MODULE 2 CEMENT

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Definition of Cement
2.3 Manufacturing Process of Cement
2.3.1 Wet Process
2.3.2 Dry Process
2.4 Chemical Ingredients of Cement
2.5 Chemical Compounds of Cement
2.6 Physical Requirements of Cement
2.7 Types of Cement
2.7.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2.7.2 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
2.7.3 Low Heat Portland Cement
2.7.4 Sulphate Resisting Cement
2.7.5 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
2.7.6 White and Coloured Cement
2.7.7 High Alumina Cement
2.7.8 Hydrophobic Cement
2.7.9 Pozzolana Cement
2.7.10 Oil Well Cement
2.7.11 Expanding Cement
2.7.12 Quick Setting Cement
2.8 Testing of Portland Cement
2.8.1 Field Tests
2.8.2 Laboratory Tests
2.8.3 Chemical Composition
2.8.4 Fineness Test
2.8.5 Consistency Test
2.8.6 Setting Times Test
2.8.7 Soundness
2.8.8 Compressive Strength Test
2.8.9 Tensile Strength Test
2.9 Summary

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Module 1, you studied the definitions of concrete, importance of concrete,
properties of concrete in plastic and hardened stage, process diagram of concrete
and concreting operations. Cement is one of the important ingredients of concrete.
Basically, it is acting as a binding material in the concrete. In this module, you
will study the ingredients of cement, manufacturing process of cement, types of
cement, properties of cement and testing of cement.

25
Concrete Technology
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 describe the manufacturing process of cement,
 explain the chemical composition of cement,
 describe the physical properties of cement,
 classify the various types of cement explaining their uses,
 verify the quality of cement by the field test, and
 get acquainted with the laboratory testing of Portland Cement

2.2 DEFINITION OF CEMENT

Cement is defined as the product manufactured by burning and crushing to
powder an intimate and well-proportioned mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous materials.
Cement is manufactured in a variety of forms these days. The cement, which is
generally used for preparing concrete, is the Ordinary Portland Cement. But for
special purposes other qualities of cement such as Low Heat Cement, Rapid
Hardening Cement, High Alumina Cement, White Cement, Blast Furnace Slag
Cement, Sulphate Resisting Cement, etc. are also used.
The selection of a particular type of cement to be used for manufacturing of
concrete, depends upon the following factors :
(a) The required strength of the concrete structure.
(b) The type of structure.
(c) The conditions under which the construction of structure is to take
place.

2.3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT

The following raw materials are basically required for manufacturing of cement:

Calcareous Materials
The materials which contain calcium or lime as their major constituent are
known as calcareous materials. The various calcareous materials used in the
manufacture of cement are lime stone, marl, chalk, shells, etc. These
materials provide the required proportion of lime to the cement.
Argillaceous Materials
The argillaceous materials contain alumina as their major constituent. The
various argillaceous materials used in the manufacture of cement are shale,
26
 clay, laterite, etc. These materials provide the required proportion of silica,
alumina, oxide of iron, etc. to the cement.
The process of manufacture of cement consists of grinding the raw materials
(calcareous and argillaceous materials) mixing them intimately in certain
proportions and burning them in a kiln at a temperature of about
1500C at which the material sinters and fuses to form nodular shaped
clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder with addition of
about 2 to 3 % of gypsum. The product obtained by this procedure is called
as Portland Cement. There are two processes known as Wet and Dry
processes depending upon whether the mixing and grinding of raw materials
is done in wet or dry condition. The wet process requires more fuel as slurry
contains about 35-50 % water. The dry process requires less fuel as
materials are already in dry state.

