FCFVA Lecture #2: Momentum Conservation: C. Corre

FCFVA Lecture #2 : Momentum conservation
C. Corre*
*ECL - LMFA
12 octobre 2021
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C. Corre (ECL - LMFA) FCVFA : Lecture #1 12 octobre 2021 1 / 64
Momentum conservation equation
Integral form : case of a material domain

Newton’s second law expressed for the material domain Dm (t) :
Variation rate of the fluid momentum contained in a material domain Dm (t)
= sum of the forces applied on Dm (t).
fluid momentum contained in Dm (t) = sum of the momentum of each fluid
particle of the domain Dm (t)
momentum of a fluid particle = product of the particle elementary mass
~ (~
dm = ρ(~x, t) dV by the particle velocity U x, t)
momentum contained in Dm (t) given by :
Z
ρU ~ dV .
Dm (t)
variation rate during the motion of the material domain computed as the
material derivative of this volume integral :
Z
D ~ dV ).
( ρU
Dt Vm (t)
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⇒ Newton’s second law or the fundamental principle of dynamics applied to the
material domain Dm (t) :
Z
D ~ dV ) = F
~
( ρU (1)
Dt Dm (t)
~ = vector of the resulting force applied on Dm (t)

where F
Equation (1) = vector equation, corresponding to d scalar equations for a flow in
d space dimensions (d = 1 for a 1D flow problem, d = 2 for a 2D flow problem
(plane flow) and d = 3 for a general 3D flow)
to turn (1) into a truly useful equation, one needs : i) to compute the LHS, ii) to
~ in the RHS
detail the form of the resulting force F
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vector formulation of the Reynolds transport theorem applied for the vector
~b = ρU
~ ⇒
D
Z Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z
~ dV =
ρU dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS
Dt Dm (t) Dm (t) ∂t Sm (t)
momentum conservation :
Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z
dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = F
~
Dm (t) ∂t Sm (t)
~ decomposed into two contributions :

force vector F
body forces acting remotely or in bulk on the whole control volume.
surface or contact forces applied on the surface of the control volume.
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for this course applications, body force = gravitational force
body force acting on Dm (t) expressed as :
Z
~v =
F ρf~dV
Dm (t)
where f~ = specific body force, that is body force per unit mass (same dimension
as acceleration)
for this course applications, f~ = ~g with ~g the gravitational acceleration (or no
body force / body force neglected)
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surface or contact forces acting on the control surface Sm (t) = associated with
the microscopic interactions accross the surface Sm (t), with two sources :
pressure distribution from the fluid surrounding the material domain, which acts
in the direction normal to the surface Sm (t)
viscous forces linked to the fluid viscosity and the strain of the fluid particle as
detailed later. Forces normal or tangential to the control surface Sm (t).
surface forces can be expressed using the stress vector T~ (~
x, t, ~n), which has the
dimension of a force per unit surface (the corresponding S.I. unit is P ascal or
P a or else N/m2 ) : Z
~s =
F T~ (~
x, t, ~n) dS
Sm (t)
where ~n is the outward-point unit normal vector to Sm (t)
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global form of the momentum conservation equation (1) recast as :
Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z Z Z
dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = T~ (~
x, t, ~n) dS + ρf~dV
Dm (t) ∂t Sm (t) Sm (t) Dm (t)
(2)
~
f will be either 0 (negligible body forces or negligible effects of the body forces)
or ~g (body forces equal to the gravitational forces)
it remains to define the stress vector T~ in order to close the momentum
conservation equation.
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Integral form : case of a general domain

~ , the
for an arbitrary fluid domain Da (t) of surface Sa (t) moving with velocity W
momentum balance states that the variation rate of the fluid momentum
contained in Da (t) is equal to the sum of the resulting force applied on Da (t)
and the momentum flux through Sa (t)
this can be written as :
Z Z
D ~ dV ) = F
~s + F
~v + ~ (W
~ −U
~ ) · ~n dS
( ρU ρU (3)
Dt Da (t) Sa (t)
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Integral form : case of a general domain

using again the vector formulation of the Reynolds transport theorem with
~b = ρU
~ , the LHS of (3) can be written as :
D
Z Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z
~ dV =
ρU dV + ~ (W
ρU ~ · ~n) dS
Dt Da (t) Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
inserting this identity into (3) and simplifying yields :

Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z Z Z
dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = T~ (~
x, t, ~n) dS + ρf~dV (4)
Da (t) ∂t Sa (t) Sa (t) Da (t)
~s and F
where F ~v have been replaced with their respective integral expression.
the momentum conservation equation (2) established for a material domain
holds for any arbitrary fluid domain in the form (4).
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Alternative global form

the Reynolds transport theorem in the case where the scalar quantity ϕ takes
the form ϕ = ρχ with ρ the local density of the flowing fluid can be expressed
with the mass conservation equation taken into account
the transport theorem written for ϕ = ρχ reads :
Z Z Z
D ∂(ρχ) ~ · ~ndS
ρχ dV = dV + ρχ W (5)
Dt Da (t) Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
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using the continuity equation to express the partial derivative of ρχ w.r.t. t
yields :
∂(ρχ) ∂ρ ∂χ
=χ +ρ
∂t ∂t ∂t
~ · (ρU
~)+ρ ∂χ
= −χ∇
∂t
~ · (χρU
= −∇ ~ ) + ρU ~ + ρ ∂χ
~ · ∇χ
∂t

= −∇ ~ ) + ρ ∂χ + U
~ · (χρU ~ · ∇χ
~
∂t
= −∇~ · (χρU ~ ) + ρ Dχ
Dt
going back to the integral form and using the flux-divergence theorem :
Z Z Z
∂(ρχ) ~ · (χρU
~ ) dV + Dχ
dV = − ∇ ρ dV
Da (t) ∂t Da (t) Da (t) Dt
Z Z 11 / 64
C. Corre (ECL - LMFA) FCVFA : Lecture #1 Dχ
12 octobre 2021 11 / 64

inserting this identity into the transport theorem (5) yields the alternative form
of the transport theorem taking into account the continuity or mass conservation
equation :
Z Z Z
D Dχ ~ −U
~ ) · ~ndS
ρχ dV = ρ dV + ρχ (W (6)
Dt Da (t) Da (t) Dt Sa (t)
this alternative scalar form of the transport theorem can be extended to the
vector case so that :
D~b
Z Z Z
D
ρ~b dV = ρ dV + ρ~b (W
~ −U
~ ) · ~ndS
Dt Da (t) Da (t) Dt Sa (t)
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using ~b = U~ and inserting this alternative form of the transport theorem into (3)
yields :
Z ~
DU
Z Z
ρ dV + ~ (W
ρU ~ −U~ ) · ~ndS = F
~s + F
~v + ~ (W
ρU ~ −U
~ ) · ~n dS
Da (t) Dt Sa (t) Sa (t)
after simplification of the flux term present both in the LHS and in the RHS and
replacement of F ~s and F~v by their respective integral formulation :
Z ~
DU
Z Z
ρ dV = T~ (~
x, t, ~n) dS + ρf~dV (7)
Da (t) Dt Sa (t) Da (t)
equations (4) and (7) are equivalent global forms of the momentum conservation
equation written for a general fluid domain
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Expression of the stress vector T~

T~ (~
x, t, ~n) is defined by the following relationship :
   
−
→ σxx σxy σxz nx
T~ (~x, t, ~n) = −
→
σ · ~n =  σyx σyy σyz  ·  ny 
σzx σzy σzz nz
| {z }
stress tensor
or else
   
σ11 σ12 σ13 n1
T~ (~x, t, ~n) =  σ21 σ22 σ23  ·  n2  (8)
σ31 σ32 σ33 n3
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expanding the tensor / vector product (which can be computed as a matrix /
vector product) and using Einstein’s notation, the i-component of the stress
vector can be expressed as :
Ti = σij nj (9)
−
→
the stress tensor −
→
σ , also called Cauchy’s stress tensor, is symmetrical :
σij = σji (10)
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the σii components are the normal stress components while the σij (i 6= j) are
the tangential or shear stress components.
in a fluid at rest, the only active stress is the pressure p, which acts upon the
control surface Sa (t) in the direction opposite to the unit normal vector ~n
consequently, in a fluid at rest, the stress tensor reduces to :
   
−
→ −p 0 0 1 0 0 −
→
−
→ −
→
σ = 0 −p 0  = −p  0 1 0  = −p 1
0 0 −p 0 0 1
−
→
−
→
where 1 is the unit tensor with associated matrix the identity marix
the stress vector in a fluid at test is therefore such that :
−
→ −
→
−
→
T~ = −
→σ · ~n = −p 1 · ~n = −p~n
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in a fluid in motion, viscous constraints are added to the pressure constraints, so
that the Cauchy stress tensor takes the full form :
−
→ −
→
→ −
− →
−
→
σ = −p 1 + −
→
τ (11)
−
→
where −
→
τ is the symmetrical tensor of the viscous constraints
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in terms of components, (11) can also be expressed as :
σij = −pδij + τij (12)

