A DETAILED PROJECT REPORT

on

“RUNNING INVERTOR CYCLE”

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF. MAHESH SANADHYA
Submitted by

HIMESH MALL (1312640043) MUKESH KUMAR RAI(1312640063)

SANTOSH KUMAR (1312640091) SHAILESH KUMAR (1312640094)
SHISHUPAL (1312640097)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SACHDEVA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, FARAH, MATHURA.

AFFILIATED TO

Dr. A P J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,LUCKNOW,UP.

 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report on “RUNNING INVERTOR CYCLE” is the
bonafide work of “HIMESH MALL, ,MUKESH KUMAR RAI, SANTOSH KUMAR,
SHAILESH KUMAR, SHISHUPAL” in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of
degree B.TECH ( mechanical engineering) submitted in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Sachdeva Institute of Technology under Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam
Technical University, Lucknow is carried out the project work under the supervision of
“ PROF. MAHESH SANADHYA”.

The matter present in this project has not been submitted by us in any university for the
award of B.TECH

HIMESH MALL (1312640043)

MUKESH KUMAR RAI (1312640063)
SANTOSH KUMAR (1312640091)
SHAILESH KUMAR (1312640094)
SHISHUPAL (1312640097)
This is to certify that above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best our
knowledge.

Prof. Mahesh Sanadhya

( Head of Department Mechanical Engineering)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deep sense of gratitude and respect to our guide prof. Mahesh
Sanadhya, Head of Mechanical Engineering Department, Sachdeva Institute of
Technology, Farah, Mathura, for his keen interest and valuable guidance ,
strong motivation and constant encouragement during the course of the work.
We thank him for his great patience, constructive criticism and myriad useful
suggestions apart from invaluable guidance to us. We are sure that the
knowledge gained through association with our supervisor shall go a long way
in helping us to realize our goals in life. We are also thankful to our faculties
and lab technicians for their kind help and suggestions at various stages of our
work. We are also indebted to our friends for their help and support. This
project would not have been successfully completed without the guidance of
PROF. MAHESH SANADHYA. Finally, we would like to express our deepest
gratitude to our parents and family, without whom we are nothing, to provide us
great opportunities, everlasting support, big encouragement and lots of love.
HIMESH MALL (1312640043)
MUKESH KUMAR RAI (1312640063)
SANTOSH KUMAR (1312640091)
SHAILESH KUMAR (1312640094)
SHISHUPAL (1312640097)
 ABSTRACT

Our goal for this project is running invertor cycle generated electricity for the charging battery.
The battery is an initiative to bring safe and storage of power to the people around the world
without electricity. This goal will be accomplished by producing elecrticity and lighting. the
running invertor produces DC energy. The DC energy can be stored by batteries and used by the
local population to use for lights and other utilities that many take for granted on a daily basis.
Running invertor cycle are not a new idea, with many created by hobbyist for residential use with
small scale energy in mind,the hobbyist running stationary bicycle and then alternator generate
electricity.the electricity takes by the invertor.the invertor convert AC to DC power and the DC
pawer stored by charging batteries. We are looking to charged batteries and DC pawer that will
convert human power into electrical power. The objective is to running invertor cycle that is safer
and more power efficient. If our project will be successfull and uses by the people across the
globe, it would be imperative that it meets all the safety specifications that any national
commercial product entails.
Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION
1.1 MEANING OF PROJECT
1.2 PROJECT METHOD
1.3 PURPOSED OF RUNNING INVERTOR CYCLE

DESION
2.1 FRAME OF RUNNING INVERTOR CYCLE
2.2 BICYCLE
2.3 ALTERNATOR SETUP

PARTS OF PROJECT
3.1 FLY WHEEL
3.2 BELT-PULLEY
3.3 FREE WHEEL
3.4 SHAFT
3.5 BEARNING
3.6 ALTERNATOR
3.7 INVERTOR
3.8 BATTERY

ASSEMBLES OF PARTS

CONCLUSION
S. NO. FIGURE PAGE NO.

1. flywheel

2. Belt-pulley

3. Free wheel

4. Shaft

5. Bearing

6. Alternater

7. Invertor

8. Battery

9.

10.
 INTRODUCTION

In today’s world power is the part and parcel of our lives. It is required for everything - be it
the basic necessities like lighting and fans or luxuries like air-conditioners. However, reliable
power is not so easily available everywhere. Here we are trying to concentrate to develop an
alternative source of power for rural India where power supply is very erratic and unreliable.
The basic concept is to store the energy in a battery which can be later used to provide for
lighting or can be inverted to run fans etc. A number of viable ways do presently exist to
charge a battery. One of them, on which we are going to concentrate, is to charge a battery by
pedaling a bicycle. The bicycle can be driven by one person or two persons simultaneously.
The current is produce by the alternator for charging battery between. This is a very crude,
though simple way to charge a battery. The user has to bicycle at more than a 100 r.p.m speed
to start charging the battery as the alternator emf must exceed the battery voltage. The torque-
speed characteristics are not very comfortable, and remain the same irrespective of whether
one or two people are cycling. To overcome the above short-comings, we join alternator to
convert AC-DC converter that can convert any voltage in the input range to any voltage in the
output range so that the charging process is completely under our control.
1.1 MEANING OF PROJECT
It is very important to understand the meaning of project before starting any project.

P- PLANNING: The meaning of this word to do planning before starting the

construction.

R- RESOURCES: It means that implementation according to the plan.

O- OPERATION: It is the process of different works. It is the systematic way of

construction of anything.

J- JOINT: It is the planned work which is done by coordination and hard work. And it
means to do work in group.

E- ENGINEERING FUNCTION: Engineering function is interpreted as a specific

process, action or task that system is able to perform.

C- COMMUNICTUION: To change plan in a work or to make coordination between

planning and construction. It is very important.

T- TECHNIQUE OF WORK: Various method used for doing work with high level is
called technique of working.
1.2 PROJECT METHOD

This project has various different design paths to complete our product while meeting the
majority objectives. This means we will have to implement and compare our different designs
to insure the best product based on our set of objectives. These paths have changed as we
progressed through our project, and there were a few foreseen methods that we expand upon
in the design section. The basic design for the bicycle powered generator is to have a bicycle
on a fixed stand, and then when the bicycle is pedaled, the spinning motion of the rear tire is
used to produce mechanical energy directly into a DC voltage. If an AC voltage is produced,
a full bridge rectifier will be necessary to produce the DC voltage. This DC voltage can then
be used immediately or stored via a battery array. If a constant DC voltage is required by the
user a DC-DC converter may be necessary to change the varying DC voltages produced from
the varying bike speed to a constant DC voltage for certain utilities or battery array. The first
decision is selecting a bill of materials for each design path. This will help determine the
ultimate product affordability. We must decide whether to use an alternator or dynamo to
convert the bicycles mechanical energy to AC or DC, respectively. While an alternator is
easier to find and purchase with many functioning units available in scrap yards, they also
tend to be less efficient in the output of DC power compared to a dynamo. Another design
factor that must be implemented and compared is the coupling of the bicycle wheel to either
the alternator or dynamo rotor. One option is to use two contacting wheels to connect the two
components. This option is a bit simpler to implement and take very little upkeep to maintain;
however, the efficiency of the contact is relatively low due to slippage losses and frictional
losses. A more efficient yet 15 expensive design would be to have the wheel and the
alternator/dynamo be connected via a rotary belt, similar to a car belt system. There are
bound to be various other obstacles and design methods to be implemented as the project
progresses, and will be observed and recorded as they occur

