Civil Booster Civil Engineering Handbook PDF

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1
SOIL MECHANICS
Soil Deposited by
Alluvial Soil River
m
Marine Soil Sea water
Lacustrine Soil Still water like as lakes
Aeolian Soil Wind
o
Glacial Soil Ice
Note: Loess is an aelian soil.
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Soil
3 Phase 2 Phase
ts
(Partially Saturated)
Wa 0
IV I L Ki GFully Saturated Dry Soil
an
Va Air
Vv V w = Vv Vv = Va
Water Water Ww Air Wa = 0
9
Vw Ww
OL
V W
62402
Vs Ws Vs Ws Vs Ws
RRB Ki
Solid Solid Solid
I PUB
ir
WATER CONTENT
Goli
sp
WW
W  100
5
WS
5
L
2
VOID RATIO
ga
AT
ION, 9 e
VV
VS
POROSITY
.c
VV
n  100
V
w
DEGREE OF SATURATION
w
VW
S  100
Vv
w
AIR CONTENT

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Va
ac  1S
Vv
Va
m
% Air Voids  ,   n ac
V
BULK UNIT WEIGHT
o
W WS  WW
 
V Va  VW  VS
.c
DRY UNIT WEIGHT
ts
WS
d 
IV I L Ki G V
an
SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT
9
OL
62402
Wsat
sat 
V
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Goli WS 
sp
G  S
5
VS . W  W
5
L
2
APPEARENT OR MASS SPECIFIC GRAVITY

I
CA
TION, 9
ga
W 
Gm  
V W  W
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W e n
 WS   n or e 
1 w 1 e 1 n
w
G W (1  W)
 Se  WG  
(1  e)
w
G  e G w
  sat    . w  d 
 1 e  1 e
w
 G  1 
    w  d 
 1  e  1 w

3
 Method for Determination of water content

 Oven drying Method
W2  W1
W  100
m
W3  W1
 Pycnometer Method
o
 ( W 2  W1 )   G  1 
W    1
 ( W3  W4 )   G 
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Determination of Unit Weight
1. Core Cutter method
ts
 Field method suitable for, fine grained and clayey soil.
V I L Ki G
 Not suitable for stoney, gravelly soil and dry soil.
2. Water displacement method
C I
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 Suitable for ohesive soils only
9
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3. Sand replacement method
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 field method
RRB Ki
 used for gravelly, sandy and dry soil
I PUB
ir
4. Water ballon method
 volume of the pit is measured by covering the pit with plastic sheet and then filling it with water.
Goli
sp
 wt. of water thus calculated is equal to volume of soil excavated.
5
PLASTICITY INDEX [IP]

5
L
2
CA I P  WL  WP
ga
W L = Liquid limit TION, 9

W P = Plastic limit
RELATIVE CONSISTENCY/CONSISTENCY-INDEX
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WL  WN
IC 
IP
w
LIQUIDITY INDEX
w
WN  WP
IL  ( IC + IL = 1 )
IP
w
FLOW INDEX

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W1  W2
If 
N 
log10  2 
 N1 
m
TOUGHNESS INDEX
IP
o
It 
If
.c
SENSITIVITY
(q u ) undisturbed
Sf 
ts
(q u ) Remoulded
RELATIVE DENSITY/DENSITY INDEX IV I L Ki G

C
an
9
e max  e
OL
ID   100
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e max  emin
RRB Ki
I PUB
ACTIVITY OF CLAY
ir
Plasticity Index
Goli
AC = % by weight fine than 2
sp
5
Uniformity Coefficient
5
L
2
Cu =
D60
, (Cu > 4 Gravel, Cu > 6 Sand)
CA
TION, 9
ga
D10
Coefficient of Curvature.
2
 D30 
.c
CC = , 1  CC  3 for well Graded soil

D10  D60
Coarse grained soil classification based on grain size (mm)

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Boulder Cobble Coarse grained soil Fine Grained soil

Gravel Sand
coarse fine coarse medium fine silt clay
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>300 300-80 80-20 20-4.75 4.75-2.0 2-0.425 0.425-0.075 0.075-0.002 <0.002
Indian Standard Soil Classification system (ISSCS)

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5
70
60
CH
m
Plasticity Index
50
WL = 50 0)
40 –2
w L
3( MH
30 0.7
WL = 35 =
IP OH
o
20
CL
10
1
CI MI MI
OI
.c
4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquidity Limit w L
ts
V I L Ki G
Plasticity Chart
Hydrometer correction
C I
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CT = CM – Cd  Ct
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Compaction Consolidation
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Reduction in volume of air voids at a Volume reduction due to expultion of pore
RRB Ki
I PUB
given water content water from voids
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Partially saturated soil Completely saturated soil
Instantaneous phenomenon Time dependent phenomenon
Goli
sp
Specific compaction Technique By static load placed on soil

5
(use dynamic load)

5
Quick sand condition

2
CA
In case of upward seepage flow, if the upward seepage force becomes equal to the buoyant weight of
ga
soil, the effective stress in soil becomes zero. TION, 9

Critical hydraulic gradient
 sub G  1
icr =   1 + e
.c
Note: Quick sand condition occurs in sand but not in clay becuase in clay cohesion exists.
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 cr
Factor of safety = i
e
ie = exit hydraulic gradient.

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DARCY’S LAW
q  kiA
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MEASREMENT OF PERMEABILITY
 Constant Head Permeameter Test

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q qL
K 
iA Aht
where
m
q = Discharge (cm3)
Collected in time (t)1
A = Cross section Area of sample (cm2)
o
h = difference in manometer levels (cm)
L = distance b/w manometer topping point (cm)
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 Falling Head Permeameter Test
2.3qL h 
ts
K log10  1 
At  h2 
IV I L Ki G
 Confined Flow Pumping Test
C
an
9
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 r2 
62402
 
2.3q r
K log10  1 
RRB Ki
I PUB
2D h 2  h1
ir
 Unconfined Flow Pumping Test
Goli
sp
2.3q R
5
K log10
(H 2  h 2 ) r
5
L
2
 Kozeny-Carman Equation CA
TION, 9
ga
1  e3
K . .
K 0 .S2  1  e
 Allen Hazen’s Equation

.c
2
K  C.D10
w
 Coefficient of Consolidation Equation
K  C v .M v . w
w
V
Vs = , R = 3000d K , Sy + SR = n
n
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PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOILS

Horizontal Flow

7
K1H1  K 2 H 2  .....
KH 
H1  H 2  .....
VERTICAL FLOW
m
H1  H 2  ..... H
Kv  
H1 H 2
  .....  H / K
o
K1 K 2
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Note: KH> KV always.
Determination of coefficient of consolidation (CV)
ts
Casagrande’s method Taylor’s method
(Logarithm of time fitting method)
IV I L Ki G (Square root time fitting method)
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T50H 2 T50H 2
Cv  Cv 
Dial gauge t50 Dial gauge t90
9
reading reading
OL
62402
T50 = 0.196 T90 = 0.848

log (time) t
RRB Ki
I PUB
Note: CV is inversely proportional to liquid limit (wL) where as Cc is directly proportional to liquid limet.
ir
Value of CV decreases with increases in plasticity.
CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADEINT

Goli
sp
5
G 1
Ic   (G  1)(1  n)
5
L
1 e
2
CA
ga
BOUSSINESQ’S EQUATIONS
TION, 9
5/ 2
 
5  
3q cos  3q  1 
.c
Z  
2 z 2 z 2   r 2 
1    
 z 
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SEEPAGE CALCULATION
w
NF
q  k.H
Nd
w
WESTERGAARD’S SOLUTION

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q
q  q
z    3/ 2
 kw. 
  r 
2 
    
m
  z  
Compression Index
o
e1  e 2
Cc 
log  2  log 
.c
Coefficient of Compressibility
ts
e
av 
V I L Ki G

C I
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
an
9
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V
62402
Mv   V
RRB Ki 
I PUB
ir
e a
MV    v
Goli 1  e0   1  e0
sp
5
Terzaghi Equation for one- dimension consolidation

5
L
2
CA du 2u
 Cv. 2
TION, 9
ga
t Z
Coefficient of Consolidation
k
.c
Cv  2 2
m v . w m /S or m /day
Time Factor
w
C v .t
Tv 
H2
w
 2
Tv = (u ) , u  60%
4
w
Tv = 1.781 – 0.933 log (100 – u); u > 60%
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION

9
u1  u z  e
Vz  , 
u1 H 1  eo
Calculation of Settlement
m
H0     
  CC  log   
1  e0   
o
  m v .H 0 ., CC  0.009(w L  10)
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Shear Strength Mechanism
ts
Frictional strength Cohesive strength
Particle to particle IV I L Ki G
Interlocking True cohesion Apparent cohesion
C
an
friction electrostatic attraction or capillary rise or
cementation due to addition suction due to
9
of Ca to clay negative pressure
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
Drainage analysis
ir
Drained condition Undrained condition
Goli
sp
Long term stability

5
Effective stress approach +ve pore water pressure –ve pore water pressure
5
L
2
CA Immediate analysis Long term analysis

ga
TION, 9
Total stress approach Effective stress approach
Triaxial Test
.c
   
  tan 2  45º    2c tan  45º  
    2
Vane Shear test

w
T
S
h d
w
d 2   
2 6
If the test is carried out such that the top end of the vane does not shear.
w

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T
S
 h d
d 2   
 2 12 
m
Pore Pressure Parameter (Given by Skempton)
U= B[3+ A(1–3)]
o
U
B= (For saturated soil, B = 1, for dry soil, B = 0)

.c
Stability of slope
W cos , tan  tan 

F= 
ts
W sin  tan 
V I L Ki G
Swedish Circle Method: Surface of sliding is assumed as "arc of circle"
I
C
an
9
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62402
Face/slope failure Toe failure most Base failure
RRB Ki
soil close to the common mode soil below the toe is
I PUB
ir
toe is quite strong of failure soft and slope is flat
 > 53º > 3º  < 53º > 3º
Cm c
Goli
sp
Stability Number = SN = H.  F .H (Max. value = 0.261)

5
c
5
L
2
CA
Types of lateral earth pressure
TION, 9
ga
Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure

(wall moves away from (wall does not (wall moves towards the
backfill) moves at all) backfill)
.c
Movement tendency
of soil
Movement tendency
H of soil
Shear stress on
soil block Pp , P0 Shear stress on
Passive
w
H earth soil block

On the verge
of failure Active earth Earth pressure pressure
On the verge
pressure at rest of failure
Pp < P0
Pa = active earth pressure
P0 = earth pressure of rest Movement Away from Soil Movement Towards the soil
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Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure

Failure plane is inclined at (45 + /2) Failure plane is inclined at (45 –/2) with
w
with the horizontal the horizontal

Very little movement is required to much higher movement is required to
mobilise the active pressure mobilise the pressure
H = 0.2% of H Dense sands H = 2% of H Dense sands

11 S.SOROUT 9255624029
H = 0.5% of H loose sands H = (5-10)% of H loose sands
Length of failure block
   
= H cot  45    length of failure bolck = H cot  45  
 2  
m
1  sin  2  1  sin   
 K a  1  sin   tan  45     kP   tan 2  45  
   sin   
o
Active Earth Pressure For Cohesive
.c
P a = K a z  2C k a
Z = 0 when Pa =  2C K a
ts
4C
V I L Ki G
ZC =  K
a
C I
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Earth Pressure at Rest
9
OL
h 
  K 0 , Coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
62402
v 1  
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
1  sin    1
Ka =  tan 2  45º   =
1  sin   2 Kp
Goli
sp
5
Types of footings
5
L
2
Strip Isolated/spread CA Raft/mat Combined Pile foundation

ga
footing footing foundation footing

TION, 9
L L
B B
.c
Net Safe Bearing Capacity
Net ultimate bearing capacity

w
q net = Factor of safety.
q nu q u  Df
w
q net = 
F F
Safe Bearing Capacity
w
q u  Df
qsaf =  Df
F
Elastic Settlement

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S = k.q. A
1   2
m
(Calculation of Bearing Capacity)
Analytical methods Building codes Field test methods
o
Standard penetration test (SPT)
General shear failure Rankine’s method
Plate load test
.c
Punching shear failure Bell’s theory
Static cone penetration test
Local shear failure Prandtl method
Terzaghi method
Skempton’s method
ts
Meyor’s method
IV I L Ki G
Hensen’s Recommendations
an
Bearing Capacity for Strip footing
9
OL
62402
1
q ult = CN c  Df N q  bN 
RRB Ki
2
I PUB
ir
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Circular Footing.
q ult = 1.3CNC + DfNq+0.3 bN
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Square Footing
Goli
sp
5
q ult = 1.3 CNC + DfNq+0.4bN

5
Plate Load test: (IS 1888–1992)

2
CA
TION, 9
ga
Girder
Hydraulic jack
.c
Pipe arrangement
Dial gauge
Plate
BP
w
5 × BP
w
It is used to calculate
(a) Ultimate bearing capacity
(b) Allowable bearing capacity
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(c) Safe settlement of foundation

 Significant only for cohesionless soil

13
2
Sf  Bf  Bp  0.3 
  For Sandy Soil
SP  BP  Bf  0.3 
 
m
Sf B F

SP B p for clay..
Standard Penetration Test
o
.c
Bore holes
Df
A
ts
D 150mm 150mm
150mm 300mm Reading
st 150mm Taken
(1.5-2)B 1 readily B
V I L Ki G
150mm
300mm
C I 1st readily C
an
 For Granular soils only
9
OL
62402
 N-value is determined at selected number of bore hoes and avg. value of corrected N is calculated
for the depth from Df + (1.5–2) B.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
 Any value greater than 50% of the avg. value is descarded and new avg. value is found out.
Coorection Applied to SPT Value.
Over burden Correction
Goli
sp
5
 350 
N t = N 0bs  
5