2.3.1 Wet Process

In this process, the limestone is crushed to smaller fragments and then it is taken
to a ball or tube mill where clay or shale is mixed with it and ground to a fine
consistency of slurry with the addition of water. The slurry is pumped to slurry
tanks where it is kept in an agitated condition by means of rotating arms with
chains to prevent setting of limestone and clay particles. At this stage, the
chemical composition of slurry is adjusted as necessary. The corrected slurry is
stored in storage tanks and kept in homogeneous condition by the agitation of
slurry.
The corrected slurry is injected at the upper end of a rotary kiln. Rotary kiln is
formed of steel tubes. The diameter of rotary kiln varies from 3 m to 8 m and
length varies from 30 m to 200 m. The kiln is supported at intervals by columns
of masonry or concrete. It is laid at a gradient of about 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. The
refractory lining is provided on the inside surface of rotary kiln. It is so arranged
that the kiln rotates at about one to three revolutions per minute about its
longitudinal axis. The burning is carried out in this rotary kiln.
The hot gases or flames are forced through the lower end of the kiln. The portion
of the kiln near its upper end is known as dry zone and in this zone, the water of
slurry is evaporated. As the slurry gradually descends, there is rise in temperature
and in the next section of kiln, the carbon dioxide from slurry is evaporated. The
small lumps, called as nodules, are formed at this stage. These nodules then
gradually roll down passing through zones of rising temperature and ultimately
reach to the burning zone, where temperature is about 1500°C. In burning zone,
the calcined product is formed and nodules are converted into small hard dark
greenish blue balls, which are known as clinkers. The size of clinkers varies from
3 mm to 20 mm and they are very hot when they come out of burning zone of
kiln. The temperature of clinker at the outlet of kiln is nearly 1000°C. The clinker
drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled under controlled conditions.

27
Concrete Technology

Calcareous Material
Limestone Argillaceous Material Clay

Washing
Crushing

Storage in Silos Storage in Basins

Channel

Grinding Mill

Formation of Slurry

Correcting Basin

Storage Tanks Coal Dust

Rotary Kiln

Formation of Clinkers Gypsum 2 to 3%

Coolers

Grinding of Clinkers in
Ball Mills & Tube Mills

Storage in Silos

Weighing & Packing in Bags

Distribution

Figure 2.1: Flow Diagram of Wet Process

The clinkers as obtained from the rotary kiln are finely grounded in ball mills and
tube mills. During grinding a small quantity, about 2 to 3% of gypsum is added. If
gypsum is not added, the cement would set as soon as water is added. The gypsum
controls the initial setting time of cement. The gypsum acts as a retarder and

28
delays the setting action of cement. Thus, gypsum permits cement to be mixed
with the aggregates and to be placed in position.
A ball mill consists of several compartments charged with progressively smaller
hardened steel balls. The particles crushed to the required fineness are separated
by currents of air and taken to storage silos from where the cement is bagged or
filled into barrels for bulk supply to dams, bridges or other large work sites. The
flow diagram of wet process of cement manufacturing is given in Figure 2.1.
2.3.2 Dry Process
Calcareous Material Argillaceous Material Clay
Limestone

Crushing Washing

Fine Grinding in Ball Fine Grinding in Ball Mills

Mills and Tube Mills and Tube Mills

Storage Storage

Mixing in Correct Proportion

Storage Tank for Raw Mix

Rotary Kiln Coal Dust

Formation of Clinkers

Coolers

Grinding of Clinkers in Ball Gypsum 2 to 3%

Mills and Tube Mills

Storage in Silos

Weighing & Packing in Bags

Distribution

Figure 2.2 : Flow Diagram of Dry Process

In the dry process, the raw materials are crushed dry and fed in correct proportions
into a grinding mill. The raw materials are dried and crushed into a very fine
powder. The dry powder is called raw meal. The dry powder is further blended
and corrected for its right composition and mixed by using compressed air. The
aerated powder tends to behave almost like liquid and in about one hour of 29
Concrete Technology aeration a uniform mixture is obtained. The sieved blended meal fed into a
rotating disc called as granulator. The pellets of blended meal are formed by
adding water approximately 12 % to permit air flow for exchange of heat for
chemical reactions and conversion of the same into clinker.
The dry process is economical. In this method, equipment used is comparatively
smaller. The consumption of coal in this method is very low as compared to wet
process. In case of mixing of raw materials by dry process, the raw mix is formed
and in case of mixing of raw materials by wet process, the slurry is formed.
The remaining operations, e.g. burning and grinding are same as that of the wet
process. The flow diagram of dry process of cement manufacturing is given in
Figure 2.2.