1.3 PURPOSED OF PROJECT

PARTS OF PROJECT
3.1 FLY WHEEL

A flyweel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational

energy Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The
amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational
speed. The way to change a flywheel stored energy is by increasing or decreasing
its rotational speed applying a torque aligned with its axis of symmetry,
Common uses of a flywheel include:

 Smoothing the power output of an energy source. For example flywheels are
used in reciprocating engines because the active torque from the individual
pistons is intermittent.
 Energy storage systems Flywheel energy storage
 Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is
achieved by collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it
quickly, at rates that exceed the abilities of the energy source.
 Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction
wheel
Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings;
these are generally limited to a maximum revolution rate of a few thousand
RPM. High energy density flywheels can be made of carbon fiber composites and
employ magnetic bearings, enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000 RPM (1
kHz)
Physics

A flywheel is a spinning wheel, or disc, or rotor, rotating around its symmetry axis.
Energy is stored as kinetic energy, more specifically rotational energy, of the rotor.

 where

ω is the angular velocity, and

  is the moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of symmetry.

The moment of inertia is a measure of resistance to torque applied on a spinning
object (i.e. the higher the moment of inertia, the slower it will accelerate when a
given torque is applied).

 The moment of inertia for a solid cylinder is  ,

 for a thin-walled empty cylinder is  ,

 and for a thick-walled empty cylinder is  ,[6]

where m denotes mass, and r denotes a radius.
When calculating with SI units, the units would be for mass, kilograms; for radius,
meters; and for angular velocity, radians per second and the resulting energy would
be in joules.
Increasing amounts of rotation energy can be stored in the flywheel until the rotor
shatters. This happens when the hoop stress within the rotor exceeds the ultimate
tensile strength of the rotor material.


where:

  is the tensile stress on the rim of the cylinder

  is the density of the cylinder

  is the radius of the cylinder, and

  is the angular velocity of the cylinder.

Dual-mass flywheel
.
A dual-mass flywheel or DMF is a rotating mechanical device that is used to
provide continuous energy (rotational energy) in systems where the energy source is
not continuous, the same way as a conventional flywheel acts, but damping any
violent variation of torque or revolutions that could cause an unwanted vibration.
The vibration reduction is achieved by accumulating stored energy in the two
flywheel half masses over a period of time but damped by a series of strong springs,
doing that at a rate that is compatible with the energy source, and then releasing that
energy at a much higher rate over a relatively short time. A compact dual-
mass flywheel often includes the whole clutch, including the pressure plate and the
friction disc.[1]

Flywheel energy storage

Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very
high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as rotational energy. When
energy is extracted from the system, the flywheel's rotational speed is reduced as a
consequence of the principle of conservation of energy; adding energy to the system
correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel.
Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the flywheel, but
devices that directly use mechanical energy are being developed.[1]
Advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon-fiber composites,
suspended by magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over
50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure.[2] Such flywheels can come up to speed in a
matter of minutes – reaching their energy capacity much more quickly than some
other forms of storage.[2]
moments of inertia
In physics and applied mathematics, the mass moment of inertia, usually denoted
by I, measures the extent to which an object resists rotational acceleration about a
particular axis, and is the rotational analogue to mass. Mass moments of inertia
have units of dimension ML2([mass] × [length]2). It should not be confused with
the second moment of area, which is used in beg calculations. The mass moment of
inertia is often also known as the rotational inertia, and sometimes as the angular
mass.
For simple objects with geometric symmetry, one can often determine the moment of
inertia in an exact closed-form expression. Typically this occurs when the mass
density is constant, but in some cases the density can vary throughout the object as
well. In general, it may not be straightforward to symbolically express the moment of
inertia of shapes with more complicated mass distributions and lacking symmetry.
When calculating moments of inertia, it is useful to remember that it is an additive
function and exploit the parallel axis and perpendicular axis theorems.
Applications
Flywheels are often used to provide continuous power output in systems where the
energy source is not continuous. For example, a flywheel is used to smooth fast
angular velocity fluctuations of the crankshaft in a reciprocating engine. In this case,
a crankshaft flywheel stores energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston,
and returns it to the piston to compress a fresh charge of air and fuel. Another
example is the friction motor which powers devices such as toy cars. In unstressed
and inexpensive cases, to save on cost, the bulk of the mass of the flywheel is
toward the rim of the wheel. Pushing the mass away from the axis of rotation
heightens rotational inertia for a given total mass.
A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of energy at power levels
that exceed the abilities of its energy source. This is achieved by accumulating
energy in the flywheel over a period of time, at a rate that is compatible with the
energy source, and then releasing energy at a much higher rate over a relatively
short time when it is needed. For example, flywheels are used in power
hammers and riveting machines.
Flywheels can be used to control direction and oppose unwanted motions,
see gyroscope. Flywheels in this context have a wide range of applications
from gyroscopes for instrumentation to ship stability and satellite stabilization
(reaction wheel), to keep a toy spin spinning (friction motor), to stabilize magnetically
levitated objects (Spin-stabilized magnetic levitation)

3.2 BELT-PULLEY

Belt (mechanical)
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more
rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of
motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts are looped
over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be
parallel. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one
direction (the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the
direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on
parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the
belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between two points.

Power transmission
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be
axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and
pulleys. The demands on a belt-drive transmission system are large, and this has led
to many variations on the theme. They run smoothly and with little noise, and
cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit with less strength than
gears or chains. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in
systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears.
Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of
difference of tension and belt velocity:
where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt
respectively. They are related as

where, μ is the coefficient of friction, and α is the angle (in radians) subtended by
contact surface at the centre of the pulley.
V belts
V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the
slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission.
They provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the
bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their general cross-
section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape of the belt
tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt
cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases—
the greater the load, the greater the wedging action—improving torque transmission
and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat
belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction
ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but
less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1,000–
7,000 ft/min (300–2,130 m/min). V-belts need larger pulleys for their thicker cross-
section than flat belts.
For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-side in an
arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is
known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive").
V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there may be fibers
embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and reinforcement. The fibers may
be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for
greatest strength, of steel or aramid (such as Twaron or Kevlar).
When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be
employed. Most models offer the same power and speed ratings as equivalently-
sized endless belts and do not require special pulleys to operate. A link v-belt is a
number of polyurethane/polyester composite links held together, either by
themselves, such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or Nu-T-Link (with metal studs).
These provide easy installation and superior environmental resistance compared to
rubber belts and are length-adjustable by disassembling and removing links when
needed.
Belt friction
Belt drives depend on friction to operate, but excessive friction wastes energy and
rapidly wears the belt. Factors that affect belt friction include belt tension, contact
angle, and the materials used to make the belt and pulleys .
Belt tension
Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing with
tension is stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that of the lowest
tension that does not slip in high loads. Belt tensions should also be adjusted to belt
type, size, speed, and pulley diameters. Belt tension is determined by measuring the
force to deflect the belt a given distance per inch of pulley. Timing belts need only
adequate tension to keep the belt in contact with the pulley.
Belt wear
Fatigue, more so than abrasion, is the culprit for most belt problems. This wear is
caused by stress from rolling around the pulleys. High belt tension; excessive
slippage; adverse environmental conditions; and belt overloads caused by shock,
vibration, or belt slapping all contribute to belt fatigue.
Belt vibration
Vibration signatures are widely used for studying belt drive malfunctions. Some of
the common malfunctions or faults include the effects of belt tension,
speed, sheave eccentricity  and misalignment conditions.The effect of sheave
Eccentricity on vibration signatures of the belt drive is quite significant. Although,
vibration magnitude is not necessarily increased by this it will create strong
amplitude modulation. When the top section of a belt is in resonance, the vibrations
of the machine is increased. However, an increase in the machine vibration is not
significant when only the bottom section of the belt is in resonance. The vibration
spectrum has the tendency to move to higher frequencies as the tension force of the
belt is increased.
Timing Belt Pulleys for Small Power Transmission Applications