L
   70 
2
Dilatancy Correction
CA
ga
1
TION, 9
N = 15  (N t  15)
2
.c
w
w
w

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Classification of Pile
Material Mode of load Function or Installation Displacement
m
transfer action method of soil
Timber Load bearing

End bearing Driven Displacement pile
Steel Tension or uplift
o
Friction Bored, cast in Non-displacement
Concrete Compaction situ pile
Composite Combined Fender piles Jack piles
.c
Sheet piles Screw piles
Batter piles
ts
IV I L Ki G
Ultimate bearing Capacity of pile Load taken by base + load by skin friction.
C
an
Q up = qeb + Qsf
9
Q up = qb× Ab + FSAS.
OL
62402
Engineering News Formula

Ultimate load on pile
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
WH
Q up =
6(S  C)
Goli
sp
Boring and its its methods

5
Making and advancing of bore holes is called boring

5
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
Auger Wash Rotary Percussion

Boring Boring Boring Boring
Done in partially Not done in hard Mud Only method to be
.c
saturated sands, silts and soils, rocks and soil rotary used in bouldery and
medium to stiff clays containing boulders. Boring gravelly stratum
Highly disturbed sample Disturbed samples Core drilling Heavy drilling bit is
w
for idenfitication only are obtained (least dropped and raised.

disturbed
samples)
Small depth of exploration
w
e.g. Highways and borrow

pits
w
Soil samples
Disturbed sample are those in which natural soil structure gets modified or destroyed during the sampling
operation.
Undisturbed samples are those in which original soil structure is preserved as well as mineral properties

15
have not undergone any change. These size distribution, Atterberg’s limits, coefficient of permeability,
consolidation parameters, shear strength parameters.
Inside Clearance
D3  D1
m
Ci = 100%
D1
Out Side Clearance
o
D2  D4
C0 =  100
D4
.c
Note: C0 > Ci always.
Area ratio
ts
D 2 2  D12
V I L Ki G
Ar = 100
D1
C I
an
Recovery Ratio
9
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Recovery length of the Sample.
62402
Lr =
Penetration length of the Sample
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Field Compaction Control.
Goli
Type Soil Types Uses
sp
 Rammers  All Types  Confined construction area

5
 Smooth wheeled  Sand, Gravels  Road Embankment

5
L
Roller
2
 Sheep footed Roller  Clay-Soil CA

 Earthen dam Construction
ga
 Pneumatic Tyred
Roller
 Silty Sand
TION, 9
 Base, Sub base formation
 Vibrators  Sand, all type  Soil Embankment

Soil
Most prefer
.c
w
w
w

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REINFORCE CEMENT CONCRETE

 SEC MODULUS
m
E c  5000 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M15 (IS 456:1978)
E c  5700 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M20 (IS 456:2000)
o
S. Discription Collapse Servicability
.c
No.
1. D.L + L.L 1.5 1
ts
2. D.L + (W.L) or (E.L)
IV I L Ki G
combination C
an
9
OL
(i) for normal case
62402
D.L + W.L (or E.L) 1.5 1

RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
D.L + W.L (or E.L)
(ii) for checking
Goli
sp
stability against over

5
turning/stress reversal
5
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
D.L + W.L (or E.L) 0.9 1

3. D.L + (L.L) + W.L 1.5 1
(or E.L) combination
.c
D.L 1.2 0.8

W.L (or E.L) 1.2 0.8
w
 TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

w
280
Modular ratio m 
3 cbc
w

17
Calculation of effective
span
m
Calculation of total
load w
0.148 fck  Fe 250
o
LSM Calculation of design WSM 1
0.138 fck  Fe 415 Q  CJK
coefficient (Q) 2
0.133 fck  Fe 500
.c
Calculation of effective depth
M WSM M
A st  d
 st . j.d Qb
ts
Check
V I L Ki G
for
v shear 0.5 f ck  4.6M u 
v 
bd
 C
C I A st 
fy
1  1 

 bd
f ck bd 2 
an
9
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 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES (WSM)

RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Moment of Comp Area = Moment of ten. Area
x
bx.  m A (d  x )
Goli
st
2
sp
5
PARAMETERS n, j, P:-
5

2
CAn  neutral axis coefficient

d
ga
TION, 9
As
p  Tension steel ratio
bd
.c
Z k
j  (1  )  lever arm coefficient
d 3
w
 OPTIMUM SECTION
x  cb
w

d  x  st / m
w
 cb  x 
Moment of resis tan ce  .bx a  d  a 
2  3 

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M u  st .ASt  d  x / 3
 DESIGN OF SINGLY R/F
m
RECTANGULAR SECTION
M
d
R w .b
o
.c
x
M u  A st .st (d  )
3
ts
 DOUBLY REINFORCE RECTANGULAR SETCTION
bx 2
IV I L Ki G
 (m1  1)Ast  x  d '   m As  d  x 
'
2
C
an
9
OL
 FLEXURE (LSM)- BALANCED SECTION
62402
RRB Ki x 700
I PUB
  
ir
d
  max 0.87f y  1100
 DESIGN OF S.R RECTANGULAR SECTION

Goli
sp
5
yf M
5
f M
L
d As 
0.87f y jd
2
R ub
I
CA
TION, 9
ga
 Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Section
C1  C 2  T  0.36fck x u b  A sc (Fsc  0.45f ck. )

.c
T  0.87 f y A st
0.87fyA st  A sc (f sc  0.45fck)
w
xu 
0.36fck b.
 FLANGED BEAMS
w
for T-Beam Lesser of
0
w
(i) bf   b w  6Df (ii) b f  l1  l2  b w

6
For C- Beam : Lesser of

19
0
(i) bf   b w  3D f (ii) b f  l1  l2  b w
12
For - isolated C- Beam , lesser of
m
 
 l0 
bf     bw
l
 0 4  (ii) bf  bw 
o
B 
.c
 NOMINAL SHEAR STRESS
V
v 
ts
b.d
IV I L Ki G
c max  0.68 fck.
C
an
9
A st
OL
%pt   100.
62402
bd
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
 INCLINED BARS
d
Vs  VV  cbd  0.87f y As v (sin   cos )
Goli sv
sp
55
L
Sv  0.87f y As v d(cos   sin )
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
Sv 
0.87f y As vd
Vc  c bd.
v  vc
Maximm Spacing
.c
0.75d or 450mm
 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
w
st
Ld  
4 bd
w
 LIMIT OF DEFLECTION
 Span  1
w
D  Add Custing (Construction) after construction Da & or 20 mm.

 250  350
 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

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M1  M1  M 2
Tu  l  d / b  A s  0.85
Mk  , bd fy
1.7
m
SLABS
o
 ly 
   2, two way slab
 lx 
.c
 ly 
   2 one way slab
ts
 lx 
 SHORT & LONG COLUMN

IV I L Ki G
C
an
Short if salenderness. ratio of both axes are less than
9
OL
l   ly, 
62402
12.  yx  or    12
 h   b 
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Lateral ties: Diameter of lateral ties is given by criteria of stiffness not by strength. Hence, it is independent
of grade of steel.
Goli
sp
  longitudinal max
Tie diameter t  
5
4
6 mm
5
L
2
CA
TION, 9
D
ga

Tie spacing St  16  longitudinal min
30 mm
Minimum Eccentricity
.c
 lex D  le
  x 
ex , min  max  500 30 emin  max  500
w
20 mm 20 mm
 ley D y

e y , min  max  500  30
w
20 mm
Slenderness Limits to Ensure Lateral Stability

w

21
Slenderness limits to ensure lateral stability
Cantilever beam Simply supported beam
m
or
continuous beam
 25 b 60 b
o
 2  2
Clear span < min. 100 b Clear span < min.  250 b
 d  d
.c
Control of Deflection:
Cantilever beam 7
ts
Simply supported beam 20
Continuous beam 26
IV I L Ki G
C
an
Type of slab Type of reinforcement
9
Mild steel Fe 415
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62402
Simply supported 35 28
Continuous
RRB Ki 40 32
I PUB
ir
 CONCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN (E=0)
Goli
P  0.45f ck A y  0.45f y Ast.
sp
5
 Axially Loaded Column. (e < 0.05h)

5
L
2
Pw  0.9P  0.4f ck A c  0.67f y Ast.

CA
ga
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
TION, 9
 Loss due to length effect = Pok.x
 Loss due to curvature effec. Po..
.c
 Loss of pre-stress at the
q
Anchoring stage =  Es
w
L
ES= Young’s Modulus for tension
wires, L = length of tendon
w
 Loss of stress due to shrinkage of concrete = eshx Es

 Loss of stress due to creep of concrete = .m.fc.
w
 Losss of stress = strain lost in steel x ES

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fc P N
 Es  0 
Ec A Z
m
System Type of Range Arrangement Type of
(Country) tendon of of tendons in Anchorage
force duct
Freyssinet Wires Medium Annular, spaced Concrete
o
(France) and Large by helical wire wedge
stands core.
.c
Gifford-up Wires Small Evenly spaced Split Conical
all-ccl (Great medium by perforated wedge
Britain) spacers
ts
Lee-mc-call Bar Small Single bars High
Great threaded medium strength nut
V I L Ki G
Britain) at ends large
Magnel- wires
C I Small Horizontal rows Flat steel
an
Blaton medium of four wires wedge in
(belgium) large spaced by metal sandwich
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OL
griller plates
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RRB Ki
I PUB
Stress Grade of Concrete
ir
M20 M25 M30 M35
 Direct Tension 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6
Goli
sp
 Bending Tension 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2
55
RCC. Structure Min. Clear Cover(mm)

2
 Slab 20
CA
TION, 9
ga
 Beam 25
 Column 40
 Footing 50
.c
Exposure Condition Min. Clear Cover (mm)

 Mild 20
w
 Moderate 30
 Severe 45
w
 Very severe 50
 Extreme. 75
w

23
Fluid Mechanics
Some specific fluid properties
mass
m
1. Density = measured in kg/m3.
volume
2. Density of liquid is constant while that of gas is directly proportional to pressure and inversely to
temperature
o
Density of substance
3. Specific gravity/relative density = Density of water at 4ºC
.c
4. If R.D < 1 then fluid is lighter than water.
Weight of substance
5. Specific weight = , denoted by  = g in N/m3
ts
Volume of substance
V I L Ki G
6. Some Important Relation
1 mm = 10–3 × 105 N/m2 = 100 N/m2
C I
an
1 mm of Hg = 10–3 m of Hg = 10–3 × 13.6 m of water
9
OL
= 10–3 × 13.6 × 9810 N/m2
62402
1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
9.81 N
1 Kgf/cm2 = = 98.1 × 103 N/m2
104 m 2
N KN
Goli
sp
7. water = 9810 3
 9.81 3
5
m m
5
8. mercury = 13.6 w
L
2
1 CA
ga
9. Specific volume = Density

TION, 9
 VISCOSITY
.c
1
 d du
d 
dt dy
dt
w
 KINEMATIC VISOCITY

w
V 2
 m /sec.
 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

w
du

dy

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 NON- NEWTONIAN FLUID
2
 du 
  A   B
 dy 
m
c te
pi ic pas
t ro st
0
a m
ixo Pl su ic
yp plast g er
ap
1, B
Th a m G in r, p
gh ic o
o
0
B Bin ect seud thin lyme
n<
p
1 ,
n = B 0 R h
eo P ear Po
> 1, Sh int,
n
Pa
.c
Newtonian
1
<
n
1
0,
 B= =
0,n Dilatant
ts
=
B
>1
V I L Ki G
,n
=0
C I B Ideal Fluid
an
du/dy
(a) Thixotropic Ink, ketchup, Enamels
9
OL
62402
(b) Bingham plastic Toothpaste, sewage, sludge, Drilling mud, gel (i.e, Related to Bath room).
(c) Rheopectic Gypsum in water and Bentonite slurry.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
(d) Pseudo Plastic Paint, Polymer, Paper, Pulp, Blood, syrup
(e) Dilatant Quick sand, Butter, sugar in water
Goli
sp
5
 PRESSURE INSIDE THE LIQUID DROP

5
4
2
CA Pld 
d
TION, 9
ga
 PRESSURE INSIDE THE LIQUID JET
2
Plj 
.c
 PRESSURE INSIDE THE SOAP BUBBLE

w
8
Psb 
d
w
 EXPRESSION FOR CAPILLARY RISE
4 cos 
w
h
wd
 < 90º Cohesion < Adhesion Wetting of surface Concave top surface Rise in capillary tube
 > 90º Adhesion < cohesion Does not wets the Convex top surface Drop in capillary tube

25
Patm
Pvaccum
P local
m
Pabs
Absolute
vaccum
o
Measurement of fluid pressure
.c
Monometer Mechanical gauges
Based on principle of balancing Mechanical pressure measuring
ts
a column of fluid by the same instruments with a deflecting
or other column needle (used in filling air in tyres)
IV I L Ki G
C
an
Simple Differential
manometer manometer
9
OL
62402
Used to measure pressure at a point Used to measure the pressure difference
RRB Ki
I PUB
Piezometer
ir
Inverted differential
U-Tube manometer manometer
Goli
sp
Single columnmanometer Micro manometer

5
P absolute = Patm – Pvaccum

5
L
P absolute = Patm + Pgauge
2
Factual facts about pressure CA

ga
TION, 9
1. Longer runway’s needed at higher altitude due to reduced drag and lift.
2. Aeroplane cruise as higher altitude’s because of less drag, which increases fuel efficiency.
3. Nose bleeding starts at higher altitude because of difference in body’s blood pressure and atmosphere
pressure.
.c
4. Motor capacity reduces at higher altitude.

