THERMODYNAMICS NOTES

Temperature

• Temperature is the quantity measured by a thermometer.

• Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a
system.
• Absolute zero is the temperature at which there is no molecular motion.
• Thermometers are used to measure temperature according to well-defined scales
of measurement, which use pre-defined reference points to help compare
quantities.
• Any physical property that depends on temperature, and whose response to
temperature is reproducible, can be used as the basis of a thermometer. For
example, volume increases with temperature for most substances. This property is
the basis for the common alcohol thermometer, the old mercury thermometer, and
the bimetallic strip. Other properties used to measure temperature include
electrical resistance and color, and the emission of infrared radiation.
• There are three main temperature scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin
• Celsius scale has the freezing point of water at 0ºC and the boiling point at
100ºC. Its unit is the degree Celsius (ºC).
• Fahrenheit scale the freezing point of water is at 32ºF and the boiling point is
at 212ºF. The unit of temperature on this scale is the degree Fahrenheit (ºF)
• Kelvin scale is the temperature scale that is commonly used in science. It is an
absolute temperature scale defined to have 0K at the lowest possible
temperature, called absolute zero. The official temperature unit on this scale is
the kelvin, which is abbreviated K, and is not accompanied by a degree sign.
• Relationships among Kelvin (K), Celsius (C), and Fahrenheit (F) temperature scales.
Temperatures have been rounded off to the nearest degree.
 • Temperatures on one scale can be converted to temperatures on another scale
using the following equations:

To convert from… Use this equation…

Celsius to Fahrenheit
TF=95TC+32
Fahrenheit to Celsius
TC=59(TF-32)
Celsius to Kelvin
TK=TC+273.15
Kelvin to Celsius
TC=TK-273.15
Fahrenheit to Kelvin
TK=59(TF-32) +273.15
Kelvin to Fahrenheit
TF=95(TK-273.15) + 32

• Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same temperature.
• Thermal equilibrium occurs when two bodies are in contact with each other and can freely
exchange energy.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if C is initially in thermal equilibrium with
both A and B, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This result is
called the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids

• Thermal expansion is the increase, or decrease, of the size (length, area, or volume)
of a body due to a change in temperature.
• Thermal expansion is large for gases and relatively small, but not negligible, for
liquids and solids.

Thermal Stress
• If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent expansion or contraction and then
change the temperature, thermal stresses develop.
• When a material is cooled or heated and held so it cannot contract or expand, it is
under a tensile stress F/A.

F/A = −Yα∆T
Heat
• Heat and work are the two distinct methods of energy transfer.
• Heat is energy transferred solely due to a temperature difference.
• Any energy unit can be used for heat transfer, and the most common are
kilocalorie (kcal) and joule (J Kilocalorie is defined to be the energy needed to
change the temperature of 15.5ºC.
• The mechanical equivalent of this heat transfer is 1.00 kcal = 4186 J

Temperature Change and Heat Capacity

• The transfer of heat Q that leads to a change ΔT in the temperature of a body with
mass m is Q = mcΔT, where c is the specific heat of the material. This relationship
can also be considered as the definition of specific heat.
• Values of specific heat and molar heat capacity for several substances are given in
Table 17.3.
Phase Change and Latent Heat
• Most substances can exist either in solid, liquid, or gas forms, which are referred to
as “phases.”
• Phase changes occur at fixed temperatures for a given substance at a given pressure,
and these temperatures are called boiling and freezing (or melting) points.
• During phase changes, heat absorbed or released is given by: Q = mL, where L is the
latent heat coefficient.

Heat Transfer Methods

• Heat is transferred by three different methods: conduction, convection, and
radiation.
• Heat conduction is the transfer of heat between two objects in direct contact with
each other.
• Convection is heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of mass. Convection can
be natural or forced and generally transfers thermal energy faster than conduction.
• Radiation is the rate of heat transfer through the emission or absorption of
electromagnetic waves