−
→
−
→
where the Kronecker symbol has been introduced : ( 1 )ij = δij
the corresponding expression of the stress vector T~ reads :
−
→ −
→
T~ = −
→
σ · ~n = −p~n + −
→
|τ {z· ~n} (13)
|{z}
pressure constraint viscous constraint
the stress vector can also be expressed componentwise using (9). :
Ti = σij nj = (−pδij + τij )nj
that is
Ti = −pni + τij nj (14)
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detailed form of the viscous constraints for a fluid such as air discussed next
at this stage, let us keep in mind how the viscous stresses act on a fluid particle :
both normally and tangentially on each face orientation of the fluid particle
meanwhile, the pressure stresses act only in the normal direction on each face of
the fluid particle.
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z
τzz
τ zy
τ zx τyz
τ yy
τxz
y
τyx
τxx τxy
Figure – Viscous stresses acting on a fluid particle. Conventionnally, τab denotes a stress
component acting in direction b on the surface of the element with a unit normal pointing in
direction a. Stresses τaa are therefore normal stresses. Stresses τab with a 6= b are tangential
and denoted as shear stresses. Normal viscous stresses are often negligible with respect to
the shear stresses and to the pressure stresses which are purely normal. Normal viscous
stresses may become significant when velocity variations in the normal direction become
high, which can occur in a shockwave for instance.
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Vector global formulation

inserting (13) into (7) yields a first complete form of the global momentum
conservation equation :
Z ~
DU
Z Z
−
→
−
→
Z
ρ dV = −p~n dS + τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV (15)
Da (t) Dt Sa (t) Sa (t) Da (t)
similarly, inserting (13) into (4) yields a second equivalent complete form of the
global momentum conservation equation :
Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z Z Z
−
→
−
→
Z
dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −p~n dS + τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV
Da (t) ∂t Sa (t) Sa (t) Sa (t) Da (t)
(16)
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Componentwise formulation
to clarify the derivation of the componentwise formulation, let us review term by
term the previous vector formulations (15) and (16).
DU~ ~
∂U
the material derivative or partial derivative with respect to time are
Dt ∂t
DUi ∂Ui
vectors, with respective i-components and .
Dt ∂t
the local pressure stress −p~n is a vector with i-component −pni
the specific body force f~ is also a vector with i-component fi .
−
→
the local viscous stress −→
τ · ~n is also a vector with i-component τij nj where the
Einstein’s notation has been used to express the matrix-vector product between
−
→
−
→τ and ~n
the momentum flux ρU ~ (U
~ · ~n) is also a vector with i-component expressed as
ρUi (Uj nj ) where the Einstein’s notation has been used again to express the
scalar product between U ~ and ~n
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the component i of equation (15) reads :
Z Z Z Z
DUi
ρ dV = −pni dS + τij nj dS + ρfi dV (17)
similarly, the component i of equation (16) reads :

Z Z Z Z Z
∂(ρUi )
dV + ρUi Uj nj dS = −pni dS + τij nj dS + ρfi dV
(18)
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these componentwise formulations make it easier to establish the equivalence
between the LHS of (17) and the LHS of (18) (since the RHS of both equations
are the same)
let us expand the component i of the material derivative of velocity :

DUi ∂Ui ∂Ui
ρ =ρ + Uj
Dt ∂t ∂xj
where the Einstein’s notation is used to express in a compact way the convective
~ and the gradient of
part of the material derivative (scalar product between U
the Ui component of velocity)
this expression can be modified so as to make appear the continuity equation
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namely :

DUi ∂Ui ∂Ui
ρ =ρ + Uj
Dt ∂t ∂xj
∂ (ρUi ) ∂ρ ∂Ui
= − Ui + ρUj
∂t ∂t ∂xj
∂ (ρUi ) ∂ρ ∂ (ρUi Uj ) ∂ (ρUj )

= − Ui + − Ui
∂t ∂t ∂xj ∂xj

∂ (ρUi ) ∂ (ρUi Uj ) ∂ρ ∂ (ρUj )
= + − Ui +
∂t ∂xj ∂t ∂xj
| {z }
=0 from mass conservation
so that eventually :
DUi ∂ (ρUi ) ∂ (ρUi Uj )
ρ = + (19)
Dt ∂t ∂xj
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going back to the integral form, it follows that :
Z Z Z
DUi ∂ (ρUi ) ∂ (ρUi Uj )
ρ dV = dV + dV (20)
Da (t) Dt Da (t) ∂t Da (t) ∂xj
in order to prove the equivalence between (17) and (18), it remains to turn the
second volume integral in the above RHS into a surface integral
the flux-divergence theorem is the relevant tool to perform such a
transformation : Z Z
~ · ~b dV =
∇ ~b · ~n dS
D S
whatever the vector ~b and the volume D enclosed by surface S
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applying this formula in the case where ~b is the vector ρUi U ~ , with density times
the i-component of velocity a scalar quantity, yields :
Z Z
~ · ρUi U
∇ ~ dV = ~ · ~n dS
ρUi U
D S
or else, using a componentwise formulation and taking advantage of Einstein’s

notation to express both the divergence operator and the scalar product :
Z Z
∂ (ρUi Uj )
dV = ρUi Uj nj dS
D ∂xj S
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going back to (20), it is therefore possible to write :
Z Z Z
DUi ∂ (ρUi )
ρ dV = dV + ρUi Uj nj dS (21)
Da (t) Dt Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
or else, in vector form :