5. Cooking takes longer time at higher altitudes.
w
 BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION
Weight of body  weight of fluid displaced

w
Horizontal Plane Vertical Plane Inclined Plane

Surface Surface Surface
w

x x
xp
x xp
C.G.
Area A C.P.
C.G.
C.G. C.P

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F = Ax F = Ax F = Ax
Ig I g sin 2 
xp = x  xp = x 
Ax Ax
m
x and x p for some vertical plane surface from liquid surface
o
Submerged body Floating body
It remains in neutral Remains in stable equilibrium
equilibrium against linear against vertical displacement
.c
displacement and in neutral equilibrium
against horizontal displacement
ts
Rotational Stability: When a small angular displacement sets up a restoring couple, then stability is known
as rotational stability.
IV I L Ki G
C
an
FB = Buoyant Force
9
OL
B Couple (Restoring)
62402
G
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
Submerged body Floating body

5
Stable equilibrium G below B M above G

5
BM > BG
2
CA GM = MB – BG = +Ve
TION, 9
ga
Unstable equilibrium G above B M below G

BM < MG
GM = BM – BG = –Ve
.c
Neutral equilibrium G and B coincide M and G

GM = 0
Note:
w
Metacentre (M) is the point of intersection of lines of action of buoyant force before and after rotation.
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
w
A1V1  A 2 V2
HYDROSTATIC FORCE
w
Horizontal F  WAx h  x

27
Ig
Vertical F  WAx h  x 
Ax
Ig
m
Inclined F  WAx h  x  sin 2 
Ax
o
Lagrangian concept Eulerian concept
study of motion of single study of motion of fluid through
fluid particle a particular section or a
.c
control volume.
Note:
We generally follow Eulerian concept, as its difficult to keep the track of a single fluid particle.
ts
Types of fluid show:
IV I L Ki G
1. Steady and Unsteady Flow: At any given location, the flow and fluid properties do not change with
time then its steady flow otherwise unsteady.
C
an
v p f
9
= 0,  0,  0  S tead y flo w
OL
t t t
62402
2. Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow: At particular instant of time, the flow properties do not change
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
v
with location then its uniform flow otherwise non-uniform = 0 uniform flow
v t 0
3. One, two or three Dimensional Flow: If flow parameters varies in one dimension wrt space only
Goli
sp
then its one dimensional otherwise its two or three dimension respectively.
5
V = V(x, t)  one dimensional

5
V = V(x, y, t)  two dimensional

2
CA
V = V(x, y, z, t)  three dimensional
ga
TION, 9
4. Laminar and Turbulent Flow: In Laminar flow, the particles moves in layers sliding smoothly over
the adjacent layers while in turbulent flow particles have the random and erratic movement, intermixing
in the adjacent layers. Which causes continuous momentum transfer.
Flow of blood in veins and arteries occurs as a viscous flow. Hence, Laminar flow.
.c
A water supply pipe carries water at high speed leading to rapid mixing which causes highly turbulent
conditions.
5. Rotational and Irrotational Flow: When fluid particles rotate about their mass centre during movement.
w
Flow is said to be rotational otherwise irrotational.

Rotational Flow  Forced Vortex, Flow inside boundary layer.
Irrotational Flow  Free Vortex, Flow outside boundary layer.
w
In a straight tube of uniform diameter and uniform roughness, the flow properties does not vary across
the length of the pipe. Hence, Uniform flow.
w
Flow above the drain having a wash basin is a free vortex motion (Irrotational flow).
6. Compressible and Incompressible Flow: In compressible flow density of fluid changes from time
to time where as in Incompressible flow it remains constant.

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CIVIL Ki GOLI Facebook Page www.cgaspirants.com
Flow lines
Stream lines Path line Streak line

A n im a g ina r y l ine Actual path travelled by Locus of fluid particles that
m
drawn in a flow field an individual fluid have passed sequently
such that tangent drawn particle over some time through a prescribed point in
at any point on this line period. the flow.
represents the direction It’s based on lagrangian Formed by continuous
o
of velocity vector at that concept. introduction of dye or smoke
point. from a point in the flow.
.c
 Stream line neither touch nor
cross each other.
 Spacing varies inversely with
the flow velocity or mass of
ts
flow remains constant.
dx dy
 =IV I L Ki G
dz
Equation of stream line
C
an
u v w
Total Acceleration = Convective acceleration with respect to space + local acceleration with respect to
9
OL
62402
time.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Convective Temporal
Type of flow
Acceleration Acceleration
Steady & uniform 0 0
Goli
sp
Steady & non-uniform Exists 0

5
Unsteady & uniform 0 Exists

5
Unsteady & non-uniform Exists Exists

2
CA
TION, 9
ga
Acceleration on a stream line

.c
Trangential Acceleration Vn (s,n,t) Vs (s,n,t) Normal Acceleration

It is due to change in It is due to the
magnitude of velocity. If change in the
spacing b/w stream line direction of fluid
w
changes tangensial acceleration moving on a curved

n
exists path
s
w
 ACCELERATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE
uu vu wu u

w
qx    
x y z t

   Temporal
Convective acceleration
acceleration

29
vs vs vn vs

as  Vs + an  Vs +
s t s t
convective local tangential convective local
tangential acceleration normal normal
m
acceleration acceleration acceleration
o
.c
ts
No Acceleration Tangential Convective
Acceleration
IV I L Ki G
C
an
9
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62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Both Normal and
Tangential Convective
Normal Convective Accelation
Goli
sp
Acceleration
55
L
2
 ROTATIONAL COMPONENT
I
CA
ga
TION, 9
1  w v  1  v u 
wx     wz    
2  dy dz  2   x y 
.c
1  u w 
wy    
2  z x 
w
Note:
1. Velocity potential exists only for ideal and irrotational flow.
2. Velocity of flow is in direction of decreasing potential function.
w
3. Equipotential line is the line joining points having same potential function.
 VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION ()

w
 
 u  v
x y

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 STREAM FUNCTION (V)
 
u v
y x
m
It is the study of motion of fluid along with the forces causing the motion.
(i) Newton’s equation of motion
      
Fg  FP  FV  Ft  Fc  F  ma
o
(ii) Reynold’s equation of motion
    
.c
Fg  FP  FV  Ft  ma
(iii) Navier-stock equation of motion
   
ts
Fg  FP  FV  ma
(iv) Euler’s equation of motion
   IV I L Ki G
C
an
Fg  FP  ma
9
where, Fg = Gravity force
OL
62402
F P = Pressure force
FV = Viscous force
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Ft = Turbulence force
Fc = Compressibility force
Goli
F = Surface tension force
sp
5
Note:
• Energy equation can be used to known the pressure at a point in a pipeline using Bernoulli’s eq.
5
L
2
• Continuity eq. is used to find out the flow at two sections of tapering pipes.
I
CA
•
TION, 9
Euler equation based on momentum conservation while Bernoulli is based on energy conservation.
ga
• Impulse momentum principle is used to find out the force on a moving vane.
• Concept of moment of momentum (Angular momentum principle is used in lawn sprinkler problems)
.c
2
P V
 + 2g + Z = Constant
w
Static pressure
head Dynamic Hydrostatic pressure
pressure tread head
w
Stagnation pressure head

w
Piezometric pressure head
 EULER’S EQUATION

31
dp
 gd z  vdv  0
p
 BERNOULLIES EQUATION
m
P v2
z = constant.
w 2g
o
Rotameter is used to measure discharge while current meter is used to measure velocity in open channel.
Hot Wire Anemometer:It is used for measurement of Instantaneous velocity and temperature at a point
.c
in flow.
 THEORETICAL DISCHARGE
ts
A1A 2 2gh qA ct h  hL
V I L Ki G
Q th  Cd  
A12  A 2 2
C I q th h
an
9
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Types of weirs
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Shape of Shape of crest Effect of sides on Meter of
opening emerging nappe discharge
Rectangular
Goli
Sharp crested
sp
With end Ordinary weir
5
Triangular Broad crested contraction

Trapezoidal Submerged weir
5
Narrow crested Without end

L
Cipollettie contraction
2
Ogee-shaped
I
CA
ga
TION, 9
 PERCENTAGE ERROR IN DISCHARGE
Qth  Qact
% error  100 % error  (1  C ) 100
.c
Qth d
NOTE.
w
WHEN PRESSURE DIFFERENCE MEASURED BY MANOMETER

When heavier fluid in manometer & lighter fluid in pipe.
w
g 
h  x  h  1
 gl 
w
gh  Specific gravity of heavier liquid-

gl  Specific gravity of lighter liquid

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x  Reading Manometer
h  Reading Piezometer.
 ORIFICEMETER
m
Cd 0 A1A 0 2gh AC
 CC  Cd  Cc  C v
2 2
A1  A 2 A0
o
Where Cc  Coefficient of Contraction.
Cd  Coefficient of Discharge
.c
CV  Coefficient of Velocity.
 PITOT TUBE –VELOCITY OF FLOW
ts
P1 V12
IV I L Ki G

w 2g
 Constant
an
 REYNOLD’S NUMBER
9
OL
62402
vd
RRB Ki Re 
I PUB

ir
Nature of flow according to Reynold's number (Re)
Goli
Laminar Transition Turbulent
sp
5
Flow in pipe Re < 2000 2000 < Re < 4000 Re > 4000
5
L
Flow between Re < 1000 1000 < Re < 2000 Re > 2000
2
parallel plate CA
TION, 9
ga
Flow in open channel Re < 500 500 < Re < 2000 Re > 2000
Flow through soil Re < 1 1 < Re < 2 Re > 2
 LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPE

.c
p R
 .
x 
w
 Maximum Shear Stress on wall shear stress.
   R
w    
 x  2
w
 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
w
1  p  2  r2 
U max     R U  U max  1  2 
4  x   R 

33
 DISCHARGE
 U max R 2 Q     P  D 4
Q  
2   x 
m
 AVERAGE VELOCITY
U max
V
o
2
.c
 FRICTION FACTOR
16 64 8
F  4f f  R / R f  u 2
ts
e e
IV I L Ki G
Entrance length: The length of pipe from its entrance upto the point where flow attains fully developed
velocity profile and which remains unaltered beyond that the known as entrance length.
C
an
• Entrance length in a pipe is the length where boundary layer increases and flow is fully developed.
9
OL
For Laminar Flow L = 0.07 Re D
62402
For Turbulent Flow Le = 50 D

Note:
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
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34
Hele Show flow: Laminar flow between parallel plates
Stoke’s Law: Settling of fine particles.
Hagen Poiseuille flow: Laminar flow in Tubes/pipes.
 Major Losses Head/Loses
m
fLQ fLv 8fLQ 
hL  hf  hf  2 5
12D2 2gD  gD
o
Number Equation
.c
Fi VL
Reynolds No. 
Fv 
ts
Fi V
Eulers No. 
V I L Ki G
Fp p

C I
an
9
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Fi V
62402
Mach No. 
Fe C
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Fi V
Froude No. 
Fg gL
Goli
sp
5
Fi v
Weber No. 
5
F
L
 / L
2
CA
Water hammer Pressure: Sudden closure of valve in a pipe carying flowing liquid destroys the momentum
TION, 9
ga
of flowing liquid and sets up a high pressure wave. This pressure wave travels with the speed of sound and
causes hammering action in pipe called Knocking water hammer.
• Surge tanks are used to absorb the Increase in the pressure due to water hammer phenomenon.
.c
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35
Open Channel Flow
CHEZY’S FORMULA
V  C mi
m
m = Hydraulic Mean depth
i = Hydraulic Shape.
o
Open-channel Flow
.c
Steady unsteady
ts
Uniform Gradually Rapidly Spatially Gradually Rapidly Spatially
canal flow Varied Varied Varied Varied Varied Varied
V I L Ki G
(GVF) (RVF) (SVF) (GVUF) (RVUF) (SVUF)
 Backing up Hydraulic
C IFlow  River flow in  A surge  Surface runoff
an
of water due Jump over alluvial reach moving due to
to dam side weir during rising upstream rainfall
flood
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
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36
CHART FOR MOST ECONOMICAL SECTIONS

 GEDMETRICAL  RECTANGULAR  TRIANGULAR  TRAPEZOIDAL
PARAMETERS
m
my my
1V:MH
y y IV:mH
 DIAGRAM 1
B B
o
B
 Condition for most  y m = 1, q = 45ºFrom Ho
2
.c
2y 1   60º Hor.
 = 45º  From vert.  B m
3 3   30º vert.
Economical
ts
 Area A = B.y = 2y.y  A  my2  A  (B  my)  y
IV I L Ki G
C
 2y 1 
A  yy   3 y 2
an
2
 A  2y  A  y2 
 3 3 
9
OL
(in most economical) (in most economical)
62402
 = 2y m=1
RRB Ki
I PUB
 Perimeter P  4y p  2 2y  P  2 3y
ir
y2 y
 Hydraullic Radius  R  y/2 
R  R
2 2y 2
Goli
sp
5
(R = A/P)
5
4y
T
2
 Top width (T)  T  2y  T  2y 

I
CA 3
TION, 9
ga
3
 Hydraullic Depth  Dy  D  y/2  D y
4
 A
D  
 T
.c
w
Type of flow Depth of Velocity of Froude Comments

w
flow flow No
Subcritical y > yc v < vc Fr < 1 Also called as streaming or transquil flow
w
Critical y = yc v = vc Fr > 1
Super Critical y < yc v > vc Fr > 1 Shooting flow, rapid flow, torrential flow
Dynamic eq. for G.V.F.