We supply hobbyists, students, distributors and a wide variety of OEMs with

high-quality machined timing belt pulleys and molded pulleys at affordable
prices SDP/SI offers a broad range of off-the-shelf inch and metric timing belt
pulleys. Aluminum, steel or plastic pulleys are available with or without metal
inserts, metal hubs, set screws or Fairloc® hubs.
As a complete source for small power transmission components, our pulleys
are offered in the same profiles as our timing belt selection: 40 D.P., miniature
FHT® 1, 2, & 3 mm,

Gates PowerGrip GT®2, Gates PowerGrip GT®3, Gates HTD, L, MXL, T, and XL.

For over 50 years we have helped design engineers build synchronous drive
systems. Our engineers can assist in the selection of a standard catalog item
to meet your need. Sometimes, there are applications where the standard
catalog item doesn't meet all requirements. Modifications, custom components
or custom drive systems can be designed, engineered, manufactured and
assembled in-house.

Design Your Belt and Pulley Drive System

Design your belt drive system using our Center Distance Designer. This calculator
computes belt lengths for various center distances and checks the number of teeth in
mesh for both pulleys. It calculates pulley drive ratios and the minimal center
distance for a designated pulley pair. 

The Center Distance Designer shows all available pulleys and belts that fit within
your criteria. Click on the part number for instant access to product specifications, 3D
CAD Models, pricing and availability. Belts and pulleys ship within 24 hours from
stock. If a standard catalog item doesn't meet your needs we can provide custom
alternatives, call 516-328-3300 for engineering assistance. 

Pulley
.A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and
change of direction of a taut cable, supporting shell is referred to as a "block."
A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove or grooves
between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a pulley system
can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain that runs over the pulley inside the groove or
grooves.
Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift
weights. Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to
provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as
part of belt and chain drives in order to transmit power from one rotating shaft to
another

 pulley systems

A hoist using the compound pulley system yielding an advantage of 4. The single
fixed pulley is installed on the hoist (device). The two movable pulleys (joined
together) are attached to the hook. One end of the rope is attached to the crane
frame, another to the winch.
A rope and pulley system—that is, a block and tackle—is characterised by the use of
a single continuous rope to transmit a tension force around one or more pulleys to lift
or move a load—the rope may be a light line or a strong cable. This system is
included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists.[7][8]
If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical
advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown
as follows.
Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that
support this block. If there are p of these parts of the rope supporting the
load W, then a force balance on the moving block shows that the tension in each of
the parts of the rope must be W/p. This means the input force on the rope
is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the input force by the factor p.

A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks with two rope
parts supporting the load W.
 

Separation of the pulleys in the gun tackle show the force balance that results in a
rope tension of W/2.
 

A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks with four rope
parts supporting the load W.
 

Separation of the pulleys in the double tackle show the force balance that results in
a rope tension of W/4.
How it works
The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and
lines are weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also
assumed that the lines do not stretch.
In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In addition the
tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This means that the two
parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load.

Fixed pulley
 


Diagram 1: The load F on the moving pulley is balanced by the tension in two parts
of the rope supporting the pulley.
 

Movable pulley
 

Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load W is supported by two rope parts with
tension W/2.
These are different types of pulley systems:

 Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a

supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope
or belt that moves along its circumference. Mechanical advantage is gained by
combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a
different diameter.
 Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single movable
pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope and has a mechanical
advantage of two.
 Compound: A combination of fixed and a movable pulleys forms a block and
tackle. A block and tackle can have several pulleys mounted on the fixed and
moving axles, further increasing the mechanical advantage.


Diagram 3: The gun tackle "rove to advantage" has the rope attached to the moving
pulley. The tension in the rope is W/3 yielding an advantage of three.
 

Diagram 3a: The Luff tackle adds a fixed pulley "rove to disadvantage." The tension
in the rope remains W/3 yielding an advantage of three.
The mechanical advantage of the gun tackle can be increased by interchanging the
fixed and moving blocks so the rope is attached to the moving block and the rope is
pulled in the direction of the lifted load. In this case the block and tackle is said to be
"rove to advantage."[9] Diagram 3 shows that now three rope parts support the
load W which means the tension in the rope is W/3. Thus, the mechanical advantage
is three.
By adding a pulley to the fixed block of a gun tackle the direction of the pulling force
is reversed though the mechanical advantage remains the same, Diagram 3a. This is
an example of the Luff tackle.
Free body diagrams
The mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be analyzed using free body
diagrams which balance the tension force in the rope with the force of gravity on the
load. In an ideal system, the massless and frictionless pulleys do not dissipate
energy and allow for a change of direction of a rope that does not stretch or wear. In
this case, a force balance on a free body that includes the load, W, and n supporting
sections of a rope with tension T, yields:

The ratio of the load to the input tension force is the mechanical
advantage MA of the pulley system,[10]
Thus, the mechanical advantage of the system is equal to the number of sections of
rope supporting the load
3.3 FREE WHEEL
In mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning clutch is a
device in a transmission that disengages the driveshatt from the driven shaft when
the driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft. An overdrive is sometimes
mistakenly called a freewheel, but is otherwise unrelated.
The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists in
most bicycles when the rider holds his or her feet still, no longer pushing the pedals.
In a fixed-gear bicycle, without a freewheel, the rear wheel would drive the pedals
around

Mechanics
The simplest freewheel device consists of two saw-toothed, spring-loaded discs
pressing against each other with the toothed sides together, somewhat like a ratchet.
Rotating in one direction, the saw teeth of the drive disc lock with the teeth of the
driven disc, making it rotate at the same speed. If the drive disc slows down or stops
rotating, the teeth of the driven disc slip over the drive disc teeth and continue
rotating, producing a characteristic clicking sound proportionate to the speed
difference of the driven gear relative to that of the (slower) driving gear.
A more sophisticated and rugged design has spring-loaded steel rollers inside a
driven cylinder. Rotating in one direction, the rollers lock with the cylinder making it
rotate in unison. Rotating slower, or in the other direction, the steel rollers just slip
inside the cylinder.
Most bicycle freewheels use an internally step-toothed drum with two or more spring-
loaded, hardened steel pawls to transmit the load. More pawls help spread the wear
and give greater reliability although, unless the device is made to tolerances not
normally found in bicycle components, simultaneous engagement of more than two
pawls is rarely achieved
Bicycles
In the older style of bicycle, where the freewheel mechanism is included in the gear
assembly, the system is called a freewheel, whereas the newer style, in which the
freewheel mechanism is in the hub, is called a freehub.