Z ~
DU
Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z
ρ dV = dV + ~ U
ρU ~ · ~n dS (22)
Da (t) Dt Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
identities (22) and (21) establish respectively the equivalence between the vector
formulations (15) and (16) and the componentwise formulations (17) and (18) of
the global momentum conservation equation
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Global form of the momentum conservation equation
Application : flow over a flat plate

let us consider the flow over a flat plate previously taken as an example of
application of the continuity equation
the flow under study is assumed steady, incompressible and homogeneous with a
uniform upstream velocity U∞~i
the flat plate aligned with direction ~i is assumed of length c
experimental measurements indicate the Ux velocity component for the fluid
flowing over the plate can be approximated by the following power law :
y 1/7
Ux = U∞
δ
with δ(x) the height or thickness of the so-called boundary layer developping
over the plate, measured at a distance x from the plate leading edge
boundary layer over a flat plate will be analyzed in detail later in this course
29 / 64

at this stage, it is sufficient to keep in mind it is the region of the flow, near the
plate wall, where the fluid velocity is no longer uniform but modified by the
plate in such a way the axial (Ux ) velocity goes from its far-field uniform value
outside the boundary layer to a null value at the plate surface
as will be seen later the fluid viscosity makes the viscous fluid stick to the plate
wall so that the fluid velocity is equal to the wall velocity at the wall surface,
that is zero in the present case, the plate being supposed fixed
the above power law provides an approximate expression for the law of variation
of the Ux velocity component from the boudary layer upper frontier (y = δ(x) so
that Ux = Uinf ty down to the plate surface (y = 0 so that Ux = 0)
it will be seen in later lectures such a power law is approximately valid in the
boundary layer for the turbulent flow of a Newtonian fluid over a flat plate with
zero external pressure gradient
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the pressure is precisely assumed uniform in the flow
this assumption will be later justified when analyzing in detail the boundary
layer flow
the body forces are neglected.
if the plate were moving at velocity U∞~i in still air, the x-component of the force
applied by the fluid onto the plate surface would be called the drag
in the present study, the plate is fixed and air is flowing at velocity U∞~i over the
plate
the drag D remains the x-component of the force applied by the flowing fluid
onto the flat plate
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the drag coefficient is a non-dimensional expression of the drag force defined as
follows :
D
CD = 1 2
2
ρU ∞S
where ρ is density of the flow (here a constant value) and S is the contact
surface between the plate and the fluid
2
the quantity 12 ρU∞ has the same dimension as a pressure and is called the
dynamic pressure since it depends on the flow dynamics through the velocity U∞
the local pressure p is called the static pressure to make clear the difference
2
between p and 12 ρU∞ or 21 ρU 2 if the dynamic pressure is computed using the
local velocity magnitude
the product of the dynamic pressure computed using the far-field upstream
conditions by the plate surface S defines a reference force so that the ratio of the
drag D to this reference force defines indeed a non-dimensional force coefficient
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since the present flow is 2D (no variation in the transverse z direction), the drag
coefficient CD can also be defined as (assuming S = c × Lz with a unit length Lz
in the transverse direction) :
D
CD = 1 2
2
ρU∞ c
Compute the drag coefficient CD of the flat plate when the thickness of the
boundary layer at the trailing edge of the plate (x = c) is such that
∆ = δ(c) = 0.01 c.
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Suggestion : apply the global form of the momentum conservation equation
using the fixed control volume D0 such that S0 = S1 ∪ S2 ∪ S3 ∪ S4
y
volume de contrôle
S2
U8 y= ∆
S3
S δ( x)
1
x
S
4
x=c
Figure – Turbulent flow over a flat plate. Momentum balance.
34 / 64

as suggested, let us apply the momentum conservation equation (16) to the fixed
control volume D0 :
Z ~)
∂(ρU
Z Z Z
−
→
−
→
Z
dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −p~n dS + τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV
D0 ∂t S0 S0 S0 D0
since the flow is steady, the first integral is zero

since the body forces are negligible, the last integral can be considered as equal
to zero as well
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the momentum equation expresses the balance between the inertial effects
(momentum fluxes), the pressure force and the viscous force :
−
→
Z Z Z
~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −p~n dS + −
→τ · ~n dS
S0 S0 S0
since the pressure is uniform, the pressure integral is such that :

