renvoi doctrine is not applied internationally in the field of contract and
relations with torts.
 How about Turkey? Art 2(3) of TPIL says that “The fact that the conflict of law rules of applicable foreign law
requires the application of another law shall be taken into account only with regard to dispute pertaining the law
of persons and family law and the substantive law of that provision of this law shall be applied.”
 We accept renvoi only for two issues: 1. Law of person issues i.e. capacity to act, disappearance, guardianship
and so on. 2. Family law issues like divorce, marriage etc.
 In other words, when Turkish conflict of law rules refer to a foreign law, that foreign country’s conflict of law
rules are also taken into account if the issue is in the field of law of person or family law. And that foreign law
conflict of law rules refer us to either back Turkish law or other laws. That is our final point. In this regard,
Turkish judge apply where that foreign law refers him/her.
 If our conflict of law rules refer us to a foreign law, and that foreign conflict of law rules refer Turkey back, it’s
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called “remission”, in Turkish “iade atıf”.
 If the state-where our Turkish conflict of law rules referred- refers us to another 3rd country, then we apply that 3rd
country’s applicable law only. It’s called “transmission” or “second degree renvoi” or in Turkish “devam eden
atıf”.
 Türkçe: MÖHUK m. 2/3 diyor ki şahsın hukuku ve aile hukuku meselelerinde Türk kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerini
uygulayarak ulaştığı yabancı hukuk kuralları davanın Türkiye’de görüleceğini belirtirse, hakim artık o yabancı
ülke hükümlerine uyarak Türk substantive kurallarını o olayda uygular. Buna iade atıf denir. Ama eğer yabancı
ülkenin kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri diğer bir üçüncü ülkeye gönderme yaparsa, artık burada kesiyoruz ve bu
üçüncü ülkenin kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerine bakmadan direkt o üçüncü ülkenin substantive law’unu
uyguluyoruz. Buna da devam eden atıf denir.
 İleride değineceğimiz üzere şahsın hukuku veya aile hukuku konusu olsa bile renvoi uygulanmayan haller var.
Bununla birlikte TTK gereği çek, bono, poliçede de renvoi uygulanır. Bunu da önümüzdeki ders anlatacağız.
20.02.17
 We were talking about renvoi.
 Art 2(3) of TPIL has the provision on renvoi. According to this Article, if the issue is personal or family
matters(like guardianship, divorce, capacity, age, separation, disappearance etc.), and if our conflict of law rules
refer to a foreign law rule, at that time, we gonna apply both conflict of law rules and substantive law of that
foreign country.
 Even though the renvoi is accepted by the former TPIL without any limitations, application of renvoi is strictly
limited by Article 2(3) of PIL. The issue must be either a personal or family law matter.
 This article requires the application of renvoi only in matters of personal law and family law. Thus, renvoi is NOT
applicable in disputes involving succession law, commercial law, real property law and law of obligations. In this
way, if the issue is related one of these fields, and our conflict of law rules refer us to a foreign law, then we apply
only substantive law rules of that foreign country.
 It should be noted that Art 2(4) of TPIL provides that where choosing of applicable law is allowed, the
substantive law provisions of the chosen law applicable unless it is expressly determined to the contrary by the
parties. It grants the important of “part autonomy” but, in practice it is difficult to happen. Türkiye’de sözleşmeler
hukukuna göre taraflar hukuk seçebiliyorlar. Taraflar bir hukuk seçmişlerse o hukukun esası uygulanır. Mesela
taraflar bir franchising sözleşmesi yapmış ve Alman Hukuku uygulanır demişlerse, Alman maddi hukuku bu
sözleşmeye uygulanır. Fakat Art 2(4) şunu diyor; taraflar isterlerse uygulanacak olan kanunlar ihtilafı kurallarını
da seçebilirler. Ama uygulamada neredeyse hiç yok.
 As we said several times, Art 2(3) stipulates that the conflict rules of foreign law are taken into account only
regarding disputes on the law of persons and family law. And if these rules authorize another law, the substantive
law provisions of the latter shall be applicable.
 Mesela John bir İngiliz vatandaşı ve alkolik olduğu için vesayet altına alacağız. John İngiliz vatandaşı olduğu için
yabancı unsur var. Yabancı unsur varsa MÖHUK 1 gereği MÖHUK uygulanacak. MÖHUK 10 da bizi vesayet
meselelerinde şahsın tabi olduğu vatandaşlığın hukuku uygulanır demektedir. Vesayet altına almak bir şahsın
hukuku meselesi olduğu için Art2(3) gereği renvoi uygulanacak, yani İngiltere’nin hem maddi hukukunu hem de
kanunlar ihtilafı kurallarını birlikte uygulayacağız. İngiliz kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları da diyelim ki vesayet için
yerleşim yeri hukuku uygulanır diyor. John’un yerleşim yeri Türkiye olduğu için renvoi gereği Türk maddi
hukuku uygulama bulacak. Buna iade atıf diyoruz. Ama diyelim ki İngiliz kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları mutat
mesken hukuku uygulanır deseydi, John’un mutat meskeni de o an Polonya’da olsaydı, bu vakit refer edildiğimiz
3. ülke olan Polonya’nın vesayet ile alakalı olarak kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerine bakmayacağız, sadece maddi
hukuk hükümlerine göre çözeceğiz. Aksi takdirde Polonya kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri de bizi başka bir yere refer
edebilir, bu böyle uzar gider.
 Apart from this provision, renvoi is envisaged regarding the capacity to enter into undertakings by bills of
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exchange, promissory notes or cheques(Article 766, 778(i) and 818 of Turkish Commercial Law). Çek, poliçe ve
bonolarda tarafların bu kıymetli evraklar ile borç altına girmesi açısından ehliyeti olup olmadığı için TTK özel
kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri getirmiştir. Bu düzenlemeler de aslında Art 2(3)’ün bir yansımasıdır. Çek, bono,
poliçe imzalamada ehliyet meselesi ile alakalı olarak ilgilinin vatandaşı olduğu ülkenin maddi ve kanunlar ihtilafı
hükümlerini birlikte uygularız.
 Exception of renvoi: It should be noted that there are situations that even the disputes are concerning the
personal law or family law matters, the renvoi shall NOT be applied. The conflict of law rules which aims at the
achievement of a particular legal outcome may not conform to the application of the renvoi rule. In other words,
exceptionally in some cases, even though the issue is related with personal or family matters, we can not apply
renvoi rule. For example Art 16 of TPIL, namely establishment of parentage, seeks for the best interest of child
and fairness of PIL, so it builds alternative ways to build parentage indeed. Yani bazı konular aile/şahsın hukuku
ile ilgili olsa bile renvoi uygulanmayabilir. Bu durumlar genelde daha başka hassas çıkarların korunduğu
durumlardır. Mesela soybağının kurulmasında çocuğun yararı önemlidir. Çocuğun soybağı doğduğunda tabi
olduğu milli hukuka göre kurulur, bu mümkün değilse çocuğun mutat meskeninin yer aldığı hukuka göre kurulur,
bu da mümkün değilse ananın veya babanın çocuğun doğumu anındaki millî hukuklarına, bunlara göre
kurulamaması hâlinde ana ve babanın çocuğun doğumu anındaki müşterek mutad mesken hukukuna, buna göre
de kurulamıyorsa çocuğun doğum yeri hukukuna tâbi olarak kurulur şeklindeki bu düzenleme ile aslında çocuğun
öyle veya böyle bir şekilde ana-babasıyla bağ kurulması, vatansız kalmaması amaçlanmıştır. Bu hüküm
çerçevesinde soybağının kurulmasında Türk hakimi eğer yabancı bir devlet hukukunu uygulamak durumunda ise,
her ne kadar soybağı bir aile ve şahsın hukuku meselesi olsa bile, hakim o ülkenin soybağının kurulması ile ilgili
olarak sadece maddi hukuk hükümlerini uygular. Amaç kanunlar ihtilafına girerek konuyu daha da uzatıp
çocuğun interest’ini zedelememektir.
 It is worthwhile to noted that international treaties that provides conflict of law rules generally do not accept the
renvoi. For example: 1973 Hague Convention on Applicable Law to Maintenance Obligation. Bu uluslararası
sözleşme nafaka hükümlerini düzenlemektedir ve renvoi kabul edilmemiştir. Türkiye de bu sözleşmeye taraf
olduğundan eğer yabancılık unsuru içeren dava nafaka ile ilgili ise, her ne kadar nafaka bir aile hukuku meselesi
olsa da renvoi uygulanmaz. Bu sözleşme hükümleri uygulama bulur.
a. Justification of renvoi
 There are many point of views regarding justification of renvoi:
 1. Designation of a law applicable has a general meaning(we mind whole system of the law as in force in the
country, incl. its conflict law). Kanunda yabancı hukuk uygulanır diyorsak, yabancı hukuk kelimesinden o
hukukun hem kanunlar ihtilafı hem de maddi hukukunu anladığımıza dair görüş.
 2. Respect for the foreign sovereignty. Every sovereign country would want to apply its own conflict of law rules.
 3. Coordination of diverging connecting factors, striving for the international harmony of the decision. However,
even though this argument can be accepted in theoretical ground, it is not strong for application.
 *4. The simple convenience of the Turkish Court. Why to apply foreign law, if one can turn back to its own!?
Madem renvoi ile kendi hukukumuza geri dönme ihtimalimiz var neden yabancı maddi hukuku uygulayalım ki!
Hakimin de işine gelir, çünkü kendi bildiği hukuku uygulayacak. Renvoi için en güçlü argümanımız bu.
b. The problem
 There may be an inextricable circle. E.F. Scoles uses the metaphor of “two polite gentlemen who do not manage
to get through a door because each of them obstinately refuses to go first”. There is obviously a rich of reasoning
in an endless circle where the conflict rule of each country prescribes the application of the law that would be
applied by the courts of the other country. This could go on forever. Different theories have developed to tackle
the puzzle. 2007 yılına kadar bizdeki problem de buydu. Sonsuz bir döngü halindeydi. Zaten bahsettik.
 Eğer kendi kanunlar ihtilafı kuralımızı uygularken Türk hukukunun uygulandığı ortaya çıkarsa artık atıfa
gitmeyiz, zaten kendi hukukumuzu uygularız. Mesela John örneğimizde eğer John hem Türk hem İngiliz
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vatandaşı ise MÖHUK 4’te kişinin birden fazla vatandaşlığı varsa ve bir vatandaşlığı Türk ise Türk hukuku
uygulanır dediği için, artık zaten kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerine gitmeden direkt Türk maddi hukuku
uygulanacağından renvoi de doğal olarak uygulanmaz.
PUBLIC POLICY EXCEPTION
 Art 2 of TPIL says that judge must apply ex officio Turkish conflict of law rules. As we said like million times,
Turkish conflict of law rules may refer us to a foreign law. But, what will happen if the application of the foreign
law is manifestly against Turkish public policy? Which law are we going to apply? The issue of public policy is
dealt with under Art 5 of TPIL. Art 5 of PIL says; “where a provision of foreign applicable law, applied to a
specific case, is manifestly contrary to Turkish public policy, this provision shall not apply where deemed
necessary, Turkish law shall apply.” If the *concrete result* of applicable foreign laws particular provisions in a
given case is manifestly contrary to Turkish public policy, that provision is not applied and Turkish law is applied
where necessary.
 Art 5, Art 2’nin istisnasını oluşturuyor. This is an exceptional way.
 Case example: John, an American national, has been living in Turkey and want to get married with his
step-daughter in Turkey. Art 13 says nationality of the person shall apply for marriage. So, we find out American
Law allows their marriage. Can this situation be considered against Turkish public policy?
 Case example: A Catholic man from Philippine and Turkish woman want to divorce in Turkey. Art 15 says that
for the divorce, nationality law of the party is applied. But, divorce is prohibited in Philippine. Is this against
Turkish public policy?
 Just because a foreign law is different than Turkish law does not mean it’s automatically against Turkish public
policy. All countries may have different regulations. But the important point is, concrete result of the application
mustn't against Turkish public policy. Turkish public policy’s interference is accepted in exceptional
circumstances under TPIL.
 Case example: A Saudi Arabian national wants to marry a Turkish woman. Both are single, yet according to the
man’s national law he could have 4 wives, provided that those previously married give their consent. Can they get
married? Principle of monogamy is a social order in Turkey and polygamy is against public policy. However, in
this particular example, the guy is single. He hasn’t married with anybody yet. So, the simple possibility of
polygamy is too weak to justify public policy exception. Olasılık üzerine hüküm kuramayız. Suudi Arabistan
hukuku poligamiye izin verebilir. Bu Türk kamu düzenine elbette aykırıdır. Fakat adam henüz kimseyle
evlenmediği için ilerde evlenmesi ihtimaline dayanarak kamu düzenine aykırılık istisnamızı uygulayamayız. Ama
evli olsaydı uygulayabilirdik.
 Case example: An Iranian guy has died in Turkey. He had a real property here. So his daughter filed a succession
case. Art 20 says national law of the decease is applied. And suppose that, that foreign law does not recognize the
right of inheritance to women, or make a distinction between man and woman in terms of distributive share. This
is against Turkish public policy. Because gender discrimination is accepted against human rights in Turkey.
 Foreign law which admits inheritance more than one spouse CANNOT be deemed contrary to Turkish public
policy. Adam 4 tane kadınla evlenmiş, ölmüş, Türkiye’de de taşınmazları var. Onun ülke hukuku da her eşe
mirastan pay veriyor. Poligami Türk kamu düzenine aykırıdır, fakat adam artık zaten birden çok kadınla evlenmiş,
iş işten geçmiş, burada kamu düzenine aykırılığı ileri sürerek eşlerden sadece biri miras payı alır gibi birşey
söyleyemeyiz. Bu daha çok mağduriyete neden olacaktır.
 Public policy is considered for every case. It can be invoked in any area of conflict of laws. Like marriage, tort,
contract, and so on. It’s not like renvoi. As Art 5 says, we look at only the concrete result of the application of a
foreign law. However, Turkish courts have developed a second requirement other than the concrete result, which
is a genuine and sufficient connection. When we find out whether application of a foreign law is against to
Turkish public policy or not, we need to check the sufficient and genuine connection of the particular case with
Turkey. For instance, if one of the party is Turkish, then the case has a genuine connection with Turkey. But if
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both parties are foreigners, then most probably we can’t reject the application of foreign law from the point of
contradiction to Turkish public policy. WARNING: BUT, even though a particular case HAS NOT a genuine and
sufficient connection with Turkey, public policy exception SHALL APPLY to incompatibility with
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS. Because, Turkish public policy contains international human rights as
well. In other words, if there is a violation of fundamental human rights, the connection with Turkey is not
required.
 Türkçe: MÖHUK 5 gereği eğer yabancı hukukun uygulanmasının somut sonucu Türk kamu düzenine aykırılık
teşkil ediyorsa o yabancı hukukun hükümleri uygulanmaz. MÖHUK 5’te kamu düzeni istisnası için tek bir şart
getirilmiş: yabancı hukukun uygulanmasının somut sonuçlarının Türk kamu düzenine açıkça aykırı olması.
Uygulamada ve doktrinde bununla beraber ikinci bir şart daha kabul edilmektedir: Davanın Türkiye ile asıl ve
yeterli bir bağlantıya sahip olması. AMA bazen bu ikinci şartın gerçekleşmesine bakılmadan da kamu düzeni
istisnası uygulanabilir. Ne zaman? Temel insan haklarına aykırılık. Örn: taraflar Türk değildir, ama kadınlara
miras hakkı o hukukta tanınmamışsa ,burada her ne kadar Türkiye ile bağlatı yok desek bile temel insan haklarına
aykırılıktan ötürü kamu düzeni istisnası uygulanır.
a. The Concept of Public Policy
 The TPIL does not define public policy. Due to the fact that the notion of public policy in PIL can change
dependent on time and place, it requires a case by case analysis. Certain subjects should not automatically be
considered as directly connected to public policy. Don’t be a sazan. Every case should be assessed individually.
We cannot directly say statute of limitation, custody, adaption, population law, interest(faiz) etc. are against
public policy. We’ll examine case by case.
 Public policy can be defined as the body of principles that underpin the operation of legal system. These
principles are moral values, constitutional legal principles and fundamental human rights.
 Why do we have Art 5? As you remember, we’ve talked about fairness of PIL and law-makers are taken into
account some interests. Art 5 embraces “substantive law interest”. Hatırlarsak PIL’de hükümler düzenlenirken
bazı interest’ler göz önüne alınır demiştik. Art 5’te de maddi hukuk menfaati göz önüne alınmıştır. Çünkü kamu
düzenini sağlamak adına somut davadaki esasa ilişkin hakkaniyeti sağlamak için uygulanacak hukuk menfaati
daha lehtedir.
22.02.17
 Public policy işliyorduk.
 If the concrete result of applicable foreign laws particular provisions in a given case is manifestly contrary to
Turkish public policy, that provision is not applied and Turkish law is applied where necessary.
 It should be noted that in the conflict of laws it is obviously necessary that public policy be kept within limits, for
otherwise the whole basis of the system is liable to be frustrated. The courts should be, and are therefore slower to
invoke public policy in cases involving a foreign element than when a domestic legal issue is involved.
 As we said, we cannot directly say some particular issues is automatically against Turkish public policy. Public
policy concept is different than national law concept in a sense. For example, Turkish judge cannot say statute of
limitation itself is against Turkish public policy. However, too long or too short statute of limitation times can be
considered against to our public policy. Yabancı bir hukukun zamanaşımı hükümleri direkt olarak kamu düzenine
aykırı değildir. Ama çok uzun veya çok kısa zamanaşımları kamu düzenine aykırı kabul edilebilir. Bizim
hukukumuzda 5-10 yıl olarak düzenlenmiş, söz gelimi yabancı bir hukukun zamanaşımı hükmü 30 yıl ise kamu
düzenine aykırı olacaktır. Ama mesela 15 yıl olursa kamu düzenine aykırı olmayacaktır. O yüzden somut olaya
göre her hükmü değerlendirmemiz lazım.
 Hemcins evliliği meselesi: This is accepted against to Turkish public policy, because of moral values. İki yabancı
hemcins evlenecekse genuine ve sufficient connection olur mu olmaz mı? Tartışmalı bir konu. Ama burada
yaşama durumları olabileceğinden connection olduğu kabul ediliyor, bu nedenle public policy’e aykırılıktan
reddediliyor.
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 Türkiye’nin imzalamış olduğu uluslarası sözleşmelerdeki temel insan hakları ve İnsan Hakları Evrensel
Beyannamesi de kamu düzeninden sayılır. Bunu daha ziyade yaşama hakkı, cinsiyet eşitliği, right to be heard gibi
temel insan hakları düzeyinde anlamalıyız. So, Turkey has connection with international public policy through
international human rights instruments like ECHR.
 Public policy concept can change in time. Cinsiyet değiştirmenin, anlaşmalı boşanmanın eskiden kamu düzenine
aykırı sayılırken şimdi sayılmaması gibi.
 NOT every mandatory rule is against Turkish public policy. We need to check case by case.
 Which law is applied if there is a contradiction with Turkish public policy? For example, a German and Turkish
made a sale contract 24 years ago and one of the provision in that contract says that if there is a dispute, German
law is applied. After that, they had a dispute and they file a case in Turkey. Turkish judge saw that there is a
foreign element, so he/she is applied TPIL as Art 1 said. In this way, judge has looked at Art 24 of the TPIL. Art
24 says if parties choose the applicable in their contract, that chosen law is applied. Turkish party says that they
made this contract 24 years ago, so the statute of limitation time has passed according to Turkish law. But as Art 8
of TPIL says, which law is applicable to the case also determines the statute of limitation. In our example German
law is applicable, so judge applies German law provision regarding statute of limitation. And German law says
statute of limitation time is 30 years. So what will happen? What can Turkish party do? Turkish party will show
the concrete result of application German law regarding statute of limitation is against Turkish public policy(by
the way we cannot go to renvoi, because the issue is not related with personal or family law). After that, Turkish
judge will say too long statute of limitation is against Turkish public policy, indeed. IN THIS STEP, WHICH
LAW IS APPLIED? Art 5 says that if the application of a foreign law is against Turkey, Turkish law is applied
where deemed is necessary. As short, we apply Turkish law.
b. The Negative and Positive Effect of the Public Policy
 The negative effect of the public policy exception: the exclusion of foreign law. It simply means that if the
application of foreign law is against public policy, at that time foreign law is not applied.
 The positive effect of the public policy exception: the foreign law fully substituted by the domestic one. In other
words, judge applies Turkish law.
 The negative effect comes first. As mentioned above, the positive effect comes later.
c. To Sum Up
 Public policy is an exceptional institution.
 We do NOT automatically accept that some subjects are directly linked to public policy.
 Public policy exception should be analyzed on the basis of every individual case(bkz. yukarıdaki polygamy
örnekleri).
 In what way; the applicable foreign law can be excluded, if it violate 1.the governing principles of Turkish legal
system(i.e right to be heard, pacta sunt servanda, sanctity of contract, and so on), 2. the general ethic, 3.the
fundamental constitution principles and 4.international human rights.
OVERRIDING MANDATORY RULES(DOĞRUDAN UYGULANAN KURALLAR)
 We have two articles regarding overriding mandatory rules: Art 6 and Art 31. Today, we gonna explain Art 6
mostly.
 Art 6 of the PIL states that: “Where foreign law is applicable, overriding mandatory rules of Turkish law shall
apply in cases within their scope as regards their particular purpose and sphere of application.”
 Art 31 of the PIL states that: “When the law governing the relationship arising from the contract is being applied,
the overriding mandatory rules of a third country may be given effect in the case where these rules are closely
connected with the contract. Regarding giving effect to and applying or not applying the rules at issue, the
purpose, nature, context, and consequences of these rules shall be taken into consideration.” (Art 31 is about
application of a 3rd country’s overriding mandatory rules. We’ll explain it later.)
 The purpose of the application of overriding mandatory rules is economical and political reasons. Art 6 and Art
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31 embrace state and public interests.
 When there is an overriding mandatory rule, that rule is applied directly without applying any conflict of law
rules.
 Doğrudan uygulanan kurallar öyle kurallardır ki, devlet toplumun menfaatini korumak için ve bu bağlamda
ekonomik, sosyal ve politik kurallar kurmak için bazı kurallar koyar. Bu kurallar ister yabancı unsur olsun ister
olmasın, tüm hukuki meselelerde doğrudan uygulanır. Bu kurallar genel olarak kamu hukukuna ilişkin olmakla
birlikte özel hukuk ilişkilerinde de söz konusudur. Dersimizde ise biz bunların yabancı unsurlu davalardaki
uygulama alanlarını inceleyeceğiz.
 Not any rule in any code says this an overriding mandatory rule. We find out by looking at the purpose and sphere
of that rule. Kanunda bu kural overriding mandatory rule’dur diye yazmaz. Biz onun overriding mandatory rule
olduğunu amacına(purpose) ve uygulama alanına(sphere) bakarak anlarız. Amaçtan kastımız ekonomik, sosyal
veya siyasi bir amaçtır. Uygulama alanından ise yabancı unsur olsun veya olmasın herkes için uygulanıp
uygulanmamasını anlarız. Bu ikisini karşılıyorsa doğrudan uygulanan kuraldır.
a. Examples
 Hakim tarafından cezai şartın indirilmesi milletlerarası hukuk açısından önemli bir doğrudan uygulanan kuraldır.
Taraflar Amerikan Hukuku’nu bile seçse Türkiye’de dava açmışlarsa başka birşeye bakmadan hakim cezai şartı
indirir.
 Akıl hastası olan birinin evlenememesi.
 Any cultural, historical antiquities of specific interest that are discovered belong to the state.
 A person who purported to be owner had acquired old tombstones in Turkey and Turkish law was applicable.
 Embargo, sanctions, boycotts. For example, we made a sale contract with Russia. But after the airplane crisis,
Russia has stopped buying food from Turkey.
 Import and export restrictions.
 Exchange control law.
 Competition law.
 Employment law: How aliens can work in Turkey? There are specific laws and limitations for which they
considered overriding mandatory rules, such as employment permission rules.
b. Essential Issues
 Mandatory rules are not specifically enumerated in the law. As we said, we’ll check purpose(social, economical,
political) and sphere(applied to everyone) to find out whether it’s an overriding mandatory rule or not. In practice,
we generally look at purpose solely.
 These are national rules that cannot be deviated from contract and have usually as goal of the protection of the
interest of public.
 Overriding mandatory rules are applied regardless of the will of parties. Because, these rules embrace public
interest. Örneğin belirli bir malın ithali yasaklanmışsa bu overriding mandatory rule’dur, istediğiniz kadar
anlaşma yapın, başka hukuk uygulanacak diyin, ülkeye sokamazsınız.
c. Public Policy v. Overriding Mandatory Rules
 1. According to the Art 5 of the PIL, the application of public policy has an exceptional character. However,
overriding mandatory rules do not have an exceptional character, within their scope, they should be applied
directly.
 2. In order to apply Art 5 of the PIL, the Turkish judge shall ex officio apply Turkish conflict of law rules and find
out the applicable law(lex causae). However, for the application of overriding mandatory rules, the judge should
not need to apply Turkish conflict of law rules, as mentioned above, they are applicable directly and whether the
case consists foreign element or not.
 3. Due to the “positive effect of public policy”(yukarıda bahsetmiştik) judge shall apply Turkish substantive law,
if the applicable foreign law is manifestly contrary to Turkish public policy. However, the overriding mandatory
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rules will be applied directly within their scope. Other issues will be solved through lex causae. Yabancı unsur
içeren bir uyuşmazlıkta doğrudan uygulanan kurallar conflict of law rules uygulanmadan direkt olarak kendi
kapsamına giren konularda uygulanır. Aynı uyuşmazlıkta doğrudan uygulanan kuralların kapsamının dışında
kalan konular için(örneğin; tazminat) conflict of law rules hükümleri yine uygulama bularak o konuya
uygulanacak olan hukuk -lex causae- bulunacaktır. Örneğin, import veya export restriction nedeniyle bir malın
ithalatı ve ihracatı yasaklanmış olabilir. Bu yasak bir overriding mandatory rule olarak o ülke ile aramızda o
malın ithalatı ve ihracatı için uygulanacaktır. Fakat, o malın ihracatının veya ithalatatının gerçekleşmemesi
nedeniyle doğmuş olan bir tazminat varsa, artık bu tazminat overriding mandatory rule’un kapsamı-scope’u
dışında bir mesele olduğu için; tazminat için Türkiye’de bir dava açıldığında conflict of law rules uygulanarak
uygulanacak olan hukuk bulunur.
 4. The only public policy is considered is lex fori’s(forum state’s) public policy, not lex causea’s policy. In other
words, Turkish judge looks at if the application of foreign law damages “only” Turkish public policy or not, as
Art 5 mentions. However, for overriding mandatory rules; lex fori, lex causae, and other third states’ mandatory
rules can be considered. The courts shall give effect to lex causae’s overriding mandatory provisions since the lex
causae include whole of law that legal system. Türkçe açıklayalım; kamu düzenine aykırılıkta(Art 5) sadece Türk
kamu düzenini(lex fori) baz alıyoruz. Doğrudan uygulanan kurallarda ise uygulanacak olan yabancı hukukun(lex
causae) doğrudan uygulanan kurallarının uygulanması halleri de söz konusu olabilir. Bununla ilgili olarak
kanunda bir düzenleme olmasa da, önceden de dediğimiz gibi, biz uygulanacak olan yabancı hukuku bütün bir
“hukuk” olarak anlıyoruz. Yabancı hukuk uygulanacaksa, yabancı hukuk bir “fact” değil “law” demiştik.
Dolayısıyle herşeyiyle yabancı hukuka yollama yapılır. Art ‘’den bunu çıkarıyouz. Bu bakımdan eğer bir ihtilafta
yabancı bir hukuka refer edilme hali söz konusu ise, yabancı hukuk uygulanırken o hukukun doğrudan uygulanan
kuralları da göz önüne alınacaktır. Bununla birlikte Art 31’de ise sözleşmeler ile ilgili olarak üçüncü ülkelerin
doğrudan uygulanan kurallarının uygulanması hali düzenlenmiştir(bu önemli bir konu olduğu için unutmamak
adına dönemin sonlarına doğru anlatacağız). Lex fori: forum state. Lex causae: applicable law.
 Example for applying lex fori’s overriding mandatory rule: Kurban Bayramı için yeterli hayvan olmadığından
angus ithalatı gündeme gelmişti. Türk şirketi Alman şirketi ile angus ithalatı için sözleşme yaptılar. Anguslar
ABD’den geliyordu. Ama anguslar yoldayken Türk hükümeti tarafıdan bu hayvanların bakteri taşıdıkları anlaşıldı,
bu nedenle Türkiye’ye girişine izin vermedik. Sözleşmede çıkabilecek bir ihtilafta Alman Hukuku’nu
uygulanacağı kararlaştırılmıştı. Bu nedenle Türkiye’de açılan davada her ne kadar Alman Hukuku’nun
uygulanacağı kararlaştırılmışsa da bakteri taşıyan hayvanların girişinin yasaklanması bir public interest
içerdiğinden Türkiye bu konuda kendi(lex fori) overriding mandatory rule’unu uygular; yani bu hayvanların girişi
yasaktır der. Alman Hukuku’na bakmaz. Ama bu nedenle oluşabilecek bir tazminat söz konusu ise artık tarafların
seçmiş olduğu Alman Hukuku’na göre tazminatın ödenip ödenmeyeceği belirlenir.
 Example for applying lex causae’s overriding mandatory rules: Diyelim ki Alman ve Türk şirketi arasında sadece
Almanya’da yetişen endemik bir çiçeğin tohumunun Türkiye’ye ithalatı için sözleşme yapıldı. Alman hükümeti
bunu görerek bu tohumların Almanya’dan çıkmasını kendi politikaları gereği engelledi. Sözleşmede, çıkabilecek
ihtilaflar için Alman Hukuku’nun uygulanacağı kararlaştırılmıştı. Yani lex causase(uygulanacak olan hukuk)
Alman Hukuku olarak seçildi. İşte, bir dava söz konusu olursa burada Almanya’nın overriding mandatory rule’u
uygulanacaktır. Çünkü Almanya kendi public interest’i gereği o endemik bitkinin ithalatını yasaklamıştır. Bizlik
bir durum yok.
 Example for applying a 3rd country’s overriding mandatory rules: Almanya ve Türkiye arasında angus ithalatına
ilişkin bir sözleşme yapıldı. Almanya ile ABD arasında da bir sözleşme yapılarak angusların ABD’den gelmesi
kararlaştırıldı. Yani Türkiye ile ABD arasında bir sözleşme yok. Sonra, anguslar ABD limanında gemilere
yüklenirken, gemilerin hayvanları taşıyacak kadar yeterli donanıma sahip olmadığı anlaşıldı. Bu koşullarda
taşınırlarsa ölecekleri anlaşıldı. Bu nedenle ABD kendi overriding mandatory rule’u gereği daha sağlıklı gemiler
tesis edilene kadar angusların çıkmasını yasakladı. Böylelikle Türkiye’ye anguslar gelemedi. Türkiye’de bu
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konuda dava açıldığında Art 31 gereği ABD ile her ne kadar aramızda doğrudan bir sözleşme olmasa da, somut
vakada ABD’nin konuyla yakın ilişkisinden kaynaklanan bu engellemede ABD’nin overriding mandatory rule’u
uygulanacaktır. Bunun yanında şunu da bilmek lazım Art 31’de, 3. ülkenin doğrudan uygulanan kurallarına etki
tanınması bazı şartlara bağlanmıştır. Art 6’da ise(lex fori’s overriding mandatory rule) herhangi bir şart olmadan
uygulama söz konusudur. Bunu daha sonra zaten ayrıntılı olarak ele alacağız.
27.02.17
LEGAL CAPACITY, STATUE OF LIMITATIONS, FORM OF LEGAL TRANSACTION
 A Turkish firm signed a loan contract(ödünç sözleşmesi) with a German firm in Germany. Which law shall apply
for the formal validity(verbal? or written?), statue of limitations and capacity to sign this contract.
 There are three essential issues for legal transaction: 1. Form of legal transaction(şekil), 2. Statute of limitations
(/prescription - zamanaşımı), 3. Legal capacity. These three issues are separately eliminated in TPIL Act.
 All of them are regulated separately in TPIL: Art 7(form of transaction), Art 8(statute of limitations), and Art
9(capacity).
a. Form of Legal Transactions
 The form of legal transaction is stipulated in Art 7 of the PIL: “Legal transactions may be carried out in
conformity with the form envisaged by the substantive law provisions of the law of the country where the
transaction is concluded OR of the law applicable to the substance of that legal transaction(or in other words, lex
causae).” As we can see, there is an alternative way. Formation is done by either where the transaction is
concluded or by the law which is applicable to the transaction. Hukukî işlemler, yapıldıkları ülke hukukunun veya
o hukukî işlemin esası hakkında yetkili olan hukukun maddî hukuk hükümlerinin öngördüğü şekle uygun olarak
yapılabilir.
 And, Art 7 is applicable if there is no specific rule applicable to the form of legal transaction. Indeed, TPIL and
Turkish Commercial Code have specific provisions regarding the form of legal transactions. For example, Art
21(4) of the PIL states that “As regards form, legal transactions pertaining to real rights on immovable property
shall be subject to the law of the country where such property is situated.” Taşınmazlar üzerindeki aynî haklara
ilişkin hukukî işlemlere şekil yönünden bu malların bulundukları ülke hukuku uygulanır. So, you cannot apply
Art 7, if the issue is related with the formation of real rights on immovable properties.