2.4 CHEMICAL INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT

The chief chemical ingredients and their proportions in ordinary cement are given
in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 : Chief Chemical Ingredients of Cement
Sl. No. Chemical Formula Commonly Used Range
Ingredients (%) (%)
1. Lime CaO 63 60 to 67
2. Silica SiO2 22 17 to 25
3. Alumina Al2O3 6 3 to 8
4. Iron Oxide Fe2O3 3 0.5 to 6
5. Magnesium MgO 2.5 0.1 to 4
6. Sulphur Oxide SO3 1.25 1 to 3
7. Alkalies such as Na2O, K3O 0.25 0.2 to 1
Soda and Potash
8. Loss on ignition  1.5 0.1 to 1

The functions and effects of various chemical ingredients of cement are as

follows :
Lime
Lime is the major ingredient of cement. It makes the cement sound and also
provides strength to the cement. Lime in excess makes the cement unsound
and causes the cement to expand and disintegrate. The deficiency of lime
will decrease the strength and cause the cement to set quickly.
Silica
Silica provides strength to the cement. Silica in excess causes the cement to
set slowly.
Alumina
Alumina lowers the clinkering temperature. It provides quick setting
property to the cement. Alumina in excess weakens the strength of the
cement.
30
Iron Oxide
Iron oxide provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement. It helps the
fusion of material at lower temperature during the manufacturing of cement.
Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium oxide provides colour and hardness to the cement. Excess
magnesium oxide remains in free state and makes the cement unsound.
Sulphur Trioxide
Sulphur trioxide makes the cement sound if present in very small quantity.
Excess sulphur trioxide makes the cement unsound.
Alkalies
Alkalies may be present in a very small quantiy. Alkalies in excess cause
efflorescence.

2.5 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OF CEMENT

Table 2.2 shows the major chemical or final compounds of cement. They are also
known as Bouges’ compounds.
Table 2.2 : Chief Chemical Compounds of Cement
Sl. No. Compounds Chemical Accepted Range Common
Formula Abbreviation (%) Proportion

1. Tricalcium silicate 3CaO SiO2 C3S 25 to 50 40

2. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO SiO2 C2S 21 to 45 30

3. Tricalcium 3CaO Al2O3 C3A 5 to 11 11

Aluminate

4. Tetra Calcium 4CaO C4AF 9 to 14 11

Alumino ferrite Al2O3Fe2O3

5. Other constituents ------- ------ 8 8

and Gypsum

These final compounds of cement are formed during calcinations in the following
order :
C4AF, C3A, C2S and C3S.
The properties of all these final compounds of cement are discussed below :
Tri-calcium Silicate (C3S)
It possesses the following properties :
(a) It hydrates rapidly.
(b) It generates more heat of hydration.
(c) It develops early strength.
(d) It has less resistance to sulphate attack.
Di-calcium Silicate (C2S)
It possesses the following properties :
31
Concrete Technology (a) It hydrates slowly.
(b) It generates less heat of hydration.
(c) It hardens more slowly.
(d) It contributes a little in early strength development.
(e) It gives good ultimate strength to the cement.
(f) It has more resistance to sulphate attack.
Tri-calcium Aluminate (C3A)
It possesses the following properties :
(a) It generates large amount of heat of hydration.
(b) It reacts fast with water.
(c) It causes initial setting of cement and thus helps in early strength
development in the concrete.
(d) It has less resistance to sulphate attack.
(e) It does not contribute to develop ultimate strength.
Tetra-calcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF)
It possesses the following properties :
(a) It is slow in reaction.
(b) It generates less heat of hydration.
(c) It is comparatively in-active and thus poor in early strength.
(d) It does not contribute to develop ultimate strength as it has poor
cementing value.
(e) It has less resistance to sulphate attack.
It has been analyzed that C3S and C2S control most of the strength developing
properties of cement. The sum of their percentage range varies from 70 to 80 %.
By changing the relative proportions of these compounds, different types of
cements can be manufactured.

SAQ
2.6 3
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS OF CEMENT
The important physical requirements of various types of cement are given in
Table 2.3 and are discussed below.
Fineness
The degree of grinding of cement is called fineness. The fineness of cement
is a measure of the size of particles of cement. For a given weight of cement
the surface area is more for finer cement than for coarser cement. Finer the
cement the rate of hydration is more, since more surface area is available for
chemical reaction. This results in greater strength development. If it is fine
beyond a certain limit its cementative property reduces due to pre-hydration
by atmospheric moisture. Fineness is measured in terms of percentage
32
 weight retained on IS sieve No. 9 after 15 minutes sieving. It may be
measured by air permeability method in cm2/gm of cement.
Table 2.3 : Physical Requirements of Various Cement
as Per IS Specifications
Sl. No. Physical Requirement Various Types of Cement

Ordinary Rapid Low Heat Portland Blast Portland

Portland Hardening Portland Furnace Slag Pozzolana
(IS : 269- Portland (IS : 269-
1967 and (IS : 269- 1967) (IS : 455-1967) (IS : 1489-
1975) 1967) 1967)