Z Z
−p~n dS = −p ~n dS = 0
S0 S
| 0{z }
=0
Z
the proof of the result ~n dS = 0 comes from the following identity :
S0
Z Z
ϕ~n dS = ~ dV
∇ϕ (23)
S D
whatever the scalar field ϕ (continuous on D & S) and with S the closed surface
surrounding D and ~n the outward-pointing unit normal vector to S
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in the particular case where ϕ ≡ 1, it can be immediately deduced from (23) :
Z
~n dS = 0
S
for the flow under study, the momentum conservation equation reduces to :
−
→
Z Z
ρU~ (U
~ · ~n) dS = −
→
τ · ~n dS
S0 S0
or else
−
→
Z Z
~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −
→
τ · ~n dS
S1 ∪S2 ∪S3 ∪S4 S1 ∪S2 ∪S3 ∪S4
projecting this equation on the main flow direction ~i yields :

−
→
Z Z
~ · ~i) (U
ρ (U ~ · ~n) dS = (−
→
τ · ~n) · ~i dS
S1 ∪S2 ∪S3 ∪S4 | {z } S1 ∪S2 ∪S3 ∪S4
=Ux
dominant RHS term = projection on ~i of the viscous force applied by the plate
on the fluid along S4 , the other terms being negligible w.r.t. this one
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note the conservation equation is applied to a fluid domain hence the forces are
indeed applied on the fluid
consequently, the drag being defined as the force applied by the fluid on the
plate surface, the force (along x) applied by the plate surface on the fluid is the
reaction to the drag, namely −D, so that :
Z
ρUx (U~ · ~n) dS ≈ −D
S1 ∪S2 ∪S3 ∪S4
in order to compute D hence CD it remains to evaluate the momentum flux

balance through S0
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since the flat plate surface is impermeable, there is no flux through S4 and the
above identity reduces to :
Z Z Z
D=− ~ · ~n) dS −
ρUx (U ~ · ~n) dS −
ρUx (U ~ · ~n) dS
ρUx (U (24)
S1 S2 S3
along S1 , the velocity field is such that U ~ = U∞~i and the outward-pointing unit
normal vector is ~n = −~i so that :
Z Z
ρUx (U ~ · ~n) dS = − ρU∞ U∞ dS = −ρU∞ 2
∆
S1 S1
1/7
~ = U∞ y
along S3 , the velocity field is such that U ~i + Uy (c, y)~j and the
δ(c)
outward-pointing unit normal vector is ~n = ~i so that :

Z Z y=∆ 2/7
~ · ~n) dS = ρU∞
2 y
ρUx (U dy
S3 y=0 δ(c)
with δ(c) = ∆
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the integral is readily computed using the change of variable Y = y/δ(c) :
Z y=∆ 2/7 Z Y =1 1
y 2/7 7 9/7 7
dy = ∆ Y dY = ∆ Y = ∆
y=0 ∆ Y =0 9 0 9
eventually, we can write :

Z
~ · ~n) dS = 7 2
ρUx (U ρU∞ ∆
S3 9
~ is such that U
along the upper line S2 , the velocity U ~ = U∞~i + Uy (x, ∆)~j with
Uy (x, ∆) unknown but not zero (as established in a previous exercise)
moreover, along S2 , the outward-pointing unit normal vector is such that ~n = ~j
⇒ Z Z Z x=c
~ · ~n) dS = ρU∞
ρUx (U Uy (x, ∆)dS = ρU∞ Uy (x, ∆)dx
S2 S2 x=0
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putting back these contributions into (24) yields :
Z c
2 7 2
D = − −ρU∞ ∆ − ρU∞ Uy (x, ∆)dx − ρU∞ ∆
0 9
or Z c
2 2
D= ρU∞ ∆ − ρU∞ Uy (x, ∆)dx (25)
9 0
in order to conclude on the value of D and then CD we must be able to estime

Uy (x, ∆)
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we have not yet used the mass conservation equation
applying the global form of the mass conservation equation on the fixed control
volume D0 yields : Z Z
∂ρ ~ · ~n dS = 0
dV + ρU
D0 ∂t S0
since the flow is steady and since ρ is constant, this relationship reduces to :
Z
~ · ~n dS = 0
U
S1 ∪S2 ∪S3 ∪S4
there is no mass flux through the impermeable plate surface S4 so that :