 Another example is Art 26(3) of the TPIL pertaining consumer contracts states that the law of the habitual
residence of the consumer shall be applicable to the form of consumer contracts concluded under the conditions
stipulated in Art 26(2) of the PIL. Art 26(2)’deki şartlar altında yapılan tüketici sözleşmelerinin şekline,
tüketicinin mutad meskeni hukuku uygulanır.
 Art 13(2) PIL states that “The law of the country of marriage shall apply to the form of marriage.” Evliliğin
şekline yapıldığı ülke hukuku uygulanır.
 Art 20(4) states that “The provisions of Art 7 shall apply to the form of testamentary dispositions. Testamentary
dispositions made pursuant to the national law of the deceased shall also be valid.” Mesela İtalya’dayken vasiyet
yaptınız. Şekil hangi hukuka göre geçerli olacak? Ölüme bağlı tasarrufun şekline 7. madde hükmü uygulanır.
Ölenin millî hukukuna uygun şekilde yapılan ölüme bağlı tasarruflar da geçerlidir.
 Art 767, 778 and 820 of Turkish Commercial Code provides rules for form of bill of exchange(poliçe),
promissory note and cheques. So if there is a foreign element, the applicable law for formation is the law of “the
place of signature”. So we don’t apply Art 7 for negotiable instruments(kıymetli evrak).
 Art 767(1) of TTK says the place of signature is applied for the form of bill of exchange. With this, Art 767/3 of
the TTK “A declaration on a bill of exchange given by one Turkish citizen abroad is valid in relation to another
Turkish citizen in Turkey provided it satisfies the formal requirements laid down by Turkish Law.” Bir Türkün,
yabancı ülkede poliçeyle borçlanması, Türk hukukunun gösterdiği şekle uygun bulunduğu takdirde, Türkiye’de
başka bir Türke karşı geçerlidir.
 According to Art 820 of the TCC states cheques’ form of legal transactions: “the place of signature”, or “the place
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of payment”. So, we see there is an alternative connecting factors for formation of cheques.
 There are also international treaties that provided rules for form of legal transaction. Such as 1961 Convention on
the Conflicts of Laws Relating to the Form of Testamentary Dispositions. According to this Convention, any law
gives validity for the formation to a will, that will is considered as valid.
 As we mentioned above, the general rule on the form of legal transactions in Article 7 of the TPIL provides
alternative connecting factors: lex causae, or Locus Regit Actum(LRA). Legal transaction is considered as
formally valid if it satisfies the substantive provisions of the law that governs it in substance(lex causae) or of the
law of the place where it is concluded(LRA-Locus Regit Actum). In other words, if the legal transaction is
formally valid under either law, it is considered formally valid in Turkey. Thus, in order to having the legal
transaction is considered formally invalid Turkey, it must be invalid under both laws. Yani , Art 7 alternatif bir yol
getirmiştir. Ya işlemin yapıldığı yer hukukunun ya da işlemin esasına uygulanacak hukukun şekle uygulanacağını
söylemektedir. Söz konusu işlem, bu iki hukuktan birine göre şekli olarak geçerli ise geçerli kabul ediyoruz. İki
hukuka göre de geçersiz ise şekli olarak geçersiz kabul ediyoruz. Ama kanunda özel düzenlemelerin olduğu
hallerde Art 7 uygulama bulmaz. Çünkü bu özel hükümlerde “transaction interest” göz önüne alınmıştır.
 The underlying reason for this article to regulate alternative connecting factor is the interest of “favor negotii”.
Art 7’de şekil için bu iki alternatifin getirilmesi işlemi mümkün olduğunca geçerli kılmaya çalışmaktır.
 It should be noted that the renvoi shall not be applicable for this provision. Because, renvoi is applied for personal
and family law matters.
 What does the law applied to the formation of transaction cover? The law applicable to the form of legal
transaction covers whether the legal transaction should have mandatory form rules, or form conditions and legal
consequences of invalidity of legal transactions.
 But, it should be noted that the issue is whether is categorized under the form of legal transaction or not is subject
to lex fori(classification).
b. Statute of Limitation(Prescription)
 Art 8 of PIL states that: “The statue of limitations shall be governed by the law applicable to the substance of the
legal transactions and relationship.” Zamanaşımı, hukukî işlem ve ilişkinin esasına uygulanan hukuka tâbidir.
 This provision is inline with characterization of statute of limitations in Turkish law since it is considered as a
substantive law matter. Zamanaşımı usule değil; esasa ilişkindir. Bu nedenle zamanaşımı esasa uygulanan hukuk
tarafından belirlenir.
 Thus, it is subject of the the law applicable to the substance of the legal transaction and the relationship, the lex
causae.
 It is worthwhile to note that even though there is no specific provision regarding the limitation of actions(hak
düşürücü süre) in TPIL, it is governed by the lex causae(the law applicable to the legal transaction) since it is
related to the essence of the right. Her ne kadar kanunda düzenlenmese de, hak düşürücü süre için de hukuki
işlemin esasına uygulanacak olan hukuk uygulanır. Sözleşmede taraflar bir hukuk seçmişse, Art 24 gereği o
hukuk zamanaşımı için de uygulanacak; seçmemişse kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerine göre bulmuş olduğumuz
hukuk zamanaşımı için de uygulanacak.
 There are specific provisions on prescription as well. The applicable law to prescription to bill of exchange,
promissory notes and cheques is regulated in Art 769, 778 and 818 of the Turkish Commercial Code: “The place
of issue(keşide yeri)” is applied for prescription.
 What does the law applicable to prescription cover? The law of applicable to prescription covers the
inception(başlangıç) and duration(ne kadar), period of prescription, suspension of prescription(zamanaşımının
kesilmesi) and lapse of prescription(zamanaşımının durması).
 Last week, as mentioned in public policy issue, the statute of limitations is not directly related to public policy.
The fact that the period of prescription in an applicable foreign law is different than the one in Turkish law is not
in itself sufficient for application of Turkish public policy. The concrete result must be manifestly against to
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Turkish public policy to accept prescription as against to public policy. In this way; not prescription itself but too
long and too short prescription or prescription which does not provide any time limitation might be considered
contrary to Turkish public policy under Art 5 of TPIL.
 A Case Study: A loan agreement signed between Turkish and German nationality. Turkish party argued that Art
125 of the Turkish Code of Obligations shall be applicable and 10 years already had lapsed. The Turkish Court
applied Art 125 of TCO since the statue of limitation is considered as a “procedural matter”, so the lex fori is
applied. However, the Turkish Supreme Court reversed the decision since the statute of limitation is considered
substantive law matter and applied lex causae, German Law(Because, German law was chosen in the agreement).
On the other hand, period of statute of limitation in German Law is 30 years which is too long for this reason the
application of German Law is manifestly contrary to Turkish public policy. That is why, German law in not
applied for the transaction, Turkish law is applied. So, the prescription is lapsed according to Turkish law, as
Turkish Supreme Court says. Supreme Court is right.
 Question from class: What about preliminary issues? For example, someone filed a divorce case but the marriage
is not valid. Invalidity of marriage and divorce might be covered by different laws, and as we said prescription is
covered by the law which is applicable to the substance of the transaction. So, which law is applied for
prescription? Or another example, there is a succession case, but an adoption is also in question with that
succession matter... First, we have to find preliminary issue, then we’ll solve other issues. But we are going to
examine this issue later on. So we don’t explain it right now.
 It is worthwhile to noted that “acquisitive prescription”(usucapere-kazandırıcı zaman aşımı) is not subject to Art 8
of the PIL. It is governed by Art 21 of the TPIL(lex rei sitae - the law of where the property is situated). Taşınır
veya taşınmaz oluşuna göre kazandırıcı zamanaşımı değişecektir. Art 21 özel olarak bu konuyu düzenlediğinden
artık Art 8’i uygulamıyoruz. Kazandırıcı zamanaşımı mülkiyet ve ayni haklarla ilişkilidir. Art 21, taşınırlar ve
taşınmazlar üzerindeki mülkiyet hakkı ve diğer aynî haklar, işlem anında malların bulunduğu ülke hukukuna
tâbidir demektedir.
 It should be noted that the statute of limitations for recognition and enforcement of foreign judgment is NOT
subject to Art 8 of the PIL. For example, you have a foreign judgment given in Germany 12 years ago. And you
filed a case in Turkey for the recognition and enforcement of that judgment. The statute of limitation to recognize
and enforce that judgment is covered by the law where the judgment is rendered. So, if the judgment is still
enforceable in Germany, it can be recognized and enforced in Turkey.
01.03.17
c. Legal Capacity(Ehliyet)
 Legal capacity is really an essential subject for transaction that includes foreign element in particular contracts.
 The issue of legal capacity is regulated differently for natural(real) and legal persons.
c.1. Natural(Real) Person
 The capacity to have and exercise rights is stipulated in Art 9 of the PIL.
 It states that “(1)The capacity to have rights and duties and to act shall be governed by the national law of the
person concerned.”
 Thus, the legal capacity of natural persons is governed by the national law of the person concerned.
 We have some specific articles for legal capacity as well: Art 12(engagement), Art 13(marriage), Art 18(adaption).
So if the capacity issue is related with them, you cannot go to Art 9.
 ÖNEMLİ: Legal capacity, personal law matter olduğu için renvoi’nin de uygulanacağını asla unutmayacağız.
Sözgelimi, Brezilyalı bir kadın Kapalıçarşı’da bir halı almış ve fakat ücretini ödememiş olsun. Sonra da bu dava
edildiğinde öncelikle burada yabancı unsur vardır, Art 1 gereği MÖHUK uygulanır, MÖHUK ehliyette kişinin
milli hukuku uygulanır der dediği için Brezilyalı kadın kendi hukukuna göre ehliyeti olmadığını ileri
sürebilecektir. Ama renvoi söz konusu olduğu için bu her zaman doğru olmayabilir. Çünkü renvoi gereği
Brezilya’nın conflict of law rules’larını da uygulayacağımızdan, Brezilyan Hukuku ehliyet için mesela işlemin
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yapıldığı yer hukuku uygulanır diyorsa, satış sözleşmesi Türkiye’de yapıldığı için, artık Art 9 devre dışı kalacak
ve ehliyet Türk Hukuku’na göre değerlendirilecektir. Bu yüzden sınavda böyle bir soru gelince ve hangi hukuk
uygulanır diye sorulunca hemen Art 9-> milli hukuka göre ehliyet belirlenir diye atlamayacağız. Renvoi’yi
uygulayacağız. Renvoi bizi Türk hukukuna geri döndürerek söz konusu kişinin ehliyetli olarak değerlendirilmesi
söz konusu olabilir. (Türk hukukuna geri göndermese ve kendi hukukuna göre ehil sayılmasa bile 9(2)’de bir
istisna var, dersin sonlarında anlatıldı, bununla beraber değerlendirmeyi unutmayın.)
c.1.a. The capacity to have right(Hak ehliyeti)
 Art 8 of the Turkish Civil Code says every person is entitled to a vested right. Accordingly, all the persons are
equal in using rights and fulfilling obligations within the legal limits.
 Beginning and ending of personality: Art 28 of the Turkish Civil Code says personality begins at the very moment
the child is born and ends by death. The child possesses the right of capacity at the very moment he/she enters
mother’s womb (as fetus-cenin) provided that he/she is born alive.
 Thus every person has the capacity to have rights, according to Turkish Law.
 But, it may change from state to state. For instance, in Spain, the child must live at least 24 hours to have capacity
to have rights.
 Art 9 is applied for capacity to have right is too. So, whether someone has a capacity to have right is determined
by the nationality law of that person.
 What does nationality law of persons for capacity to have rights cover? The commencement(başlangıç) of the
capacity to have rights, the limitations on the capacity to have rights and the grounds for its termination are all
subject to national law. The capacity to have rights also covers the existence of the capacity to be a party to a suit.
 The termination of the capacity to have rights is also subject to the Art 9 of the PIL: Death, civil death(life
sentence), monastery death. Yani bazı Katolik ülkelerde kişi yaşasa bile dini nedenlerle ölü kabul edilmesi hali
kanunlarında olabiliyor. Buna monastery death diyoruz. Art 9 bu gibi halleri de kapsar desek bile, kamu
düzeninin söz konusu olabileceğinden somut olaylara göre ayrı ayrı değerlendirmemiz gereken haller olabilir.
Farzımahal, Türkiye’de yabancı bir kişiye ilişkin bir miras davası söz konusu oldu diyelim. Bu kişinin bir
mirasçısı kendi ülke hukukuna göre monastery death gereği ölü sayılıyor. Şimdi ne olacak? Öncelikle yabancı
unsur(Art 1) vardır bu nedenle MÖHUK uygulanır diyeceğiz, sonra kural olarak lex fori’ye göre characterization
yapacağız, ki bunlar zaten bildiğimiz adımlar. İhtilafı kendi hukukumuza göre karakterize ettik ve capacity to
have right ile alakalı olduğunu gördük. Capacity to have right için Art 9 uygulanır dedik. Art 9 bizi kişinin milli
hukukna yönlendirdi(ve renvoi uyguladığımızda da Türk hukukuna geri gelmedik diyelim) Bu aşamadan sonra,
kişi yaşasa bile kendi hukukuna göre ölü sayılması onun bu mirastan pay alamamasına neden olacağından Art 5
gereği public policy’e aykırılık söz konusu olacak ve bu nedenle o ülkenin monastery death’e ilişkin hükümleri
uygulanmayacaktır. Aynısı civil death için de geçerli.
 Sınavda characterization’ı biz yapacağız. Borçlu temerrüdü varsa, burada sözleşmeye ilişkin kanunlar ihtilafı
uygulanacaktır diyebilmemiz lazım. Kalkıp da haksız fiil dersek mezun olmamalıymışız. O yüzden sınavda olayı
iyi karakterize edin. Çünkü karakterize ederek bulduğunuz sonuca göre hangi kanunlar ihtilafı hükmünün
uygulanacağını belirleyeceksiniz.
c.1.b. Exception: Declaration of absence(gaiplik) or presumption of death(ölmüş sayılma)
 We do not apply Art 9 for declaration of absence and presumption of death, because there is a specific article in
TPIL: Art 11.
 Art 11 of the PIL regulates declaration of absence or presumption of death; “(1) A decision to declare a person’s
disappearance or presumption of death shall be governed by the national law of that person. Where this person’s
property is in Turkey or where her/his spouse or one of her/his heirs has Turkish nationality, a decision to declare
her/his disappearance or presumption of death shall be rendered pursuant to Turkish law if such a decision may
not be delivered pursuant to her/his national law.”
 Case study(geçen senenin sınav sorusu): Turkish Court of Appeal held that the court applied Turkish law wrongly
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since a person to whom decision to declare a person’s disappearances is given has a British nationality; so, his
national law must be applied(1992 Decision, 2 Chamber). = A foreign guy has disappeared. Turkish Court
directly applied Turkish law for disappearance. But Turkish Supreme Court said, you cannot directly apply
Turkish law, because the guy is from UK. So, UK law must be applied for declaration of absence(Türkçe: Bir
İngiliz’in gaiplik kararı istenmekte ve MÖHUK 40 atfıyla Türk Mahkemesi yetkili bulunmuş. 1. Derece
Mahkemesi gaiplik için doğrudan Türk hukukunu uygulamış. Yargıtay da burada yabancı unsur olduğu için
kişinin milli hukukunu olan İngiliz hukuku uygulanır, 1. Derece Mahkemesi hatalıdır demiş. İnceleyelim). Is
Supreme Court right? Firstly, if we didn’t have a specific provision on declaration of death, Art 9 would be
applied. And we would said nationality of the person is applied. BUT we have a specific provision. In this way,
Turkish Court is wrong to apply Turkish law directly(kaldı ki ilk derece mahkemesi ne Art 9 ne de Art 11’e
dayanmadan direkt Türk hukukunu uygulamış). And, Art 11 says again that declaration of absence is governed by
the nationality of that person(ama Art 9 da nationality law of the person diyor e sonuç aynı demeyin, şekli hukuk
önemli!). Also with this, we should not forget to apply renvoi because it is a personal law matter(şahsın veya aile
hukuku meselelerinde eğer kanunumuz yabancı hukukun uygulanacağını öngörmüşse renvoi uygulanır, yani o
yabancı ülkenin kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri de uygulanır, ve o hükümler bizi tekrar Türk hukukuna geri
gönderebilir).
 QUESTION(geçen sene bunu sormuş): In which situation, Turkish judge can apply Turkish law for English man?
Following sentences of Art 11 deems that sometimes Turkish law can be applicable as well(bu arada Türk
Hukukunun uygulandığı hallerde renvoi uygulanmaz!). Accordingly, if the person’s property is in Turkey / where
her/his spouse or one of her/his heirs has Turkish nationality + if the declaration of absence or presumption of
death decision cannot be given in his national law => a decision to declare her/his disappearance or presumption
of death shall be governed by Turkish law. So, we’ll apply Turkish Civil Code. As we can see, there are two
conditions to apply Turkish law for declaration of absence or presumption of death. Yani Türk hukukunun
uygulanabilmesi için iki şart var: 1. Millî hukukuna göre hakkında gaiplik veya ölmüş sayılamayacak + 2. Kişinin
malları Türkiye'de bulunacak veya eşi veya mirasçılardan biri Türk vatandaşı olacak.
 (Önsorun-preliminary objection meselesinde gaiplik konusuna tekrar geleceğiz).
c.1.c. The capacity to act(fiil ehliyeti)
 Art 9 of the Turkish Civil Code says the person having capacity to act may possess any right by his/her own will
and may undertake any obligation thereof.
 In Turkish law, the capacity of a person to act depends upon: 1. the condition of majority. Majority begins at the
end of age 18 in Turkey(Art 11 of CC). But there are some exceptions: evlilikle veya mahkeme kararıyla ergin
olma. 2. the capacity to make fair judgment(ayırt etme gücü) and 3. not being interdicted(kısıtlı olmama).
 As mentioned above, pursuant to Art 9 (1) of the PIL, the capacity to act (the capacity to exercise right) is subject
to “national law” as the capacity to have rights. And we DO NOT FORGET the applicability of Art 2(3) which is
renvoi,and 4 which regulates being stateless or having more than one nationality(birden çok vatandaşlığı varsa ve
biri Türk vatandaşlığı ise Türk vatandaşı olarak muamele görür, birden çok vatandaşlığı varsa ve hiçbiri Türk
vatandaşlığı değilse en yakın ilişkili olduğu vatandaşlığa göre muamele görür. Kişinin seçme hakkı yoktur. Çünkü
Art 2 hakim kanunlar ihtilafı kurallarını resen uygular der. Bunu zaten anlattık. Bu bağlamda Art 9 bizi kişinin
milli hukukuna yönlendirince ve kişinin birden fazla vatandaşlığı varsa, Art 4’ü unutmayacağız. Art 4’ü bu başlık
altında hatırlattık, ama yukarıdaki konu için ve vatandaşlığa refer yapan tüm konular için göz önünde
bulundurmalıyız. Çünkü Art 1-8 genel hükümdür.).
 Every country has different conditions for capacity to act. For example in Denmark, 21 is the majority age.
 The applicable law covers: the degree of capacity such as full capacity, full incapacity, limited capacity and
limited incapacity and the conditions of capacity.
 The capacity to be a party in a suit and to bring a suit before court is determined pursuant to the national law of
the person concerned(as Art 9 says) in accordance with the conflict of law rule governing the capacity to have
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rights and to act.
 Art 12(1), Art 13(1) and Art 18(1) of PIL have specific provisions for legal capacity.
 There are some specific conflict of law rules in TTK regarding negotiable instruments(TTK; atıf, ehliyet, şekil ve
zamanaşımında kıymetli evraklar için özel kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları getirdiği için MÖHUK uygulanmaz.): The
capacity to enter into undertakings by bills of exchange, promissory notes, or cheques is stipulated in Art 766,
778(1,i) and 819 of Turkish Commercial Code. Accordingly, national law of concerned person is applied for
capacity to act. For example; a foreigner signs a cheque and says he/she doesn’t have any capacity to sign
because he/she does not have representation of that company or he/she does not have majority age. Which law is
applied? Art 9 is not applied. Even though the result is same with Art 9, we have to apply TTK. TTK says
nationality law of the concerned person is applied. On the other hand, renvoi is applicable here as well. Because,
even though the issue is related with negotiable instruments, the subject matter is actually “the legal capacity of
the person who undersigns a negotiable instrument”, so it’s about personal law.
 EXCEPTION: TTK ve Art 9(2) legal security sağlamak için bir istisna getirmiştir. Art 9(2)’ye sonra geleceğiz
ama TTK istisnasına bakalım. Bazen 19 yaşında bir yabancı burada, veya başka bir ülkede çek imzalayıp ben
kendi ülkeme göre ergin değilim dediği için problemler ortaya çıktığından bu istisna getirilmiş. TTK’ya göre: if a
person is considered as having no capacity according to his nationality law and where the person signs the
negotiable instrument also says he has capacity to act, then he/she is considered as having legal capacity. Çek,
muhatabın şahsı bakımından geçersiz sayılıyorsa, ama çekin imzalandığı ülke hukuku bakımından kişi ehil
sayılıyorsa, çek üzerine atılan imzalardan doğan borçlanmalar geçerlidir.
c.1.d. Art 9(2) exception: Provide legal certainty
 Lizardi Case: 1861 yılında Kasasyon Mahkemesi’nin verdiği bir karar var. 21 yaşındaki bir Meksikalı Fransa’ya
geliyor. Fransa’da mücevher alıyor. Ödeme zamanı gelince ben lanet bir Meksikalıyım ve 21 yaş Meksika’da
majority age değil diyor. Böyle olunca Mahkeme diyor ki; In order to provide legal security, if the other
party(mücevher satan) legitimately believe that he/she(lanet Meksikalı) has a legal capacity, then we can trust
his/her good faith, so he/she is considered as having legal capacity. Bu karar Türkiye’de(Art 9/2) ve dünyada
kabul edilmiş bir içtihat haline gelmiştir.
 TTK’daki istisna özel olarak kıymetli evraklar için kabul edilmişken, 9(2) istisnası tüm hukuki işlemler
için(özellikle sözleşmeler) kabul edilmektedir(ama uygulanmayan 3 istisna var, aşağıda yazıyor).
 Art 9(2) says that if the person who lacks capacity under his/her national law, but has under the law of the country
in which the transaction has concluded is bound by the transaction pursuant to Art 9.
 Art 9(2) hukuki güvenliği sağlamak için getirilmiştir. Çünkü kişi kendi hukukunda ehliyeti olmadığına güvenerek
buraya gelip işlemler yapabilirler. Art 9(2) diyor ki eğer kişi işlemi yaptığı ülkenin hukukuna göre ehliyetli ama
kendi hukukuna göre ehliyetsiz ise o işlem açısından ehliyetli kabul edilir.
 In order to apply this provision, these requirements should be met:
 1. The person concerned should have no capacity under his nationality law(with the consideration of renvoi as
well). Kişi kendi milli hukukuna göre ehliyetli olmayacak.
 2. The relevant transaction should be made in the relevant country. İşlemin yapıldığı ülkeye göre legal capacity
sahibi olacak.
 3. The transaction should be concluded in the “presence” of the parties. İşlem hazır olanlar arasında yapılmış
olacak. PC’de, telefonda vs. yapılmışsa olmaz. Yoksa karşı taraf bu durumu bilmediği için iyi niyetli sayılmaz.
 4. The nature of the transaction should be appropriate. The transaction should NOT be related to family law,
inheritance law, or real rights on immovable property(gayrimenkul satışı-ayni hak, burada gayrimenkulün
bulunduğu yer hukuku uygulanır). Because, interest of the parties are taken into account for these matters.
 5. The other party should act in good faith. Karşı tarafın, söz konusu kişinin ehliyeti olmadığına dair iyi niyeti
olmalıdır.
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06.03.17
c.2. Legal Persons(Tüzel Kişilikler)
 We apply different rules of capacity for real persons and legal persons. Last week we talked about real persons.
Today we gonna talk about capacity of legal persons like corporations, association of persons(dernek), association
of property(vakıf). We gonna learn which law is applied to legal persons for lack of capacity, earning legal
capacity etc.
 Unlike real persons, legal persons do not have any nationality. But, we have to grant some sort of citizenship to
legal persons in order to apply conflict of law rules. How we grant it? Every state has different system to do that.
In Turkish law, there is a specific article as well. Art 9(4) of the TPIL states that “The capacity to have rights and
duties and to a of persons or property shall be governed by the law of administration center in their statues.
Whereas, Turkish law may apply if the actual administration center is situated in Turkey. However, if the actual
administrative center is situated in Turkey, then Turkish law may apply to question of capacity.” The capacity of
legal persons or of associations of persons or property is governed by the law of their administrative center stated
in their Articles of Association under Art 9(4). Şirketin esas sözleşmesinde(statü) idare merkezi neresi
gösteriliyorsa, tüzel kişiliğin hak ve fiil ehliyeti oranın hukukuna tabidir.
 However, especially multinational companies may have different places all around the world. For example, a
company may established in Germany, but its main business action is going on in Istanbul. For this situation, Art
9(4) says if the actual administration center is in Turkey, Turkish law may applied for legal capacity(Fiilî idare
merkezinin Türkiye'de olması hâlinde Türk hukuku uygulanabilir). So, Turkish judge has a discretionary power to
apply Turkish law. BUT, even though the wording of article says “may”, judges always prefer to apply Turkish
law in practice.
 Legal persons are represented by real persons. Şirketlerin tüzel kişiliği olsa da, doğası gereği gerçek kişilerce
temsil edilirler(Ders dışı genel kültür time: ABD, nihayetinde yasalarla siyahileri de insan statüsünde tanıyınca
ABD’li şirket sahipleri siyahilerin bile(!) kişiliği varsa şirketlerin de kişiliği olmasını talep edince tüzel kişilik
ortaya çıkmıştır. Daha fazlası için bkz. The Corporation belgeseli). The person who has a power to represent the
company is also considered under legal capacity. Yani anladığım kadarıyla şirketin yaptığı bir işlem söz konusu
olunca, şirketin ehliyetinin yanı sıra o şirketi temsil eden kişinin de şirketi temsil etmeye ehil olup olmadığı
birlikte değerlendirilir.
 Some of the countries do not provide legal personality or statutes to companies and associations. Or association
of shipowners and joint venture companies do not consider as having legal capacity. What is gonna happen
then?The capacity of legal persons which do not have Articles of Association or associations of persons of
property which do not have legal personality is subject to the law of their “actual” administration center under Art
9(5). Art 9(5) of the PIL states that “The capacity of legal persons without statutes and associations of persons or
property without legal personality shall be governed by the law of actual administration center.”
 Sınıftan gelen bir soru: Adi şirketin tüzel kişiliği olmadığı için buraya girmiyor dediniz. Adi şirketin her bir üyesi
tüzel kişi olabiliyor. Bunların sorumlulukları müşterek olduğu için mesela ortaklardan biri olan tüzel kişiliğe
sahip Alman şirketi var diyelim. Bu şirketin üzerinden tüzel kişiliğe ilişkin hükümleri uygulayabilir miyiz? Hayır.
Joint venture gibi adi şirket gibi tüzel kişiliği olmayan şirketlerde Art 9(5) gereği fiili idare merkezlerine
bakacağız.
 Fiili idare merkezinin nerede olduğunu kendi hukukumuza göre belirleriz.
 As you remember, we talked about Lizardi Case and how Art 9(2) exception was born. Art 9(2) says even though
a person does not have any legal capacity via his/her nationality law can still be considered as having legal
capacity if the country which he/she has done the transaction considers him/her competent. The exception that is
stipulated in Art 9(2) of the PIL in order to provide legal security is also applicable for legal person, even though
it does not mention it. For example, a German company’s administrative center is in Germany. The company
made a transaction in Turkey. And according to German law, the company does not have a capacity to that
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transaction. We apply legal security exception here as well. However, do not forget that legal capacity exception
is not applicable for some issues: real rights on immovable properties, family law issues, inheritance issues. Ama
şirket birleşmesine şirket evliliği diyip bunu da family law içine sokmayın.
GUARDIANSHIP, INTERDICTION, CURATORSHIP
 Sometimes legal capacity can be restricted because of mental illnesses, bad economical situations, alcoholism,
extravagance(müsriflik) etc. That’s why guardianship(vesayet), interdiction(kısıtlılık), and curatorship(kayyım
atama) are regulated in our law system.
 Even though guardianship, interdiction and curatorship is related with legal capacity, we do not apply Art 9.
Because law-makers has made specific articles in regard to importance of these issues.
 Art 10 of the PIL states specify conflict of law rules for guardianship and interdiction. Art 10(1) states that: “(1)
The grounds for ordering or the termination of guardianship or interdiction shall be governed by the national law
of the person regarding whom an order or termination of guardianship or interdiction is demanded.” As Art 10(1)
says, putting a foreigner under guardianship or interdiction is governed by the national law that person(Because
of it’s a personal matter, renvoi is applied as well. Which means we gonna apply foreign country’s conflict of law
rules as well. And if that foreign country’s conflict of law rules refer us to Turkish law, we apply Turkish
substantive law on guardianship. Or if it refer us to another country, we apply that 3rd country’s substantive law).
 Case Study: An English man was so drunkard that he caused so many troubles in his residence. Thus, neighbors
complained about him and the case of interdiction was filed against him. Did Turkish judge apply English law
which says nothing about ordering interdiction on the ground of concerned person is drunkard? According to
Article 10, we apply UK law on guardianship(with the consideration of renvoi too).
 Article 10(2) regulates exception of applying Turkish law. Art 10(2): “(2) Where it is not possible to order
guardianship or interdiction pursuant to the national law of the foreigner, guardianship, or interdiction may be
ordered or terminated pursuant to Turkish law provided that the habitual residence of this person is in Turkey.
Turkish law shall also apply in cases where the person concerned is compulsorily situated in Turkey. ” So, we
applied foreign law(with renvoi) and the person couldn’t be put under guardianship or interdiction, but in the
mean time, his/her habitual residence is in Turkey. At that time, Turkish judge can put him/her under guardianship
or interdiction according to Turkish law. By the way, habitual residence means central life of the person. We
should analyze case by case where habitual residence is. In order to find out, we need to look where he/she live,
where his/her family is living, where he/she runs business, where he/she studies etc. In addition to this, following
sentence of Art 10(2) brings an important compulsory rule which stipulates that Turkish law shall apply to person
if he/she is compulsorily situated in Turkey. Kişinin zorunlu olarak Türkiye'de bulunduğu hâllerde de
guardianship ve interdiction için Türk hukuku uygulanır. For example; he/she has committed a crime in Turkey so
he/she is under punishment, or there is a ban of leaving country while the case is going on, or he/she cannot move
anywhere because of an accident. Soru: kişi Türk vatandaşlığını kazanmak için Türkiye’de duruyorsa bu zorunlu
olarak durmak mıdır? Hayır. Burada iradi bir durum söz konusu.
 Art 10(3): “(3) All other issues regarding interdiction or guardianship apart from the grounds for ordering or
terminating guardianship or interdiction and curator-ship shall be governed by Turkish law.” Apart from putting
under guardianship or interdiction and terminating guardianship or interdiction, or reasoning of curatorship, or
termination of curatorship issues shall be governed by Turkish law.
 Türkçe olarak: Vesayet ve kısıtlılık kararı verilmesi/kararın kaldırılması halleri Art 10 (1) ve (2)’de ele alınmıştır.
1. fıkra gereği ilgilinin milli hukukunun uygulanacağı söylenmiştir. 2. fıkrada ise ilgilinin milli hukukuna göre
kişiyi vesayet altına alma ve kısıtlılık kararı verilemiyorsa veyahut bu kararlar kaldırılamıyorsa ve bununla
birlikte kişinin mutad meskeni Türkiye’de ise Türk hukuku uygulanır. Fakat kısıtlılılık ve vesayet kararı verilmesi
veya kaldırılması halleri dışındaki müesseseler de söz konusu olabilir. Örneğin; vasinin seçimi, vasinin reddi,
vasinin yapabileceği muameleler, vasinin sorumluluğu, kayyımlık. Mesela bir yabancıya vasi olarak atandınız.
İşte, bu gibi haller için Art 10(3) bir düzenleme getirmiştir. Vesâyet veya kısıtlılık kararı verilmesi veya sona
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erdirilmesi sebepleri dışında kalan bütün kısıtlılık veya vesâyete ilişkin hususlar ve kayyımlık(kayyımlık
nedenleri sona erdirilmesi vs) Türk hukukuna tâbidir.
 Example for curatorship: Piercing the corporate veil(tüzel kişilik perdesinin aralanması). Örneğin;
hissedarları(shareholders) yabancı olan bir şirket var. Şirketin adının arkasında illegal işler dönüyor. Bu nedenle
tüzel kişilik perdesinin aralanması teorisi ile bu şirkete kayyım atanması Türk hukukuna göre yapılır.
NAME
 For example, a man is getting married with a Swiss woman, can he get her surname and use it in Turkey? Which
law is applied when a foreigner wants to change his/her name? Can a foreigner who acquired Turkish nationality
still use his/her name? Does a foreigner who has a complicated and long name have to change his/her name?
 There is no specific provision regarding the law applicable to the name of persons in TPIL. However, the law
applicable to the personal status of the person, that is, his/her national law is accepted as applicable law in
principle. And it is proposed that the lex causae be applied to the change that occur in the name of person due to
occasions of family law such as marriage, divorce, and birth.
