Topic-wise summarized history notes

Indus Valley
Indus valley – These were maintained from the surplus produce of the country,
judging by the elaborately constructed granaries found in both cities. Another
source of income was the profit from a flourishing trade both within the northern
and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and
those of the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. The cities show evidence of an advanced
sense of civic planning and organization. Each city was divided into the citadel
area, where the essential institutions of civic and religious life were located, and
the residential area where the urban population lived.
Amongst the many remains of the Harappa culture perhaps the most puzzling are
the seals – small, at, square, or rectangular objects with a pictorial motif, human
or animal, and an inscription. The latter remains undeciphered and holds promise
of interesting information when it can be finally read. These seals, numbering about
two thousand, appear to have been the tokens of the merchants, or possibly they
were connected with the produce of the countryside which was brought into the
cities. By 1700 B.C. the Harappa culture had declined and the migration of the Indo-
Aryans from Iran in about 1500 B.C. introduced new features into the cultural
background of north-western India.
The question has been raised whether the Indus-Hakra area was more pertinent to
the rise of the Harappan cities, given the dense cluster of sites in the area, than
was Baluchistan and the north-west; and, if this was so, perhaps the civilization
should be called the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. However, the crucial factor is
not the number of sites but the nature of the sites. Judging the nature of a site
does not lie in merely listing artefacts, but assessing, in this case, the role of the
site in encouraging the change from pre-urban activities to urbanization. Given
the earlier and more widespread evidence for the evolution towards urbanization
in the north-west, the initial impetus for the transition to urban centres lay,
more likely, in the Indus plain and the north-west. In terms of access to the raw
materials used in craft production and in controlling trade, which provided the
impetus to urbanization, the centres in the north-west and the Indus Plain were
certainly better situated than those in Cholistan. The former was more active,
and with the potential of having connections beyond the borderlands.
Geographic location – Punjab, Sind, the Northwest frontier, Rajasthan, Haryana,
Kutch, Gujarat regions, North Maharashtra.
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were about 200 hectares big as a city. Sitex of the
civilization extended to Shortugai in the Northern Afghanistan, across the sea to
Oman. However, the actual area of control was limited to states mentioned above.
Trade is evident by concentration of population, possible available trade
networks, and availability of raw materials in the regions. Further, carnelian
beads and seals have been found at Mesopotamia, who also traded in gold. Trade of
Lapis Lazuli with Iran. Copper of Oman. There was coastal shipping to the Tigris-
Euphrates Delta.
Among the wider culture, there were various local cultures intermingling with
the wider ranging one in terms of artefacts and forms and designs.
Surplus produce in countryside, systematic trade as well. Pottery was there, with
different designs of plants birds and abstract forms. Cities were centres of
production for crafted items which were traded. This required considerable
skills and organization. Bead making was there. Workshops produced this.
Sophisticated system of weights and measures. Warehouse, granaries were there.
Civic planning – citadel area with public utilities and places of public rituals and
a residential area. Citadel buildings were made of bricks. Carefully articulated
drainage system with drains of houses inked to streets. Houses of mud-brick, with
wells, bathing places and drains. Architectural requirements show a knowledge
of geometry. Arrangements to store water. Water reservoirs. Making of a
calendar, incorporated astronomy. Division of town and countryside.
Monumental architecture – ritual centres, public utilities, warehouses,
granaries, water storage facilities, great bath, college of priests, assembly hall,
required a large amount of labour, hence money and a mechanism to control and
obtain labour. Possibly done via regular labour services. There must be some
supervision and authority, to ensure food to people and to trade, to maintain
public utilities and stuff.
Seals are small, flat, square or rectangular, depicts humans’ animals, a pictorial
representation and an inscription undeciphered. Could be tokens identifying civic
authorities, or used for long distance trade. Bull and elephant were popular. No
horses on the seals.
Some emphasis on fertility rituals seems evident, but whether these were
elaborate ceremonies remains uncertain. Fertility rituals would not be unusual
given the prevalence of these in other chalcolithic cultures of the subcontinent.
Some small oval structures containing ash have been interpreted as fire altars,
but they could equally well be hearths. A shamanistic religion has also been
suggested, but the urban character of the civilization is unlikely to have been
conducive to shamanism.
The word ‘urbanization’ means the emergence of cities. ‘Civilization’ has more
abstract and grander connotations, but refers to a specific cultural stage
generally associated with cities and writing. the discovery of a large number of
terracotta female figurines that were labelled ‘Mother Goddesses
The one-of-a-kind statue of the 'Priest King' is highly detailed which indicates
that it may have been commissioned to an especially skilled craftsman for a
significant event by a powerful individual.
The statue depicts a man who is striking in its features but we are not sure about
what kind of power he held- whether he was a king, a ruler or someone who
possessed both religious and political power.

Cities were maintained from surplus produce in the countryside. Sophisticated

system of weights and measures. Town area had craftsmen, tool-making, bead
making, rods for measuring. No religious monuments but very technical
sculptures. Stone statues and terracotta was used to make toys.
Burials were simple, limited afterlife goods.
Writing – boustrophedon style, consecutive lines starting in opposite directions.
Dholavira script shows use of writing in civic facet of life. Pictorial
representation, logo-syllabic script. no idea about script. (Indo-Aryan, Indo-
Sumerian, Proto-Dravidian). May have been confined to the elite sect of population.
Generally meant to be read from right to left. Writing was present on seals as
well.
Common script of writing across Harappa shows cultural integration. Pots had
writing as well.

Decline of the IVC and the Aryans

There are only theories cuz less evidence, not many excavations done and many
left, decipherment also.
There have been several theories propounded regarding the decline of the IVC
1. Ecological and environment change – the change in the course of the
Ghaggar-Hakra river may have been responsible for the decline. This is
because the IVC had people engaged in cultivation, and considering the
geography, the river was the lifeline. The change in its course may have
led to the decline. This may have flooded the plain region leaving IVC
dead.
2. Deforestation – there is evidence that the savanna forests were cut in an
attempt to increasing the area of land under cultivation. This may also
have led to the decline, considering the negative effects of this
deforestation. There may have been overgrazing and over-cultivation,
destruction of nature. This may have been due to brick-making.
3. Floods – a flood in the river coupled with heavy rainfall is another
theory propounded in order to explain the decline. This would have
wiped out the entire population. There is evidence of silt formation
[when floods happen, there is sand erosion, ultimately leading to silt
formation.]
4. De-urbanization – the Indus valley was a proto-historic civilization.
There is evidence that the sites of the IVC were abandoned, leading to
speculation that the IVC transitioned into a rural civilization. Another
cause may be the decline of trade with Mesopotamia, Iran, Oman,
Turkmenistan etc. The political structures may not have been able to
handle the magnitude and impact of these changes and hence maybe
shifted to rural. Ruin of harvest due to rise in salinity may also be a
cause.
5. The final theory about the decline of the IVC is the coming of the Aryans
– the Aryans are said to have come from Central Asian countries, on
horses not known to the IVC, and have invaded the IVC, causing massive
destruction to the well-established settlements. They possessed
superior weaponry as well. However, this theory is often disregarded
because there is little archaeological evidence, as Thapar points out, to
show the economic and political falling out which could have resulted
from such an invasion. Further, there is scepticism as to why they would
have done so to a well-established settlement as the IVC. The skeletons
recovered show no such, show people died of diseased like anaemia.