1. Fineness

(a) Residue by weight on 10% 5% - 10% 5%

90 micron IS sieve, not
to exceed
(b) Specific surface by Air 2250 3250 2200 3250 3000
Permeability method,
not less than (cm2/g)

2. Setting Time (in minutes)

(a) Initial setting time, not 30 30 60 30 30

less than 600 600 600 600 600
(b) Final setting time, not
more than

3. Soundness

(a) By Le Chatelier 10 10 10 10 10
method, the specimen
shall not have an
expansion more than

(b) By Autoclave method, 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

the specimen shall not
have an expansion of
more than

4. Compressive Strength
(in kg/cm2of 1 : 3 cement
mortar cube)

(a) At 1 day (24 + or 160 160 - - -

– 30 min) not less than 220 275 100 160 -
(b) At 3 days (72 + or – 1)
h not less than

(c) At 7 days (168 + or - - 160 220 175

– 2) h not less than

(d) At 14 days (336 + or - - - - 250f

–3) h not less than

(e) At 28 days (672 + or - - 350 - -

– 4) h not less than

5. Heat of Hydration (in

cal/g)

(a) At 7 days, not more - - 65 - -

than

(b) At 28 days, not more - - 75 - -

than

33
Concrete Technology

Setting Time
The phenomenon by virtue of which the plastic cement paste changes into
hard mass is called as setting of cement. The setting time at which the
cement paste looses its plasticity after the addition of water is known as
initial setting time. The time corresponding to the paste becoming a hard
mass is known as final setting time. The mixing, transportation, placing and
compaction of concrete must be completed within the initial setting time of
cement.
Soundness
The phenomenon by virtue of which cement does not undergo large change
in volume when treated with water is called as soundness. An unsound
cement will disintegrate due to volumetric changes caused by the presence
of free lime and magnesia in cement.
Compressive Strength
The quality of cement for its strength in compression is judged by finding
the compressive strength of cement sand mortar. For this purpose, cement
sand mortar in the ratio of 1: 3 (one part of cement and three parts of
standard sand) is used and cubes of 7.06 cm × 7.06 cm × 7.06 cm are
prepared and cured.
Heat of Hydration
The setting of cement is due to chemical reaction between cement and water
called as hydration. Thus, during the process of setting, cement chemically
reacts with water and heat is generated. This heat is called as heat of
hydration since it affects the rate of hydration, which is directly proportional
to the generation of heat. Evolution of heat of hydration is advantageous for
normal concrete work and it is disadvantageous for concrete work of
massive nature like dam.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of Portland cement is about 3.15. Specific gravity is not
an indication of the quality of cement. It is used in calculation of mix
proportions.

2.7 TYPES OF CEMENT

The various types of cements that are available in the market can be classified as
follows.
2.7.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
This type of cement is also called Normal Setting Cement since its setting is
normal when mixed with water. It is general-purpose cement suitable for general
concrete construction work, which requires no special consideration. It has
medium rate of strength development and heat generation. It has less resistance to
chemical attack.
Following are the uses of ordinary portland cement:
34
 (a) It is used in important structures, where great strength is required such
as heavy buildings and bridges, etc.
(b) It is used in structures subject to the action of water such as
foundations, under water reservoirs, water tight floors, dock yards,
etc.
(c) It is used for making cement mortar, plain cement concrete, reinforced
cement concrete, etc.
(d) It is used for plastering and painting.
(e) It is used for drainage and water supply works.
2.7.2 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)
This cement is similar to Ordinary Portland cement but with higher tri-calcium
silicate (C3S) content and finer grinding. It gains strength more quickly than OPC,
though the final strength is only slightly higher. This type of cement is also called
as High-Early Strength Portland Cement. The one-day strength of this cement is
equal to the three-day strength of OPC with the same water-cement ratio.
Following are the advantages of the rapid hardening portland cement:
(a) It is used where formwork has to be removed as early as possible in
order to reuse it.
(b) It is used where high early strength is required.
(c) It is generally used for constructing road pavements, where it is
important to open the road to traffic quickly.
(d) It is used in industries which manufacture concrete products like
slabs, posts, electric poles, block fence, etc. because moulds can be
released quickly.
(e) It is used for cold weather concreting because rapid evolution of heat
during hydration protects the concrete against freezing.
2.7.3 Low Heat Portland Cement
Percentages of tri-calcium silicate (C3S) and tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) are
lower in this cement than OPC and RHQPC while that of di-calcium silicate
(C2S) is higher. This results in a slower rate of reaction, lower evolution of heat of
hydration and lower early strength. But the ultimate strength remains more or less
unaffected.
Following are the uses of low heat portland cement :
(a) This cement is used only in large mass concrete works such as dams,
bridges, abutments, retaining walls, etc.
(b) It is also used in works where the rate of heat of generation must be
kept to minimum.
2.7.4 Sulphate Resisting Cement
This type of cement is also known as supersulphate cement. In this cement, the
percentage of tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) is kept below 5 percent and it results in
the increase in resisting power against sulphate attacks.
Following are the uses of sulphate resisting cement :