 İsim konusunda özel bir kanunlar ihtilafı kuralımız yok. Ama personal matter olduğu için şahsın hukukunun
uygulanacağı kabul edilmektedir. Fakat evlenme, boşanma, doğum gibi aile hukuku müesseseleri nedeniyle isim
değişikliği olursa bu halde lex causae(the applicable law) yani uyuşmazlığa uygulanan hukuk neyse o hukuk
uygulanır.
ENGAGEMENT
 Family law issues are regulated in a detailed way in Turkish PIL. Engagement, marriage, divorce, matrimonial
property, descent and maintenance(nafaka) issues have separate conflict of law rules.
 Engagement is considered as a family law contract in Turkish law and parties’ interest is taken into account. And
there is not any formation rule for engagement in Turkish law.
 It should be noted that some countries like France, some legal systems do not have engagement as a substantive
law matter and Germany and Switzerland law do not have specific conflict of law rules on this matter.
 As we said earlier, characterization is done by lex fori. Yani taraflar arasındaki ilişkiyi nişanlılık olarak tahlil
etmeyi kendi hukukumuza göre yapıyoruz.
 Thus, Art 12 of the PIL states that: “The capacity and conditions to get engaged is governed by the national laws
of each of the parties at the time of engagement.” So, if a French woman and Turkish man is engaged, for the
capacity or conditions of engagement etc, Turkish law is applied for Turkish man and French law is applied for
French women at the time of engagement(nişanlılığın yapıldığı anda tabi oldukları vatandaşlık esas alınır, çünkü
sonrasında vatandaşlık kaybı veya değişimi söz konusu olabilir).
 According to one legal scholar, the conditions to get engagement for men should be applicable only for men and
the requirement for engagement for women, women’s law apply just to women.
 The renvoi shall be applicable in this matter. Because it’s a family law matter.
 There will be no “conflict mobile” problem, since the law maker specifically regulates that applicable law. Kanun
nişanlılıkta ehliyete ve şartlar hususunda uygulanacak hukuku nişanlılığın yapıldığı anda tabi olunan milli hukuk
olarak belirledği için conflict mobile sorunu yoktur.
a. The Form of Engagement
 There is no specific provision regarding the form of engagement in TPIL.
 Thus, for the form of the engagement, Art 7(şekil için genel hüküm) of the TPIL shall be applicable which either
LRA(where the engagement is done) OR lex causae(the law which is applied for the substance of engagement).
 Nişanlılığın şekli için TPIL’de özel bir düzenleme olmadığından burada kanun boşluğu vardır. Bu nedenle genel
kanun hükümleri uygulanır. Art 7’de de şekle uygulanacak genel hüküm uygulama bulur.
b. The Effects and Consequences of Engagement
 What will be happened for breach of engagement? Hediyelerin iadesi olacak mı?
 The law applicable to the effects and consequences of engagement is stipulated in Art 12 (2) which is the
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common national law of the parties, and where the parties have different nationalities, Turkish law is applied.
Nişanlılığın hükümlerine ve sonuçlarına müşterek millî hukuk, taraflar ayrı vatandaşlıkta iseler Türk hukuku
uygulanır.
 Scope: The applicable law covers the payment of damages, and the restitution of presents, the types and
conditions of compensation, and the extent of the return of the presents, and so on.
 Nişanlılıkta ehliyet ve şartlar için uygulanacak hukuk nişanlanma anında tarafların tabi olduğu milli hukuktur
demiştik. Ama nişanlılığın hüküm ve sonuçları(nişanın bozulması, hediyelerin iadesi vs.) için Art 12 hangi anda
tabi olunan milli hukukun uygulanacağını söylememiş. So, there is a conflict mobile problem. That’s why we
look at the general rule which is Art 3 and according to Art 3 the applicable law is considered “at the time of
dispute”. Yetkili hukukun vatandaşlık, yerleşim yeri veya mutad mesken esaslarına göre tayin edildiği hâllerde,
aksine hüküm olmadıkça, “dava tarihindeki vatandaşlık”, yerleşim yeri veya mutad mesken esas alınır(bkz.
Characterization konusu).
MARRIAGE
 Marriage capacity and conditions, the form of marriage(şekil), general provisions of marriage(evliliğin genel
hükümleri) and matrimonial property(mal rejimi) are regulated with different conflict of law rules.
a. Marriage Capacity and Conditions
 If a French woman and Turkish man want to get married, firstly they need to show that they have capacity and
meet some conditions.
 According to Art 13 (1) of the PIL, marriage capacity and conditions shall be governed by the national law of
each of the parties “at the time of marriage”. Evlenme ehliyeti ve şartları, taraflardan her birinin evlenme
anındaki millî hukukuna tâbidir. Erkek eş için onun tabi olduğu, kadın eş için de kendi tabi olduğu hukuk
uygulanacak. Boşanmayı anlatırken bu noktaya tekrar değineceğiz.
 This provision is taking into account the interest of the parties and regarding the importance of this transaction in
their lives. It means that, conditions of men’s nationality law is only apply to men, and conditions of women’s
nationality law is only applied to women(verba legis, letter and spirit of the law). But there might be a problem.
One party’s nationality law may assume the marriage is valid while the other assumes otherwise. There is not any
strict solution for this, but we gonna talk what we can do later.
 According to the Turkish law the “intent” to get married is important. As we know, Turkish law brings some
“obstacles” to get married(evlenme engelleri) as well. Obstacles are divided as one sided obstacles and two sided
obstacles.
 Renvoi also must be applied for marriage, since it’s about family law.
 The issues related to the applicable law are: the age of marriage, the capacity to fair judgment, mental illness,
permission, certificate of capacity to get married, kinship, polygamy, period of delay and epidemic diseases.
 The evaluation of whether there exist any situation preventing the marriage of the parties would be determined
pursuant to the national law of each of them.
 The law of governing the legal prerequisites of the celebration of marriage is the national law of the person at the
time of marriage.
 The remedies for the violation of marriage capacity and conditions shall be decided according to violated law. If
the parties have different nationalities, and the situation is violated to both laws, the law that has more <<severe
sanctions>> shall be applicable. Evlenme ehliyet ve şartlarında kişilerin tabi oldukları vatandaşlık hukukları
uygulanır dedik. Eğer bunlardan biri için bu evlilik hükümsüz ise evlilik hükümsüz sayılacak. Ama her iki hukuka
göre de bu evlenme geçersiz ise en ağır müeyyideyi öngören hukuka göre geçersiz sayılır.
 The effect of public policy(Art 5) should also be taken into account. Such as polygamy, religious obstacles.
Örneğin, bi İsrail vatandaşı ile bir Türk vatandaşı evlenecek ama İsrail vatandaşı açısından onun hukukunu
uygukldığımızda Müslüman biri ile evlenemeyeceği sonucuna varıyoruz. Bu halde İsrail hukukunun
uygulanmasının sonucu Türk kamu düzenine aykırılık içerdiğinden İsrail hukuku uygulanmaz. Sonraki ders
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evlenmenin şeklinden devam edeceğiz.
08.03.17
b. The Formal Validity of Marriage
 For example; a French woman and Turkish man want to get married in Saudi Arabia in front of an imam. Or they
are married in a gondola at Venice. Or they are married in a Buddhist temple in Nepal. Are these kind of
marriages valid? Yes. We don’t apply Art 7 which is the general rule for formation. Because there is a specific
rule on formation of marriage. Art 13(2) of PIL states that “The law of country of marriage shall apply to the
form of marriage.” As we see, only one law covers the formation of marriage which is lex loci celebratonis(the
law of the place of marriage). Thus, LRA(locus regit actum) is compulsorily applied with regard to the form of
marriage. The LRA rule pertains only to “form”, but the marriage obstacles ans the capacity to get married are
governed by national law of the parties.
 What does form cover? Transparency, whether parties need to register after the ceremony, who’s responsible for
marriage ceremony, what are the remedies for formality, and so on.
 Art 11 of the Marriage Regulation also provides that the Turkish nationals and foreigners outside Turkey get
married pursuant to the law of the place they are at.
 Exception: Consulate marriage. Consulate pursuant to the form envisaged by the law of the state which the consul
represents. Paris’teki Türk konsolosluğunda evleniyorsanız artık Fransız hukuku değil, Türk hukuku uygulanır.
Konsolosluk evlilikleri için de bazı şartlar var.
b.1. Consulate marriage
 Marriages celebrated at consulates are regarded as valid subject to the certain conditions:
b.1.a. Authority to marry nationals
 The authority to marry should be taken into consideration both with regard to the sending state and the receiving
state. For instance, for the Turkish consulate in Rome, Turkey is sending state and Italy is the receiving state.
Both Italy and Turkey must give power to Turkish consulate to done marriage.
 Decision of Council of Ministers dated 1927, international treaties(international consulate conventions) and Art
10 of the Regulation of Marriage, Turkish consuls and consul general may execute marriage contracts in the
foreign countries they are appointed. Yani gerek Türk hukuku gerekse yabancı ülkelerle olan anlaşmalarımız Türk
konsolosluklarına evlendirme yetkisi tanımaktadır.
 What about foreign consulates in Turkey? For example Italian consulate in Turkey. This time Italy is the sending
state and Turkey is the receiving state. The receiving state, Turkey, must grant authority to marry to foreign
consulates as agreements and Art 12 of the Marriage Regulation provides it. So, if the sending state has granted
authorization to its consulate, Turkey recognizes it.
b.1.b. Personal conditions
 Not everyone can get married at consulates.
 According to Art 10 of the Marriage Regulation, the authority and the duty of marriage officers are exercised by
Turkish consulates in abroad, provided that the domestic law legislation envisaged so, and may marry two of his
nationals. In other word, spouses should be a Turkish national in order to get married in Turkish consulate.
 It should be noted that honorary consuls(fahri konsolosluklar) do not have authority to make a marriage contract.
 What about foreign consulates in Turkey? Under Turkish law, the representative of foreign state in Turkey may
marry two of his nationals provided that their state has authorized him(Article 12 of the Marriage Regulation).
Such a marriage would be recognized in Turkey as well. For example Italian consulate in Istanbul has authority to
marry only its nationals. However, under the consulate agreement there might be different provision. For example
with Italy and Bulgari, we have consulate agreements and according to these agreements, consuls can execute a
marriage between a national and the national of another country, provided that the latter is not a Turkish national.
For example, an Italian and Argentinean can get married at Italian consulate in Istanbul. But one of the party must
be an Italian and the other party can never be a Turkish national.
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 Evlenmeye evlenmenin yapıldığı yer hukuku uygulanırken konsolosluklar neden istisna tutulmuştur? Çünkü
dediğimiz gibi konsolusluklar anlaşmalarla kurulmuş ve bu anlaşmalar da evlendirme yetkisi tanımıştır ve
uluslarası anlaşmalar saklı tutulmuştur(MÖHUK m.1/f.2, AY 90). Yani aslında MÖHUK m.1/f.2 hükmü varken
diğer düzenlemelere ihtiyaç da yoktu.
c. Legal Effect of a Marriage
 The scope of applicable law for legal effect of a marriage is related with the mutual rights and duties between
married persons. For example; changing surname, matrimonial property, who’s responsible for budget, duty of
loyalty, representation of the union of marriage, position of spouses in the case of collection of debt on the 3rd
person, residential building, single family house(aile konutu), and so on. Yani legal effect of a marriage derken
aslında evliliğin genel hükümlerine hangi kanun hükümlerinin uygulandığını öğreniyoruz.
 It should be noted that in Turkish PIL, general and personal effects of marriage is regulated in Article 13(3), while
matrimonial property is regulated separately in Article 15. Evliliğin genel hükümleri ve mal rejimleri iki ayrı
maddede düzenlenmiştir.
 Art 13 (3) of TPIL states that; “The general provisions of marriage shall be governed by the common nationality
law of the spouses. Where the parties have different nationalities, the law of common habitual residence, and
where there is no such law, Turkish law, shall apply.” The applicable law is designated by step approach.
However, it should be noted that if the applicable law may be determined by applying the first conflict of law
rules the the subsequent steps are not taken into account. Yani evliliğin genel hükümler için uygulanacak hukuka
adım adım bakıyoruz. Tarafların ortak vatandaşlığı varsa o ülkenin hukuku, yoksa mutat meskenlerinin
bulunduğu yer hukuku, bu da yoksa Türk hukuku(Türk Medeni Hukuku) uygulanır. Taraflar evliliğin genel
hükümleri açısınsdan başka bir hukukun uygulanmasını talep edemez(mal rejiminde ise isteyebilirler). Çünkü
MÖHUK 2 Türk hakimi kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerini resen uygular demektedir.
 Örneği; bir Türk erkek ve Suriyeli kadın evleniyorlar, Suriye’de yaşıyorlar. Erkek eş, kadın eşin soyadını
kullanmak için Türkiye’de dava açıyor. Öncelikle common nationality var mı diye bakıyoruz. Olmadığı için
ikinci adım olan mutat mesken hukukuna bakıyoruz. Tarafların mutat meskeni Suriye’de olduğu için Suriye
hukuku uygulanacak. Ama nemli bir nokta: Renvoi mutlaka göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır, çünkü konu aile
hukuku ile ilgilidir. Yani Suriye hukukunun sadece evlilikte soyada ilişkin substantive law hükümlerini değil;
bundan önce Suriye hukukunun kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri de uygulacaktır. Suriye kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri de
bizi geri Türkiye’ye refer etmiyor, Suriye hukuku uygulanır diyor diyelim. Ve Suriye hukuku da erkeğe, kadın
eşin soyadını kullanma hakkını veriyor olsun. Bu halde Türk vatandaşı erkek eş, kadın eşin soyadını
kullanabilecektir.
 Renvoinin sadece common nationality’nin yabancı bir devlet olması halinde ve common nationality yoksa mutat
meskenin yabancı bir devlette olması halinde uygulanacağı noktasını gözünüzden kaçırmayın. Sözgelimi
müşterek hukuk yoksa, mutat mesken de yoksa içincü adım olan Türk hukuku’na geçeceğiz. Bu halde artık renvoi
uygulanamaz. Çünkü daha öncede sözlediğimiz üzere renvoi sadece aile ve şahsın hukukuna ilişkin meselelerde
kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerimizin bizi yabancı bir devlet hukukuna refer ettiği vakit uygulama bulabilir. Yoksa aile
ve şahsın hukukuna ilişkin bir ihtilafta kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerini uygulayıp Türk hukukunun ihtilafa
uygulanacağını bulmuşsak, artık doğası gereği renvoinin uygulanması zaten mümkün olmayacaktır.
 Art 13(3) is not contrary to the mutual rights and duties related to marriage and to the nature of marriage
institution.
 Matrimonial property konusuna gelelim. Mal rejimi de evliliğin genel hükmüne ilişkin olmasına karşın konunun
karmaşıklığı nedeniyle ayrı bir hüküm getirilmiştir.
 Öncelikle Türk hukukundaki durumu hatılayalım: According to Turkish Civil Code, if parties didn’t choose
common property regime(mal ortaklığı) or separated property regime(mal ayrılığı), at that time regime of
participation in acquired property(edinilmiş mallara katılma rejimi) is applied. So, spouses have a right to make
an marital property agreement before marriage or after marriage. If they did it before marriage, it’s called
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prenuptial agreement, a.k.a. marriage agreement. Bizim hukukumuzda durum bu şekilde. Ama her ülke farklı bir
sistem benimsemiş olabilir. Veyahut taraflar Türk olsa bile yurtdışında bir taşınmaz veya yurtdışındaki bankada
yer alan bir banka hesabındaki para söz konusu olabilir. Bu halde kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri uygulanarak mal
rejimine uygulanacak olan hukuk bulunacaktır. MÖHUK 15 mal rejimine ilişkin özel bir hüküm getirmektedir.
Bununla birlikte, elbette ihtilafın mal rejimine ilişkin olduğu hususu Türk hukukuna göre karakterize edilir.
Çünkü dediğimiz gibi characterization is done by lex fori.
 Also, as we’ll say at inheritance topic, matrimonial property must be done before portion of the inheritance.
Mirasın paylaşımından önce mal rejiminin tasfiyesi yapılmaldır. Örneğin; bir Türk vatandaşı eş öldü, hayatta
kalan diğer eş yabancı bir vatandaş ise, bu halde mirasın paylaşımından önce Art 15’e göre mal rejimin tasfiyesi
yapılacaktır.
 Art 15 (1) states that; “(1) Spouses may clearly designate either the internal law of their habitual residence or
national law at the time of marriage to govern their matrimonial property. ”
 First of all, parties are free to choose which law is applied to matrimonial property issues, as Art 15(1) says.
Taraflar mal rejimi için hangi hukukunun uygulanacağını seçmekte özgürdür. Ama divorce veya diğer konular
için az önce de bahsettiğimiz üzere böyle bir seçim özgürlüğü tanınmamıştır. However, this freedom is not
limitless. There is a restriction. They are not free to choose every law. There is a limited choice of law. Parties
have a right to choose “precisely” the law is applied to matrimonial property, only if it is either one of the law of
habitual residence at the time of marriage OR one of the national law of spouses at the time of marriage. Evlilik
malları hakkında eşler evlenme anındaki mutad mesken veya evlenme anındaki millî hukuklarından birini “açık
olarak” seçebilirler. Kanun lafzında da görebildiğimiz üzere, taraflar açıkça bu iki hukuktan birini seçmelilerdir.
Zımni olarak seçim yapılması sayılmaz. They can choose of these law in a separated contract or in the prenuptial
agreement.
 What will happen if parties acquire a common nationality or common habitual residence while the marriage is
going on? Art 15 (3) says: “(3) If the spouses acquire a new common nationality upon marriage, the laws of their
new nationality may govern, provided that the rights of third parties are reserved.” It says, parties may choose
new common law they acquired. And if they choose, this new law is applied from the beginning of marriage But
article brings a restriction and says 3rd parties’ right are reserved.
 Buraya kadar Türkçe özet geçelim: mal rejimi seçiminde sınırlı bir seçme hakkı var dedik. Kanun bunula birlikte
taraf iradesi ve legal unity’i korumak adına, taraflara, evlilikten sonra ortak mutat mesken yeri oluşunca bu yer
hukukunu veya taraflar evlilikten sonra ortak bir vatandaşlığa tabi olma durumu ortaya çıkmışsa bu ortak
vatandaşlığın hukukunu mal rejimi hususunda seçme hakkı da tanımıştır. Tarafların mal rejimi hususunda bu yeni
hukuku seçmeleri halinde, seçim anından itibaren değil; evliliğin başlangıcı anından itibaren hüküm ve
sonuçlarını doğuracaktır. Ayrıca 3. kişilerin hakları da saklıdır.
 Is renvoi also applied if parties choose a law? Taraflar kural olarak esasa uygulanacak hukuku seçebiliyorlar. Eğer
taraflar ayrıca ve açıkça uyuşmazlığa uygulanacak hukukun kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri de uygulanır diye
belirtmezlerse seçtikleri hukukun sadece esasa ilişkin hükümleri uygulama bulacağından renvoi uygulanmaz.
Zaten pratikte de kimse esasa ilişkin hükümlerin yanı sıra kanunlar ihtilafı hükümlerinin de uygulanmasını
kararlaştırmaz(bkz. Renvoi konusu, Art 2(4) etrafındaki tartışmalar).
 What will happen if one of the spouse signed matrimonial property contract under pressure? Or can they do this
contract on Skype? For legal capacity of the contract, we apply Art 9 of TPIL. And for the formation of contract,
we apply Art 7 of TPIL. Because Art 15 doesn’t mention anything regarding capacity or formation. So we go to
general articles.
 Tarafların hukuk seçmesi durumu böyle. Peki seçmemişlerse ne olacak? Which law is applied to matrimonial
property issues if spouses didn’t choose any law? Following sentence of Art 15 (1) stipulates that; “Where no
such choice has been made, the common national law of the spouses at the time of marriage, or in the absence of
common law, the internal law of their habitual residence at the time of marriage shall govern or in the absence
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thereof, the Turkish law shall govern.”The article brings a solution step by step. Accordingly, if parties have a
common nationality at the time of marriage, that common nationality law is applied. If they didn’t have any
common nationality, then the law of common habitual residence at the time of marriage is applied. If there wasn’t
any common habitual residence, then Turkish law is applied. Tarafların seçim yapmamış olması hâlinde evlilik
malları hakkında eşlerin evlenme anındaki müşterek millî hukuku, bunun bulunmaması hâlinde evlenme anındaki
müşterek mutad mesken hukuku, bunun da bulunmaması hâlinde Türk hukuku uygulanır. ÖNEMLİ: Geçen
senenin sınav sorusuymuş. Burada artık renvoi uyguluyoruz. Çünkü taraflar bir hukuk seçmemişler ve somut
olayda evlenme zamanındaki common nationality veya evlenme anındaki common habitual residence’ın
yurtdışında olması ve bunlardan birinin uygulanacağını bulmuşsak renvoi uygulama bulacaktır. Ama adım adım
gitmişiz, bunlar uygulanamamış ve son adım olan Türk hukukunun uygulanacağını bulmuşsak artık renvoi
uygulanmaz(Objective connecting factor: law-maker designs which law is applied. Subjective connecting factor:
law-makers live it to the parties).
 Liquidation of assets(malların tasfiyesi): Liquidation of assets is solved under the scope of matrimonial
property rule. But law-makers brings a specific rule for liquidation of immovable properties. Art 15(2) says; “(2)
In case of liquidation of property, the immovable are governed by the state law which they are located in.”
Malların tasfiyesinde, taşınmazlar için bulundukları ülke hukuku uygulanır. So liquidation of immovable property
is governed by the law of lex rei sitae, in other words, where the property is situated. For example, parties choose
Netherlands law for matrimonial property, but one of their real property is in NY. All liquidation of assets issues
governed by Netherlands law, but we apply US law for liquidation of real property. Malların tasfiyesi kural olarak
mal rejiminin tabi olduğu hukuka göre yapılır. Ama egemenlik ilkesi gereğince, taşınmazlara taşınmazın
bulunduğu yer hukukunun uygulanması gerektiği görüşünden hareketle, kanun koyucu taşınmazların tasfiyesinde
o taşınmazın bulunduğu yer hukukunun uygulanacağını öngörmüştür. Haftaya divorce’a geçeriz.
13.03.17
DIVORCE & SEPARATION
 For example a Dutch woman and Turkish man want to get divorced in Istanbul. Which law do we apply? We have
a specific article on divorce and separation: Art 14 of TPIL.
 Art 14 (1) says: “(1) The grounds and provisions for divorce and separation shall be governed by the common
national law of the spouses. If the spouses have different nationalities, the law of the place of their common
habitual residence, in case of absence of such residence, Turkish law shall govern.” As we can see, law-maker
brings a step-by-step solution. Boşanma ve ayrılık sebepleri ve hükümleri, eşlerin müşterek millî hukuka tâbidir.
Tarafların farklı vatandaşlıkta olmaları hâlinde müşterek mutad mesken hukuku, müşterek meskenin bulunmadığı
takdirde Türk hukuku uygulanır.
 Here, renvoi is also applicable. Because it’s a family law matter.
 Art 14 brings rule on the law applicable but it doesn’t say anything about which “time”. Kanun hükmü hangi
hukukun uygulanacağını belirtmekle birlikte hangi zamandaki hukukun uygulanacağını belirtmemiştir. Sözgelimi,
common nationality uygulanır demiş ama boşanma anındaki common nationality mi yoksa başka andaki common
nationality mi uygulanacak açık değildir. So there is a conflict mobile problem and that’s why we apply the
general rule which is Art 3. And according to Art 3, if the connecting factor is nationality or habitual residence,
we take into account the time of the commencement of case.
 Think that a German woman and Turkish man is married. But the Turkish man also has German nationality. They
want to divorce. Which law is applied? Do we accept the guy as German national and apply common nationality
law which is German law? Or do we accept him as Turkish national and apply the law of common habitual
residence and in case of absence Turkish law? This is a big dilemma. Turkish Court of Appeals have different
views on it. In order to solve this issue, we need to look at Art 4 of TPIL. And it says that if a conflict of law rule
is based on nationality and one of the party is holding Turkish nationality, we consider only his/her Turkish
nationality. In this way, we do not apply common nationality aspect for our example. There is also a dissenting
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opinion saying that even though Art 4 is a general rule, Art 14 specifies an exception to Art 4 regarding the
interest of common parties. Türkçe: Art 4 eğer connecting factor vatandaşlık ise, taraflardan birinin birden fazla
vatandaşlığı varsa ve bu vatandaşlıklarından biri Türk ise, Türk vatandaşlığının esas alınacağını söylemektedir.
Yargutay da buradan hareketle Art 14 için böyle bir durumun oluşması halinde kişinin sadece Türk
vatandaşlığının esas alınması gerektiğini söylemektedir. Ama karşı oyun belirttiği üzere Art 14’te tarafların
menfaati gözeltilmekte ve bir ortak hukuk varsa onun uygulanması amaç edilmektedir. Bu bakımdan karşı oy
daha mantıklı gibi duruyor. Soru: Mavi kartlılar nasıl kabul ediliyor? Onları kanunlar ihtilafı bazında yabancı
statüsünde kabul etmemiz lazım.
 Art 14 (2): “(2) The provisions of the first clause shall also govern demands for maintenance between divorced
spouses. This provision also governs in cases of separation and nullity of marriage.” Boşanmadaki nafaka
talepleri hakkında birinci fıkra hükmü uygulanır, bu hüküm ayrılık ve evlenmenin butlanı hâlinde de geçerlidir.
But, there is an international treaty called Hague Convention of 2 October 1973 on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Decisions Relating to Maintenance Obligations. Even though we have a separate article in TPIL
on maintenance(Art 19), this Hague Convention is applied erga omnes which means it’s directly applicable. Bu
anlaşmanın boşanmada aranılan nafakaya uygulanacak hukuk hakkındaki düzenlemesi direkt uygulama bulur
ama zaten bu anlaşma ile MÖHUK 14(2) birbirine paralel olduğundan bir sıkıntı yok. Eğer çelişseydi o vakit bu
uluslararası anlaşmayı uygulayacaktık. Çünkü bu anlaşmanın erga omnes niteliği vardır. Kısaca nafaka için Art
19 değil Art 14(2)’yi uyguluyoruz, dolayısıyla “boşanmada talep edilen nafaka için” Art 14 (2) vasıtasıyla 14 (1)
uygulama bulacaktır -ki dediğimiz üzere Art 14(1) ile Hague Convention birbiriyle zaten uygumludur.
Boşanmadan sonra talep edilen nafakalar için ise Art 19 uygulanacaktır. Nafakada bu konuya geleceğiz.
 Custody: Art 14 (3) states that; “(3) Custody and problems thereof in accordance to divorce is also governed by
the provisions of the first clause.” Boşanma davasındaki velâyet ve velâyete ilişkin sorunlar da birinci fıkra
hükmüne tâbidir. Boşanma davası dışındaki velayete ilişkin sorunlar, kimin velayete tabi olduğu ise bu hükme
tabi değildir.
 Temporary measures: Art 14 (4) says that; “(4) Turkish law shall govern demands for temporary measures.”
Temporary measures on divorce case like temporary maintenance, temporary protection of child issues are
governed by Turkish law. Boşanma davalarında geçici tedbir taleplerine Türk hukuku uygulanır.
 Claiming invalidity: One of the spouse file a divorce case, but the other spouse says our marriage is already
legally invalid. As you can see, there is a preliminary question(önsorun) regarding validity of marriage This is a
technical issue. To have a valid divorce, there must be a valid marriage in the first place. In order to put a
preliminary question problem in Private International Law area, there are 3 conditions: 1. The main issue(in our
case, divorce) must governed by a foreign law, 2. There must be a subsidiary question(in our case, it’s invalidity
of marriage) involving a foreign element, and the conflict of law rule which is applied to that subsidiary issue
must be different from main issue, 3. This conflict of law rules should lead a conclusion different from that which
would have been reach when we are applying main question. In other words, the law applicable to the main issue
and subsidiary issue must be different from each other.
 How do we sole preliminary question issue? There are different approaches. The first approach says that, in order
to solve preliminary question, we should apply lex fori’s conflict of law rules. The second approach claims that
applicable law to the main question, in other words lex causae’s conflict of law rules must be applied to
preliminary question. In practice, Turkish judges prefer the first approach. But we need to look at case by case to
provide fairness of PIL. Yani 3 şart oluştu, bir önsorun var. Bu önsorunu hangi hukuka göre çözeceğiz? Birinci
görüşe göre bu dava Türkiye’de görülüyorsa, Türk hukukuna göre çözülmelidir. Pratikte de bu tercih ediliyor.
Diğer görüşe göre ise boşanmaya uygulanacak hukuku bulalım ve bu hukukun kanunlar ihtilafı kuralları
evlenmenin geçerliliği hakkında ne diyorsa onu uygulayalım diyorlar. Ama bunlar teorik tartışmalar. Bizim için
önsorun halinde önemli olan nokta mahkemenin yetkisi yani usul meselesi. Örneğin Sulh Hukuk Mahkemesi’nda
mirasçılık davası görünüyorken, birisi kadın mirasçı olamaz evlilik geçerli değildir diyor. Sulh Hukuk
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Mahkemesi evliliğin geçerliliği konusunda görevli değildir, Asliye Hukuk Mahkemesi veya Aile Mahkemesi’nde
bu husus çözülene kadar Sulh Hukuk Mahkemesi bekletici mesele yapmalıdır.
 Art 14 is not only applied for ground and reasoning of divorce, but also effect or consequences of divorce as well.
Such as maintenance, damages for suffering, custody, paying for damage, surname etc. Art 14 sadece boşanma
sebeplerini değil boşanmanın hüküm ve sonuçlarına da uygulanır. Manevi tazminat, boşanmada eşlerin soyadı
değişimi, nafaka, çocukların velayeti gibi konularda da boşanmaya uygulanacak olan hukuk uygulanır.
 And never forget that if the concrete result of applicable law is manifestly contrary to Turkish public policy, we
cannot apply foreign law(Art 5). For example, Vatican and Philippines has a rule on prohibition of divorce.
Suppose that, a Philippine woman and Turkish man’s habitual residence is in Philippines. They want to divorce in
Turkey. Because of there is not any common nationality, Turkish judge will apply the law of common habitual
residence, which is Philippine law. And according to that law, they can not divorce. So, it’s manifestly against
Turkish public policy because it’s incompatible with human rights.
PARENTAGE(DESCENT, NESEP, SOYBAĞI)
 For example a Turkish guy wants to establish parentage with his child, bu the other party is foreigner, so there’s a
foreign element.
 Parentage means child’s legal connection with his mother or father.
 If a woman and a man has a child our-of-wedlock, and if they get married, parentage is established. Apart from
that, parentage can be established by parentage case. This is Turkish law system. But countries may have different
laws. For example in France, mother should recognize her child in order to establish parentage. However, in
Turkey parentage of mother is established by born.
 How we gonna determine the tie between child and mother/father? There is a specific article in TPIL which is Art
16 and this article regulates establishment and annulment of parentage. And, Art 17 regulates
effects/consequences of parentage.
 There are also international treaties for establishment of descent. If there is an international treaty, we cannot
apply TPIL, as Art 1 of TPIL provided.
a. Establishment of Parentage
 Art 16 brings a step-by-step system and seeks for the best interest of child. This article brings 5 different
connecting factors. Öyle ya da böyle çocuğun soybağının kurulması hedeflenmiş.
 Art 16 (1): “(1) The establishment of parentage is subject to the national law of the child at the time of birth, if
not established then to the law of his habitual residence. If the parentage can not be established pursuant to these
laws, the national law of the mother or father at the time of birth of child, and if it is not established then the law
of common habitual residence of parents and if it is still not established the law of place of birth of child shall
govern the establishment of parentage.” Soybağının kuruluşu, çocuğun 1. doğum anındaki millî hukukuna, buna
göre kurulamaması hâlinde 2. çocuğun -davanın açıldığı andaki(kanun hükmünde bu ibare yer almasa da Art 3
gereği davanın açıldığı andaki diyoruz)- mutad meskeni hukukuna tâbidir. Soybağı bu hukuklara göre
kurulamıyorsa, 3. ananın veya babanın, çocuğun doğumu anındaki millî hukuklarına, bunlara göre kurulamaması
hâlinde 4. ana ve babanın çocuğun doğumu anındaki müşterek mutad mesken hukukuna, buna göre de
kurulamıyorsa 5. çocuğun doğum yeri hukukuna tâbi olarak kurulur.
 Doktrine göre çocuğun yararını en iyi şekilde sağlamak için step-by-step approach yerine alternative approach
uygulanması daha sağlıklıdır. Yani “bu hukuk olmazsa şu hukuk şeklinde” değil de “ya bu hukuk ya da o hukuk”
şeklinde düzenlenmesi gerekirdi.
 When we were explaining renvoi, we said that even though parentage is a personal law issue, we do not apply
renvoi. Because the main aim of this article establishing parentage with the child as soon as possible. Doktrin ve
Yargıtay da bunu savunmaktadır.
 The scope(kapsam) of establishment of parentage includes relationship between mother/father and child, the
conditions of establishment of parentage such as recognition by father, presumptions that establishes parentage
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automatically. Bu konular da Art 16 bağlamında incelenir.
 Only one issue that is related with establishment of parentage is regulated separately: adoption. There is another
specific rule on adoption. Evlat edinmede de suni bir soybağı kurulsa da, soybağının kurulması altında değil,
evlat edinme hükümleri altında düzenlenmiştir.
b. Annulment of Parentage
 Art 16 (2) says that; “(2) Annulment is subject to law which has governed the establishment of parentage.”