The Aryans refer to people speaking the Indo-European language family (Indo-
Aryan). Comparative philology gave rise to the theory of a common parent
language (Indo – European) from where Greek Latin, Celtic have said to be derived.
A kind of people spoke the language. These are called the Indo-Aryan speaking
people. The theory is that these speakers migrated to different parts of the world.
The mention of the words Arya in the Vedas of India and the Avesta of Iran
further strengthened the idea of a so-called Aryan population.

However, the Europeans were very preoccupied in finding origins of people of other
cultures. They began equating language with “race”, a social construct which
they claimed was biological. They felt that the Indo-Aryan speaking population
formed a part of a superior race, called the Aryan race. Here emerged the idea of
a superior “race” invading the subcontinent, subduing the IVC and settling down,
founding idyllic village populations, largely pastoral, founding the so-called
Indian race. They misinterpreted words of the Vedas. For instance, the words Arya,
Dasa and caste. This led to the white race being considered a superior race, a
justification used even by Adolf Hitler. Eventually, it was claimed that these
persons overthrew the indigenous culture of IVC because of their superiority.
Sanskrit texts were read with a racial connotation.
 Language is a cultural construct, has nothing to do as Thapar points out, with
race, a social albeit claimed falsely to be a biological construct. Thus, when we
say the Aryans came in second millennium BC, it should be considered the people
who spoke the language and not the race as such. These speakers migrated to
several regions, including Iran and Anatolia (Turkey), and belonged to multiple
“races”. Thus, we cannot trace back identity to any one source like race.

The entire theory arose out of European preconceptions with Indian history.
Associated with those conducting rituals and controlling resources, the upper-
caste. The European search for its own identity led to such race theory, as a
result of groping towards the idea of a nation-state. Nationalists wanted to find
origin in the age of civilization the Greek civilization.

Orient – regarded with mystic and activities. Comparative philology was used as a
means of arriving to the common ancestry of the roots of Europe. When William
Jones announced Greek and Sanskrit, became basis for theories regarding origin of
European and Indian culture.
Given the newly discovered race science in Europe, they were quick to equate
language to race, as done b/w Bantu speakers and Bantu race. They argued fairer
races were pre-eminent and instrumental in creating and spreading culture.
However, miscegenation caused mixing and thus decline. Arya read with racial
connotations.
They equated caste with race, each caste constituted a different race and racial
purity was maintained by forbidding inter-marriage. Thus, the argument could be
stretched to maintain that the upper castes, and especially the brahmanas, were
lineal descendants of the Aryans.

The theory of Dravidian subjugation. Culture of non-Europeans was determined by

Europeans. Even Indian superior castes believed in the race theory, means of
legitimacy.

The theory of invasion has been discontinued, decline of IVC not attributed to a
single cause, some of Gujarat declined later. No evidence to support that Aryans
originated in India and spread. No archaeological evidence. However, linguistic
evidence (Iran and India). Possibly came in close proximity. Similar words, Sapta-
Sindhu, Hapta-Hendhu. Haraxvaiti and saraswati.

Sanskrit evolved, due to speaking by non-Brahmins as well.

Caste evolved, occupations to the four-fold classification Jatis evolve from the
intermeshing of a variety of factors such as rules of endogamy and exogamy,
location, environment, technology, occupation, access to resources, differences in
the patterns of social observances, and the ideology of ritual purity. A caste
society consists of hereditary groups so recruitment is by birth; these groups are
arranged hierarchically which is actually or notionally associated with
occupation among other factors; the hierarchy is important particularly to
permissible marriage circles and to rules regarding the inheritance of property
particularly in relation to women; and they are often viewed as performing
services for each other. The social historian therefore has to trace these factors
over time and in relation to historical changes. History provides evidence of the
importance of kinship patterns and occupation to caste identities, as well as
evidence of the transition from what has been called ‘jana to jati’ (generally
translated as tribe to caste, but perhaps better translated as clan to caste).
Today the concept of race as defined in the nineteenth century has been discarded
among scientists and scholars. Identities are based on other factors and claims to
race are no longer tenable, although the word continues to be used in popular
parlance.

The theory of an Aryan race therefore is not supported by historical evidence.

What the historian is concerned with is not the spread of a race but the spread of
a language.

The Indus Civilization extended from the Pamirs to northern Maharashtra and
from Baluchistan to the Doab with settlements in Oman as well. The early Vedic
texts know only the northern part of this extensive area. Familiarity with
western India came later. The Indus Civilization was urban, with planned cities
built on elevations commanding the plains communicated by written signs that
have not as yet been deciphered, had a copper-bronze technology, was unfamiliar
with the horse and had extensive trading contacts not only with the upper Oxus
region and the borderlands, but also with the Gulf and with Mesopotamia. The
Vedic texts depict a society which is pastoral and agrarian but is unfamiliar with
urban centres and commerce, knows no script, appears to have used a copper and
then an iron technology, gave considerable functional and ritual importance to
the horse and the chariot, and its contacts were largely confined to north-
eastern Iran and perhaps the Oxus plain, before the migration eastwards into the
Ganga plain.

The evidence suggests that the speakers of Aryan languages—whoever they were
—migrated into India from the borderlands. The migrations are likely to have
been slow and small-scale. If there had been ‘an Aryan invasion’ it would be
reflected in the archaeological evidence, either in the decline of the cities due to
attacks, or in large-scale devastation of surrounding settlements. Some decades
ago, Mortimer Wheeler maintained that the Indus cities declined because of Aryan
invasions, which he summed up in his phrase, ‘Indra stands accused’. But the more
extensive and detailed evidence now available since the lost fifty years points in an
altogether different direction.

Richard Eaton – the stereotypes associated with the medieval ages:

Stereotype – India has remained a largely stagnant civilization until stimulated

by the European rule in the eighteenth century. However, India actually went
through repeated self-transformation during the period. Appearance of Sikhism,
disappearance of Buddhism, growth of the world’s largest Muslim society,
transformation of land from jungle to fields of grain. India emerged as an
industrial powerhouse by virtue of export of textiles. Hence, the justification
that India was stagnant is wrong to say the least.

Stereotype – India was closed to the outside world. However, there was contact
with central Asia. Africa, east and south east Asia. We need to look at India in
context of its neighbours.
Stereotype – India is a self-generated Hindu and Sanskritic civilization, evolving on
its own, rather than with interaction with other cultures. However, there is
contact with the Iranian plateau and the middle east, Persian culture and Islam.
Further, this period isn’t necessarily a Muslim period.