37
 
 S S 
dy o f
=  2

dx  q 
 1  gy 3 
m
 
Hydraulic Jump Eq.
2q 2
o
1.  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 )
g
.c
( y2  y1 )3
2. Energy Loss EL =
4 y1 y2
ts
y2 1
3. y  2  1  8F12  1 
1
IV I L Ki G
C
an
3 y1 y2 ( y1  y2 )
4. yc 
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
Types of Jump Fr EL/E1 Water surface
ir
Undular 1-1.7 0 Undulating
Weak 1.7-2.5 5–18% Small rollers form
Goli
sp
Oscillating 2.5-4.5 18–45% Water oscillates in random manner

5
Steady 4.5-9 45–70% Roller and jump action

5
strong 9  70% Very rough and choppy

2
CA
ga
NS =
N P
(H)5/4
TION, 9
(for Turbine)
N Q
NS = (for Pump)
.c
(H m ) 3 / 4
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BMC
Chemical Composition of Raw materials
Oxide Composition (%) Function
Lime, CaO 60–65 Deficiency reduces strength and setting time
m
Silica, SiO2 17–25 Excess of it causes slow setting
Alumina, Al2O3 3–8 Responsible for quick setting, excess of it lowers strength
Iron oxide Fe2O3 0.5–6 Gives colour and helps in fusion of different ingredients
o
Magnesia, MgO 0.5 –4 Colour and hardness
Soda and Potash Na2O 0.5–1 If in excess causes efflorescence and cracking
.c
and K2O
Sulphur trioxide SO3 1–2 Makes cement sound
ts
SiO2
V I L Ki G
Note: Rate of setting of cement paste is controlled by regulating the ratio of
Al2O3  Fe 2O3
C I
an
Cement Storage
9
• Floor area occupied by a cement bag in warehouse is 0.3 m2 and Height is 0.78 m.
OL
62402
RRB Ki
Period of Storage % Strength at 28 days concrete
I PUB
ir
Fresh 100
3 Month 80
Goli
6 Month 70
sp
5
12 Month 60
5
60 Month 50
L
2
CA
Bogue’s Compound
TION, 9
ga
Principal Mineral Compound Formula Symbol Function

Tri calcium Silicate (Alite) 3CaO.SiO2 C3S 7-day strength and Hardness
Dicalcium silicate (Belite) 2CaO.SiO2 C2S Ultimate strength
.c
Tricalcium Aluminate (Celite) 3CaO.Al2O3 C3S Flash–set

Tetra calcium Alumina 4CaO.Al2,O3 C4AF Poorest cementing value
Oxide (Felite)
w
Water Requirement for hydration

Bound water = 23% by weight of cement.
w
Gel water = 15% by weight of cement

Total minimum = 38%
w
TEST OF CEMENT
 FINENESS TEST  Sieve Method
 Air permedbility Method
 (Nurse and Blaine’s method)

39
 Sedimentation mehtod
 (Wanger Turbidimeter Method)
 CONSISTENCY TEST  Vicat’s Apparatus.
 SETTING TIME  Vicat’s Apparatus.
m
 SOUNDNESS TEST  Le-chatelier Method
 Auto clave test
 TENSILE STRENGTH  Briquette test
o
 HEAT OF HYDRATION  Calorimeter test
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST  Le-chatclier’s Flask.
.c
Consistency Test: Amount of water used to make paste of normally consistency. It is the percentage of
water reqired for the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be such that Vicat’s plunger penetrates
upto 5 to 7 mm from bottom of the Vicat’s mould.
ts
Attahment Use
V I L Ki G
1. Plunger, 10 mm dia, 50 mm long Consistency test
2. 1 mm × 1 mm square needle
C I Initial setting time
an
3. 5 mm dia Annular collar Final setting time
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OL
Initial and Final Setting time
62402
Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time
RRB Ki
I PUB
 It is possible to remix cement paste during this period  Annular collar replaces square needle
ir
 300 gm cement + 0.85 P of water  Needle makes an impression but collar
fails to do so.
Goli
sp
2
 1 mm square needle penetrates by 35–37 from top.
5
 For OPC Its 30 mins  For OPC final setting time 10 hrs.
5
Soundness Test: To detect change in volume after setting

2
CA
ga
TION, 9
Le-chatelier’s method Auto clave test
 Unsoundness due to free lime only  Sensitive to both lime and magnesia
 100 gm of cement + 0.78 P  Internal mould dimension = 25 × 25 × 282 mm
.c
 Result is given in ‘‘mm’’  Result is given in %
Strength determination
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Compressive strength (CS) Tensile strength (TS)

Cube test Briquette test
Cement (185 gm) + Ennore T.S = (10 – 15)% of C.S
m
sand (555 gm), ratio of 1 : 3 Generally used for rapid
Water = P hardening cement
4 +3 %
Cement : sand = 1 : 3
Temp 27 ± 2ºC
o
P
2 Water = 5 + 2.5 %
Cube area = 50 cm
2
2 Rate of loading:- 0.7 N/mm
.c
Rate of loading:- 35 N/mm /min
in 12 seconds
Concrete Classification
ts
IV I L Ki G
C
an
Based on Based on Based on Based on Based on place
cementing Perspective grade of bulk density of curing
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OL
material specification cement
62402
RRB Ki Low Extra light In Situ
I PUB
Lime 1:3:6 M10 concrete
ir
concrete strength <500 kg/m3
1:2:4 M15 <20 N/mm2 Precast
Gypsum Light 500-
1 : 1.5 : 3 M20 Medium concrete
concrete 1800 kg/m3
Goli
1:1:2 M25 strength
Cement Dense weight
sp
20-40
concrete 1800-2500
5
N/mm2
kg/m3
.
5
L
High Super heavy
strength
2
weight > 2500

I
CA > 40 N/mm2 kg/m3

TION, 9
ga
TEST ON CONCRETE
.c
 WORKABILITY  Slump test

 Compacting factor Test
 Vee-bee consistometer
w
method
 DIRECT TENSILE  Cylinder Splitting Test
STRENGTH OF
w
CONCRETE
 BOND B/W CONCRETE  Pull out Test
& STEEL
w
 COMPRESSIVE  Rebound hammer Test

STRENGTH
 DYNAMIC MODULUS  Resonant Frequency

41
OF ELASTICITY Test
Manufacturing of Concrete
Batching  Mixing  Transporting  Placing  Compacting  Finishing  Curing
Methods of Curing
m
(a) Shading
(b) Covering surface with wet hessian cloth or gunny bags
(c) Sprinkling
o
(d) Ponding
(e) Steam curing (For precast members)
.c
(f) Applying curing compounds
Maturity of Concrete = Time × Temperature = ºC Hours or ºC days
ts
Laboratory-test’s for
IV I L Ki G
strength of concrete
an
Compressive Flexural tensile Split tensile
9
OL
strength test strength test strength test
62402
1. Compressive strength test:
RRB Ki
I PUB
 Size of coarse aggregate upto 38 mm
ir
 Size of cube  150 × 150 ×150 mm
 Size of cylinder  150 mm dia, 300 mm height
Goli
sp
 Cube mould filled in 3 layers, tempered 35 times per layer with tampering rod of 16 mm length.
5
 Stored at temp of 27 ± 3ºC at 90% humidity for 24 ± 1/2 hour.

5
 Then immersed in water for 7 days or 28 days.

2
CA
 Rate of loading in compression testing machine = 14 N/mm 2/ minute.
ga
TION, 9
Note:If aggregate size than 19 mm then mould of size 100 mm × 100 mm ×100 mm can also be used as per IS code.
Cube strength = 1.25 × Cylinder strength
Workability Test
.c
Slump test, compacting factor test, flow test, Vee-Bee consistometer

Defects in Concrete
w
Cracks, Crazing, Efflorescence, Segregation, Bleeding

Admixtures
Plasticizers, Superplasticizers, Air entrainers, Acceleraters, Retarders
w
NDT Test on Hardened Concrete

Maturity test, Pull-out test, Penetration test, Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
w

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Type of Formwork Formwork stripping

(Removal) Time
Sides of wall, columns 24 hours to 48hours
and vertical faces of (as per engineer’s
m
beams. decision)
Slabs (props left under) 3 days
o
Beam soffits (props 7 days
left under)
.c
Fineness Modulus: It is an index number which is roughly proportional to the average size of the particles
in the aggregate.
ts
It is the sum of cumulative percentage retained on the sieves of the standare sieves: 150 m, 300 m,
V I L Ki G
600 m, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 10 mm, 12.5 mm, 63 m and 80 mm.
I
Aggregate
C F.M
an
Coarse agg. 6 to 8.5
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Fine agg. 2 to 3.5
62402
Mixed agg. 4.7 to 7
RRB Ki
I PUB
Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2
ir
Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9
Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6
Goli
sp
Higher Fineness modulus aggregate results in harsh concrete mixes and lower Fineness modulus results
5
in uneconomical concrete mixes.

5
Property 1st class 2nd class 3rd class

2
Compressive  10.5
CA  7.0
TION, 9
ga
2
strength (N/mm )
Water Absorption 20% 22% 25%
Making process Table moulded & Ground moulded Ground moulded
.c
burnt in kiln & burnt in kiln & burnt in clamps

Uses Pointing & Important RB work & Hidden Unimportant
work masonry work temporary structure
w
Defects of Bricks
w
Bloating, Efflorence, Chuffs, Blisters, Laminations

Poor lime Fat lime Hydraulic lime
w
Impure/lean lime Pure/Rich/White lime Water lime

Contain more than 30% of clay Impurties are less than 5% Impurties range – (5–30)%

43
Unsoiling Digging Cleaning Weathering Blending Tempering
m
Moulding
Drying
o
Burning
.c
Brick
ts
Flowchart: Preparation of Brick Earth
IV I L Ki G
C
an
Clamps Kilns
9
OL
(Temporary (Permanent structure
62402
structure for for large scale

small scale
RRB Ki manufacturing
I PUB
ir
manufacturing)
Intermittent Continous
Goli
sp
5
Bull’s trench Hoffman’s Tunnel

5
L
2
Stages of a CA
Dehydration b Oxidation c Verification
burning are (400-650ºC) (650-900ºC) (900-1250ºC)
ga
TION, 9
S.N. Item Bull Trench Killn Hoffman’s Klin
1. Burning capacity About 3 lakhs in 12 days. About 40 kakhs in one season.
2. Cost of fuel High as consumption of fuel is more Low as consumption of fuel is less.
.c
3. Drying space It requires more space for drying of bricks It requires less space for drying of
bricks.
4. Initial cost Low High
w
5. Nature It is semicontinuous in loose sense. It is perfectly Continuous.

6. Popularity More popular because of less initial cost. Less popular because of high initial
w
cost.
7. Quality of bricks Percentage of good quality bricks is small Percentage of good quality bricks is
more.
w
8. Suitability Suitable when demand of bricks in monsoon is not continuous Suitable when
demand of bricks is throughout the year.

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m
(a) Full (b) Queen-closer (c) Queen-closer
brick (half) (quarter)
o
.c
(d) King closer (e) Bevelled (f) Mitred
closer closer
ts
IV I L Ki G
C
an
9
OL
(g) Half bat
62402
(h) Three quarter (i) Bevelled

bat bat
RRB Ki
Note: English bond is stronger than Flemish bond. But Flemish bond requires greater skill in construction and gives
I PUB
ir
better appearance than English bond.
Types of trees
Goli
sp
5
Endogenous tree Exogeneous tree

Grow by forming new fibres Grow in width by forming new
5
within the trunk Intersperesed layer of wood under the bark

2
with the old fibres CA

TION, 9
ga
Eg:- Bamboo, cane, palm

Conifers Deciduous
(soft wood) (hard wood)
Comparison of softwood and Hardwood
.c
Property Sotwood Hard-wood

Colour Lighter Darker
Growth Faster Slower
w
Weight Lighter Heavier

Density Low High
Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
w
Heart-wood Can not be distinguished Can be distinguished

Strength Strong along grains Strong along and across grains
w
Conversion Easy Difficult

Resinous Material Exist in pores Does not exist
Examples Chir, fir, deodar, kali, Pine, Teak, Sal, Shishum, Poplar and Maple

45
Heart Wood
Outer Bark
Pith
o m
Sap Wood Inner Bark
.c
Medullary Rays Cambium Layer
ts
Properties of Timber:
1. Specific gravity of wood = 1.54
IV I L Ki G
C
2. Weight of timber should be noted at 12% moisture content
an
3. Timber is orthotropic, shrinks least along length and maximum along circuferance
9
OL
4. Fibre saturation point is % moisture content at which cell walls are saturated and cell cavity contains
62402
no water.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Defects in timber
Conversion Fungi
Goli Insects Natural forces Seasoning
sp
55
Cup shakes Ring shake Star shakes

2
CA
ga
TION, 9
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Heart
Shake
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ROCK Classification
w
Chemical
Gelogical Physical
w
Agrillaceous Silicious Calcareous

Stratified Unstratified foliated
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Rock Types Chemically Physically Geologically

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Granite Siliceous Unstratified Igneous

Quartzite Siliceous foliated Metamorphic
Marble Calcarious Foliated Metamorphic
Limestone Calcarious Stratified Sedimentary
m
Sandstone Siliceous Stratified Sedimentary
Slate Aggillacous Foliated Metamorphic
Laterite Aggillacous Stratified Sedimentary.
o
Tools for Quarrying stones
Jumper, Dipper, Crow bar, Tamping bar
.c
Test Purpose
Smith test for Durability of stones
ts
Brard’s test for frost resistance
V I L Ki G
Acid test To check weather resistance
Hardness test I
Mohn scale
C
an
1
9
Window Width = [Width of room  Height of Room]
OL
8
62402
• The sill of a window should be located about (70 – 80) cm above floor level of the room.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
• Generally Height of a Door should not be less than (1.8 – 2) m
• Commonly Width height relation used in India:
(i) Width = (0.4 – 0.6) Height
Goli
sp
(ii) Height = (Width + 1.2) m

5
• Doors of residential Buildings:

5
L
2
(a) External Door – (1 × 2) to (1.1 × 2) m

I
CA
TION, 9
(b) Internal Door – (0.9 × 2) to (1 × 2) m
ga
(c) Doors for bathrooms and Water closets:

– (0.7 × 2) to (0.8 × 2) m
• Public Buildings (School, Hospital, library)
.c
(a) (1.2 × 2) m (b) (1.2 × 2.1) m (c) 1.2 × 2.25) m

Designation of Door = Length × Type of Door × Height
8 DS 20 – A door opening Having width (8 × 100 mm) × Height (20 × 100 mm) with S (Single SHutter)
w
D (Door)
Types of Window
w
1. fixed 2. Pivoted 3. Sliding 4. Bay 5. Corner 6. Cable (7) Dormer (8) Skylights (9) Louvered (10) Lan-
tern (11) Gable
Stairs
w
• No of steps are not more than 12 and not less than 3 in a flight.
• Angle of Inclination (Pitch) – (25° – 40).
• Head room must not be less than 2.05 m.

