WEEK 8&9: REPRODUCTION

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

• Understand the importance of reproduction.

• Identify the structure and functions of the male and female reproductive
system.
• Highlight different forms of asexual and types of sexual reproduction.
• Describe sexual and asexual reproduction.
• Define the term reproduction.

Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce offspring, i e new

individuals of their type. This is an important feature of all living organisms. It is
the only way in which each kind of organism can continue to live on forever
although the individuals must eventually die.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Organisms have developed many methods of reproducing. These can be either

asexual or sexual.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

In asexual reproduction, an individual produces an offspring by itself, ie only one

parent is present. There is no fusion of nuclei, and the cell(s) which give rise to the
offspring usually divide by means of mitosis. As a result, asexual reproduction
often produces clones- offspring which are identical to the parent. In extremely
rare cases, the offspring may not be identical. This is due to mutations- changes in
the genes or chromosomes.

Asexual reproduction is common among simple organisms, as well as, flowering

plants. In organisms which can reproduce both sexually and asexually, asexual
reproduction occurs when food is plentiful and environmental conditions are
favourable for growth.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Fission
The simplest form of asexual reproduction is the fission of unicellular organisms
such as bacteria and protists. Here, the parent organism simply divides into two
or more parts, each of which can self-exist. In bacteria, where the cell just divides
into two identical parts, the process is called binary fission.

Under favourable conditions, fission occurs rapidly, giving rise to numerous

identical offspring. This type of reproduction allows organisms to colonize new
habitats very fast.

Budding
In budding, the offspring develops as an outgrowth of the parent. The bud may
form on an external or an internal surface of the parents. Internal buds are
formed in some sponges, and are released when the parent dies. External buds
occur in Hydra and coral polyps. These buds break off from the parent without
causing any injury and lead to an independent life.

The simplest type of budding is seen in yeasts. The bud may separate immediately
or may remain attached to the parent cell, and in turn form a bud. In multi cellular
animals like the Hydra, the cells in the bud undergo differentiation to form the
complex body of the organism.

Spore formation
Spores are small unicellular bodies which are produced in large numbers. They
are small, light and easily dispersed by air. Under favourable conditions, each
spore can develop into an independent organism. Spores are commonly produced
by bacteria, fungi, protists, algae, mosses and ferns.

Fragmentation
In this process, a part of an organism breaks up or fragments and gives rise to a
new individual. This is a form of regeneration. It occurs in simple organisms like
algae, coelenterates and sponges. In Spirogyra, when a filament reaches a certain
length, parts of it break away and grow into new filaments.

Vegetative Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction is the production of new individuals from the vegetative
parts of plants. The vegetative parts of plants which are involved in this method
of reproduction are stems, roots and leaves. There are two types of vegetative
reproduction. These are natural and artificial vegetative reproduction. The natural
vegetative reproduction involves the use of natural or vegetative parts of the
plant to reproduce and get new individuals. Such parts include stems, roots and
leaves.

The artificial vegetative reproduction involves the use of intelligence by man to

grow new plants from cut portion of the vegetative body of older parent plants.
Artificial vegetative propagation can be carried out by cutting, layering, budding,
grafting and marcotting.
(i)Cutting: When parts of plant are cut into portions and planted to produce new
plants, such cut portions are called cuttings. Cutting may come from stems/ leaves
depending on the type of plant being propagated.

(ii)Layering: A branch or shoot growing near to the ground is bent over so that
one or two of the nodes could touch the ground.
(iii)Budding: is a skilled technique used when plants do not grow easily from
cuttings. A bud is cut from a matured branch. Attached to the bud is a flat, shield
shaped piece of stem. The stem piece and bud is called the Scion. An inverted T-
shaped cut is made in the bark of another tree of a desirable characteristics called
the stock and the edges of the cut are turned back to expose the cambium. The
scion is inserted into the stock and then the two are bound into position.
(iv)Grafting: is closely related to budding and is a method of artificial vegetative
propagation which involves the application of a whole shoot or stem(the scion)
into another plant(the stock).Grafting brings into close contact the vascular
cambia of both the scion and the stock.