Even though the Spanish conquests conquered south and central America, they
never referred to the vast evangelizations carried out as a “Christian conquest.”
Called the Spanish conquest. The Turkish conquest by Ghori isn’t referred to as a
Turkish conquest but a Muslim conquest, even though Sanskritic term is Turk. In
fact, Muslims even fought against the invading Turks.

This application of a Muslim conquest arises out of modern-day geopolitics and

hostility between India and Pakistan. Religion looked at a closed belief system,
impervious to change over time.
While the Ghaznavids ruled over much of the Punjab region from Lahore, Indian
texts refer to them as Lords of the Horses and not Muslims, considering their
dependence over cavalry warfare and control over trade routes to central Asia,
a major market for horses. Even the Ghurids and the Delhi Sultanate were
sometimes described as Barbarians, demon men and enemies of cows. They were
ghurid Turks, not Muslims.

However, Persian chronicles looked at people from a lens of religion. People were
Muslims or infidels. While they are indispensable in reconstructing our history,
cannot rely on it, like the british interpretation. British rely excessively on data
and these chronicles. They also reflected the Persian chronicles. (Believer v. infidel
mindset). The british justified the raj on the grounds that they were introducing
India to an enlightened era of sound and just governance, for the rulers before
them were tyrants and despots. Europeans would bring truth and discernment to
the obscurity of the past. Sir Henry M. Elliot used these Persian chronicles to
construct how destructive the Muslim rulers were – (no worship or processions,
temples razed, idols mutilated, forced conversions and marriage). The British felt
Indians would in fact feel advantageous during their rule. Raj was “mildness and
equity” in contrast to “muhameddan tyranny”.

The British caused harm to Hindu-Muslim harmony. The separate codes, separate
judicial communities, separate watertight compartments in surveys, census
reports, using religion. Created the gap between them, using religion as a principal
category. British even categorized history into Hindu, Muslim and British eras.
This implied a movement from a “ancient” Hindu golden age to a “medieval”
tyrannical Muslim age. To them, this corresponded to an earlier age of Greco-
Roman splendour to “Dark ages.” This means Muslims were equated to Vandals in
Rome, aliens with armed intrusions violating a sacred realm. European presence
was a blessing apparently. This caused opposing narratives, politicizing Indian
history by picking and choosing. One’s heroes were another’s villains.

Effect was each, Indians, Pakistanis and british took this period to be defined by
religion. Books are in chronological order, Hindu then Muslim. Everything had to
fit in one of these two compartments. This had enormous costs. The Sufi romances of
14th-16th century was composed in Persian script by Sufis, for search with Union with
God, using characters who were Hindu in name and practice, in a landscape with
Indian culture, mythology, flora and fauna. Debate about which period, Hindu or
Muslim.

We need to look at the period in its own terms, not in contemporary modern terms.
Socio-cultural landscape differed vastly.

Sanskrit and Persianate:

Sanskritic cosmopolis: diffusion of Indian culture over southeast Asia, between 4 th
and 14th century. Between Kandahar and Singapore. Not religion, but the ideas of
Sanskrit texts were diffusing, in regional and vernacular terms. Sanskrit was not a
language of place, didn’t identify with one specific community. Was transgressional.
Embraced grammar, acquisition of power and wealth, goals of life, architecture,
kingship, regulation of society etc. this area was considered preserving moral and
social order. No force of arms in spread, mere emulation. Many people in these
regions subscribed to Greek prestige drama cuisine etc, but without paying taxes
etc. shows no barriers to culture. In contrast romans used coercive force as
opposed to soft power of models that encouraged emulation.

Persianate world:
Much of the west central and south Asia between 11th and 19th centuries.
Transregional, flourished beyond land of origin. Both gave elite status to its users.
Both elaborated, discussed and critiqued religious traditions as neither was
grounded in a religion. Much of the world is an interaction between the two
worlds.

What is the Persianate world?

Several centuries after Arab conquest of Iranian plateau in 7th century, Persian
speakers recovered a rich but largely submerged pre-Islamic Persian civilization.
Emergence of new Persian, hybrid of the Persian they used to speak and the Arabic
brought in. first appeared in Iranian plateau and then central Asia. Modified script
emerged in 9th and 10th centuries. Spread to western Afghanistan. Persian replaced
the Iranian dialects and became Lingua Franca at Samarkand. This circulated
through Asia. No single geographical or political centre. Persian by 14 th century
became a vibrant and prestigious literary language, used in bureaucracy, inter-
regional diplomacy along silk road b/w turkey and south Asia.

The use of the word sultan also gained prominence, used throughout the
Persianate world. Occupied a space above all ethnic and religious groups. He was universal and
supreme, unlimited sovereign space and commanded loyalty of all other actors. Crystallization
emerged from two factors – decline of Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad, which ruled
over the entire eastern Islamic world and the wave of Turkish speakers coming
from east Asia to Iran and Central asia. (Recruits, pastoralists, warriors,
military). Hence political thought underwent transformation to accommodate
the changing geo-political scenario. Split of religion and politics. Caliph and
sultan. Sultan acknowledged the Caliph’s authority. Caliph would acknowledge
the secular nature of sultans. Sultan would give justice. No kingdom without
justice. In fact, way before renaissance split the church and state. We were
already doing this. By the time word reached India, very detached from religion
and ethnicity, even Hindu rulers used it.
In India, Delhi sultanate, co-opted authority of Caliph, justice and diversity.
Suited for a diverse society. These ideas diffused not only in Delhi sultanate, beyond
it as well. Peninsular India as well, by Hindu rulers, Kakatiya court also said,
justice is way to prosperity of state, wealth.

Styles of architecture and dress, vocab, cuisine, court, vocabulary spread. In fact,
by 19th centuries, more Persian dictionaries being produced at India over Iran.
India becomes something of an Orphan when called medieval. No need to. Coincides
with diffusion of Persianate culture.

Medieval Period:
West - 5th to 14th century (fall of the western roman empire and germanic
takeover of parts of europe, cultural decline, hostilities and crusades, called the
dark ages) after this comes the renaissance or the rebirth and revival of culture.
The middle ages of europe and england are mirrored in s asia
Could be oriented around religion. The muslim rulers were percieved as invaders.
A sense of ‘us and them’ so the muslims are othered. Other religions are a part of
indian history as well.
There was no dominant group. Nationalist historians have us believe that indian
history was dominated by hindus, but heterodoxy and diversity was extremely
present so this statement is not necessarily true.

We cannot look at bistory from 2021 Indian boundaries, that time boundaries were
fluid and hence need to look in a wider context, in a more open manner.
Religion comes up as a way of classifying the past, it is an extremely narrow way of
looking at it. We need to look at a broader sense of economic, political,
geographical and cultural changes
Nationalist historians need to change their outlook.

 their efforts to find their own importance in indias past, may hindu nationalists in
the 20th century imagined rebels against precolonial muslim states who struggled
on behalf of a pan-indian hindu collective (figures like shivaji, rana pratap,
prithviraj chauhan, and other figures who belonged to the medieval period who
fought for their own local power and communities). Indian nationalists
appropriate them as national heroes. Shivaji was known to have worked alongside
and employed many deccani muslim mercenaries, prithviraj chauhan is seen to have
turkish and muslim populations under his rule. 