47
• Minimum width of stairs in residential building – 85 cm and in commercial building is 1 m.

• Some Thumb rule:
(a) (2R + T) = 60
(b) (R + T) = (40 – 45)
m
(c) R × T = (400 – 450)
where R – Rise in cm, T – Tread in cm
• For residential building, common size of steps is (16 × 26) cm, IN Hospital etc. –(10 × 30) cm.
o
• In case of straight staircase, No. of Trade = (No. of Riser – 1)
.c
Total Height between floor and Roof
No. of riser = Height of One Riser
Note:
ts
The amount of water used for one kg of distemper is 0.6 litre.
•
V I L Ki G
The function of cleats in a roof truss is to prevent the purlin from tilting.
I
C
an
• The function of king post in a king post roof truss is to prevent the tie beam from sagging at its centre.
• Wired Glass: Used in outside window to resist fire and Breakage.
9
OL
62402
Fibre Glass: Used for Thermal Insulation.

Ground Glass: Used where light is to be admitted, but vision is to be obscured.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
• Vanadium steel is normally used in the manufacture of Axles and springs.
• Manganese steel is used in manufacture of rails.
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
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m
co
t s.
an
ir
sp
ga
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STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
Types of Beam
m
Statically determinate Statically Indeterminate
Beam Beam
o
Fixed Beam: Both end
fixed
.c
Cantilever Simply Overhaninging
beam Supported - End portion or
- One end beam rests portions extended
fixed, one freely in the form a
Propped Cantilevel
ts
end free on supports contilever beyond
support Cantilever supported
V I L Ki G
by simply support at
C I free end or in between
an
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Continuous Beam:
More than two
or more supports
Goli
sp
55
L
* NORMAL STRESS WHEN
2
x, Y & xyare given. CA

TION, 9
ga
x  y    y 
n   x  cos 2    xy sin 2.
2  2 
 TANGANTIAL STRESS
.c
   y 
t    x  sin 2   xy cos 2
w
 2 
 LOCATION OF PRINCIPAL PLANE

w
2 xy
Tan 2  
x  y
w
 MAJOR & MINOR PRINCIPLE STRESS.

49
2
x  y    y 
 max / min    x 
   xy.
2  2 
m
 Case I
Member is subjected to uniaxial Tensile stress
 
o
  max / min  
 
.c
max   min  0
ts
R max  max   2
n   2
IV I L Ki G
C
an
 Case II
9
OL
Member is subjected to biaxial Tensile
62402
Stress of equal magnitude.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir


 max /  min    
Goli
sp
5
 max   min  

5
L
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
max  R  0
(n, 0) n  
.c
IMPORTANT POINTS.
w
w
w

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y shear plane ()
Principle
m
(n, max) plane ()
x x
min (n,0)
o
n
.c
y
ts
 Note:
V I L Ki G
On principle plane shear stress will always 0.
I
 Radius of Mohr’s Circle (max)
C
an
9
 max   min
OL
R  max.
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
 Normal stress at Location of (max) (max-max shear stress)
ir
 max   min
n 
2
Goli
sp
5
 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF RECTANGULAR

5
L
2
CA
v   x  y  z  
TION, 9
 v    (1  2)
ga
V  E 
 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF CYLINDRICAL

.c
 v   e  2 D
 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF SPHERICAL

w
 v  3 D
w
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANT
E E k  2G
G K 
w
2(1  ) 3(1  2) 6k  2G

51
9kG
E
3k  G
G = shear modulus, µ poission Ratio
m
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
k = Bulk modulus of elasticity
 AXIAL ELONGATION OF THE PRISMATIC BAR
o
PL 2PL
.c
L= , L= (for Instantaneous loading)
AE AE
 DEFLECTION IN NON-PRISMTIC BARS.
ts
P1L1 P2 L 2
1. Stepped Bar L= 
A1E1 A 2 E 2

IV I L Ki G
C
an
9
4PL
OL
2. Circular Tapering Bar L=  D D
62402
1 2
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
 DEFECTION OF COMPOSIT BAR
PL
L1 =L2 ,  
Goli
sp
A1E1  A2E2
55
L
 DEFLECTION DUE TO SELF WEIGHT OF BAR
2
CA
ga
WL
1. Prismatic Bar  
2AE
TION, 9
WL
2. Conical Bar  
.c
6AE
 THERMAL EXPANSION   thermal  L

w
 THERMAL STRAIN  thermal  

w
 THERMAL STRESS   thermal  ..E
 IN CASE OF PURE BENDING.

w
M 32M 
( b ) max   3
Z  D3
Z D 
 IN CASE OF PURE TORSION

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T 16T 
max   Zp  D 3
Zp D 2 
m
 BENDING EQUATION 
b M E
 
o
y I R
M = Moment of resistance/ Maximum B.M
.c
 = Bending stress
E = Young modulus of elasticity.
ts
R = Radius of Curvature.
V I L Ki G
y = Distance from Neutral Axis to extreme Fibre.
I
C
an
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
.c
w
w
w

53
SLOPE & DEFLECTION
m
L
B B
M
A B
o
M.L PL2 WL3
A = 0 B = B = B =
EI 2EI 24EI
.c
ML2 PL3 WL4
A = 0 B = A = B =
2EI 3EI 30EI
ts
w/m
A B A B
V I L Ki G
B M M L/2 c L/2
C I
an
WL3 ML ML
9
B = A = B = A = B =
OL
6EI 2EI 24EI
62402
WL4
RRB Ki ML2 ML
I PUB
ir
DB = Dmax @1/2 = c =
6EI 8EI 12EI
w/m
Goli
sp
w/m
5
A L/2 L/2 B
c A B
5
L
2
CA
ga
A = B =
PL2
16EI
TION, 9
A = B =
WL3
24EI
A = B =
5 WL3

192 EI
PL3  5 WL4 
C = C =  384  EI 
.c
48EI  
2L/3 max P
M w/m
w
A L/2 L/2
L B A B
C
ML
w
B = A = B = C =  A = B = C = 0
4EI
2L ML2 PL3 WL4

w
Max@ from A. C = C @ 1/2 /

3 27EI 192EI 384EI

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P
b B M
c c A L B
a

m
Pa 2 Pa 3 ML ML2
C = ’ C = B = max =
2EI 3EI 3EI 9 3 EI
o
Pa 2 ML
B = C + 1 1 = b. A = = B /2
2EI 6EI
.c
Pa 3 Pa 2 L
B =  b. max@ from A,
3EI 2EI 3
ts
IV I L Ki G
C
an
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
.c
w
* PURE TORSION EQUATION FOR CIRCULAR SHAFT

w
T  G
 
J r L
T = Applied Twisting Moment

w
 = Shear stress reduces due to applied twisting Moment.

G = Modulus of Rigidity.
 = Angle of Twist in Radion

55
L = Length of Shaft
* COMBINED BENDING & TORSION
16 
 max  M  M2  T2 
m
D3  
    16 
max   M  M2  T2 
o
3  
2 D
 EQUIVALENT MOMENT
.c
1
M eq  M  M2  T2 
2 
ts
 EQUIVALENT TORQUE
IV I L Ki G
C
an
Teq   M 2  T 2 
 
9
OL
 SHEAR STRESS
62402
RRB Ki VAy
I PUB
ir

Ib
SHEAR STRESS IN RECTANGULAR SECTION
Goli
sp
5
6s  d 2 
q 2 
 y 2  (q = )
5
L
bd  4 
2
CA
ga
Where S = shear -force.

TION, 9
3 S S
q max  max  , q avg  avg 
2 bd bd
.c
max
 1.3
aug
w
Note: Shear stress at top & Bottom is always 0.
 IN CIRCULAR BEAM
w
4 S 4S
4 
q R 2  y 2  max 
3 R 3R 2
w
4
max  avg.
3

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 IN TRIANGULAR SECTION.
3S 2S
q max / I max  avg / q avg 
bh bh
m
4 
 A  avg.  1.33
3 avg
o
IN DIAMOND SECTION
.c
9 S S
q max /  max  q avg  2  NA  avg
8 h2 2h
ts
 THIN CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS
IV I L Ki G
H 
pD
, L 
pD
max 
pD
C 2t 4t 8t
an
9
OL
Where
62402
H = Hoop Shress
RRB Ki
I PUB
L = Longitudinal stress.
ir
 Hoop Strain
Goli H 
pD
(2   )
sp
4tE
55
 Longitudinal Strain
2
CA
pD
TION, 9
ga
L  (1   )
4tE
 THIN SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS

.c
pD pD
n  L  or  t   z 
4t 4t
w
 EULER’S BUCKLING LOAD
 E Imin
w
P
 2eff .
 End Condition of column.

w

57
End One end fixed Both end Both end One end fixed
condition one end free Hinged Fixed one end Hinged
Leff 2L L L/2 L
(Theoretical) 2
m
Leff (As per
2L L 0.65L 0.8L
o
IS code.)
SHAFT IN SERIESS
.c
AD  AB  BC  CD
ts
TAB L AB TBC L BC TCD L CD
AD   
V I L Ki G
G AB J AB G BC J BC G CD J CD
C I
an
SHAFT IN PARALLEL
9
OL
TL
62402
1  2   G J  G J
1 1 2 2
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
SPRING
 Strain Energy in Spring
Goli
sp
32P 2 R 3 n
5
U
Gd 4
5
L
2
 Deflection in Spring CA
ga
TION, 9 64R 3n

Gd 4
 Stiffness in spring
.c
Gd 4
K
64R 3n
w
 FLEXIBILITY IN SPRING.
w
64R 3n
f
gd 4
w
Note
1
It a spring is cut down by K times, then its strain energy decreased by times, its stiftness is increased by
k

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1
K times, and its flexibity decreased by time.
k
b 2 h 2t
Shear centre =
4I
m
Force Method Displacement Method
1. Unknown are taken redundants/reactions. 1. Unknowns are taken displacement.
2. To find unknown forces or redundants 2. To find unknown displacement joint equilibrium
o
compatibility equations are written. conditions are written.
3. The number of compability equations needed is 3. The no. of equilibrium conditions needed is equal
.c
equal to degree of static indeterminacy. to degree of kinematic indeterminancy.
4. DS < Dk 4. Dk < Ds
ts
Force Method/Flexibility Method/Compatibility Displacement Method/Stiffness
V I L Ki G
Method Method/Equilibrium Method
5. Examples
C I 5. Examples:
an
(i) Virtual work/Unit load method (i) Slope deflection method
9
OL
(ii) Method of consistent deformation (ii) Moment distribution method
62402
(iii) Elastic centre method (iii) Minimum potential energy method
RRB Ki
I PUB
(iv) Column analogy method
ir
(v) Three moment theorem
(vi) Castigliano’s theorem of minimum strain energy
Goli
sp
(vii) Maxwell-Mohr equation.