35
Concrete Technology (a) It is used for canal lining in severe alkali conditions especially in the
arid western regions.
(b) It is used for marine works, mass concrete jobs to resist the attack of
aggressive water.
(c) It is used for works underside of bridges, over railway tracks and for
concrete sewers carrying industrial effluents.
(d) It is used in the construction of reinforced concrete pipes and also for
construction works to be done in sulphate bearing soils.

2.7.5 Blast Furnace Slag Cement

The blast furnace slag, which is a waste product obtained during manufacture of
iron, contains all the basic elements of cement, i.e. silica, alumina, lime, iron, etc.
It is crushed preliminary to a granulated form, which is then intimately mixed
with cement clinkers in the proportion of 65 % of slag to 35 % of clinkers and
both are then grounded together to form cement. It is cheaper than OPC. It
develops low heat of hydration and has less early strength.
Following are the uses of blast furnace slag cement:
(a) It is used for mass concrete works such as retaining walls, bridge
abutments, dams, etc.
(b) It is used for all purposes for which OPC is used.

2.7.6 White and Coloured Cement

White cement is manufactured from special raw materials like white chalk and
china clay having low contents of iron oxide (less than 1 %).
Coloured cements are manufactured by adding suitable mineral pigments (oxide
of lead etc.) to Portland cement during grinding. The proportion of the pigment
varies 5% to 10%. The cobalt gives blue colour. The iron oxide in different
proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The manganese dioxide gives
black or brown coloured cement. These cements are costlier than OPC because of
specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials and manufacturing process.
Following are the uses of white and coloured cement :
(a) They are used in decorative works such as finishing coat of concrete
floors, face plaster to walls, etc.
(b) They are also used in mortars to be used for floors and wall tiles and
for ornamental concrete works.

2.7.7 High Alumina Cement

It is produced by grinding clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. The
proportion of alumina varies from 35% to 45% and the ratio of alumina to lime is
in between 0.85 to 1.3. It is not only a rapid hardening cement but also a higher
ultimate strength cement. It resists the action of acids and can withstand high
temperature. This cement is costlier than OPC.
Following are the uses of high alumina cement :
(a) It is very useful for chemical plants and lining of furnaces.
36
 (b) It is used for structures subjected to the action of sea water, chemical
and other such agents.

2.7.8 Hydrophobic Cement

The hydrophobic cement contains admixtures, which decrease the wetting ability
of cement grains. The hydrophobic admixtures like oxidized petrolatum, acidol,
etc. form a thin film around cement grains. When water is added to hydrophobic
cement, the absorption films are torn off the surface and they do not in any way
prevent the normal hardening of cement. In initial stage the gain in strength is less
as hydrophobic films on cement grains prevent the interaction with water. The
strength of hydrophobic cement after 28 days is equal to that of OPC.
Following are the uses of hydrophobic cement :
(a) It is used in the structures where high frost resistance or water
resistance is required.
(b) It is used in humid places where storage of OPC causes deterioration
in the quality of cement.

2.7.9 Pozzolana Cement

The pozzolana cement is a volcanic powder. It resembles surkhi, which is
prepared by burning bricks made from ordinary soils. It can also be processed
from shales and certain types of clays. The pozzolana material should be between
10% to 30%.
Following are the use of pozzolana cement :
(a) It is used in sewage works and for laying concrete under water.
(b) It is used for marine structures.