Z
~ · ~n dS = 0
U
S1 ∪S2 ∪S3
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~ and ~n for S1 , S2 and S3 yields :
inserting the expressions of U
Z c Z y=∆ y 1/7
−U∞ ∆ + Uy (x, ∆)dx + U∞ dy
0 y=0 ∆
so that : Z c Z 1
Uy (x, ∆)dx = U∞ ∆ − U∞ ∆ Y 1/7 dY
0 0
7 h 8/7 i1
= U∞ ∆ − U∞ ∆ Y
8 0
7
= U∞ ∆ − U∞ ∆
8
1
= U∞ ∆
8
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inserting this expression into (25) yields :
2 2 1 2 7 2
D= ρU∞ ∆ − ρU∞ ∆= ρU∞ ∆
9 8 72
the drag coefficient CD is readily computed :
7 2
D ρU∞ ∆
CD 72
= 1 2 = 1 2
2
ρU∞ c 2
ρU∞ c
hence
7 ∆
CD =
36 c
sing the assumed Ux velocity distribution in the turbulent boundary layer, the
drag coefficient is directly estimated from the thickness of the boundary layer at
the downstream end (trailing edge) of the plate
if ∆ = 0.01c, it can be concluded that CD ≈ 1.94 × 10−3
44 / 64
Application : thrust developed by a stationary rocket motor

let us consider the stationary (steady) rocket motor sketched below
Figure – Rocket motor fixed on a test-rig. Overview of the flow configuration with suggested
control volume in dashed line.
45 / 64

the rocket motor is steady because it is attached to a test-rig not displayed on
the picture
~ , named the
when the rocket engine is started or ignited, it develops a force F
thrust, which the test-rig must be designed to stand so that the ground tests can
normally proceed
the flow velocity at the rocket nozzle exit is assumed uniform and equal to Ue~i ;
the pressure and density are also assumed uniform in the exit section of the
nozzle : p = pe , ρ = ρe
the pressure surrounding the test-rig is the atmospheric pressure patm
Give an expression for the thrust as a function of ρe , pe , patm , Ue and the area
Ae of the nozzle exit section.
46 / 64

let us consider the control volume sketched using a dashed line on the previous
figure
assuming the rocket engine is axisymmetrical, the fixed control volume D0 is a
cylinder surrounding the engine
the flow inside this cylinder can be assumed steady - it is actually at rest on a
large part of the surface S0 of D0 and in (steady) motion in the section Ae
the momentum conservation equation applied to this fixed control volume D0
reads :
Z
∂(ρU~) Z Z Z
−
→
−
→
Z
dV + ~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −p~n dS + τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV + F
~
D0 ∂t S0 S0 S0 D0
~ is the force applied by the test-rig on the control volume D0 ,

where the force F
balancing the thrust produced by the rocket engine
47 / 64

since the flow is steady, the balance simplifies into :
−
→
Z Z Z Z
~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −p~n dS + −
→τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV + F
~
Σ∪Ae Σ∪Ae Σ∪Ae D0
where we have denoted Σ the part of S0 such that S0 = Σ ∪ Ae

−
→
the flow being at rest on Σ, −
→
τ = 0 on Σ and besides p = patm on Σ
therefore the conservation of momentum reads :
−
→
Z Z Z Z Z
~ (U
ρU ~ · ~n) dS = −p~n dS + −patm ~n dS + −
→
τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV + F
~
Ae Ae Σ Ae D0
(26)
48 / 64

since S0 = Σ ∪ Ae is a closed surface :
Z Z
patm ~n dS = patm ~n dS = 0
S0 S0
hence Z
patm ~n dS = 0
Σ∪Ae
or Z Z
patm ~n dS = − patm ~n dS
Σ Ae
therefore, (26) can also be written as :

−
→
Z Z Z Z
ρU~ (U
~ · ~n) dS = − (p − patm )~n dS + −
→
τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV + F
~
Ae Ae Ae D0
or else, using also ~n = ~i on Ae and the uniformity of velocity, pressure and

density on Ae :
−
→
Z Z
~ = ρe U
F ~ e Ue Ae + Ae (pe − patm )~i − −
→
τ · ~n dS − ρf~dV
Ae D0 49 / 64

