Topic 2: Cells

2.1 Cell Theory

Outline the cell theory.
1) Living organisms are composed of one of more cells.
2) Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all organisms.
3) All cells are derived from pre-existing cells.
4) In a multi-cellular organism, the activity of the entire organism depends on the total
activity of its independent cells.

Discuss the evidence for cell theory.

 The cell theory has amassed tremendous credibility through the use of the microscope in
the following:
i. Robert Hooke- studied cork and found little tiny compartments that he called cells
ii. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek- observed the first living cells, called them 'animalcules'
meaning little animals.
iii. Schleiden- stated that plants are made of 'independent, separate beings' called cells
iv. Schwaan- made a similar statement to Schleiden about animals

State that unicellular organisms carry out all of the functions of life
 Metabolism; chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to release
energy
 Response; perceiving and responding to changes in the environment
 Homeostasis; keeping conditions inside the organism within tolerable limits
 Growth; an irreversible increase in size
 Reproduction; producing offspring either sexually or asexually
 Nutrition; obtaining food, to provide energy and the materials needed for growth.
 Amoeba would be an example.

Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria,
organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit
nm = nanometer um = micrometer
 Molecules - 1 nm
 Thickness of membrane - 10 nm
 Viruses - 100 nm
 Bacteria - 1 um
 Organelles - up to 10 um
 Most cells - up to 100 um (three dimensional nature/shape)
Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of
known magnifications.
 Drawings should show cells and cell ultrastructure.
 Include:
A scale bar: |------| = 1 µm
Magnification: ×250
To calculate magnification:
 Magnification = Measured Size of Diagram ÷ Actual Size of Object

Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.
 A cell needs a large surface area in order to carry out metabolic functions (as chemical
reactions require a surface). As a cell grows, it needs to carry out more and more reactions.
Therefore, since a cell has to maintain a certain surface area to volume ratio, its size is
limited.
 The rate of exchange of materials (nutrients/waste) and energy (heat) is a function of its
surface area.
 As a cell grows in size (volume), the distance increases between the cytoplasm at the center
of the cell and the cell membrane. The rate of chemical exchange with the surrounding
environment may hence become too low to maintain the cell. It is not able to excrete waste
quickly enough or take in important minerals.
 Volume of a cell determines requirements while surface area determines supply.
 The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is extremely important. When a cell becomes too
big, it cannot transport material to the nucleus fast enough, which means it must either
divide or die.
 Divide or Die: when a cell gets too big, it can either divide or die. Cells don’t divide
haphazardly, but have an internal schedule/clock of sorts. This is called the cell cycle, and is
made up of periods of growth, duplication, energy storage, and actual cell division.
 Cells maximize their surface area by dividing and stretching, as well as possessing microvilli
to create more area for gas exchange, such as in the small intestine.
 While it is better for a cell to be rounded or cubic for efficient packing, it is more efficient to
be long and slender, or invaginated (folded) for transport purposes.
State that multicelluar organisms show emergent properties
 Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts: the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts. Multicellular organisms show emergent properties: the
activity of a multicellular organism depends on the sum of the total activity of its
individual cells, and the activity of the cells depends on the activity of its organelles.

Explain how cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions
by expressing some of their genes but not others.
 During the early development stages of multicellular organisms, cells undergo
differentiation, becoming specialized in structure and function. These cells are then
organized into tissues and organs. Cells of multicellular eukaryotes express only a small
fraction of their genes, allowing them to perform highly specialized functions. Cells, such
as those of muscle or nervous tissue, express only a tiny fraction of their genes.

State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along
different pathways.
 Stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along
different pathways.

Outline one use of therapeutic stem cells.

 Bone marrow transplants. They only work because what you are actually transplanting
is the hematopoetic stem cells in the marrow. And peripheral blood stem cells, as well as
cord blood stem cells, can be used in lieu of bone marrow, making being a donor FAR
easier today than in decades past.
2.2 Prokaryotic Cells
Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia (E. coli) as an example of a
prokaryote

Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each of the named structures
1. Cell Wall: Maintains the cell's shape and gives protection.
2. Plasma Membrane: Regulates the flow of materials (nutrients, waste, oxygen, etc.)
into and out of the cell.
3. Cytoplasm: Holds and suspends the cell's specialized organelles and enzymes.
4. Pili: The function of the pili is attachment to solid surfaces, apparatus for use in
transfer of DNA from one cell to another, twitching motility, and cell-cell adhesion.
5. Flagella: Flagella are whip like tails that are used to propel the organism forward.
6. Ribosome: Protein synthesis.
7. Nuceloid: Nucleoid is the area in the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA are
present.

Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli

State that prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
2.3 Eukaryotic Cells
Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell

Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each of the named structures.
1. Ribosomes: Main site of protein synthesis.
2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER): Packages the proteins synthesized in the
ribosomes.
3. Lysosome: Digests macromolecules and contain digestive enzymes.
4. Golgi apparatus: Modifies, stores and routes products of the endoplasmic reticulum.
5. Mitochondrion: Serves as the site of cellular respiration.
6. Nucleus: Contains a cell's genetic material

Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.

Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Small cells (<5um) Larger cells (>10um)
No nucleus or any membrane-bound Always have nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles organelles

DNA is circular, without proteins/histones DNA is linear and is associated with

proteins/histones to form chromatin
Ribosomes are small (70S) Ribosomes are large (80S)
No cytoskeleton Always has cytoskeleton
Motility by rigid rotating flagellum (made of Motility by flexible waving cilia/flagella
flagellin) (made of tubulin)

Cell division by binary fission Cell division by mitosis/meiosis

Reproduction always asexual Reproduction either sexual or asexual
Huge variety of metabolic pathways Common metabolic pathways

State three differences between plant and animal cells.