Advantages and disadvantages

By its nature, a freewheel mechanism acts as an automatic clutch, making it possible
to change gears in a manual gearbox, either up- or downshifting, without depressing
the clutch pedal, limiting the use of the manual clutch to starting from standstill or
stopping. The Saab freewheel can be engaged or disengaged by the driver by
respectively pushing or pulling a lever. This will lock or unlock the main shaft with the
freewheel hub.
A freewheel also produces slightly better fuel economy on carbureted engines
(without fuel turn-off on engine brake) and less wear on the manual clutch, but leads
to more wear on the brakes as there is no longer any ability to perform engine
braking. This may make freewheel transmissions dangerous for use
on trucks and automobiles driven in mountainous regions, as prolonged and
continuous application of brakes to limit vehicle speed soon leads to brake-system
overheating followed shortly by total failure
3.4 SHAFT

A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan

shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to
connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because
of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them.
As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to
the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong
enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would
in turn increase their inertia.
Types
They are mainly classified into two types.

 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the
machine absorbing power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
 Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.

Materials
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required,
an alloy steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used.
Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold
drawing or turning and grinding.
Machine shafts

 Up to 25 mm steps of 0.5 mm

Stresses
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.

1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).

2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the
machine elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self weight of the
shaft.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

Design stresses
The maximum permissible (design) stresses in bending (tension or compression)
may be taken as:

1. 112 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 84 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
The maximum permissible (design) shear stresses may be taken as:

1. 56 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 42 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.

Rotating machine elements

 Shaft (mechanical engineering), a rotating machine element used to transmit

power
 Line shaft, a power transmission system
 Drive shaft, a shaft for transferring torque
 Axle, a shaft around which one or more wheels rotat

3.5 BEARNING
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may,
for example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation
around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal
forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by
minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation,
the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts

Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical

systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the
structure supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a
shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is often used to reduce friction. In the ball
bearing and roller bearing, to prevent sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers
or balls with a circular cross-section are located between the races or journals of the
bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of
the application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and
performance.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] a bearing being a machine
element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings
are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over
the form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate
devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings
for the most demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture
requires some of the highest standards of current technology.

Ball bearing

Working principle for a ball bearing (red dots show direction of rotatio. It's cageless,
but a ball is a non-contact ideal figure.)
A 4-point angular contact ball bearing

A ball bearing for skateboard wheels with a plastic cage

Wingquist's a self-aligning ball bearing

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the
separation between the bearing races.
The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and
support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain
the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. In most applications, one race is
stationary and the other is attached to the rotating assembly (e.g., a hub or shaft). As
one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the
balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces
were sliding against each other.
Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of
rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and
races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.
Motions
Common motions permitted by bearings are:

 axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation

 linear motion e.g. drawer
 spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint
 hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee

Friction
Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce wear and to
facilitate extended use at high speeds and to avoid overheating and premature
failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce friction by virtue of its shape,
by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid between surfaces or by
separating the surfaces with an electromagnetic field.

 By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by forming

flexure bearings.
 By material, exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An example
would be using plastics that have low surface friction.)
 By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a lubricant or as
a pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from touching, or by reducing
the normal force between them.
 By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such as magnetic fields, to keep
solid parts from touching.
 Air pressure exploits air pressure to keep solid parts from touching.
Combinations of these can even be employed within the same bearing. An example
of this is where the cage is made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which
reduce friction by their shape and finish.

Loads
Bearing design varies depending on the size and directions of the forces that they
are required to support. Forces can be predominately radial, axial (thrust bearings),
or bending moments perpendicular to the main axis.

Speeds
Different bearing types have different operating speed limits. Speed is typically
specified as maximum relative surface speeds, often specified ft/s or m/s. Rotational
bearings typically describe performance in terms of the product DN where D is the
mean diameter (often in mm) of the bearing and N is the rotation rate in revolutions
per minute.
Generally there is considerable speed range overlap between bearing types. Plain
bearings typically handle only lower speeds, rolling element bearings are faster,
followed by fluid bearings and finally magnetic bearings which are limited ultimately
by centripetal force overcoming material strength.
Play
Some applications apply bearing loads from varying directions and accept only
limited play or "slop" as the applied load changes. One source of motion is gaps or
"play" in the bearing. For example, a 10 mm shaft in a 12 mm hole has 2 mm play.
Allowable play varies greatly depending on the use. As example, a wheelbarrow
wheel supports radial and axial loads. Axial loads may be hundreds of newtons force
left or right, and it is typically acceptable for the wheel to wobble by as much as
10 mm under the varying load. In contrast, a lathe may position a cutting tool to
±0.02 mm using a ball lead screw held by rotating bearings. The bearings support
axial loads of thousands of newtons in either direction, and must hold the ball lead
screw to ±0.002 mm across that range of loads

Stiffness
A second source of motion is elasticity in the bearing itself. For example, the balls in
a ball bearing are like stiff rubber, and under load deform from round to a slightly
flattened shape. The race is also elastic and develops a slight dent where the ball
presses on it.
The stiffness of a bearing is how the distance between the parts which are separated
by the bearing varies with applied load. With rolling element bearings this is due to
the strain of the ball and race. With fluid bearings it is due to how the pressure of the
fluid varies with the gap (when correctly loaded, fluid bearings are typically stiffer
than rolling element bearings).

Service life
Fluid and magnetic bearings
Main articles: Fluid bearing and Magnetic bearing
Fluid and magnetic bearings can have practically indefinite service lives. In practice,
there are fluid bearings supporting high loads in hydroelectric plants that have been
in nearly continuous service since about 1900 and which show no signs of wear.
Rolling element bearings
Rolling element bearing life is determined by load, temperature, maintenance,
lubrication, material defects, contamination, handling, installation and other factors.
These factors can all have a significant effect on bearing life. For example, the
service life of bearings in one application was extended dramatically by changing
how the bearings were stored before installation and use, as vibrations during
storage caused lubricant failure even when the only load on the bearing was its own
weight;[15] the resulting damage is often false brinelling. Bearing life is statistical:
several samples of a given bearing will often exhibit a bell curve of service life, with a
few samples showing significantly better or worse life. Bearing life varies because
microscopic structure and contamination vary greatly even where macroscopically
they seem identical.
L10 life
Bearings are often specified to give an "L10" life (outside the USA, it may be referred
to as "B10" life.) This is the life at which ten percent of the bearings in that
application can be expected to have failed due to classical fatigue failure (and not
any other mode of failure like lubrication starvation, wrong mounting etc.), or,
alternatively, the life at which ninety percent will still be operating.The L10 life of the
bearing is theoretical life and may not represent service life of the bearing. Bearings
are also rated using C0 (static loading) value. This is the basic load rating as a
reference, and not an actual load value.
Commonly found in fans, roller blades, wheel bearings, and under hood
applications on cars etc. 