(v)Marcotting: in marcotting, the roots grow from the part of a branch at which a
ring of tissue has been removed. This branch can then grow into a new plant.
Plants usually propagated by marcotting include garden shrubs, mango and
lemon.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction which involves the fusion of the
male gametes and the female gametes to form a zygote which later develops to a
young offspring. In other words, in sexual reproduction, offsprings are produced
by fusion of two different sex cells (gametes) which usually come from two
different parents.

Types of Sexual Reproduction

There are two major types of sexual reproduction. These are conjugation and
fusion of gametes.

Conjugation
Conjugation is a simple type of sexual reproduction which occurs in some lower
organisms such as Mucor, Rhizopus, Paramecium and Spirogyra. Conjugation is
the process by which nuclear material is passed from one cell to another. In
Spirogyra, for example, conjugation starts with two filaments called conjugants
coming together to lie side by side. Lateral outgrowth starts to develop opposite
each other from opposite cells in the two filaments. The outgrowth meet and the
separating walls dissolve to form a continuous channel called conjugation tube.
Meanwhile, the cytoplasm of each cell shrinks away from the cell walls and round
up to form a gamete.

One of the gametes regarded as the male migrates through the conjugation tube
into the other cell. The cytoplasms of the two cells fuse, the nuclei also fuse and a
zygote is formed. After sometime, the zygote or zygospore germinate and a new
filament is formed.
Fusion of gametes
Fusion of gametes is the union of the haploid male and female gametes to
produce diploid organisms called zygote. The process of this union of the gametes
to form this zygote is called fertilisation.

Differences between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

• Gametes are formed. No gamete is formed.
 • It involves the fusion of male and
female gametes.
• Zygote is formed.
• Often, two parents are needed.
• Offspring show new variation.
• There is less rapid means of
producing offspring.
No fusion of gametes occurs.
Zygote is not formed.
Only one parent is required.
Offspring are identical
There is rapid means of producing
offspring.

STRUCTURE OF MAMMALIAN GAMETES

The reproductive sex cells are also known as GAMETES. The formation of
gametes/gametogenesis takes place in the gonads.

GAMETOGENESIS: Is the study of the origin of gametes that is, how gametes are
formed. Process of forming gametes in animals is divided into two
spermatogenesis (male gamete formation) and Oogenesis (Female gamete
formation).

MALE GAMETES: The male sex cell/gametes are called SPERMS are produced in
the testes by a process called SPERMATOGENESIS.

The sperm/spermatozoa consist of a head which contains the nucleus, a middle

piece and a whip like tail or flagellum. A human sperm is about 0.05mm long and
microscopic and is usually smaller than the egg (ovum).

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SPERM CELL

I. Acrosome: Is located at the anterior end of the head which contains lytic
enzymes or agents used to dissolve the egg membrane or it enhances penetration
of the egg during fertilization.

Ii. Middle piece: Contains numerous mitochondria which generate the energy
used by the sperm cell to swim towards the egg.

Iii. Long whip-like tail/flagellum: It helps to move or propels the sperm cell.
iv. Nucleus: is found in the head of the sperm cell and contains a genetic material
which fuses with the nucleus of the egg/ovum.

FEMALE GAMETES: The female sex cells/gametes called THE EGGS/OVA are
produced in the ovaries by a process called OOGENESIS. The human female
gametes are larger than the sperms. Each ovum is about 0.1mm in diameter. It
consists of the cytoplasm, a nucleus in the centre, granules and yolk droplets. The
yolk provides a source of nourishment for the embryo, especially at the early
stages of development.

The ovum’s cytoplasm is surrounded by two membranes. The outer one is called
THE VITELLINE MEMBRANE while the inner one is called THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE. The ovum is surrounded on the outside by a jelly coat of a variable
thickness made of glycoprotein. The nuclei of the sperm and ovum contain
chromosomes (thread like materials) which carry the genes. The genes are
responsible for the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
 ASSIGNMENT

Construct a two column table, with the headings Asexual and Sexual
reproduction. Write each of these statements in the correct column.
•only one parent involved
• One or two parents involved
• involves gametes
• involves fertilisation
• Zygotes formed
•all offspring genetically identical
• Genetic variation among offspring.