Soybağı hangi hukuka göre kurulmuşsa iptali de o hukuka tâbidir.
c. Effects(Consequences) of Parentage
 Art 17 stipulates that; “(1) Effects of parentage are subject to law which has governed the establishment. If there
is a common national law of the father, mother and child, that law shall govern if not, common habitual residence
law shall govern the effects of parentage.” Kanunun sistematiği biraz karışık. Şöyle anlayacağız; Soybağının
kurulmasının hüküm ve sonuçları açısından 1. ana, baba ve çocuğun müşterek millî hukuku bulunuyorsa, o hukuk
uygulanacaktır. Bunun bulunmadığı takdirde 2. müşterek mutad mesken hukuku uygulanır. Bu da yoksa
soybağının hüküm ve sonuçları 3. çocukla ana/baba arasındaki soybağını kuran hukuka tâbidir.
 The scope is whether mother and father can use custody together or not, fulfillment of custody duties, which
surname the child’s gonna use, how assets of child is protected, who’s going to represent child, etc.
15.03.17
ADOPTION
 There are different laws in the other countries for the adoption. Some countries do not even accept adoption at all.
 Adoption is not based on biological relationship. It’s a contractual relationship.
 International adoption is somehow restricted by international treaties and laws. Because, people may adopt
children from another countries to abuse them, unfortunately. Uluslararası evlat edinme yoluyla evlat edinilen
çocukların istismarı yaygın olduğundan ötürü, uluslararası evlat edinme oldukça daraltılmıştır.
 For example, Article 21(b) of the Convention on the Rights of Child says: “Recognize that inter country adoption
may be considered as an alternative means of child’s care, if the child cannot be placed in a foster or and
adoptive family or cannot in any suitable manner cared for in the child’s country of origin.” It says that,
international adoption occurs only if the child cannot be placed in a foster/adoptive family/any other suitable
manner in his/her own country. Turkish Regulation on the Adoption of Minors has the same provision in its
article 1(b). Thus, Turkey has also restriction on international adoption. Türk bir çocuğun uluslarası evlat
edinilmesi de bu nedenle aynı şartlara tabidir.
 Moreover, Article 17 of Adoption Directives(Yönerge) states that at least one of the adoptive parent must know
Turkish if they want to adopt a Turkish child who is over 3 years old. There are also many other conditions for
adoption in Turkish Civil Code.
 Foe example, an American man living in NY wants to adopt a Turkish child who is his grandchild/not grandchild.
How can he do that?
 Adoption is dealt with under Art 18 of TPIL.
a. The Capacity and Conditions
 Art 18 (1): “(1) The relevant national law of each of the parties at the time of an adoption shall govern the legal
capacity and conditions of adoption.” The capacity and conditions to adopt are governed by the national law of
each party at the time of adoption. So if the case is about substantive validity(not formal validity), capacity and
the conditions, then we apply the national law of each parties(adapting person & adapted child) at the time of
adaption. Evlât edinme ehliyeti ve şartları, taraflardan her birinin evlât edinme anındaki millî hukukuna tâbidir.
But as we said, international adoption is a very sensitive issue. That’s why, for the capacity and conditions, we
apply the national law of each parties to both of them. Yani evlat edinme için tarafların hukukunda aranan şartlar
her iki taraf için de uygulanacaktır. Örneğin; bir Amerikalı, Türk çocuğu evlat edinecekse, Amerikan vatandaşının
hem Türk hem de Amerikan hukukuuna evlat edinme için olan şartları karşılaması gerekir. Mesela Amerikan
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hukukunda evlat edinme için yaş sınırı 22 olsun. Türkiye de ise 30’dur. Bu nedenle eğer Amerikan vatandaşı 27
yaşında ise evlat edinme için gerekli şartları sağlayamamış olacaktır. Aynı durum evlat edinilmek istenen çocuk
için de geçerlidir.
 The legitimate parental relationship in adoption is not natural, but contractual.
 The scope of capacity and conditions: Legal capacity to adopt(so we don’t go to Art 9 here, we apply Art 18(1)),
other substantive provisions of adoption like provisions pertaining to the age of the adopted or the adopting
person, the requirement of already having to have or not to have a child, the consent or the hearing of the child or
his or her legal representative, the consent of the spouses of the adopting and the adopted person, the decision of
the judge pursuant to the interest of the adopted minor are issues for adoption. These are the kind of issues that
may arise regarding the capacity and conditions to adopt, and so on.
b. The Form of Adoption
 There is not any specific rule for formation in Art 18. That’s why we have to apply Art 7, which is general rule of
formation. According to Art 7, the LRA(where the legal transaction is done) or the lex causae(applicable law)
should be alternatively applied to the form of adoption.
 For example; an American national adopts a child in at a public notary in NY. As Art 7 provides US law can be
applied for formation, because it’s LRA. And if American law allows adoption of child at public notary, that
adoption formally valid.
c. The Consent of Spouses
 Art 18 (2) says; “(2) The national laws of the spouses shall be jointly applicable to adoption with respect to the
consent to the adoption of the other spouse.” The consent of the other spouse to adopt or to be adopted is
governed by the national laws of the spouses. Evlât edinmeye ve edinilmeye diğer eşin rızası konusunda eşlerin
millî hukukları “birlikte” uygulanır. Rıza için her iki eşin milli hukukunun birlikte onay vermesi aranır.
 Consent is actually related with condition. However, law-maker is regulated it specifically apart from Art 18 (1).
d. The Effects of Adoption
 Art 18(3) of TPIL states that “The effects of adoption shall be governed by the national law of the adopting
person and subject to the law applicable to the general provision of marriage in the case of joint adoption of
spouses.” According to Art 18(3) of the TPIL, the effects of adoption are governed by the national law of the
person adopting, and where the spouses are adopting jointly, by the law applicable to the general provisions of the
marriage. Evlât edinmenin hüküm ve sonuçları evlât edinenin millî hukukuna, eşlerin “birlikte evlât edinmesi”
hâlinde ise evlenmenin genel hükümlerini düzenleyen hukuka(Art 13(2)) tâbidir.
 These are the issues under the scope of this provision: 1. Parentage issues which appears as a result of adoption, 2.
Whether the adopted child still have legal relationship with his/her biological father or mother or not. Biyolojik
anne-baba ile ilişkin devam eder mi, 3. Custody(velayet) rights of adopted child: all the related issues of custody.
Çocuğun velayeti kimde olacak, 4. Whether the child get benefits from inheritance or not, 5. Whether adoption is
an obstacle to marrying with adopting parents, and so on.
 The problems that are related with maintenance(nafaka) shall be governed under 1973 Hague Convention.
Evlatlık, evlat edinene nafaka davası açacak ise burada Hague Convention uygulanır.
 The consequences of adoption in terms of succession, both Art 18(3) and Art 20 will be applied together for
whether the adopted person and adopting person can be heirs with each other. On the other hand, the amount of
the inheritance part is related to Art 20. Evlatlığın mirasçılığı hususunda evlat edinenin milli hukuku(Art 18(3)) +
mirasa uygulanacak hukuk(Art 20) birlikte uygulanır.
 For the prohibition of marriage issue, both Art 18(3) and Art 13 must be applied together. Evlat edinen ve
evlatlığın evlenmesi hususunda da hem Art 18(3) hem de Art 13 birlikte uygulanır.
 There is an essential treaty entitled “Convention of 29 May 1993 on Protection of Children and Co-operation in
Respect of Intercountry Adoption” for procedures regarding international adoption. This treaty only regulates
procedure. It doesn’t reply Art 18(3). Bu anlaşma sadece uluslararası evlat edinmenin usulüne ilişkindir. Art 18’in
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yerine geçmez. Şuna bir açıklık getirelim; bazı uluslararası anlaşmalar esasa ilişkindir ve bu nedenle kanunlar
ihtilafı kuralı yerine geçerler. Usule ilişkin uluslararası anlaşmalar ise esasa ilişkin bir konu içermediğinden usulle
alakalı meselelerde uygulanır.
 Soru: Adoption’a ilişkin meselelerde renvoi uygulanır mı? Evet. Parentage’da uygulanmaz dedik ama
adoption’da uygulanır.
REGIONAL UNITS PROBLEM: ARTICLE 2(5) OF THE TURKISH PIL ACT
 There are some countries that are rules by regional regime like USA, Canada, Brazil, Switzerland and so on. Law
can be different from a region to another region. For example, there are 50 different laws in USA. And in this way,
these laws can regulates issues different from each other So, when we say we apply foreign law to a transaction,
and that foreign law is under a federal state, which of law should we apply?
 Art 2(5) states that where the states whose law shall be applied comprises two or more regional units and has
different legal regimes within these units, the law of the region to be applied shall be determined pursuant to the
laws of that state. Where there are no determining provision in the law of that state, the law of the region most
closely connected with the dispute shall apply. Most closely connected means where the party resides, runs
business etc.
 Konu ne olursa olsun; hukuku uygulanacak devlet iki veya daha çok bölgesel birime ve bu birimler de değişik
hukuk düzenlerine sahipse, hangi bölge hukukunun uygulanacağı o devletin hukukuna göre belirlenir. Ama
uygulamada bu genelde belirlenmez. O devlet hukukunda belirleyici bir hükmün yokluğu hâlinde ihtilâfla en sıkı
ilişkili bölge hukuku uygulanır. Zaten dava açıldığında da taraf Alabama Eyaleti, New York Eyaleti vs diye bunu
gösterir.
INTERNATIONAL CHILD ABDUCTION(ÇOCUK KAÇIRMA) AND THE HAGUE CHILD ABDUCTION
CONVENTION
 The Hague Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction is a multilateral
treaty, which seeks to protect children from the harmful effects of abduction and retention across international
boundaries by providing a procedure to bring about their prompt return.
 Evlilik dahilinde veya boşandıktan sonra eşler çocuklarını çocuğun mutat meskeninden alarak başka ülkeye
kaçırabiliyorlar/alıkoyuyorlar. Biz bu tarz durumlarda medeni hukuk açısından ne olacağını inceliyoruz. Bu
bakımdan 1980 tarihli Özel Hukuk Bağlamında Çocuk Kaçırılmalarına ilişkin Hague Konvensiyonu çocuğun en
hızlı şekilde mutat meskenine dönmesi açısından önem arz etmektedir. Bu nedenle bu konvensiyo bağlamında bir
mekanizma oluşturulmuştur. Aksi takdirde burada dava açılacak, sonra bu karar çocuğun kaçırıldığı ülkede
tanıma ve tenfiz edilecek ve süreç çok uzayacak. Konvensiyon’un tarafı olan ülkelerde, konvensiyonun en hızlı
şekilde uygulanarak çocuğun geri gelişini sağlamak adına “central authorities” kurulmuştur.
a. Scope of Convention
 Art 1: “The objects of the present Convention are, a)to secure the prompt return of children wrongfully removed
to or retained in any Contracting State; and b)to ensure that rights of custody and of access under the law of one
Contracting State are effectively respected in the other Contracting States.”
 Art 4: “The Convention shall apply to any child who has habitually resident in a Contracting State immediately
before any breach of custody or access rights. The Convention shall cease to apply when the child attains the age
of 16 years.”
b. Requirements for the Scope of the Application of the Treaty
 1. Child must be habitually resident in one of the Contracting State. Görüldüğü üzere bu konvensiyon diğer
konvensiyonlardan farklı olarak tarafların milli hukukunu değil, mutat meskenini esas alan bir mekanizma
getirmiştir. Mutat meskenin neresi olduğu iyi araştırılmalıdır. Örneğin; çocuk 10 senedir Türkiye’de yaşıyordur
ama 1 sene önce Fransa’ya okumak için gitmişse artık mutat meskeni Fransa’dır. Önemli olan çocuğun
kaçırışmadan önceki mutat meskeninin neresi olduğudur.
 2. Child must be abducted to any other Contracting State. Çocuk mutat meskeninden başka bir ülkeye hukuka
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aykırı şekilde kaçırılacak. Ve kaçırıldığı ülke bu konvensiyona taraf olacak.
 3. There must be breach of custody rights on the child. The parent who ask for the protection of this Convention
must have custody right on the child. Bu bağlamda kaçıran kişinin çocukla vakit geçirme hakkı olsa da, süreyi
geçirirse ihlal gerçekleşir.
 4. Child must not attain the age of 16. Çocuk 16 yaşına girmemiş olacak. Çocuğun 16 yaşına girip girmediği
hususunda genel olarak application date’deki yaşı esas alınmaktadır.
c. Art 6 - Appointment of Central Authority
 Anlaşmaya taraf olan her devlet bir merkezi makam tayin eder. Türkiye de bu makam Uluslararası Hukuk ve Dış
İlişkiler Genel Müdürlüğü’dür. Bu makam çocuğun bulunması için çocuğun kaçırıldığı yerin Cumhuriyet
Savcılığına görev verir.
 According to the Ministry of Justice Circular Numbered 65/2, The Ministry of Justice(General Directorate for
International Law and Foreign Relations) is the central authority and would fulfill its duty through local public
prosecutors. With respect to the application of the Hague Convention in Turkey, the public prosecutors have a
very important function as being the “sending authority and receiving authority”.
 So the person, who want’s to get his/her child back from Turkey can go to this central authority of Turkey or any
other contracting state’s central authority.
e. Turkey’s Specific Law on Child Abduction
 We have The Law of Legal Aspects and Scope of International Child Abduction and this law regulates principles
and procedure regarding the application of Convention.
d. Defense Against a Child’s Return
 Kaçırılan çocuk bulununca hemen zorla alınıp geri verilmiyor. Çünkü kaçıran tarafın bunu yapmada geçerli bir
nedeni olabilir. Çocuğa fiziksel şiddet uygulanması, çocuğun cinsel istismarı, çocuğun temel hak ve
hürriyetlerinin ihlali vs söz konusu olduğu için çocuğu kaçırmıştır. Kaçıran tarafın bunları iddia ederek çocuğu
return edemiyorum deme hakkı vardır. Bu vakit merkezi makam Aile Mahkemesi’nde dava açarak velayeti olan
taraf ve kaçıran taraf da davaya dahil olur. Aile Mahkemesi iddiaların doğruluğunu inceler. Karine: Çocuk mutat
meskeninin olduğu yere geri gönderilir. Ama bu karineye karşı konvensiyonun 13. ve 20. maddelerinde hangi
savunmaların yapılabileceği düzenlenmektedir.
 Art 13’e göre ilk defense: Permission of the parent. Çocuğun götürülmesine izin verildiği savunması.
 İkinci defense: Risk that his/her return would expose the child physical or psychological harm. Çocuğun mutat
meskenine döndürülmesi halinde fiziksel veya psikolojik şiddete maruz kalması ihtimali. Ama bir kararda geri
götürülmek istenen ülkede iç karışıklığın olması defense kapsamında değerlendirilmemiştir.
 Üçüncü defese: Child’s object to return. Çocuğun geri dönmek istememesi de bir diğer defense’dir. Bunun için
çocuğun bu beyanda bulunabilecek kadar ayırt etme gücü sahibi olması ve psikolojik baskı altına olmaması
gerekir. Bu nednele davada çocuğun bu beyanını isteyerek söyleyip söylemediğini anlamak için psikologlar
bulundurulur.
 Lastly, Art 20 says that if the returning country is violating human rights and fundamental rights, then child
cannot return.
 Also, Turkish judge must look at the age of child if he/she above 16 at the date of application.
 Art 12 says if the application is made after 1 year of abduction, at that time the other parent show that child is
already settled in that country, then child cannot return.
 Örnek verelim: Mutat meskeni Türkiye’de olan bir çocuk Fransız annesi tarafından Fransa’ya kaçırılıyor ve orada
alıkoyuluyor. Türk baba bu durumda o bölgedeki Savcılığa başvurur, Savcılık durumu merkezi makama iletir.
Dosya buradan Fransa’daki merkezi makama gider. Fransa’daki makam çocuğu ve anneyi arar. Buldukları zaman
anneye çocuğunu geri vermesi gerektiği, çünkü çocuğun mutat meskeninin Türkiye’de olduğu anlatılır. Anne
bunu kabul etmezse, Fransız makam anneye karşı dava açar. Türk baba da davacı olarak davaya katılır. Fransız
anne çocuğun mutat meskenine geri götürülmesi karinesini çürütmek için konvensiyonun 13. ve 20. maddelerinde
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yer alan savunmalardan birini ispat etmelidir. Bununla birlikte özel bir savunma hakkı daha tanınmaktadır. Eğer
çocuk alıkonulduktan itibaren 1 yıl sonra Türk baba başvuru yapmışsa, Fransız anne çocuğun yaşamını artık
Fransa’da sürdürdüğünü ispat ederse, çocuk geri verilmez.
 Örnekte yabancı bir ülkeye kaçırma halini gördük ama çocuğun Türkiye’ye kaçırılması da söz konusu olabilir. Bu
halde çocuğun rızaen geri verilmemesi rızaen geri verilmemesi durumunda Aile Mahkemeleri görevlidir.
 Türkiye’ye kaçırılan çocuğun geri verilmesi kararı çıkarsa bu nasıl icra edilir? The execution of the judgment for
the child’s return is regulated under Art 25 of the Execution and Bankruptcy Law. İİK 25 uyarınca ilamlı icra
yoluyla çocuğun geri verilmesi sağlanır.
 We also have Art 234 of Turkish Penal Code for the abduction of child. Yani olayın ceza hukuku boyutu da vardır.
 When the parent applies for abduction of the child, other parent who abducted the child may also file a divorce
and custody case in that state. In this time, if the custody case is filed after abduction, the case is stopped until the
abduction procedure under Hague Convention is done.
27.03.17
MAINTENANCE(NAFAKA)
a. General Knowledge
 Maintenance -> within marriage, after marriage(divorce/annulment), maintenance to some relatives.
 During the marriage, the party who is not fulfilling his/her obligations should provide maintenance to the other
party and any mutual child. Other types of maintenance that may be ordered after divorce include contribution
and welfare maintenance.
 A Turkish man has married with a Turkish woman. They were living in Germany. He has left the home and came
Antalya. Other spouse filed a case in Antalya. According to which law does he pay alimony? OR they were
divorced and he came to Turkey. Which law covers alimony after marriage?
 The maintenance rendered at the end of a marriage is divided into two sections: 1. welfare maintenance
(divorcing spouses’ maintenance responsibility to each other - yoksulluk nafakası) and 2. child maintenance
(responsibility to contribute to the care of the children of the marriage - iştirak nafakası).
 There are some other maintenance types as well. Bir çok nafaka türü var; yoksulluk, aile içi yardım, kardeşlere
yardım vs.
 For example, a German woman came to Turkey and file a maintenance case against her sibling who has a Turkish
and German nationalities. Which law is applied?
 Disputes relating to maintenance obligations are mainly governed by the Hague Conventions. Indeed, Turkey has
ratified the Hague Convention of 1956 on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations towards Children as
well as of 1973 on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations. This 1973 Hague Convention is the most
important one. It covers all types of maintenance, including child maintenance.
 Article 1 of the TPIL stipulates that international agreements to which Turkey is a party are reserved and thus
have precedence over the Turkish conflict of law rules. Thus, Turkish conflict of law rules pertaining to
maintenance shall be applicable only maintenance claims falling outside the scope of these conventions!!! 1973
Hague Konvensiyonu dahilinde olan bir nafaka konusu varsa artık TPIL uygulanmaz. 1973 Hague Konvensiyonu
renvoinin uygulanmayacağını belirtmiştir.
 At the outset, it should be noted that there are various international treaties on maintenance that Turkey ratified
have different subject matters, purposes and scope. In other words, some of them are regarding recognition and
enforcement: For example recognizing and enforcing a German court decision regarding maintenance. So, if the
issue is about recognizing and enforcement, we apply these treaties as Art 1 of TPIL regarding. Some of them are
regarding applicable law on maintenance: We explain today. And some of them are about recovery of
maintenance: There is already a maintenance decision but the issue is obtaining maintenance from the debtor who
has left Turkey.
 Thus, practitioners must categorize the issue, apply the possible international treaty. Do not CONFUSE! You have
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to know the scope of the treaty. For example, 1956 Convention on the Recovery Abroad Maintenance, New York
Convention: This is about recovery(tahsilat). But it is not erga omnes. Parties may go other way around.
Convention Concerning the Recognition and Enforcement of Decisions Relating to Maintenance towards Minors,
Convention Concerning the Recognition and Enforcement of Decisions Relating to Maintenance toward
Obligations: These are regarding recognition and enforcement.
 Under TPIL Act, maintenance is regulated under three different provisions:
 1. Art 19 of the PIL regulates the general rule on the subject as the law of the habitual residence of the party
entitled to maintenance without making a differentiation between maintenance obligations arising from different
relationships. It states that “(1) Claims to maintenance shall be governed by the law of the habitual residence of
the creditor.” Nafaka talepleri, nafaka alacaklısının mutad meskeni hukukuna tâbidir. Bütün nafaka
taleplerini(relatives, within marriage, child) karşılayacak şekilde düzenlenmiş bir maddedir. After marriage -> Art
14, and we said Art 14 is in line with 1973 Hague Convention.
 2. Whereas maintenance between divorced spouses are subject to the provision regulating grounds for and effects
of divorce and separation(Article 14, para. 2). The relevant provisions of Article 14 provides that “(2) The
provisions of the first subparagraph shall apply to alimony claims between divorced spouses. This provision shall
be apply regarding separation and void marriages too.” Boşanmış eşler arasındaki nafaka talepleri hakkında
birinci fıkra hükmü uygulanır. Bu hüküm ayrılık ve evlenmenin butlanı halinde de geçerlidir. So we apply Art 14
(2) for welfare maintenance regarding after marriage. So which law do we apply? It refer us to Art 14 (1). And
according to Art 14 (1); the latter provides for the application of 1. the law of the state of which both spouses are
common nationals. However, if the spouses have different nationalities, 2. law of the common place of habitual
residence of the spouses, or failing that 3.Turkish law shall be applicable. Art 14 (2) (and in this way Art 14, para.
1) in line with 1973 Hague Convention. So there will be no problem when judge’s applying it. BUT, suppose that
the spouse asked for child maintenance after divorce. Art 14 (2) does not cover this one. We apply 1973 Hague
Convention for the child. Yani, boşanmadan sonraki yoksulluk nafakasına boşanmaya uygulanan hukuk uygulanır.
Ama boşanmadan sonra çocuk için ödenecek olan nafakaya 1973 Hague Konvensiyon uygulanır. Bun da hüküm
yoksa Art 19 of TPIL uygulama bulur.
 3. Lastly, alimony pendente lite(geçici tedbir talebi) is subject to application of Turkish Law. Art 14 (4) says that;
“(4) Turkish Law shall apply to claims on provisional measures.” Geçici tedbir taleplerine Türk hukuku
uygulanır. Fakat, bu maddenin varlığına rağmen, geçici tedbir taleplerinde de ilk etapta 1973 Hague
Konvensiyonu uygulanmalıdır.
b. Convention on The Law of Applicable Maintenance Obligations: Scope
 There are about 12 states who signed and ratified that treaty. This is not a recognition and enforcement treaty.
This convention shows the applicable law for maintenance.
 Art 1: “This Convention shall apply to maintenance obligations arising from family relationship parentage(kayın
hısımlığı-sıhri hısımlık), marriage or affinity, including a maintenance obligation in respect of child who is not
legitimate.”
 Art 2: “This Convention shall govern only conflicts of laws in respect of maintenance obligations. Decisions
rendered in application of this Convention shall be without prejudice to the existence of any of the relationships
referred to in Article 1.”
 Art 3: (Ioi uniform application, universal effect, erga omnes) “The law designated by this Convention shall apply
irrespective of any requirement of reciprocity and whether or not it is the law of a Contracting State.” Even
though contracting state’s judge finds out that the state which has the law applicable to the conflict is not a
contracting state of the treaty, he/she has to apply 1973 Hague Convention. Because the treaty has a erga omnes
character. Türk hakimi söz konusu ihtilafa Konvensiyonu uyguladığında, bu Konvensiyona taraf olmayan bir
ülkenin hukukunun uygulanacağını bulmuşsa, maddede karşılıklılık aranmadığı için o ülkenin hukuku söz konusu
olay için uygulanacaktır.
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 Ve renvoi uygulanması söz konusu değildir. Renvoi is not accepted in this treaty, so when the treaty shows this
state’s law is applied, that state’s substantive law governs the issue.
 This treaty grants “a sequential conflict of law rules(step-by-step approach)” through Article 4, 5 and 6: 1. the
laws of the creditor’s habitual residence(Art 4), or 2. the common national law of the debtor and creditor(Art 5),
or 3. the law of the forum(lex fori)
 Art 4: “(1) The internal law of the habitual residence of the maintenance creditor shall govern the maintenance
obligations referred to in Art 1. (2) In the case of a change in the habitual residence of the creditor, the internal
law of the new habitual residence shall apply as from the moment when change occurs.” For example a German
woman asks for maintenance within marriage/ or ask for child support within or after marriage against his
husband who escaped to Turkey. She need to file the case in Turkey. Suppose that there is not a chance to get
maintenance through creditor’s habitual residence(Creditor sanırım German woman). At that time we go to Art 5.
 Art 5: “If the creditor is unable, by the virtue of the law referred to in Article 4, to obtain maintenance from the
debtor, the law of their common nationality shall apply.” If the creditor’s habitual residence law didn’t allow to
get maintenance, at that time common nationality law is applied. If it’s still not possible, we apply Art 6.
 Art 6: “If the creditor is unable, by the virtue of the law referred to in Article 4 and 5, to obtain maintenance from
the debtor, the internal law of the authority seised shall apply.” It says lex fori-the law of the forum is applied. In
other words: where you file the case.
 1973 Hague Convention covers temporary measures too. So we apply Art 4,5 and 6 for temporary measure as
well. Bu konvensiyon geçici tedbir niteliğinde talep edilen nafakaları da kapsar. Bu nedenle geçici nafaka
taleplerini düzenleyen MÖHUK 14/4 hükmünün uygulanmaması gerekir ki bu hüküm Konvensiyon
düzenlemesiyl zaten çelişmektedir.
 1973 Konvensiyonu ilk etapta nafaka alacaklısının mutat meskeni uygulanır diyor(Buraya kadar MÖHUK 19 ile
benzer. Ama MÖHUK bundan sonrasını düzenlemiyor). Buna göre nafaka alınamazsa nafaka alacaklısı ve
borçlusunun ortak milli hukuku ve buna göre de alınamıyorsa nafaka alacağının talep edildiği yer
hukuku(substantive) uygulanır diyor.
 The amount of the maintenance does not matter.
 Art 8: “Notwithstanding the provisions of Articles 4 to 6, the law applied to a divorce shall, in a Contracting
State in which the divorce is granted or recognised, govern the maintenance obligations between the divorced
spouses and the revision of decisions relating to these obligations. The preceding paragraph shall apply also in
the case of a legal separation and in the case of a marriage which has been declared void or annulled.” If the
maintenance is asked with or after divorce/void of marriage/separation, the law applied to divorce is also applied
for maintenance. It’s same with Art 14 of TPIL. Suppose that German woman ask for welfare maintanence with
or after marriage. We gonna apply Art 8.
 But for CHILD, we gonna apply Art 4,5 and 6! Boşanmış eşler için ya da boşanma, ayrılık, evliliğin iptali ve
butlanı hallerinde istenen nafakaya, bunlara uygulanan hukuk uygulanır. Çocukla ilgili nafakaları düzenleyen
1956 Konvensiyonu olmasına rağmen 1973 Konvensiyonu uygulanmaktadır, çünkü 3 devlet dışında bütün
devletler 1973 Konvensiyonu’na üyedir ve zaten Konvensiyon da bu Konvensiyon hükümleri 1956
Konvensiyonu yerine uygulanır demektedir. Böyle demeseydi bile 1969 Vienna anlaşması gereğince 1973
Konvensiyonu uygulanır diyecektik.
 Art 10: “The law applicable to a maintenance obligation shall determine inter alia - (1) whether, to what extent
and from whom a creditor may claim maintenance; (2) who is entitled to institute maintenance proceedings and
the time limits for their institution; (3) the extent of the obligation of a maintenance debtor, where a public body
seeks reimbursement of benefits provided for a creditor.” This article regulates the “scope” of maintenance: 1.
alacaklının ne ölçüde(what extent) ve kimden(from whom) nafaka talep edebileceği; 2. nafaka davasını açmaya
kimin ehil olduğu(who is entitled) ve davanın hangi süreler(the time limits) içinde açılabileceği; 3. alacaklıya
nafaka ödeyen kamu kuruluşu yaptığı edaların iadesini isterse, borçlunun yükümlülük sınırlarının neler olacağı.
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 Art 11: “The application of the law designated by this Convention may be refused only if it is manifestly
incompatible with public policy(order public). However even if the applicable law provides otherwise, the needs
of the creditor and the resources of the debtor shall be taken into account in determining the amount of
maintenance.” When we look at international treaties regarding conflict of law rules, they all have public policy
provision. Sözleşmenin tayin ettiği kanunun uygulanmasından, ancak, kanun kamu düzeniyle açıkça
bağdaşmıyorsa vazgeçilebilir. Diyelim ki nafaka alacaklısının mutat mesken hukukunu nafakaya uyguladığımızda
ayrımcılık olacak. Bu halde ikinci ve üçüncü step’e geçilir. Bunlar da aykırı ise Art 11 gereği Türk hukuku
uygulanır. Anlaşmada kamu düzeni hükmüne yer vermeseydi, sözleşmenin erga omnes niteliğinden ötürü kamu
düzeni kıstasını uygulamamız biraz zor olabilirdi. Çok düşük miktarda nafakalar da kamu düzenine aykırı
sayılabilir mi? Evet ama bu sefer karşı görüş biz miktarın çok küçük olduğunu düşünmüyoruz, somut vakıa
önemlidir, anlaşmanın amacı ortak bir fairness sağlamaktır, bu nedenle kamu düzenine aykırılık yoktur diyecektir.
Bununla beraber aslında Art 11 (2), hangi hukuk uygulanırsa uygulansın, nafaka borcunun miktarının
saptanmasında, alacaklının ihtiyaçları ve borçlunun geliri göz önünde bulundurulur demektedir. Whichever law is
applied, judge must taken into account both sides’ sociological and economical situations. But this paragraph is
never applied in practice. Because main purpose of convention outweighs this paragraph, as Art 31, 32, and 33 of
1969 Vienna Convention on interpretation of agreements also promotes. Yani 11/2 ile belki düşük veya çok
yüksek miktardaki nafakaların kamu düzenine aykırılığı analiz edilebilse de, 1969 Vienna Konvensiyonu’nun
anlaşmaların yorumlanmasına dair 31, 32 ve 33. maddeleri gereği, tarihsel, amaçsal vs gibi verbal interpretation
denilen kurallar hakim geldiği için kamu düzenine aykırılık iddiası çürütülecektir.
 Bu arada nafaka miktarı değişiklikleri, nafakanın sona erdirilmesi halleri de 1973 Hague Konvensiyonun scope’u
içerisine dahildir.
c. Reservations: Very Important
 If a county put a reservation to some article, that articles will not be effective for that country, even though the
convention has erga omnes effect. Because the convention allows putting reservation through Art 14. Turkey put
some reservation on this convention in this sense. Türkiye çekince koyduğu için zaten bazı hallerde
Konvensiyon’u değil MÖHUK 19’u uyguluyayabiliyoruz. Türkiye’nin çekince koyduğu hükümlere bakalım
 Art 14: “Any contracting State may, in accordance with Art 24, reserve the right not to apply this Convention to
maintenance obligations: (1) between persons related collaterally* (2) between persons related by affinity* (3)
between divorced or legally separated spouses whose marriage has been declared void or annulled if the decree
if divorce, legal separation, nullity or annulment has been rendered by default in a State in which the defaulting
party did not have his habitual residence.” Her sözleşmenin tarafı olan devlet, 24 üncü maddeye uygun olarak
sözleşmeyi: 1. civar(yan) hısımlar arasındaki; 2. sıhrî hısımlar arasındaki ; 3. boşanma, ayrılma , evliliğin iptali
veya butlanı kararı gaip tarafın mutad olarak oturmadığı bir Devlette gıyapta verilmişse, boşanmış, ayrılmış veya
evliliklerinin iptaline veya butlanına karar verilmiş karı kocalar arasındaki nafaka yükümlülük1erine
uygulamamak hakkını saklı tutabilir. Turkey put reservation to 1. and 2. paragraph. Türkiye yan hısımlar(between
persons related collaterally) ve sıhri hısımlar(between persons related by affinity) için çekince koymuştur. Yan
hısımlar ve sıhri hısımlarda 1973 Hague Konvensiyonu UYGULANMAZ, MÖHUK 19 uygulanır. If a German
woman goes to Turkish court to get maintenance from her brother, we DO NOT apply 1973 Hague Convention.
Because of there is a foreign element, we apply Art 19 of TPIL!
 Art 15: “Any Contracting State may, in accordance with Art 24, make a reservation to the effect that its
authorities shall apply its internal law if the creditor and the debtor are both nationals that State and if the debtor
has his habitual residence there.” It is not a reservation article in a sense. It says if creditor and debtor are
Turkish(başka ülkenin ortak common nationality’si girmez) nationals, and if debtor’s habitual residence is in
Turkey, we apply Turkish law. If parties have mutual common nationalities, Art 4 of TPIL is based on, so Turkish
nationality is taken into account. Her sözleşme tarafı devlet, alacaklı ve borçlu bu Devletin vatandaşı iseler ve
borçlunun mutad olarak oturduğu yer bu Devlette bulunuyorsa, mercilerinin kendi iç kanununu uygulayacaklarını
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belirten bir ihtirazi kaydı, 24 üncü maddeye uygun olarak dermeyan edebilir.
d. How Turkish Judge Apply this Convention?