Maintenance and lubrication

Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure, but many
others require little maintenance. The latter include various kinds of fluid and
magnetic bearings, as well as rolling-element bearings that are described with terms
including sealed bearing and sealed for life. These contain seals to keep the dirt out
and the grease in. They work successfully in many applications, providing
maintenance-free operation. Some applications cannot use them effectively.
Nonsealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication with a grease
gun, or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed bearings were
not encountered on most machinery, and oiling and greasing were a more common
activity than they are today. For example, automotive chassis used to require "lube
jobs" nearly as often as engine oil changes, but today's car chassis are mostly
sealed for life. From the late 1700s through mid 1900s, industry relied on many
workers called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil cans.
Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in which a central pump serves
periodic charges of oil or grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the
various lube points in the machine's bearing surfaces, bearing journals, pillow
blocks, and so on. The timing and number of such lube cycles is controlled by the
machine's computerized control, such as PLC or CNC, as well as by manual
override functions when occasionally needed. This automated process is how all
modern CNC machine tools and many other modern factory machines are
lubricated. Similar lube systems are also used on nonautomated machines, in which
case there is a hand pump that a machine operator is supposed to pump once daily
(for machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are called one-shot
systems from their chief selling point: one pull on one handle to lube the whole
machine, instead of a dozen pumps of an alemite gun or oil can in a dozen different
positions around the machine.
The oiling system inside a modern automotive or truck engine is similar in concept to
the lube systems mentioned above, except that oil is pumped continuously. Much of
this oil flows through passages drilled or cast into the engine block and cylinder
heads, escaping through ports directly onto bearings, and squirting elsewhere to
provide an oil bath. The oil pump simply pumps constantly, and any excess pumped
oil continuously escapes through a relief valve back into the sump.
Many bearings in high-cycle industrial operations need periodic lubrication and
cleaning, and many require occasional adjustment, such as pre-load adjustment, to
minimise the effects of wear.
Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept clean and well lubricated.
However, many applications make good maintenance difficult. For example,
bearings in the conveyor of a rock crusher are exposed continually to hard abrasive
particles. Cleaning is of little use, because cleaning is expensive yet the bearing is
contaminated again as soon as the conveyor resumes operation. Thus, a good
maintenance program might lubricate the bearings frequently but not include any
disassembly for cleaning. The frequent lubrication, by its nature, provides a limited
kind of cleaning action, by displacing older (grit-filled) oil or grease with a fresh
charge, which itself collects grit before being displaced by the next cycle.
Rolling-element bearing outer race fault detection
Rolling-element bearings are widely used in the industries today, and
hence maintenance of these bearings becomes an important task for the
maintenance professionals. The rolling-element bearings wear out easily due to
metal-to-metal contact, which creates faults in the outer race, inner race and ball. It
is also the most vulnerable component of a machine because it is often under high
load and high running speed conditions. Regular diagnostics of rolling-element
bearing faults is critical for industrial safety and operations of the machines along
with reducing the maintenance costs or avoiding shutdown time. Among the outer
race, inner race and ball, the outer race tends to be more vulnerable to faults and
defects.
There is still a room for discussion whether the rolling element excites the natural
frequencies of bearing component when it passes the fault on the outer race. Hence
we need to identify the bearing outer race natural frequency and its harmonics. The
bearing faults create impulses and results in strong harmonics of the fault
frequencies in the spectrum of vibration signals. These fault frequencies are
sometimes masked by adjacent frequencies in the spectra due to their little energy.
Hence, a very high spectral resolution is often needed to identify these frequencies
during a FFT analysis. The natural frequencies of a rolling element bearing with the
free boundary conditions are 3 kHz. Therefore, in order to use the bearing
component resonance bandwidth method to detect the bearing fault at an initial
stage a high frequency range accelerometer should be adopted, and data obtained
from a long duration needs to be acquired. A fault characteristic frequency can only
be identified when the fault extent is severe, such as that of a presence of a hole in
the outer race. The harmonics of fault frequency is a more sensitive indicator of a
bearing outer race fault. For a more serious detection of defected bearing
faults waveform, spectrum and envelope techniques will help reveal these faults.
However, if a high frequency demodulation is used in the envelope analysis in order
to detect bearing fault characteristic frequencies, the maintenance professionals
have to be more careful in the analysis because of resonance, as it may or may not
contain fault frequency components.
Using spectral analysis as a tool to identify the faults in the bearings faces
challenges due to issues like low energy, signal smearing, cyclostationarity etc. High
resolution is often desired to differentiate the fault frequency components from the
other high-amplitude adjacent frequencies. Hence, when the signal is sampled
for FFT analysis, the sample length should be large enough to give adequate
frequency resolution in the spectrum. Also, keeping the computation time and
memory within limits and avoiding unwanted aliasing may be demanding. However,
a minimal frequency resolution required can be obtained by estimating the bearing
fault frequencies and other vibration frequency components and its harmonics due to
shaft speed, misalignment, line frequency, gearbox etc.
Packing
Some bearings use a thick grease for lubrication, which is pushed into the gaps
between the bearing surfaces, also known as packing. The grease is held in place by
a plastic, leather, or rubber gasket (also called a gland) that covers the inside and
outside edges of the bearing race to keep the grease from escaping.
Bearings may also be packed with other materials. Historically, the wheels on
railroad cars used sleeve bearings packed with waste or loose scraps of cotton or
wool fiber soaked in oil, then later used solid pads of cotton .[16]
Ring oiler
.Bearings can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides loosely on the central rotating
shaft of the bearing. The ring hangs down into a chamber containing lubricating oil.
As the bearing rotates, viscous adhesion draws oil up the ring and onto the shaft,
where the oil migrates into the bearing to lubricate it. Excess oil is flung off and
collects in the pool again.[17]
Splash lubrication
Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears partially
immersed in the liquid, or crank rods that can swing down into the pool as the
device operates. The spinning wheels fling oil into the air around them, while
the crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it randomly on the
interior surfaces of the engine. Some small internal combustion engines
specifically contain special plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter oil
around the interior of the mechanism.[18]
Pressure lubrication
For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubricant can result in rapid
bearing heating and damage due to friction. Also in dirty environments the oil can
become contaminated with dust or debris that increases friction. In these
applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be continuously supplied to the bearing
and all other contact surfaces, and the excess can be collected for filtration, cooling,
and possibly reuse. Pressure oiling is commonly used in large and complex internal
combustion engines in parts of the engine where directly splashed oil cannot reach,
such as up into overhead valve assemblies.[19] High speed turbochargers also
typically require a pressurized oil system to cool the bearings and keep them from
burning up due to the heat from the turbine.
Composite bearings
Composite bearings are designed with a self-lubricating polytetrafluroethylene
(PTFE) liner with a laminated metal backing. The PTFE liner offers consistent,
controlled friction as well as durability whilst the metal backing ensures the
composite bearing is robust and capable of withstanding high loads and stresses
throughout its long life. Its design also makes it lightweight-one tenth the weight of a
traditional rolling element bearing. [20