India’s history is being juxtaposed on this ancient, medieval, and modern times.
British considered the ‘Mohameddan’ entry into India as the start of the medieval
ages (11-12th century). Eaton disagrees with this argument, and instead argues that
religion was not the central idea with which the invaders were identified. They
were identified as Turks and not as per their religion. Muslims were already there
prior to this.

Delhi Sultanate:
In 622 C.E., Muhammad started preaching his revelations in Mecca and Medina (in
the Arabian Peninsula) and a community begins to follow his teachings -
Islam Identified as Muhammadans or Muslims. They gained political control in
today’s Syria and moved eastward into Iraq and Iran and eventually into Pakistan.
Arab settlements and Arab Muslim settlements come up on the west coast. Because
of these Arab merchants, Islam was present from the 8th century in India. 

 Persian became elite over Turkic

 Those who spoke Persian began to hold themselves higher than those who
spoke Turkic
 The looting of temples to gain wealth was more common back then. It was
done by Hindu kings as well and local kings from Rajputana and central
India would also raid wealthy temples (at Somnath, in Orissa and Bengal)
for their wealth. 

Md. Ghazni expanded this empire through various raids and conquests to gain
wealth. Therefore, the raiding of Somnath should not be regarded as religious but
an attempt to steal the wealth. Raiding of temples was carried out even by Hindu
rulers in Somnath, Bengal, Orissa, etc. indicating it was very common to do so. The
Sanskrit chroniclers did not mention the Somnath raid, probably because it was
too common. Declaring caliph sovereign was the practice in the middle-east, shows
diffusion.

Iltutmish, Aibak's son-in-law, consolidated power along with Turkish officials,

extending from Multan to Eastern region of Ganga. The Sultanate was established
under him, on behalf of the Caliphate (who was at the time a nominal power).
  Balban - Diwan-i-arz (military deparment) was set up; he regulated the
armies because there was a lot of threat from the Mongols as well as
rebellions in Rohilakhand in Bengal. Balban was a Mamluk who claimed to
have relation via lineage to Afrasiyab, an ancient persian ruler to get a
higher standing than Turkic nobility. Wanted to separate himself from the
nobility and gain legitimcacy. Patronised the use of Persian. It was under
Balban that there was a lot of immigration into the Indian subcontinent
from western and central Asia (fleeing from the Mongols). Sultanates were
already present in these regions so they found refuge in the Delhi
sultanate. With the fending off of the Mongols and extending their power
till Rohilakhand and Bengal that he established larger territorial
control. This period of stability leads to the migration of Persians and
persianised Turks into the Indian subcontinent. 

 Khilji - Under Alauddin Khilji’s command and the command of his trusted
slaves, he took over a large geographical area. 
 He did this to get access to overseas trade routes which led to
development. 
 The shift of capital to Daulatabad in Maharashtra. It used to be under the
control of the Yadavas. 
 This leads to the spread of Persian speaking elites into the Deccan 

Tughlaq - Diversification of Court and army which recruited Indian Muslims too.
 It was not a strictly dynastic state, power shifted to whoever had the most
military power. 
 The sultan has the most military power and is the direct authority but he
still has to pander to the whims of the nobility because the nobility
provides him with military backing. The state under the Delhi sultanate
was organised by the sultan in the form of iqtas. 
 The sultan is the direct central authority but he was not in direct
control of the military. He appoints the nobles as iqtadars where he gives
them land in return for maintaining armies with the revenue taken from
that land. For example, Ilutmish rules as Sultan but several Iqtadars from
his nobility (from around his territory) used their revenue to maintain
armies for him. 

He invites people from West and Central Asia to transact here; he regulated the
prices in these places, especially for grains so as to ensure that Indian farmers
don't lose out because of external competition and to maintain prices despite
market fluctuations.  Clothes were sometimes imported but textiles produced in
India were also sold here. 

The merchants who purchased from the ports had to pay a huge duty, raising
revenue for the ruler.
The cash economy began to rise due to urban market centres, especially coins. They
helped promote quick trade and set up merchant and banking groups. Under the
Sultanates, the silver coins were called tanka. The use of silver as coinage indicates
how abundantly found silver was at the time

Internal trade (north and south, central etc) was carried out in smaller
settlements called 'qasba' settlements which were in the interior regions of the
Sultanate. Sarais (fortified inns) were set up on major roads to provide relief and
protection for merchants and travellers (North, north-west and even Bengal).

 Cloth markets at Lahore and Multan, overland trade routes. 

  Foodgrains sold in kara and lakhnauti
 The Cambay port became very lucrative for trade.
 Rajputana regions became important for opium and textiles. 
 With the export of food grains and other commodities, there was an inflow
of silver. 
 Coins became the currency in these markets and urban centres which
furthered quick trade and the establishment of merchant and banking
groups engaging in trade
 Under the sultanate, the silver coins were called Tankas. Every coin was
valued at exactly its weight in silver. Token currency (Bronze under
Tughlaq) failed. 
 Overland trade with central and west Asia and trade from the west coast
to Persia and the Arabian Peninsula was facilitated and regulated in this
period 
 The emergence of smaller markets called qasbas in the interior areas
including Gwalior and chanderi. Facilitated internal trade as well. ‘These
markets led to the need for communication so networks including roads and
officially mandated sarais (inns on the roadside). They were built by iqtadars
in their iqtas. Initiatives are taken up specifically by the Tughlaqs. 
 Introduction of the Persian wheel - a technological instrument from west
Asia which improved irrigation. Especially used in places with rivers to get
the water to fields quickly. It is still in use today. 

One such famous order is the Chishti order in the Delhi sultanate (Northwestern
parts like Multan) one of these saints was Nizamuddin Auliya. They performed
music, dance, and trances in places called Khanqahs. They would hold audiences
and even the sultans would come. 

There was an overlap between Hindu, Persian, and Islamic architecture. The large
arches and pillars (often seen in temple architecture) were reminiscent of
Hinduism but the panel inserted in the building facing west (towards the mecca) is a
key aspect of Islamic architecture. The Alai Darwaza (mecca facing). There was
ornamentation and beautification with engraving that was traditionally
discouraged in Islam. But the engraving was done in the Naskh script which led to
a unique hybridisation of religions. 

Sunil Kumar – Delhi Sultanate:

The sultanate controlled large parts of the Northern india and occasionally the
southern part of the subcontinent. 5 dynasties >> Mamluk >> Khalji >> Tughlaq >>
Sayyid >> Lodi.

Mamluk – Ghurid slaves. Other dynasties were freeborn men who were
commanders on the Northwest plains bordering Afghanistan. Barring the Lodi’s,
all were of Turkic origin. Lodi’s were chiefs of an Afghan tribe. They all recruited
military slaves. Initially, the kingdoms sustained via plunder and trade. However,
post-Iltutmish, there was great intra-fighting in the sultanate. As a result of the
iqta system, there was constant infighting between the iqtadars, who sought help
from local chiefs, after having accommodative relations with them.