 After considering the reservation that Turkey made, the judge must answer two questions when she/he was
dealing with maintenance case that foreign element:
 1. Whether the parties in this case have close contact with Turkey (Art 15 of the 1973 Hague Treaty): So Turkish
judge firstly will ask for whether debtor or creditor have a close connection with Turkey to use Art 15. Turkish
substantive law(Turkish Civil Code) shall be applicable law if the creditor and the debtor are both nationals of
that State(Turkey) and if the debtor has his habitual residence there, as we accepted Art 15!
 2. Whether the maintenance claim is related with welfare maintenance for divorce (Art 8) or other maintenance
obligations arising from a family relations (Article 4-6): So if the maintenance claim is related with welfare
maintenance(yoksulluk, yardım nafakası) for divorce, we apply Art 8. And if there is other maintenance
obligations arising from a family relations, we apply Art 4-6.
29.03.17
PROPERTY RIGHTS
a. Case Study
 Turkish Company bought technological devices from UK Company and the contract was executed in London and
the devices are not delivered to Turkey. So Turkish company does not have any possession. Which law is applied
to the transfer of ownership for the property? Think about the opposite way: seller is a Turkish company, and the
buyer is an UK Company. The goods are not delivered yet and the goods are in France. And there is a problem
occurred for the transfer of ownership. According to the which law do we solve it?
 Tony, French national stole an antique vase from the French Church in Paris and sold the vase to Ayşegül who is
Turkish national and she didn’t know that the vase stolen from the church. One month later, Ayşegül came to
Turkey and when she was trying to sell this vase in the Grand Bazaar, Istanbul, person who is the representative
of Church filed an action for recovery of property(Rei vindicatio-istihkak davası) case in Istanbul Court. Which
law shall be applicable?
 In Istanbul Court, the judge was dealing a case whether the ownership of the ship name Moron that is registered
in Italy transfer to Turkish company or not. Which law shall be applicable?
 Possession: zilyetlik. Passing of the title: mülkiyetin geçmesi
b. Art 21 of TPIL: Real Rights
 If the transaction has a foreign element and the issue is about transfer of ownership or real rights, Art 21 is
applied. Art 21 provides that: “(1) The rights of ownership on movable(taşınır) and immovable(taşınmaz)
property and other real rights shall be governed by the law of the country where the property is situated at the
time of transaction. (2) The law of destination shall apply to real rights in goods in transit. (3) Where there is a
change of place, real rights which have not been acquired shall be governed by the law of the country where the
property is finally situated. (4) The form of legal transactions concerning rights in rem to immovable property
shall be governed by the law of the state where the immovable property is located.”
 So the general rule for ownership or real rights on movable or immovable properties is lex rei sitae, which means
where the property is situated. Taşınırlar ve taşınmazlar üzerindeki mülkiyet hakkı ve diğer aynî haklar, işlem
anında malların bulunduğu ülke hukukuna tâbidir. Lex rei sitae is the general accepted law for immovable
properties all around the world. Taşınmazlarda taşınmazın bulunduğu ülke hukukunun uygulanması tüm ülkelerde
kesin kuraldır. Bu egemenlik haklarından ileri gelmektedir. Taşınırlarda genellikle bu kabul edilmekle beraber,
farklı uygulamalar olabilmektedir.
 Üçüncü kişilere verilen sınırlı ayni haklar(üst, sükna vs) bakımından da yabancılık unsuru olması lex rei sitae’nin
uygulanmasına engel değildir.
 Taşınmakta olan mallar üzerindeki aynî haklara varma yeri hukuku uygulanır.
 Yer değişikliği hâlinde henüz kazanılmamış aynî haklar malın son bulunduğu ülke hukukuna tâbidir.
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 Taşınmazlar üzerindeki aynî haklara ilişkin hukukî işlemlere şekil yönünden bu malların bulundukları ülke
hukuku uygulanır.
c. Connecting Factors: Lex Rei Sitae or Party Autonomy
 Real rights on property are subject to the law of the place where they are located(lex rei sitae).
 It is a common connecting factor utilized in almost every PIL rules in the world since it is practical, provides
legal security and protect third party’s rights, and it shows the de facto control over property (actual possession of
real property).
 For the movables,there are other connecting factors that are utilized. For example, the law of domicile of the
concerned person governed movables pursuant to the principle of “mobilia personam sequuntur”.
 Right now, TPIL and legal doctrine do not accept party autonomy (choice of law) in the area of property law.
 Avrupa’da ve uluslararası hukukta irade muhtariyeti hem eşya hem aile hukukunda ön plana çıkmakla beraber
Türkiye’de eşya hukukunda tarafların iradesi kabul edilmemektedir.
d. The Scope of LRS
 It is worthwhile to note that LRS rule shall apply to the acquisition of ownership and other real rights on movable
and immovable property. Sınavda gelebilir.
 The component of a real right are determined pursuant to LRS. The concept of “property”, the identification of
the types of property such as movables-immovables, the nature and scope of the right on property and its
availability to be asserted against everyone are subject to the LRS. So if there is a problem regarding whether a
right can be claimed against a 3rd person or everybody, is governed under LRS.
 The scope of real rights is subject to LRS. The scope of ownership of immovable property is determined pursuant
to the LRS.
 So, which other subjects are in the scope of LRS? The acquisition of ownership of immovable property by
registration or without registration, limited real rights(sınırlı ayni hak), possession in movable or immovable
property, adverse possession/acquisitive prescription(usucapare-yasal nedene dayanmayan fiili zilyetlik), delivery
of ownership in movables without delivery of possession(taşınırlarda zilyetliğin devriyle ve bunun dışındaki
yollarla mülkiyetin intikali), the retention of title(mülkiyeti muhafaza kaydı-ROT clause) are within the scope of
the LRS.
 A retention of title (ROT) clause is a provision in a contract for the sale of goods which means that the retains
legal ownership of the goods until certain obligations are fulfilled by the buyer - usually payment of the purchase
price.
 Moreover, the LRS governs whether the transaction which grants a real right on property has a valid cause or not.
e. Law Applicable to Immovable Property
 The general rule governing real or immovable property is that such property subject to the law of the place within
which it is situated. Therefore, the LRS, the law of the place where it’s situated. Mülkiyet ve ayni haklar
bakımından taşınmazın bulunduğu yer hukuku uygulanır.
 This universal rule includes all rules which govern the issues regarding real property.
 Zaten taşınmazın aynına ilişkin davalarda HMK 12’nin münhasır yetkili olduğunu ve egemenlik hakkından ötürü
yabancı unsurlu davalarda da HMK 12’nin münhasırlık özelliğinin devam ettiğini söylemiştik.
f. Law Applicable to Movable Property
 Movables include all things, tangible or intangible, that are not immovable. A state has absolute authority over
personal or movable property within its borders. The state has right to regulate the transfer of such movable
property and only in instances where the state allows can such property be affected by the law of any others.
 As Art 21 states, general rule: where the movable property is when the transaction is done, that place’s law
governs the issue.
 However, there are various systems that are utilized in the world for the transfer of ownership of movable
property in particular “the conclusion of contracts”, or “the delivery of possession(zilyetliğin devri)”. In our law
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system, Switzerland and many other countries have accepted delivery of possession for the transfer of ownership.
But some other countries accept the conclusion of contracts.
 Turkish company&UK company-tech devices örneği: According to UK Law, the transfer of ownership is passed
when the contract is concluded. So if we apply UK Law, Turkish company will be ownership without passing of
possession. Ama Türk Hukuku uygulanırsa mutlaka zilyetliğin geçmesi ile mülkiyet geçecektir.
f.1. The Effect of Change in Status on the Ownership of Movable Property
 The relationship between change in status and the LRS constitute a problem with regard to movables.
 The law of the place where the property is located is applied to the rights on movables, but the movables may be
transferred from one place to another in which case the LRS changes as well.
 Thus, for the movable property there should be different application for the LRS in terms of whether the
transaction completed or not. İşlemin tamamlanmış olup olmaması önemli.
f.1.a. Completed Transaction
 If movable property is transferred from one place to another after a real right or burden is established or
terminated thereon, the legal status of that property remains. Because, when the transaction is completed, at the
time of the transaction where the property is situated, that law is going to be applied.
 For example, Turkish buyer bought movable products from UK seller. If the who has the title of that product
question is raised, we gonna apply Art 21 and we have to look at whether the real right transaction is completed
right. If the seller and buyer executed the contract in UK, and the sale transaction is concluded in UK, and the real
property transaction is concluded there, at that time where if movable property is situated where the transaction is
concluded, that place’s law is applied according to Art 21. And according to UK substantive law(no renvoi), title
is passed when parties make the contract.
 If a movable is transferred from country A where adverse possession is three years, to country B where this period
is five years, after the conditions for such acquisition required by the law if country A are fulfilled, the ownership
is regarded as already acquired in country A.
 X kişisi bir malın fiili zilyedi diyelim. X’in bulundfuğu A ülkesinin hukukuna göre 3 yıllık fiili zilyetlikten sonra
mülkiyet kazanılıyor. 3 yılın sonunda mal Türkiye’ye geldi ve burada 5 yıl sonunda mülkiyet kazanılıyor. Bu
malın mülkiyetinin kazanılıp kazanılmadığı hususunda MÖHUK 21’i uygulayacağız. İlk olarak o işlem
tamamlanmış mı ona bakıyoruz. A ülkesinde 3 yıl geçmiş, işlem tamamlanmış. Tamamlandığı zaman hangi ülke
hukuku uygulanıyorsa o ülke hukukuna göre kişi mülkiyeti kazanır.
 İngiliz ve Fransız hukukunda taşınırın mülkiyeti sözleşme yapıldığı zaman geçer. Bu açıdan sözleşme İngiltere’de
yapılmış ise artık İngiliz hukukuna göre işlem tamamlandığı için(LRS uygulandığından) İngiliz hukukuna göre
mülkiyet karşı tarafa geçmiştir.
 E.g. Overseas sale contract!
 Thus, the new LRS may not change the legal status of movable property which has been acquired pursuant to the
previous LRS.
f.1.b. Incomplete Transaction
 Article 21 (3) states that “Where there is a change of place, real rights which have not been acquired yet shall be
governed by the law of the country where the property is finally situated.” Yer değişikliği hâlinde henüz
kazanılmamış aynî haklar malın son bulunduğu ülke hukukuna tâbidir.
 The new LRS governs where the movable is transferred to another country before the transaction which grants or
terminates a real right on that movable is completed.
 E.g. Acquisition by adverse possession. For example if someone who kept a movable property 4 years in Turkey
takes it to Germany, the acquisition of that property by adverse possession is subject to German law during its
presence in Germany and its ownership may be acquired by that person only after ten years. 4 sene Türkiye’de
geçirdiyse 6 sene de Almanya’da geçirecek.
 A Turkish seller sold goods to a Bulgarian buyer. But without transferring possession, goods are sent to Finland.
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And a problem is occurred about passing of title. What will happen? According to Turkish law, when Turkish
seller sells the good, the transfer of ownership passes only if possession is passed. But in this example, the goods
are in Finland without passing possession to Bulgarian buyer. So which law is going to applied? Finland law.
Because the transaction in Turkey is not completed yet. Türk ve İsviçre hukukunda zilyetliğin devri ile mülkiyet
geçer. Zilyetlik devredilmeden mallar başka yere gönderilmişse, daha işlem tamamlanmamış demektir. Çünkü
Türk hukuku zilyetliğin devrini arar.
g. Issues excluded from the Scope of LRS
 The following issues are governed by different laws rather than LRS, so we don’t apply LRS if the issue is related
with: 1. Res in Transitu 2. Rights in Rem on Transportation Vehicles 3. Legal Capacity 4. Form of Legal
Transaction
g.1. Res In Transitu
 Res in transitu: Good is during transit. Property currently being transported from one place to another.
 If a right on good is held subject to a transaction while to good is being delivered from one country to another
within a transportation vehicle (train, ship or motor vehicle, etc.), it would be fairly difficult to determine the
status of the real right on that property. For example a Turkish buyer made a contract with an Italian seller and
bought shoes. Shoes are coming by a ship. But while the shoes were on way, Turkish buyer made a contract with
another Bulgarian buyer and sold the shoes. Which law is going to be applied if there is any problem? We do not
apply LRS in this case, the law of destination is applied because Art 21(2) says that “The law of destination shall
applied to real rights in goods in transit.”
 Mallar henüz uçaktayken, gemideyken vs, yani daha alıcının hakimiyetine girmeden, alıcı bu malları başka
kişilere satar. Mesela bir konteynırı Bulgaristan’a bıraktırır, bir konteynır Türkiye’ye gelir. Transit halindeki bir
malı satmaktadır. Malın mülkiyetinde sorun çıktğında işlem tamamlandığında malın bulunduğu ülke hukukunu
değil; varma yeri hukukunu uyguluyoruz.
 Bill of lading(konişmento): Bill of lading represents the ownership of goods. Lex cartae sitae is applied. The law
which regulated the suitableness instrument, that law also covers whether that bill of lading passes the ownership
of that property. Sormaz.
g.2. Rights in Rem on Transportation Vehicles
 Art 22 provides that: “(1) Real rights on air, sea and rail transportation vehicles shall be governed by the law of
the country of origin. (2) The country of origin is the place of registration of real rights regarding air and sea
transportation vehicles or the home port regarding sea transportation vehicles if such a place of registration does
not exist and the place of license regarding rail transportation vehicles.”
 Hava, deniz ve raylı taşıma araçları üzerindeki aynî haklar, menşe ülke hukukuna tâbidir. Menşe ülke neresi?
Hava ve deniz taşıma araçlarında aynî hakların tescil edildiği sicil yeri, deniz taşıma araçlarında bu sicil yeri
yoksa bağlama limanı, raylı taşıma araçlarında ruhsat yeridir. Araba vs? Genel hüküm 21 uygulanır.
g.3. Form of Legal Transaction
 For immovable properties, there is a specific article regulates form of transaction. Art 21(4) states that “As
regards the form, legal transactions pertaining the real rights on immovable property shall be subjected to the
law of the country where such property is situated.”
 But there is not any specific law for formation for movable properties. That’s why Art 7 is applied.
g.4. Legal Capacity
 There is not specific rule regulates legal capacity, so we apply general article which is Art 9.
03.04.17
CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATIONS
a. Introduction
 Turkish conflict of law rules pertaining contractual obligation are regulated Art 24-33 of the TPIL.
 The general rule on contracts is in Art 24. So if there in not any specific rule on contracts, we gonna apply Art 24.
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 Specific rules for particular types of contract in Art 25-29.
 Contracts relating to immovable property: 25, Consumer contract: 26, Employment contract: 27, Contracts
relating to intellectual property: 28, Contracts relating to the carriage of goods: 29.
 Some common rules on various contractual related issues in Art 30-33.
 Agency: 30, Mandatory rules of a third country as regards to the contracts: 31, Existence and material validity of
a relationship arising from a contract: 32, Manner of performance and measures: 33.
b. General Rule: The Law Applicable to obligations arising from contracts - Art 24
 Yabancılık unsuru ihtiva eden bir sözleşme var, ama özel olarak düzenlenmiş diğer sözleşme türlerine girmiyor
ise -> Art 24 uygulanır.
 The general rules on the law applicable to contractual obligations is provided in Art 24 of TPIL.
 The party autonomy is the most essential principle in International Commercial Law and PIL. Thus, this principle
is also utilized in Art 24 of TPIL. The parties are free to choose the law applicable to their contract under Art 24(1)
of TPIL. So, parties have a right to choose which law is applied because of fairness of PIL. Thus, “the interest of
the parties” prevails in contracts. Subjective connecting factor is parties’ autonomy. This is also called subjective
method.
 But parties may not choose any law in their contract. That’s why we should find out objective connecting factor.
 And there are also exceptional situations written in Art 24 which requires applying most closely connected law
even though finding another law by objective method.
 We’ll explain the law applicable to contractual obligations within the three methods in order to easily understand
which law applicable for contracts (contractual status): 1. Subjective method, 2. Objective method, 3. More
closely connected law.
b.1. Subjective Method
 The chosen law defines the application of the law determined pursuant to the intent of the parties to the
contractual relationship which comprises a foreign element.
 Choice of law can be done through separate contracts or provision in main contract(Choice of law obligation).
 Pursuant to Art 24 (1) of TPIL: “Obligations arising from contracts shall be governed by the law explicitly
chooses by parties. Choice of law that may be understood without any hesitation from the provisions of the
contract or the circumstances of the case shall be valid.”
 Freedom of choice is accepted by this provision. So, a contract shall be governed by the law chosen by parties.
 According to this provision, the parties may explicitly pr implicitly determine the law applicable to the contract
concluded between them.
b.1.a. Case Study
 Turkish producer of furniture (D) negotiates the contract with the (X) company in UK undertaking for the sale of
its products. The parties communicate via Internet and agree as the jurisdiction of Turkish courts. After the first
part of the goods has been delivered, the British party begins to question the existence of the contract and refuses
to pay the price. Which law is applicable?
 Suppose that, the parties were agree the following issues which are essential to understand the subjective
method(subjective connecting factor) in TPIL.These are the questions may arise:
 1. The parties in their contract(franchising, distributorship, sale...) agreed that “all disputes shall be governed by
French law.” Can they choose it?
 2. The parties didn’t choose any law in their contracts. However, in their contract has the provisions that “if there
is any dispute occurs, the Turkish Court has an exclusive jurisdiction.” and at the same contract has three
provisions are in line with the same provisions of Turkish Code of Obligation. Yani uygulanacak hukuku
seçmemişler ama Türk mahkemesi yetkili demişler bir de sözleşmede bazı hükümler BK ile aynı. Türk hukukunu
zımni olarak seçmişler diyebilir miyiz? Is this considered as a choice of law?
 3. The parties in their contract drafted that “all disputes shall be governed by Belize Law.” Çok alakasız bir yerin
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hukuku seçilebilir mi?
 4. The contract provides that “For the sellers obligation, German Law; for the buyer obligation French law shall
be applied”.Can they do that?
 5. The contract states that “The INCOTERMS 2010 rules are applicable.” or “lex mercatoria rules are
applicable.” Can they choose non-state laws?
 6. Which law shall be applicable for the validity of the choice of law? Choice of law var ama bu hukuk kuralının
geçerliliğine hangi hukuk uygulanacak?
 7. The parties choose German law and they made the contract in 2014, but German law has changed in 2015. Are
we gonna apply old or new version of German Law?
 Taraflar sözleşme içerisinde ya da sözleşmeden ayrı olarak hukuk seçimi yapabilirler.
 Art 24(1) says that “The law explicitly designated by the parties shall govern the contractual obligation relations.
The designation which can be concluded without hesitation from the provisions of the contract or is understood
from the affairs of the case is also valid.” It means parties have a right to choose explicitly which law is going to
be applied. Also, that choice may be understood without any hesitation from the circumstances of the case or
from the provisions as an implied choice as well. Sözleşmeden doğan borç ilişkileri tarafların açık olarak
seçtikleri hukuka tâbidir. Sözleşme hükümlerinden veya hâlin şartlarından tereddüde yer vermeyecek biçimde
anlaşılabilen hukuk seçimi de geçerlidir.
 If parties choose which law governs, that law is applied as substantive law. Renvoi is not acceptable for the
choice of law. But if parties includes conflict of law rules of that law, it’s valid as well. Because Art 2 of TPIL
grants this right. But in practice, nobody do it.
b.1.b. An Express Choice(explicit choice)
 The parties can express a choice a simply by including a choice of law clause in the contract stating that, for
example: “all disputes shall be governed by French law.”
 Express choice means you can understand parties’ intention from the contract.
 When parties choose a law, that law is applied from the beginning to end of the contract. However, there are some
exceptions as well.
 The timing of choice of law is also essential. The parties may make the express choice of law at the time of
conclusion of contract, or later on, or even at court.
 Art 24 (3) provides that “Choice of law may be made or modified by parties at any time. Choice of law after the
conclusion of contract shall be valid with retroactive effect, without prejudice to the rights of third parties.” This
provision grant rights to parties to choose the law applicable to their contract at the time of its conclusion, or at a
later stage including the early stage of the court proceedings before the court hears the merits of the case under
Turkish civil procedural law. Hukuk seçimi taraflarca her zaman yapılabilir veya değiştirilebilir. Even though a
choice of law made after the conclusion of the contract is considered to have a retrospective effect under Art 24
(3), it cannot affect adversely the rights of third persons. Sözleşmenin kurulmasından sonraki hukuk seçimi,
üçüncü kişilerin hakları saklı kalmak kaydıyla, geriye etkili olarak geçerlidir. For example you gave guarantee.
But later on party’s changed their choice of law. However, that law’s regulation for guarantors are worse than first
one. The new law provisions are not applied to you.
 In practice, CEOs’ e-mails, Twitter, Facebook are also effective for modification of choice of law, especially in
arbitration process. Uluslarası yatırım ve tahkimde bu tarz yazışmalar ve açıklamalar seçilen hukukun
değiştirilmesi açısından önemlidir. Mahkemede ise bunu kabul ettirmek zor olabilir, diğer delillerle desteklemek
gerekir.
b.1.c. An inferred choice(implied choice)
 Uygulamada nadir olur.
 Art 24(1) of TPIL states also “implied choice”, that there can be a choice “that is understood without any
hesitation from the provisions of the contract or the circumstances of the case.”
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 This provision is concerned with a real choice by the parties, the court inferring what the parties’ actual intentions
were from the terms of the contract or the circumstances of the case.
 An inference as to the parties’ intentions can be drawn from either the terms of the contract or the circumstances
of the case.
 There must be some factors to show up that there is an implied choice. For example; parties didn’t choose any
law but there is provision says Istanbul courts has the exclusive jurisdiction, and with that some of the provisions
of the contract are similar with Turkish Code of Obligations. This refers that there is an implied choice.
 The followings are the example indicators for the determining the implied choice of law; the contract is in a
standard form known to be governed by a particular system of law, parties use the same kind of contract and all
contracts saying German law is applied but for one contract they forget which law is applied, referring to another
contract having a choice of law clause, the pre-existence of similar types of contracts for which the parties have
chosen the applicable law granting exclusive jurisdiction to the courts of the same country for all disputes
between parties, language if the contract, some provisions of one State’s law etc.
 Only one indicator is NOT ENOUGH, thus, some of them must exist in specific case!! Tarafların tereddüde yer
vermeyecek şekilde seçtiği anlaşmadan görülebilmeli. Sözgelimi sadece mahkeme seçimi yeterli değildir.
 What about choosing “English sales of good act”? It’s not a choosing of English law. It’s an incorporation. It
means English sales of good act becomes part of that contract, but still you need to apply applicable law. Because,
applicable law’s mandatory rules governs the issues. Yani taraflar bir hukuku seçememişlerdir. Hukuk seçimi için
sadece bir indicator olabilir. İngiliz Borçlar Kanunu, Türk Borçlar Kanunu vs uygulansın demişlerdir. İşte bu
incorporation olarak adlandırılabilir, hukuk seçimi olabilmesi için başka indicatorlar da olmalıdır. O kanun
sözleşmenin bir parçasıdır. Fakat hala uygulanacak hukuk farklı olabilir. Kısaca tarafların bir hukukun kanunu
seçmesi hukuk seçimi değildir.
 Soru: Taraflar her konu için farklı ülkelerin kanunlarını seçebilir mi? Evet.
 It should be noted that a presumed choice of law has not been recognized in TPIL. Taraflar bir hukuk
seçememişler, indicator yok, biz kalkıp da taraflar bir hukuk seçselerdi İngiliz hukukunu seçerlerdi diyemiyoruz.
Burada hiçbir şekilde intent yok.
b.1.d. No Need to Have a Connection with the Contract
 The chosen law can be the law of any country regardless of having connection with the contract or with the
parties. Taraflar: İngiltere, Türkiye. Ama sözleşmeyle alakası olarak Belize law seçmişler. Bunu yapabilirler.
 But, in practice, if the parties choose the law that have no connection with contract or the case, there will be
problem for ascertaining and applying that law. Hakim muhtevayı tespitte sorun yaşayabilir. Kaldı ki bu konuyu
anlatırken Türk hakimi uygulanacak hukukun muhtevasını bulamazsa Türk hukukunu uygular demiştik.
b.1.e. Partial Choice
 The parties may make a partial choice regarding the law applicable to the contract. The only principle in this
regard is that matters which may not be separated content wise may not be held subject to different law.
 Art 24 (2) provides that “The parties may determine that the chosen law shall apply to whole or part of the
contract.” Taraflar, seçilen hukukun sözleşmenin tamamına veya bir kısmına uygulanacağını kararlaştırabilirler.
Örn: satıcının yükümlülükleri için X hukuku, alıcının yükümlülükleri için Y hukuku uygulanır diyebiliriz.
 The parties are given freedom to pick and choose the applicable law and thereby sever the contract.
 However, it is essential to note that the contract is to be separable economically and legally without resulting in
any conflict in the mutual rights and obligations of the parties. In other words, some of the obligations cannot be
separated. At that time, we cannot make partial choice. So, partial choice can be done only if the obligations
cannot be separated. Bölünebilir edim olması gerekir.
b.1.f. Choice of Law of a Country: The problem of non-state law, lex mercatoria
 There are institutions like International Chamber of Commerce(ICC), UNCITRAL, UN Organizations, etc.
 Merchants creates their own law by these kind of institutions. These are non-state law, aka lex mercatoria.
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 Lex mercatoria may be generally defined as the body of rules different in origin and content, created by the trade
community to serve the needs of international trade.
 INCOTERMS 2010 is created by ICC. This is about interpretation of international commercial contracts. For
example parties have written “CIF, FOB, İstanbul, INCOTERMS 2010”. CIF = Cost, insurance & freight. CIF
means that seller is the responsible for main transportation until delivery, and seller pays insurance and freight as
well. INCOTERMS kuralları uluslarası ticari terimlerin yorumlanmasına ilişkindir.
 Uluslarası iş yapan insanlar hep bu ICC kurallarını sözleşmelere eklemektedir. Arbitration’da sıkıntı yok,
uyguluyorlar ama mahkemelerde ne olacak?
 The parties have the right to choose the applicable “law”, and this refers to the law of a country, “STATE”. Law
and rules deseydi, bunları da kapsar diyebilirdik. TPIL doesn’t sanction the choice of a non-national system of
law such as the lex mercatoria. Such a choice refers not to the national law of any country but rather to kind of
transnational law. However, the parties are free to incorporate by reference into their contract a non-state body of
law or an international convention.
 In other words, a choice of non-state body of law wouldn’t be considered as a choice of law, but an incorporation
of its provisions into contract to the extent and by the partial law by the means determined by the governing law.
 Lex mercatoria can be considered as a partial law of the contracts. So, still we need to find the main law is
applied because there are mandatory rules(emredici kurallar) must be applied to transaction. Emredici kurallar
izin verdiği ölçüde lex mercatoria uygulanacaktır
05.04.17
b.1.g. The Validity of Choice of Law Agreement
 One of the party may assume that there is no material or formal validity of choice of forum or choice of law
provision.
 However, there is no provision in PIL which indicate the law applicable to substantive and formal validity of the
choice of law agreement.
 Bun in PIL, the choice of law(or choice of arbitration, forum etc.) agreement is considered independent from the
main contract and therefore its validity is decided separately. So it means, choice of law can be valid even though
contract itself is invalid.
 However, parties may choose which law governs the validity of choice of law.
 Legal doctrine and cases: Unity of contract is important. Although there are different views, the application of the
law applicable to the substance of the contract is generally suggested for the purpose of subjecting both the
contract and choice of law agreement to the same law. In other words, which law is applied to main contract also
be applied for validity of choice of law.
 The “formal” validity of the agreement is determined pursuant to the general rule in Art 7 of the TPIL.
b.2. Objective Method: The Applicable Law in the Absence of Choice
 In cases where parties have not chosen the law applicable to their contract, the PIL provides that the law having
the closest connection with the contract shall apply.
 Art 24(4) states that: “In the absence of a choice of law, the law is most closely connected with the contract shall
be applicable to the relationship arising from that contract. This law shall be presumed as the law of the place of
habitual residence of the characteristic performance obligor, the law of the place of business of the characteristic
performance obligor in contracts entered into due to commercial or professional activities and where there is no
such place of business, the law of his/her domicile, and where the characteristic performance of obligor has more
than one place of business, the law of the place of business most closely connected with the relevant contract.
However, where there exists a law more closely connected with the contract under all existing circumstances, the
contract shall be governed by this law.”
 In the absence of a choice of law, the law is most closely connected with the contract is applied. Tarafların hukuk
seçimi yapmamış olmaları hâlinde sözleşmeden doğan ilişkiye, o sözleşmeyle en sıkı ilişkili olan hukuk
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uygulanır.
 But how we gonna find which law is the most connected law with the contract? Art 24(4) shows us some
presumptions. These are not certain presumptions. Parties may claim the other way around.
 These presumptions depends on whether the contract done by commercial or professional activities or not. If any
contract is regarding commercial or professional activities of parties -especially obligor- at that time the
applicable law/connecting factor is going to be changed. For example: Turkish party is getting a franchising of an
Italian restaurant here. This is a commercial activity. Or you are a dentist and you buy some products for your
professional activities. Or you are an intern lawyer, and you bought some international law stuffs for your
professional activities. At that time the characteristic performance obligor’s place of business is the most closely
connected law. If he/she does not have any place of business, at that time domicile law of the characteristic
performance obligor is the most closely connected law.
 If there is not any commercial or professional activities, at that time the law of habitual residence of the
characteristic performance obligor is the most closely connected law.
 Most closely connected law ≠ More closely connected law.
b.2.a. Commercial Activities, Affairs
 What is commercial activities? Lex fori is applied whether the activity is commercial or not. Because
characterization is done by lex fori. Art 3 nad 19 of Turkish Commercial Code show us what are commercial
activities.
 TCC Art 3: The ones which are regulated in the TCC and the ones which are concerning the commercial
enterprise are commercial activities.(Bu Kanunda düzenlenen hususlarla bir ticari işletmeyi ilgilendiren bütün
işlem ve fiiller ticari işlerdendir.)
 TCC Art 19 - presumption: The debt of the merchant is commercial(19/1). Affairs is deemed commercial for one
party(19/2). The contracts which are deemed as commercial for one party, shall be accepted as commercial for the
counter party.(Bir tacirin borçlarının ticari olması asıldır. Ancak, gerçek kişi olan bir tacir, işlemi yaptığı anda
bunun ticari işletmesiyle ilgili olmadığını diğer tarafa açıkça bildirdiği veya işin ticari sayılmasına durum elverişli
olmadığı takdirde borç adi sayılır. Taraflardan yalnız biri için ticari iş niteliğinde olan sözleşmeler, Kanunda
aksine hüküm bulunmadıkça, diğeri için de ticari iş sayılır.)
 If the contract is concluded in the course if commercial or professional activities and parties didn’t choose which
law is applied, the law where the place of business of the characteristic performance obligor is situated is applied.
If the party has not place of business, the law of his/her domicile is applied. If the party has more than one place
of business, the law of the place of business which is most closely connected with the given contract is applied.
 Place of business will be characterized by lex fori, Turkish judge. So, we gonna look at Turkish Employment Law
and Tax Procedural Law. According to the Turkish law; storage, factory, fairground, field can be considered as
place of business as well. And if there is more than one place of business, most closely connected place of
business with the contract is applied.
 Art 24 (4) requires that law to be applied at the “time of the conclusion of the contract”. Sözleşmenin kuruluşu
esnasındaki place of business geçerlidir.
b.2.b. Characteristic Performance Obligor(Karakteristik Edim Borçlusu)
 TPIL does not define the characteristic performance, it would be generally easy to find it in unilateral contracts
and problems would mostly arise in bilateral (reciprocal) contracts.
 In TPIL, the characteristic performance is considered as the counter performance of the monetary performance in
bilateral contracts, as justification of Art 24 says. If one party has the obligation to pay the price, the other party
has the obligation to deliver the goods. So, who has the counter obligation for the monetary performance also has
the characteristic performance. In this way, seller is the characteristic performance obligor for sales contract. Or
guarantor is the characteristic performance obligor for contract of guaranty. Paranın karşısındaki edim,
karakteristik edim borçlusudur.
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 Determining characteristic performance obligor is easy for unilateral contracts. The problem is with
synallagmatic contracts. That’s why, for the contracts where both parties’ obligations are either monetary or
non-monetary, it is suggested that the obligation of the party who takes the greater risk or responsibility could be
utilized as the characteristic performance obligor. Paranın karşılığı olan edimi bulmak her zmaan kolay olmaz.
Çok karmaşık sözleşmeler olabilir. Bu halde ise sözleşmeye isim veren edimin tarafı, yani en büyük riski alan
taraf karakteristik edim borçlusudur. Örn distribütörlük sözleşmesinde distribütör gibi.
 Karakteristik edim borçlusunu bulmak, konusu commerce ya da profession olan sözleşmelerde tarafların hukuk
seçmemesi halinde uygulanacak hukuku bulmak açısından önemlidir.
b.3 More Closely Connected Law
 The last sentence of Art 24 (4) of TPIL provides an exception clause. Accordingly, if there is another law, which
is more closely connected with the contract under the circumstances as a whole that the law indicated by the
presumptions, that law applies to the contract.