WEEK 10: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

• Identify types of harmful traditional incision

• Highlight breastfeeding and its advantages.
• Outline causes of infant mortality.
• Describe the importance of knowledge of genetic disorder.
• Explain the meaning of genetic counselling.
• Define the term reproductive health.

Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental, social wellbeing and

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity in all matters relating to
reproductive system.
Reproductive health is the ability to have a satisfying and safe sex life, capability
to reproduce and freedom to decide, if, when and how often to do so. Men and
women of all ages must care for their reproductive health in order to attain an
excellent physical, social and mental wellbeing.

TYPES OF HARMFUL TRADITIONAL INCISION (FGM)

Incision is an opening that is made in something with a sharp tool especially in

someone’s body.

Female genital mutilation(FGM): is also known as female circumcision; is the

practice in which a female child is subjected to a procedure involving partial/ total
removal of the external female genitalia.

Circumcision: This is the removal of the prepuce and the tip of the clitoris. This is
the only operation which medically, can be like red to male circumcision.

TYPES OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION

1. Type 1 FGM (Clitoridectomy): This involve partial or total removal of the clitoris
(a small, sensitive and erectile part of the female genitals) and in very rare cases,
only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris). This practise is
extremely painful and distressing, damages sexually sensitive skin and is an
infection risk.

2. Type 2 FGM(Excision): This involves partial or total removal of the clitoris and
the labia minora with/ without excision of the labia majora (the labia are the lips
that surround the vagina).

3. Type 3 FGM (Infibulation/Pharaonic circumcision): This is the most severe

operation, involving excision plus the removal of the labia majora and the sealing
of the two sides, through stitching/ natural fusion of scar tissue. What is left is a
very smooth surface and a small opening to permit urination and the passing of
menstrual blood. This artificial opening is sometimes no longer that the head of a
match.

4.Type 4 FGM (Introcision): All other harmful procedures to the female genitals
for non- medical purposes e.g. pricking, piercing, incising, scrapping, stretching
and canterising the genital area.

CARE OF REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

-Clean your external reproductive organs every day. Wash them with water.

- Clean your under wear as often as necessary; Wash your underwear

immediately after use.

- Keep your clean under wear in a clean place. Make sure they do not get any dirt/
germs before you use them.

- Every girl has her own menstrual cycle; during her cycle she should take daily
shower, sleep well and rest. Use sanitary napkins.

- Have a better period by Tracking your monthly cycle.

-Go to your annual check -up and do self-exams as well.

- Practise safe sex.

-Drink a lot of water.

- Stay away from toxins.

-Manage stress in healthy ways

-Avoid using tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs.

-Eat a balanced diet that is high in fiber and low in fat.

IMPORTANCE OF PRE-NATAL

Pre-natal also known as antenatal care; is a type of preventive healthcare. Its goal
is to provide regular check- ups that allow doctors/ midwives to treat and prevent
potential health problems throughout the course of the pregnancy and to
promote healthy lifestyles that benefit both mother and child.

-Develop a plan for their reproductive life.

- Increase their daily intake of folic acid (one of the B vitamins) to at least
400micograms.

- Make sure their immunisations are up to date.

-Avoid smoking, drinking, alcohol, and using drugs.

- Attain a healthy weight.

EFFECTS OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS ON PREGNANCY

(INFANTS AND FOETUS)

Contracting a sexually transmitted infection during or prior pregnancy may cause

damage to the developing foetus, which may result in physical and mental
abnormalities/ even the loss of the baby. Some infections are transmitted from
mother to the child through the placenta during pregnancy, affecting the foetus
inside the womb. Others can spread during the birthing process/ post-natal
period (through breast feeding/ direct contact).