55
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
.c
w
w
w

59
HYDROLOGY
Instruments used in measurement
1. Relative humidity Psychrometer
m
2. Humidity Hygrometer
3. Temp and Humidity Thermohygrometer
4. Intensity of Rediation Pyrheliometer
o
5. Wind speed Anemometer
6. Rainfall depth Ombrometer/Pluviometer
.c
7. Transpiration Phytometer
8. Evapotranspiration Lysimeter
9. Evaporation Atmometer
ts
10. Hydraulic conductivity Permeameter
11. Infiltration capacity Rainfall simulator
IV I L Ki G
* Water Budget Equation.
C
an
9
OL
P  R  G  E  T  S
62402
where
RRB Ki
I PUB
P = Precipitation
ir
G = Net Ground Water flow
R = Surface run off
Goli
sp
E = Evaporation
5
T = Transpiration
5
L
2
S = Change in storage
I
CA
ga
Types of Precipitation
TION, 9
Convective Orographic Cyclonic Frontal
Due to heating of air Mountain barrier Unequal heating Contrasting our
.c
of earth mass from opposite

direction
Forms of precipitation
w
Rain Snow Sleet Hail Drizzle Glaze

(0.5mm-6mm) (density (snow + rain) (5mm-50mm) (intensity Freezes on
w
= 0.1 gm/cc) < 0.1 cm/hr) ground contact

w

60
Types of Gauges
Recording rain gauge

(How and when that occurred)
m
continuous plot of rainfall
against time
Symon’s rain gauge
Tipping bucket Weighing type Natural syphon
o
 Intensity of  Mass curve of  Also known
Rainfall rainfall Float type
.c
 Snow neasyrenebt  Mass curve
of rainfall
 ANNUAL RAINFALL
ts
V I L Ki G
The Coefficient of var iation
C I
an
100  standard deviation 100  m-1
Cu = =
9
mean P
OL
62402
2
 Cv 
RRB Ki
I PUB
Number of Stations N   
ir
 E 
 = allowable degree of error = 10%
Goli
sp
5
m
 (Pi  P) 2
5
i
m1
L
m 1
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
P1 = Precipitation magnitude in the ith station.
1
P
m
  (P  = mean precipitation
m
1 i
.c
 Estimate of Missing Data

Annual precipitation values P1,P2,P3,............ Pm, at M stations 1, 2, 3, ........ M respectively
w
 Estimate of Missing Data
P1  P2  ....  P1  .....  Pn 1 N
P = =  i1 Pi
w
N N
 Thiessen Mean Method

w
P1A1  P2 A 2  .....  P6 A 6
P =
(A1  A 2  .....  A 6 )

61
 Isohyetal Method
P P  P P  P P 
a1  1 2   a 2  2 3   .....  a n 1  n 1 n 
 2   2   2 
m
P=
A
 The probability P of an event
o
m
P 
( N  1)
.c
1  N 1
The reoccurrence interval T  P   m 
ts
 
 Probable maximum
V I L Ki G
precipitation
I
C
an
PMP  P  k
9
OL
P = mean of annual maximum rainfall
62402
 = standard deviation of the series

RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
k = a, frequency factor.
 Penman’s Equation:
Goli
Daily Potential evopotranspiration in mm per day
sp
5
AHn  Ea 
5
PET =
L
A 
2
CA
A = Slope of the saturation vapour pressure VS Temp.curve.
ga
TION, 9
H n = Net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day.
E = Parameter including wind velocity.
 = Psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury Pc.
.c
Infiltration capacity
f  f p when i  f p ,f  i when i  f p
w
 Horton's Equation.
w
 kht
fp  fc   f0  fc 
f p = Infiltration capacity at any time t

w
f 0 = initial infiltration
fc = Final steady state infiltration.

www.cgaspirants.com
IRRIGATION
m
Methods of Irrigation
Free flooding, Border flooding, Check flooding, Basin flooding, Furrow Irrigation, sprinkler Irrigation, Drip
Irrigation.
o
 Sodium Absorption Ratio
.c
Na 
S.A.R 
Ca   Mg 
2
ts
V I L Ki G
 Depth of water stored in root zone.
C I Fc . d
an
dw 
w
9
OL
62402
(field capacity -welting coefficient)
RRB Ki
I PUB
 Relation b/w duty and Delta
ir
 .
 (meter)
D
Goli
sp
5
B = Base period in days

5
D = Duty in hectare/cumec
2
 Irrigation Efficiency CA
TION, 9
ga
 Water conveyance Efficiency
Wf
nc   100
Wr
.c
wf = water delivered to the farm

w r = water supplied
w
 Water appliacation Efficiency (na)
Ws
na  100
w
Wf
Below the farm root-zone

w
Wf  Ws  R f  Df
W S = Water stored in the root zone

63
Wf = Water delivered to the form.

Rf = Surface run off
Df = deep percolation
 Water use efficiency (nu)
m
wu
nu  100
wd
o
w u = water used beneficialy
w d = water delivered.
.c
 WATER STORAGE EFEICIENCY (WS)
ts
ws
ns  100
wn
IV I L Ki G
C
w s = water needed in the root zone prior to Irrigation.
an
w n = (field capacity–Available moisture)
9
OL
62402
 WATER DISTRIBUTION EFFICIENCY (ND)
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
 y
n d  100  1  
 d
Goli
y = average numerical deviation in depth of water average depth stored during Irrigation (d).
sp
5
 Consumption Irrigation Requirements (CIR)

5
CIR  C u  R e
2
CA
ga
Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR) TION, 9

NIR
FIR 
nq
.c
Gross Irrigation Requirement
FIR
w
GIR 
nc
Some Facts
w
1. Idduki Dam – Arch Dam

2. Most of gravity Dam constructed in India are straight solid gravity dams. ex-Bhakra Dams.
w
3. Bhakra Dam (A concrete Dam) and Rana Pratap Sagar Dam (A stone Masonry Day) are rigid dam in
India.
4. Best/Most economical Central Angle in an arch Dam is the one whose Value is equal to 133° – 34 at
mid-height is constant radius dam, at constant Angle. (Dam – 133° – 34)

www.cgaspirants.com
5. A check Dam is a Water storage Structure.

 Kennedy’s theory
Vo  0.55 my 0.64
m
 Kutter’s/ chezy’s Formula
 0.00155 1 
 23  
o

V S n  RS
1   23  0.00155  n 
   
.c
S  R
 Lacey’s Theory
ts
1/ 6
V I L Ki G
 Qf 2 
V
C I  140 

an
9
OL
Q = Discharge f  1.75 d mm
62402
 Hydraullic Mean depth

RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
5  V2  f 3/ 5
R   Bed slope S 
2 d  3340 Q1/ 6
Goli
sp
5
Q
5
Area of channel section A 

v
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
wetted perimeter P  4.75 Q
Difference B/W Lacey & Kennedy Theory

Kennedy Lacey
.c
1. Trapezoidal channel 1. Semi elliptical channel

2. Applicable for alluvial channels 2. Applicable for alluvial channels
w
as well as for rivers.

3. Silt is kept in suspension 3. Silt is kept in suspension
due to eddies generated from bottom. due to eddies generated both
w
from side slope and the bottom

i.e. through out the parameter.
4. No eq. for bed slope 4. Gave eq. to calculate bed slope
w
5. Recommended Kutter eq. to find velocity 5. Gave his own velocity equation
6. Trial & error procedure 6. Diret procedure

65
Classification based on
Purpose Function Financial output Lining
m
Irrigation canal Feederwater for Productive Lined canal
Power canal another canal only Protective Unlined canal
Navigation canal Carrierboth direct
irrigation and feeding
o
another canal also
.c
Nature of source Discharge Soil over which its
of supply Main canal constructed
Alluvial canal
Branch
Non Alluvial canal
ts
permanent Inundation Major distributary (NAC)
perennial Minor distributary
non-perennial
IV I L Ki G Field channel
an
Note: Indra Gandhi Canal is a feeder canal
9
OL
62402
On the Basis of Canal Alignment, it can also be classified as

Ridge or Watershed Contour Canal Side – Slope Canal
RRB Ki
I PUB
A watershed/Ridge canal A contour canal is a canal which is A side slope canal is a canal which
ir
is a canal which is aligned aligned nearly parallel to the is aligned at right angles to the
along the ridge/Natural watershed line. contours of the country. contours of the country.
Goli
A ridge canal does not drainage line It can Irrigate only on one side. It is Neither on watershed nor in
sp
and Hence cross drainage work are It has to cross the drainage and hence, valley.
5
not required. cross-drainage works are required. This type of canal is Nearly parallel
5
Ridge line are quite economical and It is generally provided in Hilly areas. to the Natural drainage of the country.
2
can be provided in plane areas.

CA
ga
TION, 9
Classification (Based on)
Function Hydraulic design material of Structural Behaviour

.c
construction
Storage dam or Overflow dam
impounding dam Gravity dam
Rigid dam
Detention dam Non-overflow Arch dam
w
dam Non-Rigid dam

Diversion dam Buttress dam
Coffer dam Embankment
Debris dam dam
w
Some Special Topic

• A cross Drainage Work is a structure constructed for carrying a canal across a Natural drain (river
w
intercepting the canal so as to dispose the drainage water without Interrupting the continuous canal sup-
plies.
• In order to minimise the No. of Cross drainage works, the alignment of canals should be generally along
the watershed.

66
Types of Cross Drainage Work Details

Canal Siphon Canal taken below drainage channel
Drainage Siphon Drainage channel taken below canal.
Aqueduct Drainage channel taken above
m
Super Passage Canal taken above the drainage channel at its grade.
• In an Aqueduct, there is no uplift problem.
• A level crossing is cross drainage work in which the drainage and the canal meet each other at approxi-
o
mately at the same level.
Spillway
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• Spillway: Acts as safety Values for the Dams.
• A spillway may be located either within the body of dam/at one end of the dam/entirely away from the
dam in a saddle as on independent structure.
ts
Spillway Type
Saddle
IV I L Ki G
Earth dam across main river.
an
Syphon Medium Irrigation Project in Interior area.
Ogee Masonry Dam on good Rock
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Surplus Minor Irrigation Work.

•
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Chute Spillway is simplest, low cost and provided easily on Earth and Rockfill Dam and also called waste
I PUB
ir
weir.
• Low ogee weir is known as its control structure.
• An ogee spillway is also called overflow spillway.
Goli
sp
5
• Stilling Basin is a structure in which a Hydraulic Jump used for Energy Dissipation.
5
L
2
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TION, 9
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67
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Roman Roads  Tresaguct Construction  Metcalf Construction  Telford Construction  Macadam
Construction
m
Nov. 1927  Jayakar Committee formed
Feb. 1928  Recommendations by Jayakar Committee
1929  Central Road Fund
o
1934  Indian Road Congress
1939  Motor Vehicle act
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1950  Central Road Research Institute
1956  National Highway act
Nagpur Plan Bombay Plan Lucknow Plan
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 1943–1963 1961–1981 1981–2001
 Road density
V I L Ki G
Road density
I Road density
an
16 km/100 km2 32 km/100 km2 82 km/100 km2
 Recommended  Construction of
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star & grid 1600 km of

pattern
RRB Ki
Expressway
I PUB
ir
Note:
Chandigarh  Rectangular and block pattern
New Delhi  Radial and circular pattern at connaught place.
Goli
sp
Nagpur road plan formulated star and grid pattern.
5
v2
5
 SSD = v.t 
2g(f  0.01n)
2
CA
ga
V2
TION, 9
 0.278v.t 
254(f  0.01n)
.c
 OSD
 Vb .t  (Vb .t  2S)  V.T

w
 2.78Vb .t  0.278Vb .T  2S  0.278V.T

w
2
4S v  v 16, v  f
T , b
a gR
w
P v2
ef  
w gR , v  m / sec.
Note:

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1. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
2. Minimum width of cycle Track is 2m.
3. Right of way/land width is the width of land required for the road along its alignment.
• Maximum No. of vehicles can be parkeel with 90° Angle parking.
m
• In Highway construction, Rolling start from sides and proceed to centre.
Sight Distance: The distance from which any types of obstruction on the road length could be visible to the
driver from some distance ahead is called Sight Distance.
o
Stopping Sight Intermediate Overtaking Sight Head Light Safe Intersection
Distance Sight Distance Sight Sight
Distance Distance
.c
(SSD) Distance (OSD)
(ISD)
 Super Elevation Design
ts
(0.75V)2 V2
e 
V I L Ki G
127R 225R
C I
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 Ruling minimum radius of Horizontal curve
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R rulling 
127(e  f ) , V(kmph)
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
 Extra Widening of Pavement
hl 2 V
Goli
We  Wm  WPS  
sp
2R 9.5 R
55
 Annual average daily traffic

2
CA
1000V
TION, 9
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C
S
 Length of Transition Curve

.c
V3
LS  v  m / sec.
C.R
w
80
C
75  V
w
 By Rate of introduction of super elevation
LS  e.N. w  w e  (Rotation wrt centre line)

w
e.N.  w  w e 
LS  (Rotation about inner edge)
2
 By Empirial Formula

69
2.7v 2 v2
LS  L
, S 
R R
m
Attainment of super-elevation (done in transition curve)
Elimination of crown of cambered section Rotation of pavement
o
Rotation of Shifting crown About the About the
.c
outer edge outwards centre line inner edge
Leel of
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outer Outer
edge Outer Inner edge
edge edge
V I L Ki G
Inner
edge E/2
C I E/2
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Outer edge
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(a) Outer edge rotated about the crown. Method (1), rotating about centre line.
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Method (2), rotating about the inner edge.
RRB Ki
Position of crown
I PUB
ir
Outer edge
Goli
sp
(b) Crown shifted outwards

5
(diagonal crown method).

5
Note:
2
CA
In rotating the pavement about the centre line, the vertical profile remains unchanged and there is advantage
ga
TION, 9
in balancing the earth work while in rotating the pavement about the inner edge leads to drainage problem as
well as centre of the pavement is raised resulting in altered vertical alignment.
Length of Summit Curve
4.4 NS2
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L  2S  (L<SSD) L  (L > SSD)

N 4.4
Length of Valley Curve

w
1/ 2
 Nv3 
LS  2   (Comfort criteria)
 C 
w
  L > SSD
w
NS2 NS2
L 
(2h1  2Stan ) (1.5  0.035S)
  L< SSD

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(2h1  2S.tan )
L  2S 
N
Type of Study Data Collected
m
Public Transport Inventory study Available routing and scheduling
Public Transport O–D Study Starting and destination of riders.
Public Transport operator’s study Vehicle-km, earnings per km usage study.
o
Public Transport usage study Passenger Km IVTT, walking time, waiting
time.
.c
Traffic Capacity: Maximum no. of vehicles in a lane or a road that can pass a given point in unit time.
Expressed in vehicles/hour/lane.
ts
Basic capacity Possible capacity Practical capacity
(Theoretical capacity for
IV I L Ki G
Under prevailing roadway (Design capacity)
nearly ideal roadway and
C and traffic conditions. It varies from zero to basic
an
traffic conditions capacity.
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Note:
• Traffic capacity represents the capability/maximum rate of flow on a road way provided with some level
RRB Ki
I PUB
of service characteristics while Traffic volume indicates the actual rate flow and responds to variation
ir
in Traffic Demand.
Basic Capacity of Single lane, Vehicle Per hours
Goli
sp
5
3600
v = speed kmph, T(Sec/km) =
v
5
L
2
CA vf k j
TION, 9
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q max 
4
Where
vf = Free mean speed
.c
(Maximum speed at zero density.)

kj = jam density
w
(Maximum density at zero speed)
Vf
 Maximum flow qmax occurs when the speed is and density is kj/2.
2
w
Speed Application
Space Mean Speed Traffic flow Studies
w
Journey Speed Delay studies

Running Speed Road conditions Studies
Spot speed Regulatory measures.