2.7.10 Oil Well Cement

This is a special type of cement required for sealing oil wells. Sealing is necessary
to prevent the sides of the freshly drilled well from collapsing and to keep ground
water out of the well shaft. This type of cement is manufactured by adjusting the
proportion of iron oxide so that all the alumina is converted to tetra-calcium
alumino ferrite (C4AF). Due to this the proportion of the compound tri-calcium
aluminate (C3A) formed is very small and thus the setting time of cement is
increased.
Following are the uses of oil-well cement :
(a) It is used for cementing the oil wells.
(b) It is also used to protect the oil well casing from corrosion.

2.7.11 Expanding Cement

It is manufactured by adding an expanding medium like sulpho-aluminate and a
stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. Hence, this cement expands whereas other
cements shrink.
Following are the uses of expanding cement :
(a) It is used for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.
(b) It is used for the construction of water retaining structures. 37
Concrete Technology
2.7.12 Quick Setting Cement
It is manufactured by adding a small percentage of aluminium sulphate and by
finely grinding the cement. The low percentage of gypsum or retarder is used for
quick setting action of cement. The setting action of cement starts within five
minutes after addition of water and it becomes hard like stone in less than
30 minutes or so.
Quick setting cement is used to lay concrete under static water or running water.

2.8 TESTING OF PORTLAND CEMENT

To know the quality of a Portland cement, it should be tested before its use is
recommended for any important engineering work. Care should be taken to collect
the sample of cement. In order to make a representative sample, it is desirable to
collect the sample from at least 12 different bags or barrels or containers or from
12 different positions in a heap if the cement is loose. The quantity of cement so
collected is intimately mixed and the final sample of cement weighing at least
5 kg is prepared. It is then stored in air-tight container till the tests are started.
The properties of concrete mainly depend upon the quantity of cement used. To
know the quality of Portland cement it should be tested before its use for any
important engineering work. Testing of cement can be done by two ways.
(a) Field testing, and
(b) Laboratory testing.
2.8.1 Field Tests
The following are the field tests on cement :
(a) The colour of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour
with a light greenish shade.
(b) The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are
formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag
of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.
(c) The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
(d) If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel
cool and not warm.
(e) If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the
particles should float for sometime before it sink.
(f) A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate
and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
(g) A block of cement 25 mm  25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and
it is immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm
apart and it is loaded with a weight of about 34 kg. The block should
not show signs of failure.
(h) The briquettes of a lean mortar (1 : 6) are made. The size of briquette
may be about 75 mm  25 mm  12 mm. They are immersed in water
38
 for a period of 3 days. If cement is of sound quality such briquettes
will not be broken easily.
2.8.2 Laboratory Tests
For examining the suitability of cement the following laboratory tests are usually
performed.
(a) Chemical composition
(b) Fineness
(c) Consistency
(d) Setting time
(e) Soundness test
(f) Compressive strength
(g) Tensile strength
2.8.3 Chemical Composition
The various tests are carried out to determine the chemical constituents of cement.
Following are the chemical requirements of ordinary cement as per
BIS 269-1975 :
(a) Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide should not be less
than 0.66.
(b) Ratio of percentage of lime to those of alumina, iron oxide and silica
should not be less than 0.66 and it should not be greater than 1.02,
when calculated by the following formula.
CaO  0.7 SO3
2.8 SiO2  1.2 Al2 O3  0.65 Fe2 O3

(c) The total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4 %.

(d) The total sulphur content is calculated as SO3 and it should not be
greater than 2.75 %.
(e) The weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.50 %.
(f) The weight of magnesia should not exceed 5 %.

2.8.4 Fineness Test

It is carried out to check proper grinding of cement. The fineness of cement
particles may be determined either by sieve test or by permeability apparatus test.
In sieve test, 100 gm of the cement is taken and it is continuously passed for
15 minutes through standard BIS sieve No. 9 (90 micron). The residue is then
weighed and this weight should not be more than 10 % of original weight for
OPC.
In permeability apparatus test, specific surface area of cement particles is
calculated. This test is better than sieve test and it gives an idea of uniformity of
fineness. The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of particles of
average size. The specific surface of cement should not be less than 2250 cm 2/gm.