Self-aligning

Self-aligning ball bearings, such as the Wingquist bearing shown in the picture, are

constructed with the inner ring and ball assembly contained within an outer ring that
has a spherical raceway. This construction allows the bearing to tolerate a small
angular misalignment resulting from shaft or housing deflections or improper
mounting. The bearing was used mainly in bearing arrangements with very long
shafts, such as transmission shafts in textile factories.[6] One drawback of the self-
aligning ball bearings is a limited load rating, as the outer raceway has very low
osculation (radius is much larger than ball radius). This led to the invention of
the spherical roller bearing, which has a similar design, but use rollers instead of
balls. Also the spherical roller thrust bearing is an invention that derives from the
findings by Wingquist.
Failure modes
If a bearing is not rotating, maximum load is determined by force that causes plastic
deformation of elements or raceways. The indentations caused by the elements can
concentrate stresses and generate cracks at the components. Maximum load for not
or very slowly rotating bearings is called "static" maximum load. [7]
Also if a bearing is not rotating, oscillating forces on the bearing can cause impact
damage to the bearing race or the rolling elements, known as brinelling. A second
lesser form called false brinelling occurs if the bearing only rotates across a short arc
and pushes lubricant out away from the rolling elements.
For a rotating bearing, the dynamic load capacity indicates the load to which the
bearing endures 1,000,000 cycles.
If a bearing is rotating, but experiences heavy load that lasts shorter than one
revolution, static max load must be used in computations, since the bearing does not
rotate during the maximum load.[7]
If a sideways torque is applied to a deep groove radial bearing, an uneven force in
the shape of an ellipse is applied on the outer ring by the rolling elements,
concentrating in two regions on opposite sides of the outer ring. If the outer ring is
not strong enough, or if it is not sufficiently braced by the supporting structure, the
outer ring will deform into an oval shape from the sideways torque stress, until the
gap is large enough for the rolling elements to escape. The inner ring then pops out
and the bearing structurally collapses.
A sideways torque on a radial bearing also applies pressure to the cage that holds
the rolling elements at equal distances, due to the rolling elements trying to all slide
together at the location of highest sideways torque. If the cage collapses or breaks
apart, the rolling elements group together, the inner ring loses support, and may pop
out of the center.
Maximum load
In general, maximum load on a ball bearing is proportional to outer diameter of the
bearing times the width of the bearing (where width is measured in direction of axle).
Bearings have static load ratings. These are based on not exceeding a certain
amount of plastic deformation in the raceway. These ratings may be exceeded by a
large amount for certain applications.

Applications
In general, ball bearings are used in most applications that involve moving parts.
Some of these applications have specific features and requirements:

 Hard drive bearings used to be highly spherical, and were said to be the best
spherical manufactured shapes, but this is no longer true, and more and more
are being replaced with fluid bearings.
 German ball bearing factories were often a target of allied aerial bombings
during World War II; such was the importance of the ball bearing to the German
war industry.[8]
 An example of a fidget spinner using ball bearings to allow it to spin.

 In horology, the company Jean Lassale designed a watch movement that

used ball bearings to reduce the thickness of the movement. Using 0.20 mm
balls, the Calibre 1200 was only 1.2 mm thick, which still is the thinnest
mechanical watch movement.[9]
 Aerospace bearings are used in many applications on commercial, private
and military aircraft including pulleys, gearboxes and jet engine shafts. Materials
include M50 tool steel (AMS6491), Carbon chrome steel (AMS6444), the
corrosion resistant AMS5930, 440C stainless steel, silicon nitride (ceramic)
and titanium carbide-coated 440C.
 A skateboard wheel contains two bearings, which are subject to both axial
and radial time-varying loads. Most commonly bearing 608-2Z is used (a deep
groove ball bearing from series 60 with 8 mm bore diameter)
 Yo-Yos, there are ball bearings in the center of many new, ranging from
beginner to professional or competition grade, Yo-Yos.
 Many Fidget Spinner toys use multiple ball bearings to add weight, and to
allow the toy to spin.
3.6 ALTERNATOR
An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most
alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally,
a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In
principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the
term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal
combustion engines. An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic
field is called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are
called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three phase alternators in power plants
generate most of the world's electric power, which is distributed by electric power
grids.
Principle of operation

Diagram of a simple alternator with a rotating magnetic core (rotor) and stationary
wire (stator) also showing the current induced in the stator by the rotating magnetic
field of the rotor.
A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive
force (EMF) in it (Faraday's Law). This emf reverses its polarity when it moves under
magnetic poles of opposite polarity. Typically, a rotating magnet, called
the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core,
called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF
(electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the
currents in the stator windings vary in step with the position of the rotor, an alternator
is a synchronous generator.[3]
The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, or by a field coil
electromagnet. Automotive alternators use a rotor winding which allows control of the
alternator's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding.
Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor,
but are restricted in size, due to the cost of the magnet material. Since the
permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the
speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger than those used
in automotive applications.
An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage
constant. If the output voltage from the stationary armature coils drops due to an
increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils through
the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils
which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is
brought back up to its original value.
Alternators used in central power stations also control the field current to
regulate reactive power and to help stabilize the power system against the effects of
momentary faults. Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so
that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by one-
third of a period with respect to each other.

Working Principle of Alternator

The working principle of
alternator is very simple. It is just like basic principle of DC generator. It
also depends upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction which says
the current is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there
is a relative motion between that conductor and the magnetic field.
For understanding working of alternator let's think about a single
rectangular turn placed in between two opposite magnetic pole as shown
above. Say this single
turn loop ABCD can rotate against axis a-b. Suppose this loop starts
rotating clockwise. After 90o rotation the side AB or conductor AB of the
loop comes in front of S-pole and conductor CD comes in front of N-pole.
At this position the tangential motion of the conductor AB is just
perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines from N to S pole. Hence rate of
flux cutting by the conductor AB is maximum here and for
that flux cutting there will be an induced current in the conductor AB and
direction of the induced current can be determined by Flemming's right
hand rule. As per this rule the direction of this current will be from A to B.
At the same time conductor CD comes under N pole and here also if we
apply Fleming right hand rule we will get the direction of induced current
and it will be from C to D.
Now after clockwise rotation of another 90o the turn ABCD comes at
vertical position as shown below. At this position tangential motion of
conductor AB and CD is just parallel to the magnetic flux lines, hence
there will be no flux cutting that is no current in the conductor. While the
turn ABCD comes from horizontal position to vertical position, angle
between flux lines and direction of motion of conductor, reduces from
90o to 0o and consequently the induced current in the turn is reduced to
zero from its maximum value.
 After another clockwise
rotation of 90o the turn again come to horizontal position and here
conductor AB comes under N-pole and CD comes under S-pole, and here
if we again apply Flemming's right hand rule, we will see that induced
current in conductor AB, is from point B to A and induced current in the
conductor CD is from D to C. As at this position the turn comes at
horizontal position from its vertical position, the current in the conductors
comes to its maximum value from zero. That means current is circulating
in the close turn from point B to A, from A to D, from D to C and from C
to B. Just reverse of the previous horizontal position when the current
was circulating as A → B → C → D → A.
While the turn further proceeds to its vertical position the current is again
reduced to zero. So if the turn continues to rotate the current in the turn
continually alternate its direction. During every full revolution of the turn,
the current in the turn gradually reaches to its maximum value then
reduces to zero and then again it comes to its maximum value but in
opposite direction and again it comes to zero. In this way the current
completes one full sine wave form during each 360o revolution of the turn.
So we have seen how an alternating current is produced in a turn is
rotated inside a magnetic field. From this, we will now come to the
actual working principle of alternator.
Now we cut the loop and connect its two ends with two slip rings and
stationary brush is placed on each slip ring. If we connect two terminals
of an external load with these two brushes, we will get an alternating
current in the load. This is our element model of alternator.
 Having understood
the very basic principle of alternator, let us now have an insight into its
basic operational principal of a practical alternator. During discussion of
basic working of o, we have considered that the magnetic field is
stationary and conductors (armature) is rotating. But generally in
practical construction of alternator, armature conductors are stationary
and field magnets rotate between them. The rotor of an alternator or
a synchronous generator is mechanically coupled to the shaft or the
turbine blades, which on being made to rotate at synchronous speed
Ns under some mechanical force results in magnetic flux cutting of the
stationary armature conductors housed on the stator. As a direct
consequence of this flux cutting an induced emf and current starts to flow
through the armature conductors which first flow in one direction for the
first half cycle and then in the other direction for the second half cycle for
each winding with a definite time lag of 120o due to the space displaced
arrangement of 120o between them as shown in the figure below. This
particular phenomena results in 3φ power flow out of the alternator which
is then transmitted to the distribution stations for domestic and industrial