71
• Running time excludes stop delayed while total Journey time includes the stop delays.
 e  P 
280 w  1  1  
 w  3 
Capacity of Rotary 
 w
m
1  
 l 
Classification of traffic signs
o
Mandatory/ Cautionary/ Informatory
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Regulatory Warning
• Violation is a • Existence of • For guiding the road user
legal offence hazardous conditions.
ts
• Stop, give way, • Hair pin bend, major road • Petrol pump, hospital
V I L Ki G
horn prohibited, ahead, men at work direction sign.
speed limit,
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compulsory left
• Dead slow is a regulatory sign.
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• Colour of light used for visibility during fog is yellow.

• The length of side of warning sign board of roads is 45 cm.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
• Road delineators used to provide visual Assistance to drivers about alignment of the road ahead, espe-
cially at Night.
• Shape of the stop sign according to IRC : 67-2001 is Octogonal.
Goli
sp
• As per IRC : 67–2001, a Traffic sign indicating the speed limit on a road should be of circular shape
5
with white background and red border.

5
• Indian High ways have coloured milestones:

2
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Yellow and white milestones – National highway
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TION, 9
Green and white mildstones – State highway
Blue/Black and White mildstones – City/Main District road
Orange and White Milestones – Village road.
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• Trip is defined as the one way movement having single purpose and mode of Travel by a point of origin
and a point of destination.
Webster Method
w
 1.5L + 5 
Optimum cycle time =  
 1–y 
w
Aggregate crushing value
w2
w
100
w1
Coefficient of Hardness

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Loss of wt. in gm
 20 
3
Rigidity factor
m
Contact Pr essure
R.F 
Tyre Pr essure
o
California Resistance Value
.c
k.(T.I)(90  R)
t
C1/ 5
ELASTIC MODULUS
ts
  is maximum vertical deflection of the flexible plate.
IV I L Ki G
C p.a
an

Fs
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 Rigid circular plate is used instead of flexible.
RRB Ki
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ir
5P.a

FS
a = radius of plate
Goli
sp
5
p = pressure at deflection
5
E s = young’s modulus of pavement material.

2
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO M/D

CA
TION, 9
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1/ 2
 1.75P A 
t   
 CBR  
.c
t = Pavement thickness in Cm.

P = wheel load in kg
w
CBR = California Bearing Ratio (%)

A = Contact Area in cm2
 CBR TEST.
w
Load or pressure Substained

at2.5 or 5.0 mm Penetration
CBR 
w
Load or pressure Substained

by standard aggregate at
corresponding pressure level.

73
 Tri Axial Method
y3
  3p.  y  
2  ES 
TP    d  
  2S  E
  P 
m
1/ 3
t1  E 2 
 
o
t 2  E1 
 Design of Rigid Pavement
.c
p P
k 
 0.125
ts
 Radius of Relative Stifiness
IV I L Ki G
C
an
1/ 4
 Eh 3 
I 
 12K 1    
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RRB Ki
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete pavement kg/cm2.
I PUB
ir
µ = Poission’s Ratio, Concrete = 0.15
h = Slab Thickness (cm)
Goli
k = Modulus of subgrade reaction (kg/cm3)
sp
5
Equivalent redius of resisting section

5
L
2
b  1.6a 2  h 2  0.675h when (a < 1.724 h)

I
CA
ga
3P
TION, 9
St  (Glodbeck’s formula)
h2
365A [(1  r )n  1]
.c
N=
r
Type of Bitumen Use
w
Penetration grade 30/40 Areas where temperature difference range is less than
25°C, Roads with high volume of traffic.
Penetration grade 60/70 Superior type of roads with high traffic in normal summer
w
temperature.
Cutback bitumen Cold weather condition.
Emulsion Wet conditions (Rainy season) maintenance work, soil
stabilsation in deserts.
w

74
Types of cutback
Rapid curing (RC) Medium curing (MC) Slow curing (SC)
m
Penetration value Good wetting property Blending bitumen
80/120 Eg: Kerosene, light die- with high boiling
Eg: Petroleum sel oil point gas or oil.
o
Methods of flexible pavement design
.c
Empirical methods Semi empirical/ Theoretical methods
(Physical properties semi-theoretical methods (Mathematical computation)
and strength parameters) (Stress-strain function)
ts
V I L Ki G
Burmister method
Triaxial test method
C I
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Group index method CBR method Stabilometer Mc-Leod method
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Method of Design
RRB Ki Principle
I PUB
ir
Group Index Method Empirical Method using soil Classification Test
CBR Method Empirical Method using Soil strength Test
US Navy Method
Goli Semi-Theoretical
sp
5
Asphalt Institute Method Quasi-rational

5
Joints in cement concrete

2
CA
TION, 9
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Expansion joint Contraction joint Working joint Construction joint
Without reinforcement With reinforcement

.c
Bankelman Beam Deflection Method

Overlay Thickness
w
Dc
h 0 = 550 log10
Da
w
w

75
Test Purpose
CBR test For classifying & evaluating soil subgrade & base course materials for
flexible pavements
Crushing test Strength of Aggregates
m
Abrasion test Hardness of Aggregate
Impact test Toughness of Aggregate
Soundness test Durability of Aggregate
o
Shape test Gives idea of workability & stability of mix
Bitumen Adhesion test Gives stripping value of Aggregates
.c
Softening point test It is done by Ring & ball apparatus to ensure safety of Bitumen
Float test for viscosity of Bitumen.
ts
IV I L Ki G
C
an
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ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
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TION, 9
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76 Visit CG Aspirants Facebook Page www.cgaspirants.com
Railway Engineering
Broad gauge = 1.676 m, Narrow gauge= 0.762 m, Meter gauge = 1.0 m, Standard gauge = 1.435 m
Theories of creep
m
Wave Action theory Percussion theory Drag theory
 Vertical reverse curve  due to horizontal  Drag of driving wheel
o
due to longitudinal component of the of locomotive have
movement in the resultant impact opposite effect with
traffic direction. force at the rail end respect to direction of
.c
creep.
Defects of Rail
ts
Corrugated/Roaring Rails
IV I L Ki G
Kinks in rail Hogged rail Buckling of rail
Minute depression
C
Ends of adjoining At ends of rails, Due to change
an
on the Surface of rails rails move slightly down due to in temperature,
9
out of position impact heads when there is
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get bend insufficient gap
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action of wheel b/w two end joints.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Types of Rail joints
Goli
sp
5
Supported Suspended Bridge Compromise Expansion Welded

5
 Rail ends  Rail ends  Projected  Two different  Gap is  Most

2
rests on a are projected rail ends rail sections provided perfect and
I
single beyond
CA
are are joined by for thermal strongest type
TION, 9
ga
sleeper, called sleepers, called connected fish plates. expansion of Joints.

joint sleeper shoulder sleeper by a flat
or corrugated
plate
.c
S + 10H
CSI =
20
w
Sleepr density = M + x
S–W
Dmin =
2
w
GV 2
e =
127R
w

77
Length of transition curve
I approach II approach
Maximum of the following
m
7.2e

max 0.073eVmax
o
L= (i) Railway board formula
0.073D V
 max
.c
e = S.E in cm L = 4.4 R
L, R  m
ts
D = cant deficiency in cm (ii) Change of radial acceleration
IV I L Ki G L=
3.28V 3
R
V  m/sec
C
an
Vmax in kmph (iii) Rate of change of super elevation
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L = 3.6e
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I PUB
Methods to calculate crossing angle ‘N’
ir
Cole’s method Centre line method Isosceles triangle
(right angle triangle method)
Goli method
sp
5
N = cot  1/2
1 Used in Indian
   1/ 2
5
 /2 /2
L
Railway 1
N 1  2cot (2N) N sin   
N
 2 N
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
stock rail
Stretcher bar
End of
Over all length

.c
AB – Stock rail
ra il A
t le a d
aigh D B
Outer str tongue
c u rve C CD rail Facing
ter direction
w
u a il
Check rail H O Lead r F
Wing rail O Inner straight lead rail E
L e Throw of
C
I P switch
a
w
Throat
rve Bend in check
n e r curail rail
Wing In ead
l
rail
Check rail TURN OUT DIAGRAM
w
Theoretical nose
of crossing (T.N.C.)
Actual nose of
crossing (A.N.C.)

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Signal Classification
Operating Functional Location Special
m
Repeater/
Detonating Stop/Semaphore Co-acting
signal
Warner signal Reception Departure Routing
Hand signal
o
Shunting signal Outer signal Starter Calling on
Fixed signal Advance
Coloured light Home Point
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signal Starter
signal indicator
ts
IV I L Ki G
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Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
TION, 9
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w
w
w

79
SURVEING
Both Plan and Map are the graphical representations of the features on horizontal plane but plan is a
large scale representation while map is a small scale representation.
m
Geodetic Survey Plane Survey
It is done for fixing widely It is done for Engineering projects.
spaced control points. Use for small area.
o
Geodetic surveying is done by Department of Earth surface is assumed to be flat.
National Survey of India.
.c
Large area’s of earth’s surface involved
Curvature arc of earth is consider.
Note: The effect of the curvature of earth’s surface is taken into account only if the extent of survey is
ts
more than 195.5 km2.
•
V I L Ki G
The difference in the length of an arc and its subtended chord on earth’s surface for a distance of 18.5
km is about 1.52 cm. I
C
an
Classifiaction of Surveying Based on Purpose
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(i) Topographical Survey: Conducted to obtain data and to make a map indicating inequalites of land
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surface. Topographic Survey is done to determine the Natural features of a Country.
RRB Ki
I PUB
(ii) Engineering Survey: Used for design and construction of new routes e.g. roads and railways. Also
ir
used to calculate for route alignment.
(iii) Cadastral Survey : Done to produce plans of property boundries for legal purpose.
(iv) Hydrographic Survey:
Goli
Conducted on or near water bodies. Marine survey is also one of it’s type.
sp
5
(v) Astronomic Survey: Conducted for determination of latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local time etc.
5
at various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies.

L
2
(vi) Geological Survey: Conducted to obtain data of defferent strata of earth’s surface for the purpose
CA
ga
of geological studies.
Note:
TION, 9
• Archaeological survey is done to collect information about old and nelic structures.
• Reconnaissance Survey is a kind of pre liminary survey which is performed to find out method of sur-
.c
vey to be adopted and its rough cost.
Classification based on instruments used

w
Chain Levelling Theodolite Photogrammetric

surveying survey survey
w
Compass Plane table Tacheometric EDM

surveying surveying survey surveys
w
Note:
• Correct Sequence of Surveys
(a) Traffic Survey

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(b) Reconnaissance Survey

(c) Preliminary Survey
(d) Detailed Survey/Location Survey
Principles of Surveying
m
(i) Work from Whole to Part: So as to localise the error and prevent their accumulation.
(ii) Locate a Point by Atleast two Measurements:
Error due to use of wrong scale
o
 Correct length =
.c
R.F of wrong scale
 Measured length.
R.F. of correct scale
ts
 Correct Area =
 R.F of wrong scale 

2
IV I L Ki G
  Calculated Area

C
an
 R.F. of correct scale 
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Principal of Least Square
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RRB Ki  v2 E
I PUB
Em =  0.6745  S
ir
h(n  1) n
Where
Goli
sp
E s = Probable errors of single observation
5
V s = Difference between any single observation and mean of the values

5
n = Number of observations of the mean

2
Terms Used in Large Survey Area

CA
TION, 9
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(i) Main station : It is a point in chain survey where two triangle sides meet.
(ii) Main survey line: Chain line joining two main survey stations,
(iii) Tie station or subsidiary station: Station on survey line joining main stations.
.c
(iv) Base line: Longest survey line from which direction of all other sruvey lines are fixed.
(v) Proof line or check line: Provided to check the accuracy of the field work.
(vi) Offset: Distance of object from the survey line.
w
(vii) Chainage: Distance measured along the main survey line in direction of progress of work.
• Double line field book is most commonly used for recording ordinary chain survey work.
w
• Offsets are lateral measurement made w.r.t. main survey line which may be oblique or perpendicular in
nature.
Well Conditioned Triangle: Triangle in which all intersections of lines are clear. Angle’s between the
w
lines for clear intersections should be 30º to 120º. An equilateral triangle is the most appropriate well
conditioned triangle.

81
Revenue Gunter’s chain Engineer’s Metric chain

chain 66 ft chain 100 ft long
33 ft (100 links)
m
30 m 20 m
o
(150 links) (100 links)
.c
Note: As per IS specifications, every metre length of the chain should individually be accurate to within ± 2mm when
measured under a tension of 80 Newton.
(a) 1 mile = 80 Gunter’s chain
ts
(b) 1 acre = 10 × (Gunter’s chain)2
V I L Ki G
(c) The overall length of chain should be within the limits given below
(i) 20 m ± 5 mm for 20 m chain.
C I
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(ii) 30 m ± 8 mm for 30 m chain.
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(ii) Tapes:
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RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Cloth or Linen Metallic tape Steel tape Invar tape
tape Linen tape with Alloy of nickle (36%)
brass or copper wires and steel (64%)
Goli
sp
(iii) Pegs: To mark definite points on ground temporarily.