the projection of this vectorial equation on the horizontal direction ~i yields :
−
→
Z Z
~ · ~i = Fx = ρe Ue2 Ae + Ae (pe − patm ) −
F (−
→
τ · ~n) · ~i dS − ρf~ · ~idV
Ae D0
the projection of the viscous stress tensor along ~i is assumed negligible with
respect to the other terms (inertial and pressure) in the nozzle exit section and
the body force contribution is zero because f~ = ~g (gravity acting along the
vertical direction) is orthogonal to ~i (horizontal direction)
the thrust developed by the rocket engine and which the test-rig must sustain is
thus given by :
Fx = ρe Ue2 Ae + Ae (pe − patm )
50 / 64
Local form of the momentum conservation equation
Conservative form
the starting point to derive a conservative local form of the momentum equation
is the global form (16) (vector form) or (18) (componentwise form)
let us start for instance from the componentwise form (18) :
Z Z Z Z Z
∂(ρUi )
dV + ρUi Uj nj dS = −pni dS + τij nj dS + ρfi dV
in order to turn this global form into a local form the boxed surface integrals
must be turned into volume integrals
to achieve this transformation we use variants of the Green-Ostrogradsky or
flux-divergence theorem :
Z Z
ϕ ~a · ~n dS = ~ · (ϕ ~a) dV
∇
S D
or, componentwise :
Z Z
∂(ϕaj )
ϕ aj nj dS = dV
S D ∂xj
51 / 64
Conservative form
we have already seen and used the identity :
Z Z
ϕ~n dS = ~ dV
∇ϕ
S D
or, componentwise :
Z Z
ϕ
ϕni dS = dV
S D ∂xi
−
→ −
→ −
→
we introduce now the divergence of a second-order tensor − →
c :∇~ ·−→c or div(−
→
c ) is
a vector such that each component i of this vector is defined as follows :
3
−
→ ∂cij ∂cij
~ ·−
→
X
∇ c = =
i ∂xj j=1
∂xj
52 / 64
Conservative form
the flux-divergence theorem can be extended to the case of a tensor :
−
→ −
→
Z Z
ϕ−
→
c · ~n dS = ~ · (ϕ −
∇ →
c ) dV
S D
−
→
the above identity is a vector identity since the product between the tensor −→
c
and the unit normal vector ~n is a vector and the divergence of the tensor is also
a vector
53 / 64
Conservative form
in terms of components (and using of course Einstein’s notation), this identity
reads :
Z Z
∂(ϕcij )
ϕ cij nj dS = dV
S D ∂xj
using these identities, it is straighforward to transform the surface integrals of
the momentum conservation equation :
Z Z
∂τij
τij nj dS = dV
Sa (t) Da (t) ∂xj
Z Z
∂p
−pni dS = − dV
Sa (t) Da (t) ∂xi
54 / 64
Conservative form
the momentum equation takes the form :
Z Z Z Z Z
∂(ρUi ) ∂p ∂τij
dV + ρUi Uj nj dS = − dV + dV + ρfi dV
Da (t) ∂t Sa (t) Da (t) ∂xi Da (t) ∂xj Da (t)
where the integral of the inertial terms in the LHS of the momentum
conservation equation is the last surface integral to transform into a volume
integral
55 / 64
Conservative form
it can be considered Ui Uj is the ij component of a tensor. In fact, this tensor is
known as the dyadic product of two vectors say ~a, ~b and denoted then ~a ⊗ ~b with :

~a ⊗ ~b = ai bj
ij
or else :  
a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3
a ⊗ b =  a2 b1 a2 b2 a2 b3 
a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3
the divergence of ~a ⊗ ~b is a vector of component :

h
~ · (~a ⊗ ~b)
i ∂(ai bj )
∇ =
i ∂xj
56 / 64
Conservative form
using the flux-divergence theorem for a tensor, it is possible to write :
Z Z Z ~ ⊗U
∂(ρ(U ~ )ij )
ρUi Uj nj dS = ρ U~ ⊗U
~ nj dS = dV
Sa (t) Sa (t) ij Da (t) ∂xj
or Z Z
∂(ρUi Uj )
ρUi Uj nj dS = dV
Sa (t) Da (t) ∂xj
57 / 64
Conservative form
so that inserting this alternative volume integral expression into the momentum
conservation equation yields :
Z Z Z Z Z
∂(ρUi ) ∂(ρUi Uj ) ∂p ∂τij
dV + dV = − dV + dV + ρfi dV
Da (t) ∂t Da (t) ∂xj Da (t) ∂xi Da (t) ∂xj Da (t)
or else Z
+ + − − ρfi dV = 0
Da (t) ∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
since this integral is zero whatever the arbitrary fluid domain Da (t), it means
that necessarily the expression between the brackets is identically zero, thus
yielding the local form of the momentum conservation equation :

+ =− + + ρfi (27)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
58 / 64
Conservative form
the fully developed form of (27) in a Cartesian frame of reference Oxyz with
velocity components Ux , Uy and Uz reads :

∂(ρUx ) ∂(ρUx2 ) ∂(ρUx Uy ) ∂(ρUx Uz ) ∂p ∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz
+ + + =− + + + + ρg





 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z



∂(ρUy2 )