uses.
Construction of Alternator
Construction wise, an alternator generally consists of field poles placed on
the rotating fixture of the machine i.e. rotor as shown in the figure above.
Once the rotor or the field poles are made to rotate in the presence of
armature conductors housed on the stator, an alternating
3φ voltage represented by aa’ bb’ cc’ is induced in the armature
conductors thus resulting in the generation of 3φ electrical power. All
modern day electrical power generating stations use this technology for
generation of 3φ power, and as a result the alternator or synchronous
generator has become a subject of great importance and interest for
power engineers.
An alternator is basically a type of AC generator which is also known as
synchronous generator, for the simple reason that the field poles are
made to rotate at synchronous speed Ns = 120 f/P for effective power
generation.
Where, f signifies the alternating current frequency and the P represents
the number of poles.
 I
n most practical construction of alternator, it is installed with a
stationary armature winding and a rotating field unlike in the case of DC
generator where the arrangement is exactly opposite. This modification is
made to cope with the very high power of the order of few 100 Mega
watts produced in an AC generator contrary to that of a DC generator. To
accommodate such high power the conductor weigh and dimension
naturally has to be increased for optimum performance. And for this
reason is it beneficial to replace these high power armature windings by
low power field windings, which is also consequently of much lighter
weight, thus reducing the centrifugal force required to turn the rotor and
permitting higher speed limits.
There are mainly two types of rotor used in construction of alternator,
1. Salient pole type.
2. Cylindrical rotor type.

Salient Pole Type

The term salient means protruding or projecting. The salient pole type of rotor is generally
used for slow speed machines having large diameters and relatively small axial lengths. The
pole in this case are made of thick laminated steel sections riveted together and attached to a
rotor with the help of joint.
An alternator as mentioned earlier is mostly responsible for generation of very high electrical
power. To enable that, the mechanical input given to the machine in terms of rotating torque
must also be very high. This high torque value results in oscillation or hunting effect of the
alternator or synchronous generator. To prevent these oscillations from going beyond bounds
the damper winding is provided in the pole faces as shown in the figure. The damper
windings are basically copper bars short circuited at both ends are placed in the holes made in
the pole axis's. When the alternator is driven at a steady speed, the relative velocity of the
damping winding with respect to main field will be zero. But as soon as it departs from the
synchronous speed there will be relative motion between the damper winding and the main
field which is always rotating at synchronous speed. This relative difference will induce
current in them which will exert a torque on the field poles in such a way as to bring the
alternator back to synchronous speed operation.
The salient features of pole field structure has the following special
feature-
1. They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter axial
length.
2. The pole shoes covers only about 2/3rd of pole pitch.
3. Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
4. The salient pole type motor is generally used for low speed
operations of around 100 to 400 rpm, and they are used in power
stations with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.
Salient pole alternators driven by water turbines are called hydro-
alternators or hydro generators.

Cylindrical Rotor Type

The cylindrical rotor is generally used for very high speed operation and employed
in steam turbine driven alternators like turbo generators. The machines are built in a n

umber of ratings from 10

MVA to over 1500 MVA. The cylindrical rotor type machine has uniform length in all
directions, giving a cylindrical shape to the rotor thus providing uniform flux cutting in all
directions. The rotor in this case consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of
slots along its outer periphery for hosing the field coils.
The cylindrical rotor alternators are generally designed for 2-pole type giving very high speed

of Or 4-pole type running at a speed

of Where, f is the frequency of 50

Hz.
The cylindrical rotor synchronous generator does not have any projections coming out from
the surface of the rotor, rather central polar area are provided with slots for housing the field
windings as we can see from the diagram above. The field coils are so arranged around these
poles that flux density is maximum on the polar central line and gradually falls away as we
move out towards the periphery. The cylindrical rotor type machine gives better balance and
quieter-operation along with lesser windage losses.

Synchronous speeds
One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes
over a point on the stationary winding. The relation between speed and frequency is 

, where   is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second).   is the

number of poles (2,4,6...) and   is the rotational speed in revolutions per
minute (RPM). Very old descriptions of alternating current systems sometimes give
the frequency in terms of alternations per minute, counting each half-cycle as
one alternation; so 12,000 alternations per minute corresponds to 100 Hz.
Direct connected DC generator
This method of excitation consists of a smaller direct-current (DC) generator fixed on
the same shaft with the alternator. The DC generator generates a small amount of
electricity just enough to excite the field coils of the connected alternator to generate
electricity. A variation of this system is a type of alternator which uses direct current
from the battery for excitation, after which the alternator is self-excited. [18]
By number of phases
Another way to classify alternators is by the number of phases of their output
voltage. The output can be single phase, or polyphase. Three-phase alternators are
the most common, but polyphase alternators can be two phase, six phase, or more .[18]
By rotating part
The revolving part of alternators can be the armature or the magnetic field. The
revolving armature type has the armature wound on the rotor, where the winding
moves through a stationary magnetic field. The revolving armature type is not often
used.[18] The revolving field type has magnetic field on the rotor to rotate through a
stationary armature winding. The advantage is that then the rotor circuit carries much
less power than the armature circuit, making the slip ring connections smaller and
less costly; only two contacts are needed for the direct-current rotor, whereas often a
rotor winding has three phases and multiple sections which would each require a slip
ring connection. The stationary armature can be wound for any convenient medium
voltage level, up to tens of thousands of volts; manufacture of slip ring connections
for more than a few thousand volts is costly and inconvenient.