39
Concrete Technology
2.8.5 Consistency Test
The purpose of test is to determine the quantity of water required for standard
consistency. For finding out setting time and soundness of cement standard
consistency has to be used. Standard or normal consistency of a cement paste is
defined as that consistency which will permit the ‘Vicat plunger’ 10 mm diameter
and 40 to 50 mm in length to penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom (or
33 to 35 mm from the top) of the Vicat mould when the cement paste is tested
within 3 to 5 minutes after the cement is thoroughly mixed with water.
Vicat apparatus consists of a metal frame, movable rod with cap at the top and
plunger at the bottom end and a mould. The weight of movable rod along with cap
and attachment is limited up to 300 gms. It is provided with a releasing pin to
make the rod free and is attached with an indicator to take readings on a vertical
scale, which is graduated from 0 to 40 mm in either direction.
To perform this test take about 400 gm of cement and prepare a paste with a
weighed quantity of water, say 25%. The paste obtained should be filled in the
mould of the Vicat apparatus. The interval of time between the instant of adding
water to the dry cement and the instant of commencement of filling the mould is
called the time of gauging. The time of gauging must be between 3 to 5 minutes.
The plunger of diameter 10 mm is lowered gently on to the paste in the mould.
The settlement of the plunger is noted. If the settlement is between 5 to 7 mm
from the bottom of the mould (or 33 to 35 mm from the top), the amount of water
added is correct and is corresponding to standard consistency of cement. If this
condition is not satisfied, the test must be repeated again changing the percentage
of water until the required extent of penetration of the plunger is reached.

Cap

Movable Rod
1 mm sq.
3.3 mm

6.4 mm
Indicator Air Vent

0.5 mm
0.5 mm
5 mm

Final Setting Needle

Frame
Initial Set Needle1 mm Square 50 mm

Cylindrical Mould 80 mm
10 mm
Plunger for Measuring
Normal Consistency
Nonporous Plate

Sheet

Figure 2.3: Vicat Apparatus

40
Let W1 = Weight of cement taken for the test, and
W2 = Weight of water added for desired penetration
Percentage of water for normal consistency = P = (W2/W1)×100.
It varies from 25 % to 35 %.

2.8.6 Setting Time Test

This test is used to check the initial and final setting times of the cement. The
initial setting time is determined so as to give sufficient time for various
operations like mixing, transportation, placing and compaction of cement concrete
or cement mortar. The final setting time is determined to find that after laying the
cement concrete or mortar, the hardening should be rapid so that the structure may
be made in use as early as possible. For determining the setting time of cement
Vicat apparatus is used.
Initial Setting Time
The initial setting time is the interval between the addition of water to
cement and the stage when needle (1 mm square; 40 to 50 mm length) fails
to pierce the test block by about 5 mm from the bottom.
The cement of weight 400 gm is taken and it is mixed with 0.85 P
percentage of water where P is the % of water as determined in consistency
test. The cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould. The square needle of
cross section 1 mm  1 mm called as initial setting time needle is attached
to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus. The needle is quickly released and
it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the beginning, the needle
penetrates completely. It is then taken out and dropped at a fresh place. The
procedure is repeated until the needle fails to pierce the cement paste in
block for about 5 mm, measured from the bottom of the mould. The time
thus recorded shall be the initial setting time. The care should be taken that
each time the needle should be cleaned and released at a new place, on the
top surface of the paste. The time from the stopwatch and readings from the
scale should be recorded continuously.
Final Setting Time
The final setting time is defined as period elapsing between the time when
water is added to cement and the time at which the final setting time needle
of 1 mm square section with 5 mm diameter attachment makes an
impression on the test block while the attachment fails to do so.
In this test, the initial setting time needle is replaced by final setting time
needle, with an annular attachment. It is released on the top surface of the
mould at regular intervals and the time is recorded. In the beginning, the
needle and the collar will make impression on the surface of the paste.
When the cement is finally set, only needle will make the impression and
the collar will fail to do so. The time thus recorded shall be the final setting
time. Care must be taken to clean the needle each time and the needle
should be released at a new place in each trial.
2.8.7 Soundness
The phenomenon by virtue of which cement does not undergo large change in
volume when treated with water is called as soundness.
41
Concrete Technology If the quantity of free lime and magnesia is present in excess during the
manufacture of cement, it is liable to remain uncombined and be over-burnt in the
kiln. The cement concrete or mortar of such cement is liable to expand after the
setting action is completed. It is one of the causes of cracking of cement.
Soundness test is performed to accelerate the slaking action of free lime and
magnesia, if they exist by the application of heat, thereby detecting the defect in a
short time.
The unsoundness may be reduced by
(a) fine grinding,
(b) thorough mixing,
(c) limiting the MgO content to less than 0.5 %, and
(d) allowing the cement to aerate for several days.
Unsoundness is generally expressed by the expansion of cement paste by
Le-Chatelier method.
Le-Chatelier apparatus consist of a small split cylinder of spring brass of
thickness 0.5 mm, forming a mould 30 mm high. Two indicators with pointed
ends are attached on both sides of the split (which should not be more than
0.5 mm). The distance from these ends to the center of the cylinder is 165 mm.
In this test, 100 gms of cement is taken and 0.78 P water is added, where P is the
percentage of water required for normal consistency paste. It is mixed thoroughly
for about three minutes. Remove air bubble from the cement paste, if any. Cement
paste is then filled into the mould, resting on a glass plate (within five minutes
from the instant water is added). The mould is then smoothened and covered with
another glass plate. A small weight is placed on the top and whole assembly is
immediately submerged in water at a temperature of 27oC to 32oC for 24 hours.
Then the mould is removed from water and the distance separating the indicator
points is measured. The whole assembly is submerged again in water and the
water is heated till it reaches the boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes. The mould is
kept in boiling water for three hours. Then the mould is taken out of water and
allowed to cool. After cooling, the distance between pointers is again measured.
The difference between these two measurements represents the expansion of
cement. For ordinary Portland cement, rapid hardening cement and low heat
cement the expansion shall not be more than 10 mm.