∂(ρUy ) ∂(ρUx Uy ) ∂(ρUy Uz ) ∂p ∂τyx ∂τyy ∂τyz

+ + + =− + + + + ρg


 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z



∂(ρUz ) ∂(ρUx Uz ) ∂(ρUy Uz ) ∂(ρUz2 ) ∂p ∂τzx ∂τzy ∂τzz


+ + + =− + + + + ρg



∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
59 / 64
Conservative form
comparing the above development with (27) makes obvious the compactness
offered by the componentwise formulation using Einstein’s notation
writing the vector form of (27) is straighforward since we know :
∂(ρUi Uj ) ~ ⊗U ~
is the i-component of the divergence of the tensor ρU
∂xj
∂p
is the i-component of the gradient of p
∂xi
∂τij −
→
is the i-component of the divergence of the viscous stress tensor −
→
τ
∂xj
ρfi is the i-component of the vector ρf~
60 / 64
Conservative form
we can thus write the vector form equivalent of (27) :
~)
∂(ρU −
→
~ · (ρU
+∇ ~ ⊗U
~ ) = −∇p ~ ·−
~ +∇ →
τ + ρf~ (28)
∂t
equation (28) is called the conservative form of the momentum equation because
it is of the form : a partial derivative with respect to time of the components of
momentum plus the divergence of a flux which is a function of these momentum
components, this being equal to a sum of forces.
61 / 64
Non-conservative form
the easiest way to derive the non-conservative form of the local momentum
conservation equation is probably to start from the global form (15) :
Z ~
DU
Z Z
−
→
−
→
Z
ρ dV = −p~n dS + τ · ~n dS + ρf~dV
the boxed surface integrals are indeed readily transformed into volume integrals :
Z Z
−p~n dS = − ~ dV
∇p
Sa (t) Da (t)
and
−
→ −
→
Z Z
−
→
τ · ~n dS = ~ ·−
∇ →
τ dV
Sa (t) Da (t)
62 / 64
hence the unique volume integral formulation :
Z ~
DU
Z Z
−
→
Z
ρ dV = − ~ dV +
∇p ~ ·−
∇ →
τ dV + ρf~dV
Da (t) Dt Da (t) Da (t) Da (t)
and the resulting local vector form :
~
DU −
→
ρ ~ ·−
~ +∇
= −∇p →
τ + ρf~ (29)
Dt
the fundamental principle of mechanics applied to a fluid particle is found again :

~
DU −
→
ρ = −∇p~ + ~ ·−
∇ →τ} + ρf~
Dt | {z } | {z |{z}
pressure force viscous force body force
63 / 64
the non-conservative equation (29) and the conservative equation (28) are
perfectly equivalent
it is immediate, using components, to show their respective LHS are equal :

DUi ∂Ui ∂Ui
ρ =ρ + Uj
Dt ∂t ∂xj
∂(ρUi ) ∂ρ ∂(ρUi Uj ) ∂(ρUj )

= − Ui + − Ui
∂t ∂t ∂xj ∂xj

∂(ρUi ) ∂(ρUi Uj ) ∂ρ ∂(ρUj )
= + − Ui +
∂t ∂xj ∂t ∂xj
| {z }
=0 from the continuity equation
∂(ρUi ) ∂(ρUi Uj )
= +
∂t ∂xj
if we want to apply the momentum conservation equation to the detailed analysis
of a fluid flow, we must describe now the model retained for the viscous stresses.
64 / 64

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FCFVA Lecture #2 : Momentum conservation

Integral form : case of a material domain

Integral form : case of a material domain

~ = vector of the resulting force applied on Dm (t)

Integral form : case of a material domain

~ decomposed into two contributions :

Integral form : case of a material domain

Integral form : case of a material domain

where ~n is the outward-point unit normal vector to Sm (t)

Integral form : case of a material domain

Integral form : case of a general domain

Integral form : case of a general domain

inserting this identity into (3) and simplifying yields :

Alternative global form

Alternative global form

Alternative global form

Alternative global form

Expression of the stress vector T~

Expression of the stress vector T~

σij = σji (10)

Expression of the stress vector T~

Expression of the stress vector T~

Expression of the stress vector T~

σij = −pδij + τij (12)

the stress vector can also be expressed componentwise using (9). :

Ti = σij nj = (−pδij + τij )nj

Expression of the stress vector T~

Expression of the stress vector T~

Vector global formulation

similarly, the component i of equation (16) reads :

∂ (ρUi ) ∂ρ ∂ (ρUi Uj ) ∂ (ρUj )

whatever the vector ~b and the volume D enclosed by surface S

or else, using a componentwise formulation and taking advantage of Einstein’s

or else, in vector form :

Application : flow over a flat plate

Application : flow over a flat plate

Application : flow over a flat plate

Application : flow over a flat plate

Application : flow over a flat plate

Application : flow over a flat plate

Figure – Turbulent flow over a flat plate. Momentum balance.

Application : flow over a flat plate

since the flow is steady, the first integral is zero

Application : flow over a flat plate

since the pressure is uniform, the pressure integral is such that :

Application : flow over a flat plate

projecting this equation on the main flow direction ~i yields :

Application : flow over a flat plate

in order to compute D hence CD it remains to evaluate the momentum flux

Application : flow over a flat plate

outward-pointing unit normal vector is ~n = ~i so that :

Application : flow over a flat plate

eventually, we can write :

Application : flow over a flat plate

in order to conclude on the value of D and then CD we must be able to estime

Application : flow over a flat plate

there is no mass flux through the impermeable plate surface S4 so that :