Specific applications
Electric generators.
Most power generation stations use synchronous machines as their generators.
Connection of these generators to the utility grid requires synchronization conditions
to be met.[19]
Automotive alternators
Alternators are used in modern automobiles to charge the battery and to power the
electrical system when its engine is running.
Until the 1960s, automobiles used DC dynamo generators with commutators. With
the availability of affordable silicon diode rectifiers, alternators were used instead.
Diesel electric locomotive alternators
In later diesel electric locomotives and diesel electric multiple units, the prime
mover turns an alternator which provides electricity for the traction motors (AC or
DC).
The traction alternator usually incorporates integral silicon diode rectifiers to provide
the traction motors with up to 1200 volts DC (DC traction, which is used directly) or
the common inverter bus (AC traction, which is first inverted from dc to three-phase
ac).
The first diesel electric locomotives, and many of those still in service, use DC
generators as, before silicon power electronics, it was easier to control the speed of
DC traction motors. Most of these had two generators: one to generate the excitation
current for a larger main generator.
Optionally, the generator also supplies head end power (HEP) or power for electric
train heating. The HEP option requires a constant engine speed, typically 900 RPM
for a 480 V 60 Hz HEP application, even when the locomotive is not moving.
3.7 INVERTOR

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct

current (DC) to alternating current (AC).
The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend
on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any
power; the power is provided by the DC source.
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical
effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not
use moving parts in the conversion process Bottom of Form

Input and output

Input voltage
A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC power
source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the
system. The input voltage depends on the design and purpose of the inverter.
Examples include:
12 VDC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a
rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery or automotive electrical outlet. [2]

 24, 36 and 48 VDC, which are common standards for home energy systems.
 200 to 400 VDC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels .
 300 to 450 VDC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-
to-grid systems.
 Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a high-voltage
direct current power transmission system.
Output frequency
The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as standard
power line frequency, 50 or 60 hertz
If the output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for example stepped
up) then the frequency may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.
Output voltage
The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the same as the
grid line voltage, typically 120 or 240 VAC at the distribution level, even when there
are changes in the load that the inverter is driving. This allows the inverter to power
numerous devices designed for standard line power.
Some inverters also allow selectable or continuously variable output voltages .
Output power
A power inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in watts or
kilowatts. This describes the power that will be available to the device the inverter is
driving and, indirectly, the power that will be needed from the DC source. Smaller
popular consumer and commercial devices designed to mimic line power typically
range from 150 to 3000 watts.
Not all inverter applications are solely or primarily concerned with power delivery; in
some cases the frequency and or waveform properties are used by the follow-on
circuit or device.
Circuit description

Top: Simple inverter circuit shown with an electromechanical switch

and automatic equivalent
auto-switching device implemented with two transistors and split winding auto-
transformer in place of the mechanical switch.

Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th
harmonic
Basic design
In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the
center tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow
current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end
of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current
in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the
secondary circuit.
The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary
contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable
contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the
movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet
is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches
rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called
a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar
mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo machines.
As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other
types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs.
Certain ratings, especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR).
SCRs provide large power handling capability in a semiconductor device, and can
readily be controlled over a variable firing range.
The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output
transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature
as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power
supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an
infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the
original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves,
called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Fourier analysis can be used to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The
total harmonic distortion (THD) is the square root of the sum of the squares of the

harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage : 

Advanced designs

H bridge inverter circuit with transistor switches and antiparallel diodes

There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in
inverter designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be
more or less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.
The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many
ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design
includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side
of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the
fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the
passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at
a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency
inverter, the filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum
fundamental frequency.
Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are
often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak
inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The antiparallel diodes are
somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.

Three-phase inverters

Three-phase inverter with wye connected load

Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high

power applications such as VDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter
consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three
load terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three
switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the
fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has
six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and
negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of
three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are
applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform
is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.

3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform
of voltage between terminals A and C (23 − 2 states)
To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters
can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher
voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-
step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained
with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of
achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is
improved as well.
Applications

DC power source usage

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or
enough to power two sixty watt light bulbs.
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries or fuel cells to
AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can
operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at
any desired voltage.
3.8 BATTERY

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with

external connections provided to power electrical devices such
as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric
power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The
terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an
external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is
connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within,
allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so
deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the
battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the
term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however
the usage has evolved additionally to include devices composed of a single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded;
the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common
examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable
electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batterie can be discharged and
recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket; the original
composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include
the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable
electronics such as laptops and smartphones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to
large lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge
battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power
for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates
US$48 billion in sales each year,] with 6% annual growth.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of
electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

Principle of operation
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of
some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two  connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively
charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive
electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power
the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during
charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during
charging.[14] During discharge, the process is reversed. The electrodes do not touch
each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use different
electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but
prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is
the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.[15] Thus, if the electrodes have emfs 

 and  , then the net emf is  ; in other words, the net emf is the
difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[16]The electrical

driving force or   across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal

voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.[17] The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf
of the cell. Because of internal resistance, [18] the terminal voltage of a cell that is
discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. [19] An ideal cell has
negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of 
  until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts
and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform
1.5 joules of work.[17] In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under
discharge[18] and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the
voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a
curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–
carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same
emf of 1.2 volts.[20] The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more
Primary
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.
These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are
used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source,
such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since
the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return
to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to
recharge primary cells.[25] In general, these have higher energy densities than
rechargeable batteries,[26] but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain
applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable
batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.
Secondary
ge current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more
impo Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be
charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged
state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the
chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current
are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely
used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid
electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the
area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during
overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical
energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high sur rtant than weight and
handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in
general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the

automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses
an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and
extending shelf life.[27] VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass

matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of
increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–
zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far
the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment.In the 2000s, developments include batteries with
embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery
through a USB connector,[28]nanoball batteries that allow for a discharge rate about
100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge
monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low
self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
Self-discharge
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year
when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).[40] This is known as the "self-
discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that
occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is
reduced for batteries are stored at lower temperatures, although some can be
damaged by freezing.
Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline
batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd)
battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a
rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but
still higher than for primary batteries).
Storage
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in
a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the
life of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge
much longer, depending upon type.[51] To reach their maximum voltage, batteries
must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at
0 °C is only half as efficient as at 20 °C.[26] Alkaline battery manufacturers such
as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.
Solid state batteries
On 28 February 2017, The University of Texas at Austin issued a press release
about a new type of solid-state battery, developed by a team led by Lithium-ion (Li-
Ion) inventor John Goodenough, "that could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-
lasting rechargeable batteries for handheld mobile devices, electric cars and
stationary energy storage".[67] More specifics about the new technology were
published in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Energy & Environmental Science.
Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from
Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes.
The newly developed battery should be safer since it uses glass electrolytes, that
should eliminate short circuits. The solid-state battery is also said to have "three
times the energy density" increasing its useful life in electric vehicles, for example. It
should also be more ecologically sound since the technology uses less expensive,
earth-friendly materials such as sodium extracted from seawater. They also have
much longer life; ("the cells have demonstrated more than 1,200 cycles with low cell
resistance"). The research and prototypes are not expected to lead to a
commercially viable product in the near future, if ever, according to Chris Robinson
of LUX Research. "This will have no tangible effect on electric vehicle adoption in the
next 15 years, if it does at all. A key hurdle that many solid-state electrolytes face is
lack of a scalable and cost-effective manufacturing process," he told The American
Energy News in an e-mail.

ASSEMBLES OF PARTS
CONCLUSION