 In such a case, the presumptions are rebutted. For example, parties have the same nationality, same habitual
residence etc. But in practice it’s very difficult.
c. Lex Obligationis: The Scope of the applicable to contractual obligations
c.1. General knowledge
 The lex obligationis(applicable law to the contract) governs “from cradle to the grave”.
 Sözleşmenin doğumundan ölümüne kadar hangi hukuk seçilmişse o hukuk kapsar. What does the chosen law
govern? Formation of contract, interpretation, performance, substantive validity, breach of contract, the
consequences of nullity of contract, prescription, and so on.
c.2. Existence and Material Validity of a Relationship Arising From a Contract
 If the issue is related with existence and material validity, we have a specific article. Art 32 of TPIL deals with
this issue.
 Art 32(1) states that “(1) The existence and the material validity of a relationship arising from a contract or of
any term of a contract, shall be determined by the law which would govern it if the contract were valid.”
 Suppose that that contract is valid, which law governs the contract, that law also governs material validity and
existence. Sözleşmeden doğan ilişkinin veya bir hükmünün varlığı ve maddî geçerliliği, sözleşmenin geçerli
olması hâlinde hangi hukuk uygulanacakdıysa o hukuka tâbidir. Yani aslında bir nevi dolaştırarak 24’ü
uyguluyoruz(formation for material validity=24 e göre çözülecek?).
 The existence and material validity of a relationship arising from a contract, or of any contract is determined by
the law which would govern it if the contract was valid under Art 32(1) of the TPIL, as a reflection of the aim of
retaining the unity of contract.
 However, if it appears from the circumstances that it would not be fair to give effect to the conduct of one of the
parties in accordance with the applicable law, the law of the country of the habitual residence of the party who
claims lack of consent applies to the existence of the declaration of intent under Article 32 (2) of the PIL Act.
c.3. Prescription
 Article 24 does not mention anything about prescription. So, we apply general provision.
 As we already examined this issue, Art 8 of TPIL provides that it is subject to the law applicable to the substance
of the legal transaction and the relationship, lex causae. In other word, which law is applied to substance also
governs prescription. So, we find out the law applicable to contract by Art 24, and then we apply it to prescription
as well.
 The limitation of actions is also subject to lex causae, even it did not regulated in TPIL.
d. The Issues that are not within the Scope of Lex Obligationis: Exceptions
 Sözleşmeye uygulanacak hukukun istisnası olan durumlar vardır.
d.1. International Treaties
 Art 1(2) of TPIL states that “The provisions of international conventions to which Republic of Turkey is a party
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shall be reserved.”
 Thus, if there is an international treaty for the substantive or conflict of law matters on international contracts that
Turkey signed, that treaty shall be applicable. Therefore, this situation is exception for Art 24.
 The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods: CISG. 80 countries have signed
this treaty. In particular, CISG is very important since this treaty is entered into force for Turkey from August
2011.This treaty is applied only to international sales of goods(movable). So, it does not applied for franchise
contracts, distributorship agreement etc.
 The most essential thing with CISG is that the parties and the judge must know the scope of the treaty and its
requirement for application. So to apply CISG, there must be some requirements met. If requirements do not met,
we apply Turkish conflict of law rules(Art 24-29).
d.1.a The CISG’s Sphere of Application (Art 1(1))
 Art 1 of CISG states that “This Convention applies to contracts of sale of goods between parties whose places of
business are in different States: a)when the States are Contracting States; or b)when the rules of private
international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State.”
 The convention applies to transactions that meet following requirements(CISG’in uygulanması şartları):
 1. The transaction must constitute a contract (or an allegedly formed contract) for the sale of goods; thus contracts
for services or for the sale of property other than “goods” are not governed by the CISG. So, as principle CISG is
applicable only for international sale of goods. But, not every goods are accepted. For example; electricity,
negotiable instruments, ships are accepted while natural gas is not.
 2. The contract of sale must be international, defined as between parties located (places of business) in different
States. Purely domestic transactions are outside the scope of convention. If parties do not have place of business,
we look at whether their habitual residence is located in different countries or not.. Here international means place
of business of both parties must be in different states. If two Turkish made a international sale of goods and if
they are located in different countries, CISG is applied.
 3. The contract must have one of two specified alternative relationships to the Convention(son şart olarak bu
2’sinden biri olacak):
-a. Direct application: Either each party is located in a contracting state of CISG(Art 1 (1)(a)). Yani tarafların
işyerleri CISG’e taraf olan ülkelerde yer alıyorsa, CISG doğrudan uygulanır. For example Turkish party is in
Turkey, Canadian business man’s place of business is in Canada. Both Canada and Turkey are contracting states
of CISG. So CISG is directly applied even though parties choose another law. Or,
-b. Indirect application: The rules of Private International Law (i.e., the choice of conflict-of-law rules of the
tribunal hearing a dispute) lead to the application of the law of a contracting state(Art 1(1)(b)). For example; one
of the parties is from a country which is not a contracting state while the other party’s state is. Parties did not
choose any law in their contract, and assume that according to Art 24, Turkish law is applied. Because of Turkey
is a party of the CISG, CISG is applied indirectly.
 What if each parties’ place of business are not located in a contracting state, but they choose a state’s law which is
a party of CISG? At that time, CISG is applied as Art 1(b) states. But parties can agree that CISG will not be
applied(As Art 6 of CISG lets parties).
d.1.b. Art 6 of the CISG
 Even where a transaction would otherwise be governed by the CISG, the parties to the contract can agree to opt
out of its application in favor of other law or to vary virtually ant of its provisions (Art 6): party autonomy is a
fundamental principle of the Convention.
 In other words, if parties decide that CISG is not applied for their contract, at that time party autonomy comes
superior. They can say explicitly or implicitly in their contract, or even in front of the court.
 Hukuk seçimi yapıldı, Alman hukukunu seçtiler, except CISG demedilerse taraflar CISG’e üye olmayan bir
devlette yer alsa bile CISG uygulanır. Ama İngiliz Hukukunu seçtiler o zaman opt out yaptı farazi olarak diyip
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CISG’i uygulamayabiliyorlar(anlamadım).
 Kısaca CISG uluslararası menkullerin satımı ile alakalıdır. Uluslararası kavramını burada tarafların işyerlerinin
farklı ülkelerde yer alması olarak kabul ediyoruz. Bu arada fuar alanları CISG’te işyeri olarak kabul edilmemiş.
Requirements’ları bilicez. Tarafların işyerleri CISG’e taraf bir devlette ise direct olarak CISG uygulanır. Ama biri
veya ikisi de CISG’e taraf bir devlette değilse ama kanunlar ihtilafı hükümleri CISG’e taraf bir devletin hukuku
uygulanacaksa veyahut taraflar CISG’e üye bir devletin hukukunu seçmişlerse taraflar aksini kararlaştırmadığı
sürece CISG indirect olarak uygulanır.
10.04.17
 We were talking about the scope of the applicable law to the contract. And we also talked about exceptions to lex
obligationis. Firstly, we explained international treaties. And we said especially CISG is one of the most
important international treaty for international sales of goods. So we talked about the requirements of CISG and
Art 6 which is about party autonomy.
 UK is not a contracting state of CISG.
d.2. The Existence and Validity of the one of the Party’s Declaration of Intent
 Especially, before the contract is concluded, parties may conduct. In other words, offer and acceptance may be
done between parties. And this conduct is generally governed by lex obligationis.
 Sometimes depend on the circumstance, one of the party says his/her/company’s conduct is not what it means.
For example silence does not mean acceptance, according to his/her/company’s habitual residence.
 Art 32(2) says that “ If it is concluded by considering all the circumstances that it would not be just to recognize
the act of one of the parties and subject it to the applicable law, the law of state of the habitual residence of the
party who claims absence of consent to the declaration of intent shall govern.” Thus, if it appears from the
circumstances that it would not be fair to give effect to the conduct of one of the parties in accordance with the
applicable law, the law of the country of the habitual residence of the party who claims lack of consent applies to
the existence of the declaration of intent under Article 32 (2) of the PIL Act.
 Tarafların öneri ve kabul gibi birtakım irade açıklamalarında, iradesini açıklayan tarafın aslında niyetinin o yönde
olmadığı veya niyetinin ne yönde olduğu sorularına kural olarak lex obligationis ile cevap bulmamız gerekirken,
eğer irade beyanında bulunan kişi aslında irade beyanında bulunma niyetinin olmadığını ileri sürüyorsa, onun
mutat meskeni hukukuna bakılır. Fakat onun mutat meskenine bakabilmek için her somut vakıada özellikle
uygulanacak hukuka göre de bu durumun mümkün olup olmadığı incelenmelidir. Bunun için de kişinin iyiniyeti
incelenmektedir. Ama hiç uygulamasını görmedik. Bu durum hazır olmayanlar arasında kurulan sözleşmeler için
önemli olabilir.
d.3. Manner of Performance and Measures
 Performance(ifa) is generally governed by the applicable law(lex obligationis). But there are some practical
situations make difference. Sometimes when parties make the contract, measurement of the goods must be taken
to a different country rather than state which has the applicable law.
 Art 33 states that “(1) In relation to the acts and transactions during performance and the measures to be taken
relating to the protection of goods, regard shall be had to the law of the country in which these acts or
transactions took place or in which these measures were taken.” Where the performance is carried out, that law is
going to be applied, as Art 33 of TPIL states.
 Manner of performance: sometimes counting, weighing, measuring of goods, or control of the goods by the buyer
can be concluded in another state. For the practical conditions it may be required the acceptance of the law of
«the place of performance» regarding how the performance will be carried out. For example, the counting,
weighing and measuring of the goods sold or the control of goods by the buyer are carried out according to the
law of the place where this is carried out because of the necessity to accomplish these performances duly and in
time.
 The storing and the protection of the purchased good with defects by the buyer or its sale in the case of
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probabaility of the decay are governed by the law of the place of goods at the time of the action of the buyer
 İfaya kural olarak sözleşmeye uygulanacak hukuk uygulanır. Fakat pratik sebeplerden dolayı hakime bir takdir
yetkisi verilmiştir. Buna göre hem ifa hem de malların korunması bakımından sözleşmeye uygulanacak hukukun
devletinden farklı ülkeler devreye girebilir. İşte hakim eğer pratikte bir yararı varsa ifa ve malların korunması için
bu farklı ülkenin hukukunu uygulayabilir. Örn/ malın ölçümüne konişmento yazılır. Burada çıkan bir eksiklikte
banka akreditif açmayabilir. Bu gibi hallerde kk ifa yeri neresi ise o yer hukukunun uygulanmasında hakime
takdir yetkisi vermiştir. Özellikle depolama ve malların korunması ile alakalı olarak geçici tedbir alınması
gerekebilir. Geçici tedbir süresince bu malların korunması gerekecektir. İşte Türk hakimi, sözleşmede yazmasa
bile, malların geçici tedbir koyulduğu yer hukukunun uygulanmasına karar verebilir. Örn mallara Bulgaristan’da
tedbir koyulmuş.
d.4. Legal Capacity
 For every contract, Art 9 which regulates legal capacity is applied.
 Sözleşmelerde ehliyet için gerçek ve tüzel kişilerin ehliyetini düzenleyen genel madde olan 9. madde uygulanır.
d.5. Form of Legal Transactions
 Art 24 does not mention anything about formation. So, we apply Art 7 which regulates formation.
 Sözleşmenin şekli de sözleşmeye uygulanacak hukukunun özel bir istisnasıdır. Çünkü taşınmaza ilişkin
sözleşmeler, tüketici sözleşmeleri gibi bazı özel olarak düzenlenen sözleşmelerin dışındaki sözleşmeler için
sözleşmenin şekli Art 24’de özel olarak düzenlenmemiştir. Bu nedenle şekli düzenleyen genel hüküm olan Art 7
uygulanır^(sözleşmede de belirlenmemişse). Art 7 de ya işlemin esasına uygulanacak hukuk(lex obligationis) ya
da işlem nerede yapıldıysa o yer hukukuna göre sözleşme geçerlidir demektedir. Yani form of legal transaction
için ikinci bir alternatifimiz olduğunu görüyoruz.
d.6. Public Policy
 We found the law is applicable through Art 24 and other articles which regulates other contracts, but
consequences of applying that law is manifestly against Turkish public policy. At that time, we do not apply that
law. If it’s possible, Turkish law is applied, as Art 5 provides . For example; panel clause is three times more than
the normal price. Sadece bu kısım için public policy uygulayabiliriz.
 As we already examined that Article 5 of the PIL shall be applicable for this matter. It is an exceptional character.
Not automatically accepts that some subjects are directly linked to public policy. Public policy exception should
be analyzed on the basis of every individual case. In what way the applicable foreign law can be excluded: if it
violate the governing principles of Turkish legal system, the general ethic, the fundamental constitution principles
and international human rights law.
d.7. Overriding Mandatory Rules
 Article 6 of the PIL states that: “Where foreign law is applicable, overriding mandatory rules of Turkish law shall
apply in cases within their scope as regards their particular purpose and sphere of application.”
 Art 6 deals with the mandatory rules of Turkish Law. The mandatory rules of the forum do not preclude the
application of the foreign law totally as the mandatory rules only apply to issues falling within their scope.
 Mandatory rules of a third country as regards to contract.
 Article 31 of the PIL states that: “When the law governing the relationship arising from the contract is being
applied, the overriding mandatory rules of a third country may be given effect in the case where these rules are
closely connected with the contract. Regarding giving effect to and applying or not applying the rules at issue, the
purpose, nature, content and consequences of these rules shall be taken into consideration.”
 Therefore, under Turkish PIL mandatory rules are dealt with under two different provisions: Article 6 provides
“mandatory rules of the lex fori”. Art 6 her konu için Türk hukukunun overriding mandatory rule’ların
uygulanacağını düzenlemiştir. Overriding mandatory rulelar açıkça belirtilmez. Art 6’nın da söylediği gibi amaca
ve herkese uygulanabilirliğe bakılır. Article 31 provides the “mandatory rules of a third country as regards the
contract”. Art 31 is only applicable for contracts.
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 Generally import and export restrictions, competition law provisions are considered as overriding mandatory
rules.
 Even though there is no explicit provision in the PIL Act directly dealing with mandatory rules of the lex causae,
it is agreed that they are applied as a part of it. For example parties mentioned that German law is applied in their
sales of goods contract. It means both German substantive law and overriding mandatory rules are accepted. So if
parties didn’t choose any law and Turkish judge find out the law applicable, that law’s mandatory law is also
applied(except Turkish public policy). Because we considered the state’s law as a “law” as Art 2 states.
 According to the Art 31, the mandatory rules of a third country may be given effect if the law of that country has
a close connection with the contract(such as where the obligations arising out of the contract performed or the
goods which are the subject matter of the contract are situated there, or where the residence or the assets of the
debtor are located there). In other words, there is a third state in contract rather than lex fori or lex causae. And
Art 31 is applicable only if there is a relationship between third states and the contract. For example; Turkish
company and Russian company made a sale of contract regarding oranges. Turkish company is getting oranges
from Greece. Turkish and Russian companies says German law is applied. Turkish party didn’t send oranges to
Russian party. Russian company files a case in Turkey. So, as they decided, German law is applied(if CISG is not
applicable). And on the other hand Greece has a connection with that case. Greek administrative body says
transportation vehicles are not healthy, that’s why we didn’t send oranges. As we see, even though Russian
company does not have any relationship with Greece company, Greece part has a relationship with the contract.
Because performance of the contract depends on Greece.
 The judge has a discretionary power to apply and give effect of mandatory rules of third country by considering
their purpose, nature, content and consequences as stated in Article 31.
12.04.17
e. Specific Contracts
 The Articles 25-29 of the TPIL set out specific conflict of law rules for particular types of contract, in particular,
contract relating to immovables, consumer contracts, employment contracts, contracts relating to intellectual
property rights and contracts relating to the carriage of goods.
 Therefore, in cases where a contract falls into the scope of one of these rules in Article 25-29, the applicable law
is determined pursuant to the relevant rule, not Art 24(general rule). 25-29 arasında özel olarak düzenlenmiş
sözleşmelere bu hükümler uygulansa bile, 25-29’a girmeyen hususlarla karşılaşınca yine genel hüküm olan 24’e
gidilir.
 Protection of weaker party in taken into account in Articles regulates consumer contracts and employment
contracts.
e.1. Contracts Relating to Immovables
 Article 25 of the PIL states that: “Contracts relating to immovable property or their use shall be governed by the
law of the country where such an immovable property is situated.” Taşınmazlara veya onların kullanımına ilişkin
sözleşmeler taşınmazın bulunduğu ülke hukukuna tâbidir. Hüküm ..their use... dediği için tenancy, rent, leasing de
bu hükmün içine girer.
 There is no party autonomy! Parties cannot decide which law is going to be applied.
 LRS is applied to contractual issues arising out of contracts of sale, donation or tenancy of the immovable
property. Any contracts that are related with immovable properties are subject to Art 25.
 İntifa hakkı, sükna hakkı gibi sınırlı ayni haklar kendi içinde eşya hukukuna ilişkin işlemlerdir, sözleşme değildir.
Bunlara Art 25 değil, Art 21 uygulanır! Ayni haklara uygulanacak hüküm = Art 21. Satım, kira, bağış, ölünceye
kadar bakma sözleşmesi vs ise sözleşme olduklarından = Art 25.
e.2. Consumer Contracts
 Article 26 states that: “(1) Consumer contracts relating to supply of goods, services or credit for non-professional
or non-commercial purposes shall be governed by the law chosen by parties, without prejudice to the minimum
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protection that the consumer shall have pursuant to the mandatory provisions of the law of his/her habitual
residence. (2) In the absence of any choice of law, the law of the habitual residence of the consumer shall be
applicable. In order for the law of the habitual residence of the consumer to be applied: a)The contract has been
concluded into in the country of the consumer’s habitual residence upon a special invitation sent to him/her or an
advertisement and the legal acts required to be carried out by the consumer should have been carried out in this
country or, b) the other party or his/her representative should have taken the order of the consumer in this
country or, c) where the relationship constitutes a contract of sale, the seller should have organized a trip in order
to convince the consumer to buy and the consumer should have traveled to a country other than the country
where he/she is situated by taking this trip and should have placed his/her order there. (3) The law of the habitual
residence of the consumer shall be applicable to the form of consumer contracts concluded under the conditions
envisaged in the second paragraph. (4) This article, excluding package tours, shall not apply to contracts of
carriage and to contracts where the services to be offered to the consumer may only be provided in a country
other than the country of his/her habitual residence.”
 For example you went Scotland and bought something, or you bought an electronic device from the Internet. And
the contract they give has very little writing that cannot even be read, and there is provision that in case of a
dispute arising Spanish law is applied. Can this law be applied?
 Or you bought iPhone in US and that iPhone is broken after 2 weeks. Which law is going to be applied?
 Or a German applies credit from a bank to buy a car or house in Turkey. Is this credit transaction considered as a
consumer contract?
 Or you bought something from a country and came back to Turkey and after 3 weeks you realized that the good is
defaulted. Can you get repair from one of the distributor of that company in Turkey? Do you have guarantee
rights?
 We have a Consumer Protection Law(Tüketicinin Korunması Hk. Kanun) in Turkish legal system as well.
 Article 26 of the PIL gives a definition in order to clarify which consumer contracts would fall into its scope and
dependent on that who would be considered as a consumer in the context of the provision.
 Accordingly, the provision applies to consumer contracts relating to the supply of goods, services or credit for
non-professional or non-commercial purposes.
 This provision accepts the principle of party autonomy by allowing the parties to choose the law that governs
their contract. But the principle of party autonomy is restricted here. We can say that that there is a limited choice
of law. If parties choose which law is going to be applied, that choice is valid. However, habitual residence of
consumer is the line for the application of the parties’ law. Thus, the mandatory provisions of the law of the
consumer’s habitual residence are regarded as the minimum standard for the protection of the consumer and this
standard shall be applicable in the event of a choice of another law. For example parties have chosen German law,
but American consumer’s habitual residence in US, and assume that US consumer law’s mandatory rules gives
much more protection than German law. In this case, German law is not applicable. US consumer law will be
applied. Seçilen hukuk, asgari olarak tüketicinin mutat meslenninin bulunduğu yer hukununun emredici
kurallarına tabidir.
 There is also a definition for consumer contract in Art 26. Accordingly, consumer contracts are the contracts
which are related to supply of goods, services or credit for “non-professional” or “non-commercial” purposes.
 In the absence of any choice law, Art 26 (2) provides for the application of the law of the habitual residence of the
consumer if one of the conditions in the provision is met. Otherwise, the law applicable to the contract is
determined according to the general rule on contracts in Art 24. These conditions are:
-a) the consumer contract must be concluded in the country of the consumer’s habitual residence upon a special
invitation sent to him or upon an advertisement, and legal acts necessary to be done by the consumer for the
conclusion of the contract have been done in this country: In other words, the contract must be concluded in the
habitual residence of the consumer because of a special invitation, or an advertisement. Yani icap, reklam
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tüketicinin mutat meskeninde yapılacak ve sözleşme burada kurulacak.
-b) the other party or his representative has received the consumer’s order in this country: For example a foreign
company came to Turkey and you order the good in Turkey or on the Internet in Turkey. Yani sipariş tüketicinin
mutat meskeninin bulunduğu yerden yapılacak.
-c) where the relationship is a sales contract, the seller had arranged a trip for the purpose of convincing the
consumer to buy and the consumer traveled on this trip from the country where he is resident and has given his
order on the trip: İlişkinin bir satım sözleşmesi olması hâlinde, satıcı tüketiciyi satın almaya ikna etmek amacıyla
bir gezi düzenlemiş ve tüketici de bu gezi ile bulunduğu ülkeden başka ülkeye gidip siparişini orada vermiş.
 Soru: Mülkiyeti saklı tutma kaydıyla satışta(retention of title) bunun bir satış değil aslında ayni haklarla ilgili
olduğunu söylemiştik bu nedenle mülkiyeti saklı tutma kaydıyla satış varsa Art 21 uygulanır. Bununla beraber
mülkiyeti saklı tutma kaydıyla satış CISG’in olduğu yerde istisna tutulmuştur. Çünkü CISG madde 4 ‘e göre ayni
haklarad CISG uygulanmaz.
 There is NO exception clause in favor of a law more closely connected with the contract.
 Article 26 (3) of the PIL provides a specif rule regarding the formal validity(şekil) of the consumer contracts
concluded under conditions set out in Article 26 (2): the law of the consumer’s habitual residence. İkinci fıkradaki
şartlar altında yapılan tüketici sözleşmelerinin şekline, tüketicinin mutad meskeni hukuku uygulanır. Şekle
ilişkin olarak özel bir düzneleme getirlmiş olduğu için genel düzenleme olan Art 7’ye gidilmez. Art 26 (3) gereği
tüketicinin mutat mesken hukuku şekle uygulanır. Fakat bunun için 26 (2) deki şartlar çerçevesinde imzanlamış
bir tüketici sözleşmesi olması gerekir. Bunun dışında kalan hallerde şekil için yine Art 7 uygulanacaktır.
 Article 26 (4) states that, this article does NOT APPLY to:
-1. Contracts where the service must be supplied to the consumer in a country other than his habitual residence:
For example you bought legal education law language service for 1 month in England. We apply Art 24.
-2. Contracts of a CARRIAGE with the exception of package tours: For the carriage of goods, Art 26 is not
applied. But we do not apply Art 24 neither, because there is a specific article on carriage of goods which is Art
29. Paket turlar ise Art 26’ya tabidir.
 Art 26 (4): Bu madde, paket turlar hariç, taşıma sözleşmeleri ve tüketiciye hizmetin onun mutad meskeninin
bulunduğu ülkeden başka bir ülkede sağlanması zorunlu olan sözleşmelere uygulanmaz.
e.3. Employment Contracts
 So many Turkish countries -especially construction companies- have investments all around the world. For
example they make house constructions, airport constructions etc for 1-2 years at foreign countries.
 Or a multinational company hired you as a lawyer. There is a foreign element here. And you are working there as
a employee.
 Or a Turkish man is working as a truck driver for a multinational company. Or a Turkish company hires a
Georgian man.
 As we talked before, Art 44 gives jurisdiction to Turkish courts for disputes arising from employment contracts in
order to protect weaker party.
 Article 27 provides that: “(1) Employment contracts shall be governed by the law chosen by parties, without
prejudice to the minimum protection the employee shall have pursuant to the mandatory provisions of the law of
his/her habitual place of work. (2) In the absence of a choice of law, the law of the place of work where the
employee habitually carries out his/her work shall be applicable to the employment contract. Where the employee
temporarily carries out his/her work in another country, this place of work shall not be regarded as the habitual
place of work. (3) Where the employee does not habitually carry out his/her work in a specific country but
continuously carries out his/her work in more than one country, the employment contract shall be governed by
the law of the country where the principal place of business of the employer is situated. (4) However, where there
exists a law more closely connected with the employment contract under all existing circumstances, this law may
be applied to the contract instead of the provisions of the second and third paragraphs.”
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 It considers individual employment contracts. Bireysel iş sözleşmeleri için bu hüküm geçerlidir. TİS’ler içinse
bazı görüşler var. Ama pratikte TİS’ler için uygulanmamaktadır.
 This article ALLOWS parties to choose the law applicable to their contract. However, considering that the
employer and the employee are not on equal terms due to their economic power, party autonomy is
RESTRICTED in favor of the employee by the minimum protection that he has been granted pursuant to the
mandatory provisions of the law of his habitual place of work. Thus, party autonomy is restricted!(limited choice
of law)
 How we gonna decide that the law parties chose or the law of employee’s habitual place of work is better? How
we gonna compare? Art 27 didn’t mention anything about it. But in practice and doctrine, there are 3 different
rules are applied for comparing:
-1.Collective comparing: we directly look at the both country’s employment laws and apply which one is better.
This approach is not acceptable in Turkey. Bütün düzenlemeler karşılaştırılır.
-2.Individual comparing: We just compare the individual provision of both laws about the subject matter.
-3.Group comparing: This is the accepted approach. For example, the issue is related with annual leave
permit(senelik izin). Any provisions which are related with the annual leave permit are compared. İki ülkenin tüm
işçi hukuku hükümleri veya sadece senelik izni düzenleyen hükümler değil; senelik izin ve onunla bağlantılı olan
hükümler karşılaştırılarak bir sonuca gidiliyor.
 In the absence of a choice of law, the employment contract is governed by the law of the habitual place of work,
as Art 27(2) provides.
 Sometimes, the employee is “temporarily” carrying out his work to another country. At that time, this temporarily
place cannot be considered as his/her habitual place of work by the provision. Therefore, even if the employee is
temporarily sent to another country, his habitual place of work would still be the country where he/she has been
employed to work in. But this must be analyzed case by case. For instance, if an employee is sent to another
country for 6 months for a project, it means the place where he/she is sent becomes the habitual place of work.
Projelerde Art 26 (2) pek uygulanmıyor.
 It should be noted that there might be cases that the employee does NOT have habitual place of work in a
particular country but regularly does it more than one country. For example; an employee working at a transport
company, truck drivers, circus workers. In this case, the employment contract is governed by the law of the
country where the employer’s principal place of business(işverenin işyerinin bulunduğu yer hukuku) is applied,
as Art 27 (3) states.
 There is an exception clause as well! In cases where there is another law which is more closely connected with
the employment contract under the circumstances(language, nationality etc) as a whole, this law MAY apply to
the contract instead of the provisions of Article 27 (2) and (3). This is NOT mandatory, judge has the
discretionary power whether apply this more closely connected law or not.
 P.S: More closely connected law, tarafların hukuk seçimi yapmaları halinde uygulanmaz!
 The provisions pertain to collective bargaining(TİS), the maximum working hours of the employees, social
security, strike, lock out, etc are overriding mandatory rules. Such rules are applied to everyone in that country.
Yani sosyal güvenlik, işçi hakları, işçi sağlığı, grev, lokavt, işçi güvenliği gibi konular devletin ekonomik, sosyal
çıkarları etrafında koyulan kurallar oldukları için, taraflar hukuk seçimi yapsa da ya da limited choice gereği
işçinin mutat çalışma yeri hukuku uygulansa da, MÖHUK 6 gereği Türk hakimi bu doğrudan uygulanan kuralları
uygulamak zorundadır. Örn/ Çin hukuku seçilmiş, işçi uzun saatler boyunca çalışıyor. Biz burada işçinin
çalışacağı maksimum saat bir overriding mandatory rule’dur diyerek Türk hukukunu devreye sokacağız. Hatta
yeri geldiğinde kamu düzeni de devreye girebilir.
 Soru: İşçi başka biryerde çalışıyor. Ama bağlama kurallarından çalıştığı o yerin hukukunun uygulanacağı çıkmasa
da, o yerdeki doğrudan uygulanan kurallar söz konusu işçi için uygulanabilir mi? Evet. Daha çok avantaj
sağlıyorsa uygulanacaktır. Mesela ENKA’ya açılmış 3500 dava var. Türk mevzuatına göre bildiğimiz üzere
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zincirleme iş akdi yapmada belirli bir noktadan sonra sınırlama var. Bunun yabancı işçilere de
uygulanabilirliğinin tartışılması gerekir. ENKA bir proje almış, gitmiş orada bir şirket kurmuş, kurduğu şirkette
de kendi işçilerini çalıştırıyor. Yargıtay burada organik bağ vardır. O ülkede kurulan şirket aslında ENKA
şirketidir, diyerek yabancılık unsuruna da bakmadan direkt Türk hukukunu uyguluyor. Ama aslında işçi yurtdışına
çıktığı an yabancılık unsuru oluşur. Ve belki de o gittiği yerdeki işçi sağlığı, işçi güvenliği vs daha avantajlı
olabilir. Bu halde MÖHUK 27 uygulanması gerekir. Doğrudan uygulanan kuralları uygularken de hassas olmak
gerekmektedir. Bizim Yargıtay böyle direkt Türk hukukunu uyguladığı için şirketler Türk hukukunun yoğun
hükümleriyle karşılaşmamak adına, Türk mahkemelerinin yetksini ekarte etmek adına, yabancı işçiler
çalıştırmaktadır. Bu da çok büyük bir iş gücü kaybına ve işsizliğe neden olmaktadır. Onun için MÖHUK 2 ve 27
uygulanmalı ve işçinin çalıştığı yerdeki doğrudan uygulanan kurallar değerlendirilerek daha lehte ise işçiye
uygulanmalıdır. Çünkü amaç zaten işçiyi korumaktır.
 It should be also mentioned that applicable to an employment contract also governs the contract between the
employee and the employer regarding intellectual property rights on intellectual products created by the employee
within the scope and during the performance of his work under Article 28(3).
f. Contracts Relating to Carriage of Goods
 For example Turkish party is selling fruits to Germany. These fruits must be carried to Germany. So, there is
going to be carriage contract as well.
 Goods are carried most probably with airplane, ships, or rail road.
 In international area, there are so many international treaties that applicable for carriage of goods: The Warsaw
Convention regarding air transport, the Convention on Carriage by Road on road transport (CMR), the
Convention on Carriage of Goods and Passengers by Railroad (COTIF), etc.
 These international treaties must be applied because of Art 1 of TPIL.
 However, if there is a issue regarding carriage of goods and is not in the scope of any international treaty, at that
time we apply Art 29 of TPIL.
 Article 29 states that: “(1) Contracts relating to the carriage of goods shall be governed by the law chosen by
parties. (2) In the absence of a choice of law, if the country where the principal place of business of the carrier is
situated at the time of the conclusion contract is at the same time the country where the loading or the unloading
is done or where the principal place of business of the consignor is situated, this country is regarded as most
closely connected with the contract and this law shall apply to the contract. Single voyage charter parties and
other contracts the main purpose of which is the carriage of goods shall also be subject to the provisions of this
article. (3) Where there exists a law more closely connected with the contract relating to the carriage of goods
under all existing circumstances, this law shall apply to the contract.”
 Article 29 allows parties to choose the law applicable to their contract relating to the carriage of goods.
 In the absence of such choice, Article 29 (2) regards: the law of the country of the principal place of business of
the carrier(taşıyıcının esas iş yeri hukuku) is applied as the law most closely connected with the contract(objektif
bağlama kuralı). But the principal place of business of the carrier is not applied every time. There is a requirement
must be met. So, the principal place of business of the carrier must be at the same time the place of loading, or
unloading of the goods, or the consignor’s(gönderen) principal place of business at the time of the conclusion of
contract(sözleşmenin yapıldığı anda bunlardan biri olmalı!). If that so, the principal place of business of the
carrier(taşıyıcının esas iş yeri hukuku) is applied as the law most closely connected with the contract.For example,
Turkish company is selling fruits to German company. In their carriage of goods contracts, they decided that the
carriage will be done by truck, and they added that CMR is not applicable. So the consignor is the Turkish
company. And assume that an Italian company is the carrier. In this contract they didn’t mention any choice of
law. So principal place of business of carrier(taşıyıcı) is applied. Let’s say that place is Milan. In order to apply
Italian law, loading or unloading place, or consignor’s principal place of business must be in Italy.
 Article 29 (3) provides an exceptional clause: More closely connected with the contract law. Its operation seems
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difficult. This is very exceptional. Never happens.
 Malların taşınmasına Art 29 uygulanır(taşıma dediğimiz için malın ücretinin ödenmesiyle ilgili akreditif açma,
sigorta vs farklı hükümlere tabidir). Şahısların taşınmasına ise Art 24 uygulanır.
 Single voyage charter and other contracts the main purpose of which is the carriage of goods are also within the
scope Article 29. Tek taraflı çarter sözleşmeleri yolcu taşıması da olsa Art 29 kapsamındadır.