The harmful effects of sexual transmitted diseases in babies may include still birth
(a baby that is born dead), low birth weight, conjunctivitis (eye infection),
pneumonia, neonatal sepsis (infection in the baby’s blood stream), neurologic
damage, blindness, deafness, acute hepatis, meningitis, chronic liver disease and
cirrhosis. The following list provides information on specific sexual transmitted
diseases and the potential threats they pose to pregnant mothers. It is crucial that
women protect themselves and their children by learning how to avoid these
infections and getting sufficient prenatal care. The diseases are chlamydia,
bacterial vaginosis, gonorrhoea, herpes, HIV/AIDS, Human papilloma virus HPV
(Genital warts), Syphilis, Trichomoniasis etc.

RISK INVOLVED IN CHILD DELIVERY

-Failure to progress (prolonged labour): A small percentage of women, mostly

first time mothers, may experience a labour that lasts too long. In this situation,
both the mother and the baby are at risk for several complications including
infections.
-Abnormal presentation: refers to the position the foetus takes as your body
prepares for delivery and it could be either vertex (head down) or breech
(buttocks down). In the weeks before your due date, the foetus usually drops
lower in the uterus. Ideally the labour, the baby is positioned head down, facing
the mother’s back, with chin tucks to its chest and the back of the head ready to
enter the pelvis. That way, the smallest possible part of the baby’s head leads the
way through the cervix and into the birth canal.

-Umbilical cord issues: The umbilical cord is looped around the baby’s neck/
otherwise entangled possibly causing compression.

(i). Perineal lacerations: A tear in the perineum, the area between the vagina and
anus.

(ii). Abnormal foetus heart rate/ rhythm: The fatal heart rate goes outside the
normal range of 110 – 160 beats per minute of the rhythm is unusual.

(iii). Amniotic cavity tissues: Too much or too little amniotic fluid or rupturing of
the membranes that hold the amniotic fluid (the water breaks) before labour at or
beyond 37weeks.

(iv) Failure to progress: it means labour stalls. Also advanced maternal age
35years or older, prolonged pregnancy past 40years, genitour many infections,
anaemia.

-Others are gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, miscarriage, Anaemia, infections

etc.

BREAST FEEDING

It is always good to breastfeed babies. Within the first hours after delivery, the
mammary gland (breast) begins to secrete milk which is very good for baby.

The breast milk contains nutritional elements and antibodies which give the baby
temporary immunity to infectious disease.
The baby is usually breast fed, but when breast milk is not adequate for the
baby’s needs, the baby may be given some other milk forms in addition.
Commonly used artificial milk is cow’s milk prepared in a special way for use by
human babies. However, there is no better milk for human babies than human
milk in the sense that:

• It is readily available.

• It is at normal body temperature.

• There is no risk of contamination.

• It helps the uterus/womb back to its normal place soon after delivery.

• It promotes emotional connection between mother and child.

• Above all it is very cheap. During breast feeding the nursing mother must
be cautious of using alcohol and doctor’s un-prescribed drugs.

MYTHS ABOUT BREAST-FEEDING

The following statements must be dispelled:

• Once you are breast-feeding, no pregnancy can occur if you have sexual
intercourse. It has been found that some women ovulate during breast
feeding, so such a woman can get pregnant.

• You should not have sexual intercourse when you are breast-feeding so
that the baby does not suck sperm in the breast milk. (False)
 • Processed milk is better than breast milk. (False)

CAUSES OF INFANT MORTALITY

-Birth defects

- Preterm birth (birth before 37weeks gestation) and low birth weight.

-Maternal complications of pregnancy.

-Sudden infant death syndrome (STDS).

-Injuries e.g. suffocation

CAUSES OF BIRTH DEFECT AND OTHER HEALTH RELATED PROBLEMS

-Birth defects are problem that occurs when a baby is developing in utero (in the
womb). Birth defects can be caused by genetic factors and a variety of
environmental injuries such as infection, radiation and drug exposure during
pregnancy.
 WHAT CAUSES BIRTH DEFECTS

Birth defects can be as a result of genetics, lifestyle choices and behaviours,

exposure to certain medicines and chemicals, infections, during pregnancy/ a
combination of these factors.

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF BIRTH DEFECTS

BIRTH DEFECT is a problem that occurs when a baby is developing in utero (in
the womb). Birth defects can be minor/ severe. It can affect the child appearance,
organ function/physical/mental development. Most birth defects are present
within the first three months of pregnancy when the organs are still forming.