However, 1350 to 1550 (after Bin Tughlaq) is seen as period of decline. This is because
new political groups were gaining prominence. There was migration, as studied
from Iranian plateau and the middle east, as a result of the Mongol invasion led by
the Mongols. Persian scholars, Sufis, jurists, military adventurers came from
various background’s and formed a critical part of the subcontinental landscape.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, reinvented identities were emerging. These include the
Rajput as a caste identity, representing the warrior groups. Some mystics and
jurists were worried about their relation in the state, as they kept aloof from
politics and were deeply involved in the social and political affairs of the Muslim
community.

The period saw the use of vernacular. The use of Hindawi was done for the
production of Sufi literature, so that it could be accessed by a wider part of the
population. Sufi gravesites emerged as pilgrim centres, called dargahs. The Malwa
sultanate built the shrine of Muin ud din Chishti in Ajmer.

Satish Chandra – Chapter 8 (Do later – very important).

Sultan was to do law and justice, Balban didn’t spare his own nobles (high-ranking)
and Tughlaq prosecuted the Ulamas who were supposed to be immune from such
prosecution.

There was no safeguard against the succession. If the sultan named one person, it
was usually to the nobles to accept or reject such a nomination. Further, no
guarantee against usurping the throne, indicating that the military might played
the major role in determining the king. Iltutmish even nominated a daughter to
the throne.

Wazir – earlier primarily military leaders, now emerging as revenue experts in the
affairs and collecting. Khwaja Jahan, Tughlaq’s wazir was in fact in charge of the
capital when Tughlaq left to dwal with rebellions. Auditor general for
expenditure and accoubtant general for income, both under wazir.

Diwan-i-arz : military department,

Hindus dominated the trade and rural aristocracy; state couldn’t function
without them. Tacit understanding of power sharing between them. There were
often fights between them, however, this was not because of religion, but due to
power struggle, power and land, sharing of surplus produce produced on the land.
Muslims even fought among themselves to achieve the same objectives.

Bahmani and Vijaynagara Sultanates: context was 1398, Timur invaded, ransacked
Delhi, smaller Afghan dynasties come up in the north of India, yadavas and
Kakatiya’s ruling in the Deccan
Harihara and Bukka formed capital between 1336-46 after gaining enormous power
in Kampili (Tungabhadra, North Karnataka). They wanted to claim legitimacy not
just of their people but of the rest of political powers prevalent at the time.
Vidyaranya is said to have giving his blessing to set up his capital at the city of
victory, Vijaynagara. Other founding story associated with them - they chose the
region to found their empire because it is a place associated with the deities of
pampa and Virupaksha (local deities who are considered avatars of Shiva and
Parvati) so it was an auspicious landscape. The deity Virupaksha (an avatar of
shiva) was their family deity. Therefore, they had the blessing of a deity to
establish their empire and take forward political rule. Pampa and Virupaksha
were said to have been present in what was Vijaynagara, claimed legitimacy since
Virupaksha was a family deity, and hence the people could accept their rule.

Tuluva dynasty – believers of ram and Krishna. They patronised ram and Krishna
temples in the capital region and invoked the story of the Ramayana saying the
region of Vijayanagara was where Krishna met Hanuman’s army while looking for
Sita. They attempted to prove themselves to be devotees of Krishna and Rama by
invoking the presence of Vijayanagara in the Ramayana and therefore legitimising
themselves and their power. 
While they did use Hinduism to legitimize their rule, they are various divisions
between the empire, different kinds of people.

Hindu – raya – suratalah. Deva Raya I – same sangama dynasty.

Bahamani sultante legitimized using blessing of sufi saints, claimed equal footing
with the Tughlaq because of this. Story - Zafar khan visited Delhi to see
Nizamuddin Auliya and Muhammad bin tughlaq was visiting him at the same time.
Zafar khan waited outside and heard him say to Muhammad bin tughlaq “as one
sultan is leaving another is entering” so he uses this to justify himself as another
sultan, this was taken as a prediction that he would become a sultan equal to
Muhammad bin tughlaq. We don’t know if this is true but this is the story they
told. The rulers after him also sought blessings from the Sufi saints in the
region. There was also a lot of movement of people and mercenaries (Hindu and
Muslim) between the two empires. Afaqi-Dakhni conflict was in 1482.

 Krishnadeva Raya - His largest rival is not the Bahamani sultanate but the
gajapatis. He launches an offensive against them and takes over their capital
Katak and their territory, he marries the ruler’s daughter. A lot of land
near the Krishna River comes under their control. 
 He ransacks temples in the Gajapati region and brings back the idol. He
erects a massive temple in his own territory for the stolen idols. This shows
he used religion as a means of extending his political power. In this situation,
it is one Hindu ruler against another. 
 Nayakas and stuff begin under Saluva but continue under him and
entrenched under him. This system was regulated by the presence of his own
powerful persona as the king. It kept the various nayakas and powerful
local warlords in line. The king controlled the core territories around
the capital and the peripheral regions were under Nayaka control (Tamil
Nādu, Andhra Pradesh, North Karnataka)
The Krishna temple mentions the victory over the Gajapati’s, source of history to
write.
Domingo says lots of Muslims and Hindus, diverse population.

Gajapati conflict – 1513.

 Temple complexes in Vijayanagara were a way for kings to legitimise their
rule and prove that first and foremost he is dedicated to the deities. Shows
the kings power because of the scale and because they emerged as political
and public institutions. Temples play an important role in communication
between those in power and the masses. They were patronised by the ruling
authorities (the king, royal family and nobility) and are associated with
the royalty. 
 Hazara Rama temple - depicts scenes from the Ramayana. It was relatively
small and not within a complex. Built by Ramaraya 
 Mandapas - places surrounding the actual shrine where dance
performances, marriages take place.
 Mythic landscape - the presence of a lot of deities etc. and the mythology
associates with them in the region. The local gods of Gurupakshan and
Pampa were associated with the region so hills are named after the deities.
Also, an association of where ram met Sugriva. There is a certain kind of
mythology associated with the landscape for Ram, Vishnu or shiva worship
as well that was furthered by the presence of the temples. It made it a very
auspicious and sacred space. The idea of divinity was extended to the rulers
as well who were seen as protectors of the sacred space. Within the capital,
various deities were represented with temples. Examples of these temples are
Virupaksha, Vitthala and Venkateshwara. They formed an imperial
 pantheon of temples patronised by the rulers. This kind of sectarian
representation in the capital held the various regions together.
 Elephant stables - their armies consisted largely of infantry but also had
regimens that would use elephants and horses. The elephant stables are
massive and indicate a style of architecture that is stylistically
reminiscent of Persian architecture (arches, domes, interiors) and required
skill work of masons who were trained in the Persianate styles or
immigrants working themselves. Queen’s bath - an indication of the
hybridised style of architecture. Stylistic devices are taken from other
cultures. Beams supporting the roof - very Indic. Balconies and Arches -
Persianate influence.