Figure 2.4 : Le-Chatelier Apparatus

42
2.8.8 Compressive Strength Test
This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement. The
mortar of cement and standard sand is prepared. The proportion is 1 : 3 which
means that x gm of cement is mixed with 3x gm of standard sand. Instead of
standard sand, ordinary sand passing through 850 micron IS sieve and not more
than 10 % by weight passing through 600 micron IS sieve may be used. To
perform this test, 200 gm of cement and 600 gm of standard sand by weight are
taken and mixed dry in a non-porous mixing pan to uniform colour with the help
of a trowel for one minute. The water is added at the rate of P/4 + 3 percent of
water when ordinary sand is used by weight of cement and sand mix together
where P is the percentage of water required for a paste of standard consistency. It
is mixed thoroughly to an even colour for about three minutes. The cube mould
made of metal of size 70.6 mm is placed on a non-porous base plate and is oiled
from inside. The mould is fitted on the table of the vibrating machine.
Immediately after mixing, the mortar is put into the cube mould and is compacted
for two minutes by the vibrations of the machine, which runs at a speed of
1200 ± 400 vibrations per minute. The filling and compaction of mould should be
finished within 5 minutes from the instant water is added to mortar. The mould is
then removed and the top surface is smoothened off by the single stroke of a
trowel. The prepared cubes are kept at a temperature of 27oC ± 2oC in an
atmosphere of at least 90 % relative humidity for 24 hours. Then the cubes of
mortar are removed from the mould and immersed in water for curing until taken
out for testing, i.e. after 3 or 7 or 28 days.

Figure 2.5 : Compressive Strength Testing Machine

2.8.9 Tensile Strength Test

This test was formerly used to get an indirect indication of compressive strength
of cement. Generally, it is used for rapid hardening cement. The procedure is
given below.
43
Concrete Technology (a) The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in the proportion of 1 : 3.
(b) The quantity of water 8% by weight of cement and sand is added to
the mortar.
(c) The briquette mould is filled with mortar and then a small heap of
mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula till
water appears on the surface. Same procedure is repeated for the other
face of briquette. Twelve such standard briquettes are prepared.
(d) The briquettes are kept in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
76.2
mm

25.4 44.5
mm
mm

Plan

76.2
mm

25.4
mm

Elevation
Figure 2.6: Briquette Mould
(e) The briquettes are carefully removed from the moulds and they are
submerged in clean water for curing.
(f) The briquettes are tested in testing machine at the end of 3 days and
7 days. Six briquettes are tested in each test and average is found out.
During the test, the load is to be applied uniformly at the rate of
35 kg/cm2.
(g) The cross-sectional area of briquette at its least section is 6.45 cm2.
Hence the ultimate tensile stress of cement paste is obtained from the
following relation.
Falling Load
(h) Ultimate tensile stress  .
6.45
(i) The tensile stress at the end of 3 days should not be less than
20 kg/cm2 and that at the end of 7 days should not be less than
25 kg/cm2.

2.9 SUMMARY
In this module, you have studied manufacturing process of cement, chemical
ingredients of cement, chemical compounds of cement, types of cement with their
uses, testing of Portland cement and field test to check the quality of cement.

44