17.04.17
NON-CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATIONS
 Like tort, unjust enrichment, negotiorum gestio(vekaletsiz işgörme)
 Non-contractual obligations (tort, unjust enrichment) are regulated under Article 34-39 of the PIL Act.
 If there is a contract and the act is constitute tort etc., contract and tort claim compete with each other. In practice,
which one is applied depends on what claimant claims form court. Yani haksız fiil vb sözleşme dışı yükümlülük
dediğimiz hususlar, bir sözleşmenin varlığı halinde de gerçekleşebilir. Bu halde taleplerin yarışması söz
konusudur. Yani sözleşme hükümleri ile haksız fiil hükümleri yarışır. Pratikte hangisinin uygulanacağı ise
davacının talebine kalmıştır.
 In addition, conflict of law rules for claims arising from the infringement of intellectual property rights is also
considered in Article 23 (2) of the PIL.
 The PIL Act provides one general provision (34) and specific rules for particular types of torts in Art 35-38.
 The PIL Act is somehow consistent with Regulation on the Law Applicable to Non Contractual Obligations
(Rome II) and Swiss Private International Law.
 The law applicable to torts/delicts governs in particular the condition of the occurrence and the effects of the tort,
to willful intent and negligence in torts, the basis and consequences of liability including the capacity to commit
tort, liability for the acts of another person, compensation.
a. Case Study
 Two Turkish men went to soccer game in Amsterdam, Netherlands and when they were in the ticket line, they
fight each other. One of them filed a case in Turkey claiming material and non-pecuniary(manevi) damages from
other party. What law is applicable?
 There were nuclear station in Iran which caused health problem in Turkey.
 Two Turkish people were coming to from Germany to Turkey and they had an traffic accident in Bulgaria.
 Aylin bought a medicine in Germany which caused a damage to her body and she had serious health problem.
 American airplane had an engine problem and fall down in cotton fields of Adana caused serious problem.
b. General Provision on Tort - Art 34
 A Turkish and American went to soccer game and, they fight each other. Or two Turkish people were coming to
from Germany to Turkey and they had an traffic accident in Bulgaria.
 Article 34 provides that: “(1) Obligations arising from a tort shall be governed by the law of the country where
the tort is committed. (2) Where the place the tort is committed and the place the damage occurs are in different
countries, the law of the country where the damage occurs shall apply.(3) Where the obligational relationship
arising from the tort is more closely connected with another country, the law of that country shall apply. (4)
Where it is possible under the law applicable to the tort or to the insurance contract, the damaged party may
assert his/her claim directly to the insurer of the liable party. (5) The parties may explicitly choose the applicable
law after the tort occurs.”
 Article 34 of the TPIL provides the general rule on torts.
 The principle of party autonomy in tort is accepted in Article 34 (5) with certain requirements. This provision
allows the parties to “expressly” choose the applicable law after the tort is committed. Bu there is a requirement.
Parties can choose applicable law after the tort is committed, and that must be an express choice. Mahkemede
esasa geçmeden önce, veya e-mail yazışmaları ile bile hukuk seçimi yapabilirler. Pratikte bu durumun
gerçekleşmesi ise biraz zor.
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 In the absence of any choice of law, the Turkish PIL accepts the lex loci delicti commissi for the general rule on
torts: the law of the country where the tort was committed. However, if the place where the tort was committed
and the damage occurred are in different countries, the law of the country where the damage occurred is
applied(Art 34 (2)).
 Finding out where damage is occurred can be difficult.
 Article 34 (3) has an escape clause! Where the obligational relationship arising from tort is more closely
connected with another country, the law of that country is applied. Turkish judge must evaluate it case by case,
whether there is a more closely connected law or not. But, what are the criteria for determining the more closely
connected law? There is NO criteria with respect to the determination of the closer connection is mentioned in
this provision. However, the followings can be taken into account: the place where the tort was committed is
provisional or coincidental and there is a common law between tortfeasor(haksız fiili işleyen) and the person
sustaining the damage(zarara uğrayan) such as habitual residence, nationality or domicile. The common law is
suggested to be applied as the law more closely connected with the tort. Mesela iki Türk Bulgaristan’da araba ile
gelirken kaza yaptılar. Adamlar Bulgaristan’dan sadece geçiyorlardı. Common nationality olduğu için Türk
hukuku more connected diyerek Türk hukuku uygulanabilir.
 Turkish judge MUST apply if there is a more closely connected law. Bağlama noktasının ispatı ise boşanma ve
kamu düzeni dışındaki konularda taraflara aittir.
 If there exists another legal relationship between the parties of the tortious act (contract, family law, etc) and if
the tort is connected with that legal relationship, the law which governs that legal relationship should govern the
tort as well.
 There is a “substantive private international law rule” in Art 34. As we said before, substantive private
international law rule does not refer to any law, it directly shows the solution. Article 34 (4) provides that the
damaged person can file a case directly to the insurer of the person liable, if the law applicable to the tort or the
insurance contract allows it. Haksız fiile veya sigorta sözleşmesine uygulanan hukuk imkân veriyorsa, zarar gören,
talebini doğrudan doğruya sorumlunun sigortacısına karşı ileri sürebilir. Sigorta sözleşmelerine uygulanacak
hukuk ise özel bir düzenleme olmadığı için Art 24’e göre belirlenir. Dikkat edersek zarar gören sigortacıya
gidebilir diyor, sigortacıdan para alır demiyor. Sigortacıya gittikten sonra uygulanacak hukuk ise yineArt 34’e
göre belirlenir.
c. Specific Torts
 As mentioned above, PIL Act sets out specific conflict of law rules for particular types of tort under Article 35-38:
Liability arising from the violation of personality rights, non-contractual liability of the manufacturer, unfair
competition and restraint of competition.
c.1. Liability Arising from the Violation of Personality Rights - Art 35(SINAVA DAHİL DEĞİL)
 Sometimes tortious act can be raised because of the violation of a personal right. For example,
defamation(hakaret).
 Art 35 states that: “(1) The claims arising from the violation of personality rights via the media such as press,
radio, television or via internet or other means of mass communication shall be governed by, pursuant to the
choice of the damaged party: a) the law of the habitual residence of the damaged party if the damaging party
should have expected that the damage would occur in this country, b) the law of the country where the place of
business or the habitual residence of the damaging party is situated or c) the law where the damage has occurred
if the damaging party should have expected that the damage would occur in this country. (2) The right of reply
regarding the violation of personality rights shall be governed by the law of the country where the periodical was
printed or the program was broadcasted. (3) The first paragraph of this article shall also apply to claims arising
from the violation of personality by the processing of personal data or the restriction of the right to obtain
information regarding the personal data.”
 Liability arising from the violation of personality rights via media, or by way of processing of personal data or of
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restriction of the right to obtain information regarding personal data is considered under Art 35 which is adopted
from Article 139 of the Swiss IPRG.
 Just an e-mail is not a mass communication. Mass communication must be public.
 Turkey also has a law on protection of personal data.
 For the claims arising from the violation of personality rights via media, internet or other means of mass
communication, Article 35 (1) provides the damaged party with a limited opportunity to choose the applicable
law among:
-1. The law of the country of his/her habitual residence on the condition that “the damaging party would have
known” that the damage would occur in that country, or
-2. Where the damage has occurred on the condition that “the damaging party would have known” that the
damage would occur in these countries, or
-3. The law of the country where the place of business or the habitual residence of the damaging party is situated.
 Violation of personal rights can be happened either by mass communication or processing personal data without
consent(For example a company gives personal data of its workers to another company), or restriction of the right
to obtain information regarding the personal data. Art 35 is applied for all of these situations.
 Davanın esasına kadar bu 3’ünden hangisini seçtiğini belirtmelidir.
 As we know, the party who made the violation also has a right to respond. Which law is going to be applied for
the right of reply? By considering the freedom of press, the right of reply in case of the violation of personality
rights is subject to the law of the country “where the periodical was printed” or “the program was broadcast”. (Art
35 (2)). Kişilik haklarının ihlâlinde cevap hakkı, süreli yayınlarda, münhasıran baskının yapıldığı ya da
programın yayınlandığı ülke hukukuna tâbidir.
c.2. Non-Contractual Liability of the Producer - Art 36
 Product liability is really important. For example you bought Samsung phone, it’s exploded and your house is
burning. Or you get some medicine and you get ill because of it. Or you bought a Hyundai, but it turns out there
is a engine problem. Or you bought a good but it damaged your other goods. These are all actually torts. So you
need to get material and non-pecuniary damages.
 CISG is not applicable, because Art 5 of CISG says product liability is an exception.
 Article 36 provides which law applicable to non-contractual liability of the manufacturer and adopted from the
Article 135 of the Swiss IPRG.
 Art 36 states that: “(1) The law of the habitual residence or the place of business of the damaging party or of the
country where the product is acquired shall apply to the liability arising from damages caused by manufactured
products, subject to the choice of the damaged party. The law of the country of acquisition may be applied in
cases where the damaging party is unable to prove that the product has been entered into that country without
his/her consent.” Damaged person can choose either: 1. The law of the habitual residence or the place of business
of the damaging party or 2. The country where the product is acquired(on the condition that the damaging party
could not have proved that the product was entered into that country without his consent).
 İmal edilen şeylerin sebep olduğu zarardan doğan sorumluluğa, zarar görenin seçimine göre, zarar verenin mutad
meskeni veya işyeri hukuku ya da imal edilen şeyin iktisap edildiği ülke hukuku uygulanır.
 İktisap yeri hukukunun uygulanabilmesi için zarar verenin(producer), mamulün o ülkeye rızası dışında
sokulduğunu ispat edememiş olması gerekir. Bundan ne anlıyoruz? Imalatçı(producer) herbir ülkeye o ürünü
farklı olarak, farklı kalitelerde vs verebilir. The law of the place of acquisition: if the damaging party proves that
the product entered into the place of acquisition without his consent, the law of that place cannot be choosen as
the applicable law. Bu durumda Türkiye’deki ticarete göre üretilmeyen bir mal ise ve imalatçının o malın
Türkiye’ye girdiğini bilmediğini ispatlarsa(örn o ürün sadece İngiltere için üretilmiştir), malın iktisap yeri hukuku
uygulanamaz. Bu nasıl olur? Kişi bir telefonu Amerika’da alır, Türkiye’de haksız fiil gerçekleşir. İmalatçı o
telefonun Türkiye için imal edilen model olmadığını ispat ederse, malın iktisap edildiği yer hukuku uygulanmaz.
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 Soru: Laptopu Avrupa’dan aldım ama aynı üretim Türkiye’ye de gönderiliyor. Türkiye’de dava açabilir miyim?
Evet. Burada istersek sözleşme sorumluluğu uyarında consumer contract’a da gidebiliriz.
 Product liability konusunda uluslarası bir sözleşme var ama Türkiye taraf değil.
 Product liability nasıl gerçekleşir? Bir mal almışşsınızdır ve canınız veya başka mallarınız o mal nedeniyle zarar
görmüştür. Eğer aldığınız malın kendisi zarar görmüşse, bu Art 36 kapsamına girmez, çünkü burada artık bir tort
değil; sözleşme ilişkisi vardır.
 This article tried to balance the interests of both parties(balance of interests).
 The damaging party could anticipate the application of the law of his habitual residence or place of business.
 Article 36 can be criticized since it did not consider the habitual residence of the damaged party at all. It brings a
burden on the damaged party to search for the applicable law and to choose one of them.
 It did not mention which law would apply if the damaged party does not make any choice. No exception clause
either.
c.3. Unfair Competition - Art 37 (SINAVA DAHİL DEĞİL)
 Art 37 states that: “(1) Claims arising from unfair competition shall be governed by the law of the country whose
market is directly affected from such unfair competition. (2) Where the interests relating solely to the enterprise of
the damaged party have been violated, the law of the country where the place of business of the said enterprise is,
shall be applicable.”
 Haksız rekabetten doğan talepler, haksız rekabet sebebiyle piyasası doğrudan etkilenen ülke hukukuna tâbidir.
 Haksız rekabet sonucunda zarar görenin münhasıran işletmesine ilişkin menfaatleri ihlâl edilmişse, söz konusu
işletmenin işyerinin bulunduğu ülke hukuku uygulanır.
c.4. Restraint of Competition - Art 38 (SINAVA DAHİL DEĞİL)
 Art 38 states that: “(1) Claims arising from the restraint of competition shall be governed by the law of the
country encompassing the market directly affected from such restraint. (2) Where foreign law is applicable to the
restraint of competition in Turkey, no compensation exceeding the amount of compensation that would be
awarded if Turkish law were applied, may be ordered.”
 Companies must get permission from competition authorities.
 Most of Turkish competition provisions are mandatory provisions as well. Even though we didn’t have Art 38,
our competition law rules would be still applicable because they are mostly overriding mandatory rules. These
rules are regulated in a way that protecting Turkish economy.
 Rekabetin engellenmesinden doğan talepler, bu engellemeden doğrudan etkilenen piyasanın bulunduğu ülkenin
hukukuna tâbidir.
 Türkiye’de rekabetin engellenmesine yabancı hukuk uygulanan hâllerde, Türk hukuku uygulansaydı verilecek
tazminattan daha fazla tazminata hükmedilemez.
19.04.17
SUCCESSION
a.Case Study
 Latif, Turkish national and Monica, US national got married in Texas, US. One day Monica’s parents gave her a
vacation home in Indonesia. Monica wanted to make sure Latif got the vacation home if she died. She executed a
will in Texas at her lawyer’s office. The will specifically devised the vacation home to Latif. She had two child
from her previous marriage and she had also bank account (total 700.000 USD Dollar) in London CHR Bank and
she had also two residence houses in Istanbul and Antalya, one land in Texas. She died in 2014 when she was
traveling from Antalya to İstanbul. Who are the heirs? Which law shall be applicable to find out the shares of the
heirs? Is the will valid? Which law applicable to for the distribution of the estate(tereke)?
 Heirs of the foreigner can file certificate of inheritance(mirasçılık belgesi) case in Turkey. Normally, certificate of
inheritance can get from notaries. But if the case has a foreign element, then you need to go to court.
 TPIL has two article relating to succession: 1. Art 20 = Law applicable to succession, 2. Art 43 = International
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jurisdiction of Turkish court with respect succession(we already mentioned it last semester).
 An incidental (preliminary) question is one that arises in connection with the major question in a case. Thus while
the main question may be succession, we also need to know whether the person claiming as the deceased’s widow
is indeed his widow. The incidental question here would be validity of marriage. In other words, there might be
other issues that need to be sold before succession. For example children of Monica claimed that Monica and
Latif are not actually legally married. Or whether Monica has a legal relationship with her heirs, descent issues
etc. Or presumption of death and disappearance must be solved first. Önce ön mesele çözülecek.
 Renvoi is NOT applicable for succession.
b. General Information
 Art 20 (1): “(1) Inheritance shall be governed by the national law of the deceased. Turkish Law shall be
applicable regarding immovable property situated in Turkey.” This is the general rule. Who died, that person’s
national law is applied for succession. But if his/her immovable property is situated in Turkey, then Turkish law is
applied for that immovable property.
 TPIL is a combination of “scission of succession” and unification of succession”. The first system is based on
separation. In other words, the laws applicable to immovable and movable properties are different. The second
system requires one law to apply succession.
 Turkish conflict of law rules consists both system together. But we have more likely unification of succession
system which means succession is subject to the national law of the deceased.
 However, this main rule contains an exception for the immovable property located in Turkey. Under this
exception, Turkish law governs any succession dispute arising from immovable property located in Turkey.
Turkish law is applicable to the immovable property in Turkey and the national law of the deceased is applicable
to the rest of the succession.
 In Latif Case; Monica’s house in Antalya and Istanbul will be tied to Turkish law.
 In other words, the law of succession of movable property regardless of location, as well as, immovable property
of the deceased, located abroad shall be national law of the deceased.
 Party autonomy is NOT accepted for succession!!
c.The Scope of the Law Applicable to Succession

 Lex successionis shall govern succession as a whole.
 Determination of heirs, the identification of their respective shares, reserve shares(saklı pay), disposable part of
estate, capacity to inherit, capacity of unborn child, action for reduction(tenkis davası) etc. are all scope of the law
applicable to succession.
 Issues are excluded from the scope of applicable law provided under Art 20 (1).
d. Exceptions of General Rule
 There are other laws can be applicable for succession as well. It’s also possible that more than one law can be
applicable for succession.
 Art 20 (2): “Provisions relating to the reasons of opening, acquisition and distribution of succession shall be
governed by the law of the state where the estate is located.” There is not any distinction for movables and
immovable properties in terms of opening, acquiring and distribution of estate. Where the estate is located, that
law is applied. Mirasın açılması sebeplerine, kazanımına ve paylaşımına ilişkin hükümler terekenin bulunduğu
ülke hukukuna tâbidir. Mesela Türk hukukunda kazanım, miras bırakanın ölümü anında külli halefiyet(direct
acquisition) şeklinde gerçekleşir. Bu madde pratiklik açısından önemlidir. Nitekim siz Endonezya’daki terekeyi
Türk hukukuna göre paylaştırırsanız, bu çok zor olacaktır.
 If Turkish judge gave decision about presumption of death or disappearance of the person, whether the
disappearance or presumption of death can be considered as an opening of succession or not will be solved by the
law where the estate is located. Yabancılık unsuru inçeren gaiplik ve ölmüş sayılma hallerinde, bu kararların
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mirasçılık kararının mirasın açılması sebebi olarak uygulanıp uygulanmayacağı terekenin bulunduğu yer
hukukuna göre belirlenir.
 For the refusal of inheritance(mirasın reddi), the same law which is applied to acquisition of inheritance is
applied. So, where the estate is located, that place’s law is applied for refusal of inheritance.
 Art 20 (3): “The State shall inherit estates situated in Turkey that do not have any inheritors.” Türkiye'de
bulunan(taşınır veya taşınmaz) mirasçısız tereke Devlete kalır. We can see it’s a substantive private international
law rule, because it directly shows the solution. But if the person designated someone else or another state as a
his/her heir, at that time Art 20 (3) cannot be applied.
 Art 20 (5): “The legal capacity to execute a testamentary disposition is governed by the national law of the
executing person at the time of the execution.” Ölüme bağlı tasarruf ehliyeti, tasarrufta bulunanın, tasarrufun
yapıldığı andaki millî hukukuna tâbidir. So, as we see there is a specific provision for capacity, so we don’t go to
Art 9. AND THIS TIME RENVOI IS APPLIED! Because the issue is related with capacity.
 Art 20 (4): “The form of a testamentary disposition is subject to the provision of Article 7. A testamentary
disposition executed in compliance with the national law of the deceased shall also be valid.” Ölüme bağlı
tasarrufun şekline MÖHUK 7(lex causae or where the transaction is concluded) uygulanır AMA ölenin millî
hukukuna uygun şekilde yapılan ölüme bağlı tasarruflar da geçerlidir. Yani bu 3’ünden birine göre ölüme başlı
tasarruf geçerli ise şekli açıdan geçerli kabul edilecektir. Murisin niyetinin ayakta tutulması hedeflenmiştir(favor
testamenti). For example she made the will in a lawyer office, Texas. This is not valid according to Turkish law.
But, if it’s formally valid in Texas, it’s valid here as well.
e.Convention on the Conflict of Law Relating to the Form of Testamentary Disposition(1961)
 Testamentary disposition is either will(vasiyetname) or succession contract(miras sözleşmesi). Art 20 (4) can be
only applied for succession contract. We have this international treaty for will, so Art 20(4) is not applied for will.
Ölüme bağlı tasarruflardan vasiyetnamenin şekline ilişkin uluslarası bir sözleşme var.
 This is a “loi uniforme” international treaty(self-executive treaty). Which means this treaty is applied without any
requirement of reciprocity or nationality. Any person whether is a national of a country which signed this treaty or
not will be subject to this contract, if he/she has died in Turkey and made a will. Because Turkey signed this
treaty.
 This treaty has 8 different alternative connecting factors. If according to the one of them the will is valid, this
treaty is applied.
 Anlaşmanın 3. maddesi ise eğer diğer ülkelerin hukuku daha lehte ise, o ülke hukuku uygulanabilir demektedir.
Ama 20 (4) ile zaten anlaşmanın hükümleri aynı.
 This treaty shows the scope of formal validity of will too. Age, witnesses are also scope of formal validity. Yani
diyelim ki sözleşmedeki alternatif yollardan uygulanacak hukuku bulduk, bu hukuka göre 2 tane şahit olması
gerekiyor ama vasiyetname yapılırken bu şahitler yoksa, bu vasiyetname şeklen geçersizdir.
 Turkey put some reservation to Art 10 of this treaty. Art 10 grants making will orally. So because of Turkey put a
reservation, Turkey can never recognize a will made orally, if the person who made the will is a Turkish
national. If the person holding both Turkish and another nationality, that reservation is never applied. However, if
there is an exceptional situation(neyin istisnai durum olduğunu anlaşmada uygulanacak hukuk hangisi
gösterilmişse ona göre buluruz) and that’s why Turkish national made the will orally, that will is valid, as Art 10
of the treaty grants it.
f. Public Policy & Overriding Mandatory Rules
 For example, gender discrimination. At that time that law may not be applicable, if the conclude results are
manifestly against to Turkish public policy, where deemed necessary Turkish law is applied(Art 5).
 Birden fazla eş olması halinde eşlere miras hakkı tanınması Türk kamu düzenine aykırı değildir. Çünkü Türk
hukukunda bile gerek görüldüğünde birden fazla eş olması(evlenme sırasında evli bulunma vs) halinde miras
paylaşılabilmektedir. Bu çok eşliliğin Türk kamu düzenine aykırı olmadığı anlamına gelmez, ama zaten o hukuka
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göre birden çok kez evlenmiş, yani olan olmuş, eşler arasında ayrımcılık yapmak adaletsiz olur. Böyle bir
durumda eşit olarak bölmek gerekir.
 When Turkish judge applies the law applicable to succession(lex successionis), if there is a overriding mandatory
rule, Turkish judge must apply it(Art 6). We have a very important overriding mandatory rule which is Art 35 of
Turkish Land Registry Law. This article regulates specific requirements for foreigners to get inheritance in terms
of immovable(real) properties. So, when a Turkish judge applies Art 20 of TPIL, he/she must taken into account
overriding mandatory rules. Yabancılar hukukunda zaten yabancıların taşınmaz edinmesi konusunda buna gelicez.
Yabancıların taşınmazlar üzerinde miras edinimleri ile ilgili Tapu Kanunu madde 35’te bazı sınırlandırılmalar
getirilmiş. Bu madde doğrudan uygulanan hukuk kuralı olarak mirasçılık belgesi düzelenirken Türk hakimi
tarafından uygulanacaktır.
24.04.17
TURKISH ALIENS LAW
 Aliens law; regulates the rights accorded by a state, to the persons not having the nationality of that state.
 In Turkey; various legal rules regulate the ability of non-Turkish nationals, to work, to own property, to make
investments or to engage in other activities. Traditionally, political rights have been denied to aliens.
 To have rights, alien must enter legally in Turkey.
 Aliens do not have any political rights. They cannot elect or be elected, or they cannot be chosen to Turkish
Grand Assembly.
 We have Law on Foreigners and International Protection(Yabancılar ve Uluslarası Koruma Kanunu) which came
into force at 2014. It deals with the how aliens can enter Turkey, how they reside here, and how they can get
protection.
 International Work Force Law(Aug 2016), Turkish Land Register Law are also important for aliens law
a. Article 16 and Art 90 of the Turkish Constitution
 Article 16 of Turkish Constitution: The fundamental rights and freedoms in respect to aliens may be restricted by
“law” in comply with international law. Law dediği için yönetmelik, tüzük vs ile sınırlandırılamaz.
 If Turkish Constitution says “everyone” it includes aliens as well.
 Article 90 of Turkish Constitution: If there is an international treaty, that treaty prevails. Usulüne göre yürürlüğe
konulmuş milletlerarası andlaşmalar kanun hükmündedir. Bunlar hakkında Anayasaya aykırılık iddiası ile
Anayasa Mahkemesine başvurulamaz. Usulüne göre yürürlüğe konulmuş temel hak ve özgürlüklere ilişkin
milletlerarası andlaşmalarla kanunların aynı konuda farklı hükümler içermesi nedeniyle çıkabilecek
uyuşmazlıklarda milletlerarası andlaşma hükümleri esas alınır
 It should be noted that there are limits to the restrictions imposed on non-nationals.
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Art 6: “Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person
before the law”.
 Turkey signed so many international treaties regarding aliens. Especially ECHR is important.
b. Developments on Aliens Law
 The scope of the rights and freedoms of aliens under ECHR.
 2013 Law on Foreigners and International Protection(LFIP) regarding the general status of aliens, LAW NO 6458,
4.4.2013, Official gazette, 11.4.2013, 28615. Enforcement date: 11.4.2014.
 But Circular regarding Applying the Law on Foreigners and International Protection is made in March 2016.
Until that time, there was a big problem for application of that law.
 The preparation of the new law has required codification of most of the national laws on foreigners and the legal
regulations on asylum and migration.
 The Law on Foreigners and International Protection regulates basic subjects concerning aliens’ status in Turkey,
EXCEPT work permits and acquisition of immovable property.
 Additionally, it constitutes the first domestic law governing practices of asylum(iltica) in Turkey.
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 Until the adoption of the LFIP, asylum had been regulated by secondary legislation, namely 1994 Regulation on
Asylum and administrative circulars.
 The status of stateless persons is regulated firstly by law in the domestic system.
 The provisions of the new law generally reflect the impact of EU law.
 The principles of international law and human rights have also been taken into consideration in LFIP. As the
articles affecting the entry, residence and deportation of foreigners, constitutes a manifestation of the principle of
non-refoulement.
c. Non-Refoulement Principle: In line with International Human Rights Law
 Art 4 of LFIP: “(1) No one within the scope of this law shall be returned to a place where he or she may be
subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment or, where his/her life or freedom would be
threatened on account of his/her race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
opinion.”
 If a foreigner came to Turkey, and if you deport him he/she will be tortured, then we cannot deport him/her.
 Bu Kanun kapsamındaki hiç kimse, işkenceye, insanlık dışı ya da onur kırıcı ceza veya muameleye tabi tutulacağı
veya ırkı, dini, tabiiyeti, belli bir toplumsal gruba mensubiyeti veya siyasi fikirleri dolayısıyla hayatının veya
hürriyetinin tehdit altında bulunacağı bir yere gönderilemez.
 ECHR also says that if somebody will get tortured, or death penalty, then you cannot deport him/her.
 Suçluların iadesi ile karıştırmamak gerekir. Suçluların iadesinde siyasi suç olması galinde geri göndermeme
durumu var. Bu halde de uluslarası ceza hukukunda aut dedere aut judicare ilkesi gereği, madem geri
göndermiyorsun sen yargıla denerek o ülkenin o suçluyu yargılaması istenebilir.
d. The Purpose of the Law
 Art 1 of LFIP: “(1) The purpose of this law is to regulate the principles and procedures with regard to foreigners’
entry into, stay in and exit from Turkey, and the scope and implementation of the protection to be provided for
foreigners who seek protection from Turkey, and establishment, duties, mandate and responsibilities of the
Directorate General of Migration Management under the Ministry of Interior.”
 Bu Kanunun amacı; yabancıların Türkiye’ye girişleri, Türkiye’de kalışları ve Türkiye’den çıkışları ile
Türkiye’den koruma talep eden yabancılara sağlanacak korumanın kapsamına ve uygulanmasına ilişkin usul ve
esasları ve İçişleri Bakanlığına bağlı Göç İdaresi Genel Müdürlüğünün kuruluş, görev, yetki ve sorumluluklarını
düzenlemektir.
e. Entry of Foreign Persons into Turkey
 The entry of foreign persons to Turkey is regulated by the LFIP.
 We talk about other than refugee and other international protection.
 Aliens must enter into Turkey legally.
 LFIP, Pasaport Kanunu’nun pek çok hükmünü ilga etmiş olsa da Pasaport Kanunu hala geçerlidir.
 The requirements and other regulations regarding this issue may be briefly classified in five groups:
-1. Formal requirements concerning the entry of foreigners;
-2. The category of foreigners who shall not be permitted entry into Turkey;
-3. The ban of entry;
-4. Competence of the Council of Ministers;
-5. Procedural guarantees.
e.1. Formal Requirements Concerning the Entry of Foreigners
 How aliens can legally enter into Turkey?
 Firstly, the alien must entry and exit through border gates with valid passport or passport substitute
documents(Art 5). Türkiye’ye giriş ve Türkiye’den çıkış, sınır kapılarından, geçerli pasaport veya pasaport yerine
geçen belgelerle yapılır. Pasaport yerine geçen belgeye örnek: Kıbrıslıların kimlik göstermesinin yeterli olması
gibi.
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 Not every border gates are for human beings. Council of Minister decides which can be used for people’s entry
and exit. Otherwise, it is an illegal entry.
 Secondly, the obligation to obtain a visa (Art 11) must be met. But there are some exceptions as well. Some
people do not need to show visa. It’s written in LFIP.
 And thirdly, there must be absence of prohibition of entry. Sometimes, some people cannot enter into Turkey,
even though they have visa. Visas shall not confer an absolute right of entry(Art 11(3)).
f. Freedom of Residence and Movement of Aliens
 Freedom of residence and movement ARTICLE 23 of the Turkish Constitution states that: “Everyone” has the
freedom of residence and movement. Freedom of residence may be restricted by law for the purpose of
preventing crimes, promoting social and economic development, achieving sound and orderly urbanization, and
protecting public property. Freedom of movement may be restricted by law for the purpose of investigation and
prosecution of an offence, and prevention of crimes. (As amended on October 3, 2001; Act No. 4709, and as
amended on September 12, 2010; Act No. 5982) A citizen’s freedom to leave the country may be restricted only
by the decision of a judge based on a criminal investigation or prosecution. Citizens shall not be deported, or
deprived of their right of entry into the homeland.
 As you remember, we have Article 16.
f.1. The Requirements for Aliens Freedom of Residence and Movement in Turkey
 1. Alien must legally enter into Turkey. We talked about it.
 2. They must obey the law that restrict for aliens residence. Such as Military Forbidden Zones and Security Zones
Law, Village Law. Village Law says that aliens can live village only if Ministry of Interior gives specific
permission. They can buy property in village, but they need specific permission from Ministry of Interior to live.
 3. They must get residence permit(ikamet izni). Residence permit is issued by Turkish Consulate where he/she is
coming from. İstisnaları da var, blue card holders gibi.
f.2. Residence Permit
 Article 19: “(1) Foreigners who would stay in Turkey beyond the duration of a visa exemption or, (in any case)
longer than ninety days should obtain a residence permit. The residence permit shall become invalid if not used
within six months.”
 Exemption from residence permit : Art 20.
 Application for residence permit: Art 21
 Applications for residence permits to be lodged in Turkey: Art 22
 Issuance and format of residence permits: Art 23
 Bunları bilmemize gerek yok, usul konuları.
f.3. Types of Residence Permit: Art 30 of the LFIP
 Types of residence permits are the listed below:
 a) Short-term residence permit
 b) family residence permit;
 c) student residence permit;
 d) long-term residence permit;
 e) humanitarian residence permit;
 f) victim of human trafficking residence permit.
f.3.a. Short time residence permit
 It’s given for 2 years.
 A short term residence permit may be granted to those foreigners :Art 31’de sayılan kişilere kısa dönem ikamet
izni verilebilir. Örn/ yabancıların talınmaz edinmeleri, bilimsel araştırma için gelmeleri
f.3.b. Family Residence Permit
 Art 34 says what are the conditions.
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 It’s given for 3 years.
f.3.c. Student Residence Permit
 Art 38 says what are the conditions.
 Students have a right to work here.
f.3.d. Long-Term Residence Permit
 Art 42: “(1) A long-term residence permit shall be issued by the governorates, upon approval of the Ministry, to
foreigners that have continuously resided in Turkey for at least eight years on a permit or, foreigners that meet the
conditions set out by the Migration Policies Board. (2) Refugees, conditional refugees and subsidiary protection
beneficiaries as well as persons under temporary protection or humanitarian residence permit holders ARE
NOT entitled to the right of transfer to a long-term residence permit.”
 Conditions for long-term residence permit are written under Art 43:
a) having continues residence in Turkey for at least 8 years;
b) not having received social assistance in the past three years;
c) having sufficient and stable income to maintain themselves or, if any, support their family;
d) to be covered with a valid medical insurance;
e) not to be posing a public order or public security threat.
 Aliens who have long term residence permit have almost same rights with blue card holders. Their rights are
written under Art 44. Aliens holding a long-term residence permit shall benefit from the same rights as accorded
to Turkish citizens with the exception of the provisions in laws regulating specific areas:
a) compulsory military service;
b) the right of vote and be elected;
c) entering public service;
d) exemption from customs duties when importing vehicles.
 Bunlar taşınmaz edinebiliyor, yatırım yapabiliyor, davada teminat yatırıyorlar(?) vs.
 Keep in mind, if there is any regulation saying that Turkish people can get benefit, at that time aliens who get
long term residence permit cannot have that right. Yönetmelikte, eğer kanunlarda bir hakkın sadece Türk
vatandaşlarına tanındığı belirtilmişse, uzun dönem ikamet izni olan yabancı bundan yararlanamaz denmektedir.