Part of the larger persian world – presence of Abdur Razzaq, Persianate influence
on architecture such as elephants’ stables, Queens’ Bath.

Mughals:

They had Mongol blood on both sides of the family. While Timurid dynasty evolved
from Genghis Khan (Mongol), Babur was related to both Genghis Khan (mother)
and Timur (father).
Timur patronised Persian art, a kind of Timurid culture emerged. They spoke
Turkic and Persian, central Asian origin and Mongol descent.
Timurid princes fought for power, each had a small landholding as a kingdom,
divided by Timur at his death among his sons. Babur was 3 gens below. He has
Ferghana, where he is ousted from.

He went to oust Lodi at the request of certain local rulers, he wanted geographic
territory to call his own and rule over. He is militarily strong. Local rulers
expect him to come in, defeat Ibrahim Lodi and leave the land for them but that
does not happen. He was peripatetic. Because of inherent Persianate culture, he can
call it home. Further, presence of Sufism. Familial kinship relations and kinsmen
enabled him to sustain rule for that short period of time.

Humayun wasn’t helped in exile in India, brothers wanted to keep territories

separate. The Safavid emperor (Shah Tahsmasp) gave him asylum in Persia, he asked
for military. Akbar was with his brother Kamran in Kabul. Sher shah-built inns.
Akbar got all Humayun’s territory. Babur Nama was commissioned in Akbar’s
court.
Akbar had to contend with a lot – he had Timurids and Indian Muslims in nobility,
make sure all are content.

When Bharmal gave Akbar daughter, his territory Amer became one of the highest
ranks principalities in the Mughal empire. He offered Rajputs religious freedom,
after marriage very good treatment. Autonomy, part of nobility, court titles.
Wider nobility, ensured a better consolidation of the empire. His capital was Agra.
He captured Gujarat sultanate as well, moving into central Asia. Saw sea at
Surat, became very important.

At this point in south India, the Vijaynagara empire has collapsed and various
Deccan sultanates control parts of Vijaynagara. Various nayakas control the
southern parts of the Vijaynagara empire.

A state went beyond a single political power or a dynasty, he wanted it to be passed

on to his sons, remaining secure despite change of hand. Mansabdari – zaat (cash),
zawar (troops). Jagir was different in size and location. No power on ethnicity but
on his own ranking system. Diwan-i-khas at Fatehpur Sikri. Revenue registers also
mentioned famine etc which reduced yield etc.
Mir sarman - head of the royal household. He patronised various workshops or
karkhanas where luxury items were made or traded for the royal family. They
handled the functioning and the way the expenses were carried out etc., the
security associated with the royal household, the presence of various diplomatic
family members and the security needed to take care of them, and maintenance of
everyday household affairs like managing servants and cleanliness. These tasks
were below Akbar and so he would not be the head of the household. The Mir
Sarman was an officer, not minister, possible mansab.

When he conquered Bengal and Bihar, same policy as with Rajput’s, pardoning etc,
rulers into Mansabdari, allowed into court.
Mughal perception of religion has had a profound impact on history and left a
wide legacy.

Pilgrim tax – tax imposed on Hindus by the Muslims to undertake a journey to a

religious place.
He questioned sectarianism in Islam. Ideas ahead of time. He is said to have
celebrated navroz. He didn’t understand idol worship but nevertheless allowed
it. He recognized various religions in his kingdom and wasn’t an Islamic ruler per se.
not Islamic empire. He had paintings of Krishna and commissioned temples as well.
Court represented the realm. Important way of establishing control. The king
would bestow a dagger to a new noble accepting him, this was symbolic of
allegiance, shows the rituals of the Mughal court.
Tuladaan – grains or gold.
Jharoka darshan – emperor would wave, then interact, hear grievances, meet etc.
Courts were spaces of cultural production - music, art, and manuscripts were
commissioned. Manuscripts were beautifully illustrated and presented or read.
They were recreational. Production of textiles (shawls, carpets, tablecloths etc.)
for use by the nobility took place here. Intricate and luxurious jewellery and
weaponry were consumed here. There was also food and drink. Would patronize
architecture.
Babur divided the empire among his sons, Humayun captured full from his
brothers and gave Akbar.
Heavy centralization in hands of emperor. They did not view the subjects of their
empire as infidels or in any way unworthy. They are noting the presence of various
population groups that contribute to their understanding of the state. 
Abul was Akbar’s childhood friend. Bias is there.

Post-Akbar’s death:

Taxes and tariffs and poll tax were sources of revenue.

Food grains from the north and Bengal. Includes wheat, barley, maize. The
northeast and Bengal came into the empire under Shah Jahan and Jahangir. These
areas became standardised, from here the food grains were made and moved out. 
Handicraft production - luxury and items for export. Shawls, carpets. textiles,
etc in Kashmir and sold in markets in Lahore and Central and West Asia. 
Textiles - cotton and silk textile production in the coromandel coast. They move
from there to Gujarat. Then moves to Gujarat ports - surat and Cambay - and
traded outwards. Textile export is a major source of overseas revenue. Block
printed cotton was common not just with the elite but with the commoners as
well. Commoners did not consume as much though because production was
expensive so clothes were reused. There was a high demand for export and elite
consumption. Coarse cotton was used to make things other than clothes (bed
covers, upholstery etc.) and purchased by the common man
The royal family also carried out personal trade in Surat, hence heavily guarded.
Burhanpur was for movement between South India (Deccan) and the north.
Masulipatnam used to be under Deccani sultanates but came under Mughals.
Payment for goods in gold and silver currency so certain communities carried out
banking - Sarraf community. 
Some worked on behalf of Mughal authorities and some worked independently. 
They lend currency and give out credit loans.
 Hundi - a credit note where you give your coins to a Sarraf and he gives you an
acknowledgement note so at any point you can get your money back. 
When you have to pay for something far away from home you can give it to a
Sarraf from the same firm and they will give you a credit note and it will be
settled by the firm. 
The emergence of cash economy and trade economy and commercialisation.

Dutch East India Company and East India Company are established and present in
the subcontinent. They first come into the Mughal port to get permission to set up
their factories and warehouses. In places like surat, Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta. A lot of European trading presence with consolidated companies and
corporations. They come with fleets and many traders for the purpose of trade in
textiles. They take them to South East Asia where there is demand and they get
the spices indigenous to the region and take them back to Europe.
The dutch etc. are mere traders at this point and not colonizers.

There was European painting on Indias and vice versa. Paintings maps, manuscripts
and illustrations under J and SJ are important sources of the era. Europeans
brought gifts to the courts of Mughal emperors, quite fascinated by it.