Only plant cells have:
 Cell walls
 Chloroplasts
 Vacuole - more specificially central vacuole

Outline two roles of extracellular components.

 The plant wall maintains shape, prevents excess water uptake, and holds the whole
plant up against the force of gravity.
 Animal cells secrete glycoproteins that form the extracellular matrix (ECM). This
functions in support, adhesion and movement.
2.4 Membranes
Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain
the structure of cell membranes.
 Hydrophilic molecules are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules are not
attracted to water, but are attracted to each other. The phosphate head is
hydrophilic and the two hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic. In water, phospholipids
form double layers with the hydrophilic heads in contact with water on both sides
and the hydrophobic tails away from the centre. The attraction between the heads
and the surrounding water makes membranes very stable.

2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis.

 Diffusion: is the passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration, as a result of the random motion of particles.
 Osmosis: the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable
membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute
concentration.
List the functions of membrane proteins.
 Enzymes: there are many enzymes in membranes; ATP synthase, for example, catalyzes
the formation of ATP.
 Electron Carriers: arranged in chains in the membrane; needed for photosynthesis and
cellular respiration.
 Channels for passive transport: membranes need channels to allow certain molecules to
diffuse in or out of the cell; a channel is formed by two adjacent integral proteins.
 Pumps for active transport: ATP energy is needed to transport certain molecules across
a membrane – protein pumps are needed to accomplish this.
 Hormone binding sites: cells communicate with one another using hormones. To receive
a hormone message, a cell quires an integral protein that has a hormone binding side on
its outer surface.

2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion.
 Membranes are semi-permeable which means that they allow certain molecules
through but not others. The molecules can move in and out through passive transport
which is a method that does not require any input of outside energy. It can either be
done by simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion. Molecules will go from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration as they move randomly and eventually
become evenly distributed within the system if they are permeable to the membrane.
Simple diffusion involves the diffusion of molecules through the phospholipid bilayer
while facilitated diffusion involves the use of channel proteins embedded in the
membrane. The cell membrane is hydrophobic inside so hydrophobic (lipid soluble)
molecules will pass through by simple diffusion whereas hydrophilic molecules and
charged particles will use facilitated diffusion. Water moves through by osmosis which
is also by passive transport. Osmosis involves the movement of water molecules from a
region of low solute concentration, to a region of high solute concentration. So if the
solute concentration is higher inside the cell than outside the cell, water will move in
and vice versa.

Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes.
 Active transport involves the movement of substances through the membrane using energy
from ATP. The advantage of active transport is that substances can be moved against the
concentration gradient, meaning from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration. This is possible because the cell membrane has protein pumps embedded it
which are used in active transport to move substances across by using ATP. Each protein
pump only transports certain substances so the cell can control what comes in and what
goes out.
Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane.
 Vesicles are made by pinching off a piece of membrane (the fluidity of the
membrane allows this).
 Vesicles can be used to transport material around inside cells (ex: proteins).
 They travel from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, then to
the plasma membrane.
 The formation of vesicle from plasma membrane allows material to be taken in
(endocytosis).
 The fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane allows material to be secreted / passed
out (exocytosis).

Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form
during endocytosis and exocytosis.
 In endocytosis part of the plasma membrane is pulled inwards. A droplet of fluid
becomes enclosed when a vesicle is pinched off. Vesicles can then move through the
cytoplasm carrying its contents.
 In exocytosis vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane. The contents of the vesicles
are then expelled. The membrane flattens out again.
2.5 Cell Division
Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis, and cytokinesis.
1. Interphase: in the G1 (growth one) phase the cell grows larger; in the S (synthesis)
phase the genome is replicated; in the G2 (growth two) phase the newly replicated
genome is separated.
2. Mitosis: The division of the nucleus to form two genetically identical nuclei is
termed mitosis.
3. Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells is called cytokinesis.

State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can
occur in any organism.
 Sometimes, mitosis gets out of control and a cell begins to divide and the new
daughter cell begins to divide as well. Soon, this overflow of cells is called a tumour.
Tumours can occur in any organ. Cancer is a disease caused by tumours.

State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many biochemical reactions
occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of
mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.
 During interphase the cell grows larger. Genes of chromosomes are subsequently
transcribed to allow for protein synthesis and necessary organelles are doubled.
The DNA is then replicated in preparation to be divided between the two new cells.

Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.)
1. Prophase: the mitotic spindle (made from microtubules) starts growing, going from
pole to pole. Chromatin coil up to form distinct chromosomes. The nuclear envelope
starts breaks down.
2. Metaphase: each chromosome attaches to two spindle microtubules (one going to
each pole) at the centromere region, so that they line up at the equator of the cell.
The mitotic spindle is fully developed: some microtubules are attached to
chromosomes and reach to the equator, whilst others go from pole to pole.
3. Anaphase: the spindle microtubules pull the sister chromatids to opposite poles;
each sister chromatid will become one new chromosome of the daughter cell.
4. Telophase: each sister chromatid reaches its pole, becoming a chromosome. The
nuclear envelope starts to reform. Spindle microtubles deteriorate. Cytokinesis
takes place.

Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nucleus.

 The result of the process of mitosis is two nuclei. During S phase, each chromosome
replicates. These identical sister chromatids are separated during Anaphase, and are
 moved to each pole. When they are separated they are referred to as chromosomes.
The result is two nuclei, identical to each other and to the original nucleus.

Outline the differences in mitosis and cytokenisis between animal and plant cells.
 In plant cells, there are no centrioles. and after anaphase a cell wall forms dividing it into
two cells. In animal cells, after anaphase, the plasma membrane forms dividing it into two
cells by forming a cleavage furrow.

State that growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.
 Growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction all involve mitosis.