THE RISK FACTORS FOR BIRTH DEFECTS

All pregnant women have some risk of delivering a child with a birth defect.
Risk increases under any of the following conditions.

-Family history of birth defects/ other genetic disorder.

- Drug use, alcohol consumption/smoking during pregnancy.

- Advanced maternal age of 35years/ older.

-Inadequate prenatal care.

 - Untreated viral/ bacterial infections including sexual transmitted infections.

- Use of certain high risk medications such as isotretinnin and lithium.

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF GENETIC DISORDER IN FAMILY

This can come in handy for your doctor or medical practitioner when it comes to
diagnosing ailments. If you have a history of a particular disorder, the doctor can
look to that as a possibility because if runs in your family you have higher
percentage chance of inheriting it as well. Also, you can prepare yourself for the
particular disorder by taking precautionary steps to minimize the damage if you
know/ think you might develop the disorder eventually. An example, is heart
disease or diabetes. If you know that it runs in your family then you can take steps
at a younger age to eat right, exercise and minimize/ eliminate the associates risk
factors for developing the disease.

PREVENTION OF BIRTH DEFECTS

•Women should avoid alcohol, drugs and tobacco during and after pregnancy.
• They should make sure to tell their doctor about any medications they are
using and ask of which vaccines is necessary and safe.
• They should also use caution when taking certain medications and vaccines
that normally safe can cause serious birth defects.
• Maintaining a healthy weight also helps reduce the risk of complications
during pregnancy.
•Pre-natal vitamins are also recommended during pregnancy.
• Folic acid can help prevent defects of the spine and brain.
• Women who plan on becoming pregnant should start taking folic acid and
supplement before conception.

TREATMENT FOR BIRTH DEFECTS

Many birth defects can be diagnosed during pregnancy depending on the
particular type of birth defect. Parental ultrasounds can be used to diagnose
certain birth defects in utero. More in depth screening options such as blood tests
and amnioceritesis( taking a sample of the amniotic fluid) may also be done. Pre-
natal tests can help determine whether the mother has an infection/ other
condition that’s harmful to the baby. Also, some birth defects can be corrected
before or shortly after birth. It may be through medications, surgeries, home care
(i. e parents may be instructed to follow specific instructions for feeding, bathing
and monitoring an infant with a birth defect).

GENETICS

The mother/ father may pass on genetic abnormalities to their baby. Genetic
abnormalities occur when a gene becomes flawed due to mutation (change). In
some cases, a gene/ part of a gene might be missing. These defects happen at
conception(fertilization) and often can’t be prevented. A particular defect may be
present throughout the family history of one or both parents.

GENETIC COUNSELLING

It is important for parents to find out about the genes in individual family before
getting married. Find out if their characteristic disorders in the families. Genetic
counselling should be done in a good hospital, where the pregnant will be told
about sex determination of a baby and the effects of genetics on a baby’s eye,
hair, skin, colour, height etc. This will help people with family genetic disorder
make decision about having children.

COUNSELLING AND TESTING FOR HIV

People living with HIV and AIDS require information, counselling, care and
support. In general, they should be advised to:

• Protect them against any form of sexually transmitted infection.

• Avoid passing the infection to others through unprotected sexual

intercourse.

• Share information about their HIV status with their spouses and those they
trust.

• Eat nourishing food and take plenty of water.

• Seek counselling about pregnancy for the health of both the mother and
the child.
 ASSIGNMENT

1. Write the name of the Parts of the female reproductive system that

match each description.

a. the place where an egg fertilised

b. the organ where eggs are made

c. the organ in which an embryo develops

d. a ring of muscle at the base of the uterus

2. Copy and complete these sentences about the male reproductive system.

You can use each of the words in the list once, more than once or not at all.

Oestrogen oviducts primary progesterone

Prostrate secondary sperm sperm ducts

Testes testosterone ureter urethra

Sperm are made in the ……………. And can travel along the ………………. And then
the…………... to the outside world. The …………... gland adds fluid to the sperm.The
testes make a hormone called…………. This causes ………… production to begin, and
also causes the development of ………... Sexual characteristics.