 Jahangir pointing an arrow at the severed head of Malik Ambar (African

slave). The African military slaves were called the Habshis. Malik Ambar
rises as the ruler of Ahmednagar. Under his rule, there was a lot of
hostility between the Mughals and Ahmednagar. After Chand bibi dies
Ahmednagar went to the Mughals and Bijapur
 For Jahangir, malik Ambar becomes his sworn enemy. He never actually does
this. Jahangir gets this painting made to depict the symbolic defeat of malik
Ambar. 
 Malik Ambar manages to hold control over Ahmednagar with an army of
mercenaries and Marathas. 

After malik ambar died, Ahmednagar dies and comes under Bijapur once more.
(Malik took Ahmednagar once after overthrowing Bijapur). Deccan – wanted to
conquer the world (Jahan), so expansive they felt they had the power of being
rulers of the world. Watan Jagirs gave rajputs certain advantage in establishing
regional power.
There was no system of first son becoming emperor, all brothers fought and killed
each other to become king.
In popular memory, Akbar and Aurangzeb were seen as two ends of the spectrum. He
relied on the clergy. Local rulers moved to Lucknow, Jaipur and Murshidabad to
establish centres of art and literary production. At Delhi away from centre.
Emperor no longer holding empire together.

18th Century developments:

Very linked to the developments in the 17th century. Usually, 12th to 18th century is
periodized as medieval, 18th onward is modern, the modern is seen in the world not in
the Indian context. The latter half sees colonial power, military technology etc.
end of medieval period looked at 1707 when Aurangzeb dies.
Periodisation is a Eurocentric concept, it isn’t the only way for history to be
looked at. We look at historical processes and overall developments century-wise
instead. 

After him, the emperors do not hold on to power for very long, they don’t take
reforms or expand territory. Political economy and stability show cracks. No
unified political economy, the deccan expansion was proving to be fatal. Nobility
was no longer accountable to the empire. Breakdown of Rajput allegiance. Lingua
franca in all three successor states was Persian. However, Marathas and Sikhs are
not seen as successor states as they weren’t part of the imperial system, they were
people threw the imperial yoke.

Murshid Kuli Khan (kartalab khan). He became Nizam under Mughal direction in
1717. Bengal became a self-sufficient empire serving its needs, didn’t feed the Mughal
treasury.
After Aurangzeb died many emperors ruled in quick succession and faced hostility
in the court. They couldn’t directly control nobility so whatever regional
governors did went unchecked. The emperor didn’t have support from the military
or financial control to check them. 

Sadat Khan 1722. They didn’t contest his local jagirdari system. Customs of
Mughals were continued. They even continued Mughal art, music architecture
and even were influenced by the Mughal aesthetic. This was because Aurangzeb
didn’t patronise it in Mughal court, local centres were opening. Became a centre of
Mughal cultural production. Strong patronage in local regions.

Hyderabad – earlier capital of Golconda. Came under Shah Jahan in 1636. Timurid
and Iranian descent. Mughal court didn’t like his ideas. He took control of the
region without any direction from the emperor and hence he gets a lot of power.
Became autonomous by 1740. Europeans also were there. Mercantile community
flourished here. The successors followed similar traditions and hence state
succeeded. Jagirdari and Mansabdari weren’t very developed in this region ad they
didn’t manifest in the deccan earlier. Trade along coasts.

Bengal - agrarian and textile economy. Banking firms help development.

Awadh - agrarian and cash-based. monetised trading economy. Trade-in jewels,
gold and diamonds. 
Hyderabad - heavily mercantile economy. 

Shivaji – centre of power at Raigadh. Sons at Kolhapur and satara.

Peshwas expand up to central India and Gwalior, up to Delhi in fact. Third Panipat
in 1750 (Peshwas fought). Own system of revenue and governance. Banking firms
supported their growth. Reason for flourish was expansion.
Punjab was fertile, hence Mughals wanted it. Sikh empire later developed under
Ranjit Singh in 18th century.

East India Company:

EIC went to the court of Jahangir to get a Farman to open a factory in Surat
which was granted to them. Lot of people invested in the EIC despite being investors
and not traders. They took share in the profits. The EIC were granted monopoly,
the only English Company to trade in the so-called east indies. Their goal was
profit maximization. Even the wealthy invested in it.

They first set up factories in the Mughal ports of Surat (1619) and Masulipatnam.
Eventually they had their own factories in madras (1639), Bombay (1668) and
Calcutta (1690). British soldiers were present there to prevent threats from local
powers and protect the goods. They gave military service in an attempt to earn
revenue to further re-invest in trade. However, large part of revenue was still
trade, ports, coasts and South East Asian network. The English were famous in
documenting and keeping a record via maps, even made paintings.

British set up warehouses along Calcutta alongside those of the French. The SE
Asian region was for rubber and spices. By 1710, half of cloth sent out of Bengal was
by British. Farman allowing them to multiply trade and make inroads towards
interior of Bengal, resulted in a population increase here because trading and
banking communities began settling here. This trade was to be free of custom duties,
enabling them to have a dastak (free pass). They got revenue from 38 villages.
Permission to mint coins out of its imported bullion at the royal mint. However,
authority was of the Mughal empire, hence legitimacy was there. However, there
was unhappiness over concessions given to the British. Further, this dastak was
misused and caused losses to nawab. Further, control of economy was shifting to
EIC. Loss of control by Nawab, hence unhappy.
However, the banking firms and traders liked the English and profited over its
increasing profits. They weren’t fond of Siraj-ud-Daula. Further, Siraj ud Daula
also didn’t like EIC.

EIC negotiated a way to replace him with Jagat seths candidate Mir Jafar.
Calcutta was emerging as a threat to Daula’s capital at Murshidabad. Daula
captures Calcutta and killed Englishmen. Robert Clive won at Plassey. This
allowed Bengali revenue to go to EIC. Bengal was essentially under EIC.

Battle of Buxar – Mughals flee to Awadh due to Nadir Shah. EIC wanted more
territory and more revenue. They wanted to replace Mir Qasim as Nawab as well.
Here, Mughal (shah Alam II), Awadh nawab (Shuja-ud-Daula) and qasim plan to
defeat him at Buxar. EIC win. Mughal emperor grants them diwani over Bengal
Bihar and Orissa in Treaty of Allahabad (1763).

Victory gave them control over revenue systems and they had large economic
control. Blurs the line between political and economic. Mughal systems of revenue
were used initially. They expanded military resources, as charter gave them right
to wage war and remain armed. They even supplied to other regions etc. own
ammunition, trained sepoys. Hierarchy within traders and merchants and a
military ranking system. They have administrative control. Own officials to
collect revenue. Use Farman’s and paid homage to Mughals. They have
administrative control and even legitimacy as a result of the treaty. They even
attended court in later half of 18th century.

Joint stock private corporation - 218 subscribers raised £68,373 – a huge amount of
money at a time when a skilled carpenter was earning about 7 pence a day. The
Company was granted a monopoly on all English trade east of the Cape of Good
Hope.