26.04.17
ALIENS’ RIGHT TO WORK
 Freedom of work is one of the fundamental human rights assured to each individual. This basic right is
considered to be among the public rights whose public law character outweighs its private law nature. Pursuant to
Turkish Law, Turkish citizens and foreigners have equal rights to the extent that fundamental rights are applied to
them, with the exception of political rights.
 However, the absolute equality between Turkish citizens and foreigners regarding the implementation of the right
to work is not applicable, as it is subject to some restrictions in accordance with public safety, public welfare, and
public health considerations.
 Analyzing the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, we can easily see that citizens and non-citizens have equal
rights under the constitution. Article 10, which establishes that all individuals are equal without discrimination
before the rule of law, is one of the fundamental norms enshrined in the constitution.
 Another significant article in the Constitution is Article 48, which governs the freedom of labour and freedom of
contract, setting forth that everyone has the freedom to work and conclude contracts in the field of his choice. The
establishment of private enterprises is free.
 This article is complemented by Articles 49 and 50. Article 49 states that everyone has the right and duty to work,
and Article 50 indicates that no one shall be required to perform work unsuited to his age, sex, and capacity.
 Article 16: Even though other articles give right to work to aliens in Turkey, the equality between citizens and
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foreigners may be limited by Article 16 of the Turkish constitution. Pursuant to Article 16, the fundamental rights
and freedoms of foreigners may be restricted by law in a manner consistent with international law.
 There are various laws that restrict work of foreigners in some sectors and professions.
 There are also laws that provides procedural issues for working permit. In particular, International Workforce
Law is entered into force in August 2016.
 General Directorate for International Workforce is established under Ministry of Labor and Social Security. This
Directorate is dealing with work permit and other issues.
a. General Conditions
 Through analyzing the laws and regulations, the following general conditions must be met, if a foreigner wants to
work in Turkey:
 1. Aliens must legally enter into Turkey(LFIP).
 2. There should be no legal restriction for working on that specific field or profession.
 3. Alien must get work permit.
 As mentioned above, foreigners cannot work every field or every profession in Turkey; they can only work in a
field or a profession that is not forbidden to them. Therefore, foreigners cannot apply for a work permit for any
occupation or any field prohibited for foreigners, such as a veterinarian, pharmacist, lawyer(arbitrator ve legal
adviser olabilirler), notary, judge or prosecutor, civil servants, sea or air transportation, etc.
 They can work as doctor at private hospitals. They can be dentist.
b. International Workforce Law
 International Workforce Law (IWL) was enacted in 28 July 2016 and has been enter into force on 13 August
2016.
 The main aim of IWL is: regulate the determination, application and monitoring of the policies related to
employment of international workforce, procedures and principles and the responsibilities and authority related to
processes and transactions to be followed on work permits, work permit exemptions granted to foreigners, to
regulate the rights and obligations in the field of employment of international workforce, how they can go to
Administrative Courts and so on.
 Right now, there is not any Regulation for applying IWL.
 Blue card holders are exempt from IWL.
b.1. Determining the International Workforce Policy
 Art 4: “(1) Ministry (Ministry of Labor and Social Security) taking account of the decisions made by
International Workforce Policy Advisory Board, is authorized to determine the policy related to international
workforce and to engage in activities at national and international level intended to carry out these policy. (2)
International workforce policy shall be determined by taking into account; the mobility of the work force and
regional developments as well as decisions of Migration Policies Board, the developments related to employment
and business life, periodic sectoral and economic changes, development plans and programs, bilateral economic
social and cultural relations as regard to foreigner's country of citizenship, international bilateral or multilateral
agreements and conventions to which Turkey is party, public order, public security and public health.”
 Bakanlık, Uluslararası İşgücü Politikası Danışma Kurulu kararlarını dikkate alarak uluslararası işgücüne ilişkin
politika belirlemeye ve belirlenen politikayı uygulamaya yönelik ulusal ve uluslararası düzeyde faaliyette
bulunmaya yetkilidir. Ama henüz yönetmelik çıkmadığı için bu kurul daha oluşturulmadı.
b.2. Authority and Responsibility on Work Permit
 Who is going to give work permit?
 Art 6: “(1) Work permit shall be granted by Ministry on the basis of principles concerning international
workforce policy determined pursuant to Article 4. (2) Foreigners who are within the scope of this Law are
forbidden to work or be employed without obtaining work permit. (3) Foreigners who are specified as exempt
from work permit in other laws and international bilateral and multilateral agreements and conventions to which
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Turkey is party may work or be employed without obtaining work permit pursuant to this Law. (4) Working rights
of persons within the scope of Article 28 of Turkish Citizenship Law No. 5901 of 29 May 2009 are reserved.”
 Work permit shall be granted Ministry of Labor and Social Security, in accordance with international workforce
policy.
b.3. Work Permit aApplication and Assessment
 Art 7: “(1) Work permit applications in Turkey shall be made directly to the Ministry, and the applications abroad
shall be made to the embassies or consulate generals of the Republic of Turkey in the foreigner's country of
citizenship or legal stay. These applications shall be transferred to Ministry by embassies and consulate generals.
(2) Work permit applications can also be made by authorized intermediary.”
 Employer or employee can apply work permit either from Turkey or outside of Turkey. If he/she is applying from
outside, the application must be done from Turkish embassy or consulate where the foreigner lives or where the
foreigner has nationality. If he/she is applying in Turkey, the foreigner directly applies to the Ministry.
 Application is done through “e-devlet” system. If the foreigner wanna change his/her work permit or renew it,
he/she himself must done it.
 Work permit applications can also be made by authorized intermediary. However, we don’t really know who is
authorized intermediary(aracı kurum) right now.
b.4. Preliminary Permission
 For some sectors(especially education and healthcare), the alien must get preliminary permission, before the
application for work permit.
 Art 8: “(1) Obtaining preliminary permission is compulsory on the assessment of work permit applications of
foreigners seeking to work in healthcare and educational services that require professional competence. (2)
Preliminary permission for professionals of healthcare services shall be granted by Ministry of Health, and for
professionals of educational services shall be granted by Ministry of National Education. Occupations that
preliminary permission is required shall be determined by the Ministry upon taking the opinions of these
Ministries. (3) On the assessment of foreigners' work permit applications that are granted preliminary permission,
the first paragraph, subparagraph (d) of Article 9 of this Law is not applicable. (4) Work permits of foreign
national faculty members who are to work within the scope of Higher Education Law No. 2547 of 4 November
1982, Article 34, shall be granted by Ministry relying on the preliminary permission of Higher Education Council.
On the work permit assessment of above said faculty members, fourth, fifth and sixth paragraph of Article 7, and
the first paragraph of Article 9 without prejudice to subparagraph (f ), (g) and (ğ) are not applicable.”
 Buradaki education içine high school, bazı institutionlar vs giriyor. Üniversitelerde eğitimcilik için ise: They have
to get preliminary permission from Higher Education Council(YÖK), and then Ministry of Labor and Social
Security.
b.5. Rejections of Work Permit Application
 Ministry of Labor and Social Security can reject application, in situations are written in Art 9.
 There are many situations in that Article. One of them is very interesting. Accordingly, “ğ) made for the citizens
of a country that is not recognized officially by Republic of Turkey or has no diplomatic relations,” is a reason to
reject the application. Dışişleri Bakanlığının uygun görüşü olması durumu hariç, Türkiye Cumhuriyetinin
tanımadığı veya diplomatik ilişkisinin bulunmadığı ülke vatandaşları için yapılan başvurular reddedilir. For
example nationals of South Cyprus cannot get work permit directly, because Turkey didn’t officially recognized
and have no relationship.
b.6. Types of Work Permits(Art 10, 11-Çalışma İzni Çeşitleri)
b.6.a. Temporary(Süreli) Work Permit
 When an alien applies for working to a sector, in the first application the work permit duration is 1 year. If the
alien gonna extend it, it’s going to be 2 more years at the same employer and so on.
 Art 10: “(1) In case of favorable assessment of application, foreigners will be granted upmost one year work
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permit on their first application provided that permit's duration is not exceeding their employment or service
contract periods, and that they are employed for a certain job in a certain workplace owned by real person or
legal entity, or public institution and public enterprise, or in the workplaces belong to these employers in the
same sector. (2) Upon foreigner's favorably assessed application for extension, lodged in line with Article 7 of
this Law, foreigner serving under same employer will be given upmost two years extension on the first application
and maximum three years for the ensuing applications. However, applications lodged for employment under
different employer shall be assessed as per first paragraph of this Article.”
b.6.b. Permanent(Süresiz) Work Permit
 Art 10: “(3) Foreigners holding long-term residence permits or minimum eight years of legal work permit may
apply for permanent work permit. However, having the requirements for application shall not confer an absolute
right for foreigners. (4) Foreigners holding permanent work permit shall benefit from the same rights long-term
residence permit provide. Holders of permanent work permit, without prejudice to acquired rights with respect to
social security, and provided that they are subject to conditions set forth in applicable legislation in the
enjoyment of these rights, shall benefit from the same rights as accorded to Turkish citizens with the exception of
the provisions in laws regulating specific areas. Those foreigners have no right to elect and be elected or to enter
into public service. And they have no obligation of compulsory military service.”
 If an alien has a long term residence permit according to the Law on International Protection, or he/she gets at
least 8 years work permit in Turkey, may apply to permanent work permit.
 An alien who gets permanent work permit has the rights like persons who get long-term residence or permit blue
card holders, or Turquoise card holders. Askerlik yükümlülükleri, seçme-seçilme hakkı, kamuda çalışma hakkı
yok. Bunun dışındaki haklarda Türk vatandaşı gibiler.
 As we see aliens who get long term residence permit, permanent work permit, or blue card holders, Turquoise
card holders have almost same rights with Turkish nationals.
b.6.c. Independent Work Permit
 Sometimes an alien who wants to work independent can get independent work permit as well. Art 10 specifically
regulates who can get independent work permit. Kimlerin bu çalışma izni alabileceği Art 10/5 a,b,c’de belirtilmiş.
 Art 10: “(5) Following partners and associates of companies that are established under the Turkish Commercial
Code No. 6102 of 13 January 2011 may work by obtaining a work permit; a) Managing partner of limited
liability companies, b) Associates of joint - stock companies who are also member to board of directors, c) Acting
(commandite) partners of commandite companies with a capital divided into shares. (6) Foreign members of
profession might be granted independent work permit provided that they satisfy the special terms set forth in
other laws. (7) In the assessment of independent work permit application with respect to international workforce
policy foreigners'; educational level, professional experience, contribution to science and technology, effect
in-country activities or investments on Turkey's economy and employment, and in case of being foreign company
partner the share of capital and other issues determined by Ministry in line with the suggestions of International
Workforce Policy Advisory Board shall be taken into consideration. (8) Independent working permit shall be
arranged for defined period of time without being subject to period restrictions in this article.”
b.6.d. Turquoise Card
 This is another type of work permit. This is a very new and important development.
 Art 11: “(1) In line with the international workforce policy foreigners whose application accepted as appropriate
with regard to their educational level, professional experience, contribution to science and technology, effect of
their in-country activities or investments on Turkey's economy and employment, and the suggestions of
International Workforce Policy Advisory Board and procedures and principles determined by the Ministry shall
be granted Turquoise Card.”
 Foreigners who are well-educated, or brings investment, or working in an area that contributes our science,
technology, or sport etc. can apply for Turquoise card.
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 Ministry of Labor and Social Security grant this card.
 We have a Regulation on Turquoise Card which has came into force in March, 2017. It shows requirements,
application etc.
 It’s like Green Card of USA.
 Art 11: “(2) Turquoise Card shall be given on condition that its first three years will be deemed as transition
period. Ministry may request information and documents from employer or employed foreigner as regard to
conducted activities. In case Turquoise Card is not canceled pursuant to Article 16 within transition period, the
transition period reservation that put on in shall be removed upon foreigner's application and he/she shall be
granted permanent Turquoise Card. This application must be lodged starting prior to hundred and eighty days of
expire date of transition period or in any case before the date of expire. After expiration of transition period,
application for removing transition period reservation shall be refused and Turquoise Card shall becomes invalid.
(3) Turquoise Cards owner's spouse and children who are dependent in line with governing legislation shall be
given a document that substitutes the residence permit and shows that they are relatives of Turquoise Cards owner.
(4) Turquoise Cards owners shall benefit from the same rights provided by permanent work permit arranged in
this Law.”
 First 3 years of acquiring Turquoise card is a “transition” period. After 3 years passed, he/she will get right to use
Turquoise card. Very interestingly, Turquoise card holder’s spouse and children who are dependent can also have
a right to LIVE in Turkey.
 Turquoise card holders have the same right as a person who got permanent work permit, or long-term residence
or permit blue card holders. Askerlik yükümlülükleri, seçme-seçilme hakkı, kamuda çalışma hakkı yok. Bunun
dışındaki haklarda Türk vatandaşı gibiler.
 How Turquoise card application is evaluated? Art 11: “(5) In the application of Turquoise Card; those who have
internationally recognized studies in the academic area, and those distinguished in science, industry and
technology, areas of which deemed strategic from the point of our country, or those whose export, employment or
investment capacity make significant contribution to national economy or expected to make such contributions
shall be assessed as qualified foreigners. (6) Provisions of this article are not applicable to foreigners under
temporary protection.” Art 11 (5) is mentioned who can be considered as a qualified person for Turquoise card.
 When we look at the Regulation, it grands a point system. But it is not mentioned what are the points. Ministry of
Labor and Social Security will give points. What the regulation says is who has a distinguished degrees from
universities-scientific degrees, who broad investment can be considered as a qualified person and whether he/she
can get Turquoise card will be decided through point system. However as we said, points are not regulated yet.
 But we should know that foreigners who got temporarily protected status in Turkey cannot get Turquoise card,
i.e. Syrians. Kitle halinde başka bir ülkeden Türkiye’ye gelenlere geçici koruma hakkı tanınmıştır.
 Turkuaz kart; bilim adamları, ekonomik-siyasi olarak Türkiye’ye menfaat sağlayabilecek kişiler, yatırım getiren
kişiler için çalışma izni olarak sağlanan bir olanaktır. 3 yıllık geçiş döneminden sonra kişi tamamen Turkuaz kart
sahibi olur ve bunların nasıl alınacağına ilişkin olarak puanlama sistemi getirilmiş. Fakat yönetmeliğe
baktığımızda puanların düzenlenmediğini görüyoruz. Puanlamayı Çalışma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı’nın
takdir etmesini bekliyoruz.
 Turkuaz kart sahipleri aynı süresiz çalışma izninne sahip kişiler gibi haklara sahipler.
 As we know, some foreigners can apply for Turkish nationality in the exceptional way like a person who’s doing
sport activities here. Turquoise card holder and his/her family members also can apply for exceptional way of
acquiring Turkish nationality according to Art 12 of Turkish Nationality Act. Council of minister decides whether
they can acquire Turkish nationality or nah. The only condition is that they shouldn’t treat public policy. Buna
vatandaşlığın satılması(selling of nationality) de deniyormuş.
 But they do not really need to apply for Turkish nationality because they already got almost similar rights as
Turkish nationals.
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b.7. Nature of Work Permit(Art 12)
 If an alien who got work permit is considered as having residence permit(ikamet izni) and visa exception. Bu
husus hem Yabancılar ve Uluslararı Koruma Kanunu’nda hem de Uluslararası İş Gücü Kanunu’nda
düzenlenmektedir.
 So they do not need to show visa when coming from abroad.
 But not all sort of work permits grants it. Hangileri olduğunu söylemedi.
b.8. Foreigners Who May Be Granted Work Permit Exceptionally(Art 16)
 Some foreigners get work permit exceptionally which means the requirements for getting work permit is not
applied for them. Bir
 Art 7, 9 and especially 10 are not applied to them.
 Art 16 regulates who are they.
 Art 16: “(1) In line with the international workforce policy determined by Ministry, the foreigners that may be
exempted from the implementation of Article 7, 9, and 10 are those;
a) assessed as qualified workforce due to their educational level, wage, professional experience, contribution to
science and technology and such like qualifications,
b) assessed as qualified investor due to their contribution to science and technology, their level of investment or
export value, volume of employment they provide and such like qualifications,
c) employed by his/her employer for a certain period in a project which is being realized in Turkey,
 ç) declared by Ministry of Interior or Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of Turkish origin*(Türk vatandaşı olmayıp
Bakanlık tarafından Türk soyundan olduğu kabul edilenler. Örn/ Türkmenler. These persons cannot work only in
two areas: Military and police departments.They can work as a lawyer, or judge etc.),
d) citizens of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,
e) citizens of the countries that are member of the European Union(Eskiden bir de AB vatandaşı olmayıp AB
vatandaşı ile evli olanlar da dahildi, bu çıkartıldı),
f) in the scope of Law No. 6458; applicants of international protection claim, conditional refugees, persons under
temporary protection and stateless persons, victims of human trafficking supported by the victim’s assistance
process,
g) married with a Turkish citizen and live in Turkey with their spouse with marriage bond,
ğ) employed in foreign missions without diplomatic inviolability,
h) internationally reputed for their successes in their field and come to Turkey for scientific, cultural and sportive
purposes,
ı) cross-border service providers.
b.9. Regulation on the Employment of Foreign Personnel in Foreign Direct Investment
 We have also specific regualtions for employees who work under a company which is established under Turkish
Foreign Direct Investment Law. People who are working at these companies can get work permit much more
easier.
 Ama Turkuaz Kart getirildiği için bu büyük ihtimal bu kaldırılır.
 There are 2 requirements: 1. The person must be foreign key personnel 2. The investment must have some
particular characteristics.
03.05.17
REAL PROPERTY ACQUISITION BY FOREIGNERS IN TURKEY(YABANCILARIN TAŞINMAZ
EDİNİMİ)
a. General Information
 Acquiring a real property might be a land, summer house, apartment etc.
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 Every nation has its own legislation regarding acquisition of real property by foreign real persons within the
scope of its own political, economical and social conditions.
 Acquisition of real property by foreign real persons in Turkey is restricted by laws in accordance with the national
and international laws.
 Below are the related articles of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey regarding to acquisition of real
property by foreign real persons in Turkey:
 Article 12: “Every person has individual, inviolable, inalienable fundamental rights and freedoms.” Herkes,
kişiliğine bağlı, dokunulmaz, devredilmez, vazgeçilmez temel hak ve hürriyetlere sahiptir
 Article 16: “Fundamental rights and freedoms of foreigners may be restricted by law in accordance with
international law.” Temel hak ve hürriyetler, yabancılar için, milletlerarası hukuka uygun olarak
kanunla sınırlanabilir.
 Article 35: “Everyone has the right to own and inherit property. These rights may be limited by law only in view
of public interest. The exercise of the right to own property shall not be in contravention of the public interest.”
Herkes, mülkiyet ve miras haklarına sahiptir. Bu haklar, ancak kamu yararı amacıyla, kanunla sınırlanabilir.
Mülkiyet hakkının kullanılması toplum yararına aykırı olamaz.
 AY 35 herkes mülkiyet ve miras hakkına sahip olabilir demiştir. AY 16 gereğince bunlar yabancılar için
sınırlandırılabilir.
 Acquisition of a real property can be done by either a real person, or legal person, or Turkish company with a
foreign capital
b. Real Persons
b.1. Legal Restrictions
 Legal Restrictions are stipulated in Land Registry Law and other Laws.
 Land Registry Law has specific regulations about how real persons and legal persons can acquire real property in
Turkey. Art 35 of Land Registry Law is amended too much by Turkish Grand Assembly because of some
economical and governmental reasons. The last amendment of this Art 35 is done at 2012. Reciprocity is
abolished at this last amendment. In other words, there is not any requirement for reciprocity when a foreigner
acquires real property in Turkey. For example when a Saudi Arabian wants to acquire a real property in Turkey,
we do not look for if Turkish nationals can acquire real property is Saudi Arabia or not.
 On the other hand, Art 35 brought another requirement much more difficult than reciprocity.
 A real person acquire a real property under two conditions: 1. The acquisition must be in comply with legal
restrictions: Kanunda belirlenen hektar vb sınırlamalara uyulacak 2. Foreign nationals must be from countries that
the Council of Minister approves: Şu an sadece Suriyeliler ve kıyı bölgeleri için Yunanlar taşınmaz alamıyor. Çift
vatandaşsa MÖHUK 4 gereği zaten Tğrk vatandaşlığı dikkate alınır.
 Legal restrictions are divided under two heading: 1. Restrictions in Land Registry Law-Art 35 2. Restrictions in
other laws.
 What are the restrictions are in other laws? 1. Military Forbidden Zones and Security Zones Law: Foreigners shall
not acquire real property in the areas that are within the scope of the Law. The total area covered by all types of
such zones corresponds to less than %0.08 of Turkey’s area. Foreign nationals and foreign commercial companies
are not allowed to buy property in military, strategic and security zones of Turkey. That restriction applies to
Turkish nationals as well. 2. Law on Private Education Institutions- Article 5: Foreign schools are also restricted.
Council of Minister may grant a permission for them. 3. Retaliation Act: Retaliation does not mean reciprocity.
Retaliation-> karşı işlem, misilleme. Reciprocity-> karşılıklılık, mütekabiliyet. Retaliation allows that if any
unlawful act done to a Turkish national by a foreign state, council of Minister has a right to do the same thing to
nationals of that foreign state. Yabancı bir devlet hukuka aykırı ve haksız olarak Türk vatandaşlarına
müdahalelerde bulunurlarsa Türk hükümeti de o devletin hukuka aykırı olarak yapmış olduğu müdahaleye onun
vatandaşlarına da aynı şekilde davranarak karşı işlem yapabilir. 1939 ve 60’lı yıllarda Suriye hükümetinin yapmış
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olduğu hukuksuz tedbirler ile Türk vatandaşlarının taşınmazlarını aldıktan sonra Türkiye de bu kanun
çerçevesinde aynı işlemi yapmıştır ve Suriye vatandaşları Türkiye’de taşınmaz alamamaktadırlar.
 What are the restrictions in Land Registry Law? Art 35 brings some restrictions: a) Persons with foreign
nationality can buy maximum 30 hectares of property in Turkey in total and can acquire limited in rem right.
The Council of Ministers is also authorized to increase thirty hectares up to twice: Bir yabancı gerçek kişi en
fazla 30 hektarlık alanda mülkiyet veya ayni hak sahibi olabiliyorlar. Bu tapuda beyanlar hanesinde görülebilir.
30 hektarı geçen kısım tasfiye edilir. Bakanlar Kurulu’nun 60 hektara çıkarma konusunda takdir hakkı vardır.
b) Foreigners cannot acquire or rent property within military forbidden zones and security zones. c) The total area
of the real estates acquired by foreign real persons can not exceed ten per cent of the privately owned land in the
town (district): Bir yabancı gerçek kişi bir ilçenin kamuya ayrılan kısmının %10’undan daha fazlası edinemez.
d) Legal restrictions do not apply in setting mortgage for real persons and commercial companies having legal
personality which are established in foreign countries: Legal restrictions are not applied for mortgage. Yabancı
bankalardan kredi alınmasını kolaylaştırmak için ipotekte sınır tanınmamış. Diğer bütün sınırlı ayni haklarda
sınırlandırmalar geçerlidir. e) Council of Ministers is, in any case, entitled to further limit, restrict, and partially or
fully cease or prohibit acquisitions of real property and limited rights in rem by foreign real persons and legal
entities in Turkey in the interest of the state(Discretionary Power): This is actually against Turkish Constitution. It
grants a power to Council of Minister for limiting and extending restrictions partially or fully. Bakanlar Kurulu
çok fazla yetkiyle donatılmış. Bakanlar Kurulu’na limitleri sınırlandırma, yeni limitler koyma konusunda takdir
yetksi verilmiş. Bu da aslında hukuk devletini garanti altına alan AY m.2’ye aykırıdır. f) Persons with foreign
nationality who buy property without construction (unconstructed) (land, field) have to submit the project which
they will construct on the property to the relevant Ministry within 2 years to the relevant Ministry (Ministry of
Environment and Urban Planning): Yapısız bir taşınmaz söz konusu ise yabancı biri bu taşınmazı aldığı tarihten
itibaren 2 yıl içinde bu arazi için Bakanlığa bir proje sunmalıdır. Bakanlık bunu kabul etmezse arazi tasfiye edilip
parası yabancıya verilir. Eğer 2 yıl içerisinde prrojeyi sunar ama sürsi içinde yerine getirmediyse yine arazi
tasfiye edilir.
b.2 Use in Violation of Article 35: Liquidation,(winding up)
 Taşınmazların tasfiyesinden bahsedeceğiz.
 If there is a violation of the restrictions written in Art 35, there is going to be a liquidation process.
 The last paragraph of Art 35 regulates what are the situations that requires liquidation.
 When authorities realize that violation, the foreigner must be liquidated within 1 year. After 1 year passed,
Minister of Finance is going to do the liquidation and pay back the price of the real property through Turkish
State Bank.
 Şöyle ki, yabancı bir taşınmaz almış ve fakat bu taşınmaz alınırken kanundaki sınırlandırmalar aşılmış ise ilgili
kurum(Tapu Kadastro Genel Müd) yabancıdan 1 yıl içinde taşınmazı tasfiye etmesi ister. Etmez ise Maliye
Bakanlığı tasfiyeyi yapar. Parasını öder.
 Eski tapu kanununda yabancıların taşınmazı ya mesken ya da iş yeri olarak kullanabileceği düzenlenmişti. Bu
sınırlandırma kaldırılmasına rağmen 35/son’da hala bu amaçlar dışında kullanım bir tasfiye nedeni olarak
düzenlenmiştir. Unutmuşlar.
 En önemli nokta şu ki, bu 35/son’da yabancıların miras yoluyla mal edinimi ile alakalı olarak miras yoluyla
edinimlerde Kanun’undaki sınırlamalara uymaması halinde mal tasfiye edilir. There is a provision regarding
acquiring real property by inheritance. Foreigners can acquire the real property through inheritance. If the real
property acquired by inheritance, there is a one restriction in accordance with Art 35. Miras bir haktır. Ama miras
yoluyla taşınmaz edinimi bundan farklı birşeydir. Miras yoluyla taşınmaz intikali için Art 35/1’deki
sınırlandırmaların da uygulanacağı hükme bağlanmış. Yani 30 hektarlık sınır, ilçenin %10’una kadar taşınmaz
edinebilme sınırı ve diğer kanunlarda getirilen sınırlandırmalar(askeri arazi gibi) miras yoluyla intikalde de
geçerlidir. Ama yapısız taşınmazlardaki bahsettiğimiz 2 yıllık proje getirme sınırı burada uygulanmaz. Yani
78
yabancıya 100 hektarlık alan miras olarak kalabilir, bu bir haktır, ama bunun intikali farklıdır. 30 hektarı biz
veririz. 70 hektarı 1 yıl içinde ya kendi satıp parasını alır ya da 1 yıldan sonra tasfiye edilir.
 Sınıftan gelen soru: Vatandaşlığın katbettirilmesi halinde ne olacak? Çıkarılma olsa sorun yok, Art 28 gereği
zaten doğuştan kazandığı için Türk vatandaşı gibi hakları devam edecek. Kaybettirmede ise sınırlandırma
dışındaki kısmı tasfiye etmesi lazım. Çünkü artık yabancı statüdedir. Kazanılmış hak olarak bakılamaz. Çünkü
kaybettirme zaten kamu güvenliği nedeniyle gerçekleşir.
c. Acquisitions by Foreign Companies
 For example can City Bank buy a real property here without any purpose or for building a hotel?
 What are the conditions?
-1. Foreign commercial corporations which are established according to the relevant laws of their countries of
origin can acquire property and limited in rem rights within the provisions of special laws. These special laws are:
Petroleum Law, Law on Encouragement of Tourism, Law on Industrial Zones: Bu özel kanunların izin verdiği
ölçüde yabancı şirketler taşınmazlar üzerinde mülkiyet veya sınırlı ayni hak edinebilir. Bu kanunlarda verilen
haller dışında hiçbir şekilde taşınmaz mal edinemezler.
-2. No restriction is implemented in favor of the said commercial companies in establishing mortgage: İpotek
hakkı için bir sınırlama yok. Diyelim ki bir yabancı şirket Türkiye’ye garanti verdi, bunun karşılığı ipotek hakkı
sağlanabilir. Zaten sınırlama olmaması da isabetli, çünkü lex commisoria yasağı gereği taşınmazı
edinemeyecektir.
-3. Other foreign entities (i.e. foundation, association,…) cannot buy property and acquire limited in rem right:
Yabancı dernek ve vakıflar hiçbir şekilde taşınmaz edinemezler. Luruluşunun çoğunluğunda yabancıların olduğu
Türk dernek ve vakıflar için de bu geçerlidir.
 Özel kanunlara göre yapısız bir taşınmazı edinmiş olan yabancı şirketler için de aynı şekilde yukarıda
bahsettiğimiz gibi 2 yıl içinde proje sunma zorunluluğu var.
d. Acquisition of Property by Companies with Foreign Capital
 Some companies are established under Foreign Investment Law, so the company is actually a Turkish company
but majority of share hold belongs belongs to foreigners. For example 51% of Türk Telekom belongs to foreign
nationals.
 According to Art 36 of Land Registry Law; The companies with foreign capital,
- If the foreign investors hold, individually or collectively, 50 % or more shares of the said company,
- If the foreign investors do not hold any share of the said company, but have a right to assign or remove the
managers of the said companies on the condition that the said company has a legal personality in Turkey could
buy property in Turkey in accordance with Article 36 of Land Registry Law and the “Decree on Acquisition of
Property and Limited in Rem Rights by Companies and Corporations within the Context of Article 36 of Land
Registry Law.
 2 halde yabancı sermayeli şirket söz konusudur: 1. yabancı yatırımcıların bireysel veya toplu olarak
şirketin %50’si veya daha fazlasına sahip olması. 2. %50’den daha az hisseye sahip olsalar da yönetim kurulunu
seçme hakları varsa.
 The companies which meet the criteria above can acquire ownership of a real property or in rem rights only if
such acquisition is in relation to scope of activities stipulated in its articles of association. However, acquisition of
a real property or rights in rem in a Military Restricted Zone, Military Security Zone or a Strategic Zone is
subject to the approval of the commanderships which are authorized by the General Staff.
 There are two requirements for these companies to get real property:
-1. Acquisition must be with in the scope of activities stipulated in articles of association of the company(ultra
vires principle): Şirketin iştigal alanı ile alakalı olarak taşınmazı alacak.
-2. “National Security” test must be completed: Bu şirketler taşınmazı almak için gerçek kişilerden farklı olarak
Tapu Kadastro Müdürlüğü’ne değil Valiliğe başvururlar. Valilik bu arazinin askeri alanda yer alıp almadığına vs
79
bakar.
 Yabancı sermayeli şirketlerin yüzdelerini hesaplarken mavi kartlı biri söz konusu ise o Türk hissesine dahildir. ,
 Yabancı sermaye %50’nin altında kaldı (ve ikinci durum da oluşmadı) ise bu halde Türk sermaye şirketi gibi
işlem görür.
 Art 38: Exceptions. Burada sayılan hallerde hiçbir şekilde bahsettiğimiz o 3 sınırlandırma uygulanmaz.
İsterse %100 yabancı sermayeli şirket olsun, Türk şirketi gibi işlem görür. Bunlar neler?
-1. Mortgages established in favour of companies incorporated with foreign capital: yabancı şirket adına ipotek
tesis edilmişse sınırlandırma yok
-2. Acquisition of a property as a result of a foreclosure: İflas veya malın cebri icra yoluyla satımında yabancı
sermayeli şirket tasfiye nedeniyle o taşınmazı almış.
-3. Transfer of a property or a right in rem as a result of a merger or demerger: Şirketlerin birleştirilmesi ve
devralınması ya da ayrılmaları sırasında kimi durumlarda bu sınırlandırmalar uygulanmaz.
- 4. Acquisition of property or rights in rem in special investment zones such as Organised Industrial Zones,
Industrial Zones, Technological Development Zones and Free Trade Zones: Yabancı sermayeli şirket serbest
ticaret bölgesi vb bu bölgelerde sınır olmadan taşınmaz mal edinebilir
-5. Transactions made by banks that are deemed as “credit transactions” in accordance with Banking Law or
when a real property is acquired in consideration of debt collection of a bank; provided that obligation to dispose
such real property remains within the context of related laws:
 Hisse satımı nedeniyle bir şirketin hissesinin büyük çoğunluğu yabancılara ait olmuşsa artık Art 36’ya tabidir.
Önceki aldıkları tasfiye edilmez.
e. Collusion(Muvazaa)
 Türk biri taşınmazı alıyor ama yabancı kullanıyor, kira gelirini kendi alıyor vs. Bunlara ne oluyomuş valla
anlamadım. Kanun izin veriyomuymuş öyle bişeyler dedi.
f. Special Issues for Real Property Acquisition by Foreigners
 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Nationals: legal restrictions are not apply. Askeri alanlar hariç tabi. Türkler
de askeri alanları alamaz.
 Blue card holder: they are considered as Turkish nationals.
 Foreigners who got long term residence, or unlimited work permit: Considered as blue card holders. No
restriction.
 The properties are acquired by inheritance (Article 35 of the Land Registry Law):
 International Organizations (such as IFC, ICSID, UN,ILO ): International treaties allows them to acquire real
property. Art 35 ve 36’ya tabi değiller.
 Non-governmental organizations: Alamazlar. Art 35 Other constitutions, dernek, vakıflar vs alamaz demiş .
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Private International Law II Ders Notu I

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Private International Law II Ders Notu I

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Private International Law 16/17 Spring Zeynep Aysun Yıldız

c.The Scope of the Law Applicable to Succession

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