Commodities - cotton, silk, dyed cloth, saltpetre. Offered military services to

Hyderabad, Arcot, and other kingdoms of the Deccan in return for grants of
revenue rights

EIC’s trade surpassed VOC due to the 1717 Farman. Massive European private trade
and shipping outside of the EIC – concentrated on commerce along the Malabar
coast.

Financed the EIC’s military pursuits in other parts of the subcontinent

EIC continued to pay dues and homage to the symbolic authority of the Mughals.
Company state – collecting diwan and setting Governor general’s officer to
maximize the revenue from these benefits. Maximum revenue from Land revenue,
less from trade over ocean. They do not want to be kings, they are administrators.
This also to maximize profits. New mode of administration with governor general,
presidencies, governors etc. changing taxation system under Mughal taxation
systems. Employing new set of local zamindars, changing the land administration
system, zamindars (over the peasants and tenants). Residents to various courts, to
provide land grants and stuff. Presence of the British Indian army. A commercial
company state to maximize monetary benefit was being set up. Sending money back to
England and stuff.

Chronology – this Bombay etc, then attacked tipu cuz trade, then the
transformation to a political power, then Cohn.

This period was the height of orientalism, Asiatic society, India is being studied.
Empire (maximizing territorial expansion with an imperial ideology).

The British used several modalities to justify their own rule, one is their own
understanding of Indian History. By the end of 18th century, they are looking at
themselves as superior. Looking at oriental despotism and utilitarianism. Hence, we
need to rule them. Seeking to legitimize their presence in India. (This was after).

British Context:

British and French hostility, as seen in Carnatic wars as well. Defat of napoleon
means more sea power and naval might.

British not only used military, political and culture power, used cultural power.
These forms of knowledge (called modalities) are what he calls instruments of
power as well. Interested in documentation. Put on paper, so knowledge about kind
of bureaucracy, administration and legal systems. Country is much larger than
theirs, tasked with controlling it. British officers undertook surveys etc. places of
power were Calcutta madras simla etc where locals didn’t frequent.
Census - enumerated the various population groups of the Indian subcontinent
Surveillance - the british administrators viewed the local population and kept
tabs on the festivals, ceremonies and public activities they undertook from a
distance (horseback, mounted platforms etc.) and did not engage with the
population. They held themselves separate from the locals and in a separate
hierarchy
Because of this distance and alienation there was an idea of british not really
understanding Indian culture. 
Colonial vocabulary - The colonisers attempted to categorise the Indian
population without being a part of them. They regarded the population that lived
in the forests and were not ‘civilised’ as thugs.

The British in spite of the Racial superiority movement in Europe considered

themselves as british and hence superior. Better than French and Portuguese. Lot
of colonial rulers, end up relating a lot and ideology assimilates with that of the
locals. However, this wasn’t the case with the British. (No miscegenation). Strictly
Christian population.

Liberalism and Empire:

The ideology prevalent in England affects the colonial control and authority in
the Indian subcontinent - the ideology of liberalism
This is influenced by ideas of enlightenment and reforming society. Beginning with
parliamentary and political reform, intellectual reform. In their opinion,
rationality was a key part in governance. They believed india had remained
stagnant since the medieval period. They looked at themselves as the pinnacle of
civilization. The way they looked at themselves was a society governed by
rationality (not bound by religion) and intellectual thinking, owning private
property and a legal system. The idea of liberty, individual wishes and the
individual being a rational being who can take care of himself. English language
and western education. Education of concepts taught in England, aim to civilize
the Indians. Via this, they also gained control. The information also guided them
about the way they could govern and reform the subcontinent.

The administrators who followed this liberal ideology believed the company raj
and later the british raj was a moral, civilised and civilising regime. They were
making a point to the rest of the European powers that they were civilised and in
the process of civilising the colonised. They believed they were uplifting the local.
For the English, they saw the existing systems as inadequate and uncivilized. Social
behaviour in India was regulated through social norms and code of conduct. The
idea of morality gave them a superior position. They got legitimacy from Raja Ram
Mohan Roy etc.
Introduction of English language and literature
English language was equated with Greek and Latin. Just as the british inherited
classical Greek and Latin texts and culture, the Indians would inherit English
works. 
The western educated elite of India (like raja ram Mohan Roy) were examples of
reformist thinking that came out of education in English

Voting power in hands of administrators. Indians viewed as inferior. Education at

an inferior level being conducted. Prince Albert, her son came to India. Imperial
presence legitimized. She was known as the grandmother of Europe because all her
sons and daughters married into European royal families. When Punjab comes
under her control, she adopts Ranjit Singh’s son (duleep Singh) as her godson and
duleep Singh gives the Kohinoor diamond to her.

1857:
The educated elite were also in some ways discontent with educational reforms,
but the bedrock was the common masses, which merely boiled over after the
Mangal Pandey incident.
The British wanted more cultivation because this meant more agricultural
revenue for them.
They adopt a Pax Britannica methodology - the british decide to be the ones
imposing a moral rule where they will bring ‘barbaric’ populations under
control. This was similar situation in Australian and African colonies. They played
role of a moral policeman.
Local powers resisted the kind of land changes the british imposed
 Local groups resist because the peasants are exploited and are extremely
unhappy. Peasants left their land

It is a layered issue - so a broader term like uprising (as is used by subaltern

historians) encompasses the various perspectives. 

 These mutineers had family in the gangetic plain and central and west India
so they had the backing from peasants and artisans in regions around Delhi
 The mutineers marched to Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow and got backing
from regional forces. They took control of these cities that were earlier
under british control. The british later recaptured the cities and took
back control.
  Ordinary members of the population took up leadership positions - like shah
mal (jat farmer), devi singh (village level raja), and gonoo (a kol tribalsman
from chotanagpur). This shows up normal people became rebels and
converged in a larger, mass scale resistance 
 At the beginning of the 20th century with the INC and swadeshi movement
the ideology that emerged is patriotism. It is a sense of loyalty to their
region (linguistic and religion sensibilities) as opposed to a sense of belonging
to a single nation
 The groups like the Hindu Mahasabha and brahmo samaj are all regional
groups. They debate how to negotiate with the colonial authority
 The idea that local groups participated and rallied their communities
shows the intensity of discontentment. 
 Commonality of all these participants and various strands of
discontentment was that their day-to-day life and experiences was dictated
by a foreign, alien state who they did not recognise as their own. The british
deliberately kept their distance and did not intermix with the locals.

Bernard Cohn:
As Cohn points out, the information they gathered formed the basis on which they
could govern a vast and wide territory.

The british learnt Indian languages. They learnt Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and the
vernacular. In order to spread their westernized education in English, they
would need the knowledge of this languages. Further, in collecting taxes,
revenue, maintenance of law and order, they needed this. They could classify
people and control as well based on the languages they learnt.

This shaped the investigative modalities devised by the British to collect the facts.
Investigative modalities include the definition of a body of knowledge, the
procedure by which it is obtained, ordering and classification, and transformation
into usable forms.
Knowledge of history and practices of Indian states was seen as the most valuable
form of knowledge upon which the colonial state could be built.
So essentially this is Cohn’s reading.