5
(iv) Arrows: It provides a check over the length of line as entered in the field notes.
5
(v) Ranging rods: To locate intermediate points such that these points lie on straight lines joining the end
2
stations.
CA
ga
TION, 9
(vi) Offset rod: Similary to ranging rod with a sout open hook at the top.
Equipments for Measurement Right angles
(i) Cross staff
.c
w
w
w

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Open cross staff French cross staff
o m
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Open cross staff
ts
V I L Ki G
• Accuracy of the french Cross Staff is less than that of an open cross staff. But french cross staff can
be set out at an angles of 45° and 135°.
C I
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(ii) Optical Square: Pocket instrument, more convenient and accurate than a cross staff.
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• Optical Square is used to establish two Points at right angle. The principal used is of Double reflection
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Hence, Angle between two mirrors is 45°.
RRB Ki
I PUB
TAP CORRECTIONS
ir
 Correction for Slope CS= - L  L2  h 2
h2
Goli
sp
5
Cs =
2L
5
 Correction for alignment or bad ranging

2
CA
TION, 9
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h2
Cal =
2L
 Correction for Temperature Ct = (Tm-To)L
 Correction for pull or Tension
.c
 P  P0  L
CP=
AE
w
 Correction for Sag
L1 (WL1 )2
CS =
w
24P 2
Defference Between Traverse Surveying & Chain Surveying
w
Chain Surveying Traverse Surveying

1. Requires only linear measurements Requires both linear and angular measurements. Hence requires
hence relatively easier trained personnel.
2. The framework consists of triangles. Frame work consists of a series of connected lines forming an

83
open or closed polygon. As the direction of lines are measured,

the polygon can be plotted without construction triangles.
3. Check lines are required in chain Check lines are not required because accuracy of the framework
Surveying can be checked by the methods of adjustments
m
4. Used when area to be surveyed is Uses when area involved is large and better accuracy is
small, ground is flat and accuracy required.
required is low
o
 Bearing: Direction of a line with respect to fixed meridian is called bearing.
 True Meridian/Bearing
.c
 True meridian is a line joining True North pole, True South Pole end and point of reference. It never
changes with time.
 Angle measured for any line w.r.t True Meridian is called Ture bearing.
ts
 Bearing Taken W.r.t magnetic meridian is called magnetic Bearing.
IV I L Ki G
C
an
N M.M TM
MM A
9
B A
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
 w
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QE 
W E W E
RRB Ki
O O
I PUB
ir
S S
Goli
Eastern Declination Western Declination
sp
55
Magnetic Declination
L
2
 At any place horizontal angle b/w True Meridian and Magnetic Meridian is called magnetic Declination.
CA
ga
For Eastern Declination TION, 9

 = B + E or T.B = M.B +E
For western Declination
 = B – w or T.B = N.B – w
.c
Note
+ Sign is used for declination is to the east, sign (-) is used if declination is to west
w
Fore bearing and Back Bearing.

B.B = F.B  180º
w
Local Attraction (Note)

If the difference b/w fore bearing and back bearing is 180º, the the adjoining stations are free form local
attraction.
w
(i)Isogonic Line: Lines passing through the points on earth surface at which the declination is the same at
given time. They rediate from North and South pole and follow irregular paths.
(ii) Agonic Lines: Lines passing through points of zero declination. True meridian and magnetic meridian
coincides with each other.

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Variation of magnetic declination
Secular variation Annual varition Secular variation Irregular varition
m
Occurs over a Due to rotation Due to rotation Due to magnetic
long period of of earth about of earth about its storms or disturbances
time due to the sun. own axis. in earth’s magnetic
gradual shift in It’s more near field.
o
earth’s magnetic equator and in
field. day time.
.c
Dip: The angle made by the lines of magnetic force with the earth’s surface is called dip. Magnetic
needle becomes horizontal at equator but becomes vertical at magnetic poles.
ts
Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass
V I L Ki G
• Smaller in size • Bigger (circular box of size 150 mm diameter)
• Readings are in W.C.B.
C I • Measurement quadrantal bearings.
an
• Sighting of the object and reading of the • First Object is sighted and then reading of bear-
9
ing
OL
62402
bearing are done simultaneously is taken by moving around the looking down from
RRB Ki glass cover.
I PUB
ir
• Temporary Adjustment Centering, Levelling, • Temporary Adjustment Centering and Levelling.
focussing.
Goli Traversing
sp
55
L
2
Linear measurement CA Angular measurement

TION, 9
ga
(i) Loose needle method (i) Taping or changing

(ii) Fast needle method (ii) Tacheometric method
(iii) Method of included angle (iii) Electronic distance
(iv) Method of direct angle measuring instrument
(EdM)
.c
(v) Method of deflection angle

w
Latitude and Departure

 Projection of a line on N-S direction is called latitude.
L  l cos 
w
 Projectione of a line on E-W direction is called deparature.
D  l sin 
w
Adjustment of closing Error.

 Sum of all internal Angles of a closed Traverse.
= (2n–4)×90º where n = No. of sides.

85
 Sum of all deflection Angle = 360º

Ex. A + B+ C+ D+ E = 360º
 Sum of latitude  L  0
m
 Sum of departure  D  0
Closing error In the Traverse
o
e = AA1  ( L)2  (  D)2
.c
Bowditch’s Method (Compass Rule)
Permissible error in linear Measurment e  
ts
1
IV I L Ki G
Permissible error in angular measurement e 
.
an
Correction to latitude
9
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62402
1
CL =  L 
1
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Correction due to departure
1
CD =  D 
Goli 
sp
5
Transit Method
5
L
2
CA L D
CL =  L  L , CD   D  D
ga
TION, 9 r r
Axis Method.
1
closing error
.c
Correction of any length = That length  2

Length of Axis
w
Direct levelling methods

w
Simple check Profile Reciprocal

levelling levelling levelling levelling
Differential Fly cross-section Precise
w
levelling levelling levelling levelling

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Sensitivity of level tube can be increased by
Increasing Decreasing
m
(i) Radius R (i) Viscosity of the
(ii) Length of the tube liquid
(iii) Diameter of the tube (ii) Roughness of the
inner wall of the tube
o
nd S
.c
 
R L
d s
ts
  Radian
R nL
 Check in Height of Instrument Method

IV I L Ki G
C
an
 BS–  FS =  Rise –  Fall = Last RL–First RL
9
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Note: First reading made on a point of known reduced level is always a Back sight reading.
62402
Readings are booked in the level book (two methods– Rise and fall method, Height of instrument method.)
RRB Ki
I PUB
Rise and Fall Method Height of Collination method
ir
1. Arithmetic check 1. Arithemetic check
(Back sights) (fore sights) = (BS) – (FS) = Last
Goli
sp
(Rise) – (fall) = Last RL – first RL RL – first RL
5
2. Check for intermediate reading is done using Rise – fall 2. Reduction is easier in it.
5
3. It is well suited for determining the differences of levels of 3. Collimation method is most suited for
2
two points where precision is required. CA for longitudinal/cross-sectional levelling and

TION, 9
ga
Contouring.
d2
Curvature CC = =0.01857d2.
2R
.c
1  d2 
Refraction Cr = 7  2R 
 
w
Final Combination Correction
6  d2 
w
C= Cc– Cr = 7  2R 
 
C = 0.06735d2
w
d = 3.85 c
d = in km and
c = in meter.

87
Reciprocal Levelling:
The true difference Elevation.
1
H= (h a  h b )  (h a ' h b ')]
2
m
 Determining Areas:
Mid ordinate rule  = Area = Average ordinate × Length of base
o
O1  O2  ....  On
= L
n
.c
 Average ordinate Rule
Area D = Average ordinate of the base
ts
 O0  O1  ....  O n  L
  L, D  D
V I L Ki G
=
 n 1  (n  1)
C I
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 D = D0 +....+On.
9
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Simpson’s One-Third Rule
62402
d
=
RRB Ki
(Oo  O n )  4  O1  O3  ....  O n 1 
I PUB
3
ir
2(O 2  O4  ...O n  2 ) 
Goli
sp
Volume Prismoidal Formula (Simpson’s Rule)

5
d
5
V=
3
 A1  An   4A 2  A 4 )
2
CA
ga
Trapezoidal Formula (Area mean area Method) TION, 9

d
V = (A1  A 2 )
2
.c
Methods of tacheometry
w
Stadia method Tangential method Range finding

Stadia wires are not Determine the horizontal
used at all. Horizontal distance and direction of
w
Movable Subtense
hair bar distance calculated line without going to far
method method from vertical angle end of the line. The
and staff intercepts. instrument used is range
w
finder.
Fixed Hair Method

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D=k×S+C
f
K=  100 (M ultiplying Constant)
i
m
Addition Constent C = (f + d)
S = Staff intercept,
i = Stadia interval,
o
f = focal length of object
.c
v
v 
ts
IV I L Ki G
(P1C)
M
D T2
C (P1T)
an
T1
A
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62402
R /2 /2 R
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
O
Goli
sp
5
Length of the curve

5
R
,
2
l=
I
180 CA
TION, 9
ga
 = The angle of centre in degree

Tangant length
T = R tan/2
.c
Length of Cord
L = 2 R sin /2
Mid ordinate
w
M = R (1–cos /2)
Apex distance (E)
w
  
E = R  sec  1
 2 
w
Instrument Purpose
Abney level To measure slope, cross section, to find gradient
Planimeter To measure area very accurately
Pantagraph Used to reduce/enlarge the maps

89
Hand level To trace contours

Sextant To measure horizontal & vertical angle
m
Clinometer
U-frame
Trough Alidade
o
compass Drawing
sheet
.c
Plane
Tripod table
ts
IV I L Ki G Spirit level
an
9
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Plain table with accessories
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Methods of orientation
Goli
sp
By trough compass By back sighting By resection

55
L
2
CA
Methods of plane table surveying
ga
TION, 9
Radiation Traversing Intersection Resection
.c
Two point problem Three point problem
Graphical Trial and error Mechanical Analytical Geometrical

w
method method method method construction method
Characteristics of Contour
w
(i) A zero meter contour line represents the constaline. When no value is represented, it indicates a flat ter-
rain.
w
(ii) Two contours intersect eachother only in case of overhanging cliff or a cave penetrating a hill side.

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m
500
o
400 300
200
.c
(iii) Equally spaced contours represents uniform slope.
(iv) A watershed or edge line contour crosses the valley contour at right angle. Converally the contours are
not visible on the grounds excepts in the case of shore lines.
ts
IV I L Ki G
100.0 100.0
an
105.0
95.0
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110.0 90.0
62402
115.0 85.0
RRB Ki
I PUB
Ridge
Line Valicy
ir Line
(a) (b)
Goli
(v) Direction of steepest slope is along the shortest distance between the contours.
sp
5
(vi) Two contour lines having same elevation cannot unite and continue as one line.
5
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
.c
w
w
w

91
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
m
Units Design Period
Water treatment units 15 years
Service Reservoirs (overhead or ground level) 15 years
o
Pipe Connections to the several treatment units 30 years
Distribution system 30 years
.c
Water Demands:
(i) Domestic Water Demand: 135 to 225 lpcd.
(ii) Institutional and commerical water demand.
ts
(a) School & colleges : 45 to 135 lpcd
V I L Ki G
(b) Offices : 45 lpcd
(c) Restaurants: 70 lpcd
C I
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(d) Cinema & theater : 15 lpcd
9
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(e) Hotels: 180 lpcd
62402
(f) Hospitals : When hed < 100 340 lpcd
RRB Ki
I PUB
When bed > 100 450 lpcd
ir
(iii) Fire Demand: 1 lpcd
(a) Kuichling’s Formula, Q = 3182 P 1/min
Goli
sp
P = Population in thousands
5
Variation of Demand
5
L
2
Maximum daily Consumption = 1.8 avg. daily consumption.

I
CA
ga
TION, 9
Maximum Weekly Consumption = 1.48 ×Avg. weekly
Maximum Monthly Consumption = 1.28 × Avg. monthly.
Population Forecasting Mehtod
Arithmetic Increase Method Pn = Po  nx
.c
n
 r 
Geometric Increases Method Pn = Po  1  
 100 
w
Incremental Increase Method

w
n(n  1)
Pn = Po  nx  y
2
Physical characteristics
w
 Turbidity Turbidity limit = 5 to 10 NTU

 Colour Tintometer Limit = 20PPm
 Taste and odour T.O.N = 1 ( | 3)

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 Temperature 10ºC desirable ( | 25ºC)

Chemical Characteristics
 Total solids and suspended soils Limited to 550ppm
m
PH = – log H+ (6.6 to 8.5)
2 50 2  50 
 Total Hardness [Ca ]  + [Mg ]   
20  12 
o
 Carbonate Hardness = min of total hardness or alkalinity
 Chloride Content - Prescribed limit – 120mg/L
.c
 Nitrogen Content -Limits: Free ammonia | 0.15mg/L, Organic Nitrogen | 0.3 mg/l, nitrite should be
zero, nitrate | 45 mg/l
ts
Measurement (i) Free Ammonia-by simple boiling of water. (ii) Organic Ammonia – By adding Kmno4,
V I L Ki G
(i+ii) are known as kjeldahl Nitrogen Nitrate and Nitrate by - colour Matching M/d.
I
C
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Chemical
(Mn = 0.05 mg/L) (Iron – 0.3 mg/L), (Fluride –1.0 –1.2 mg/L)
9
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62402
(Sulphate : 250 mg/L) (Cyanides = 0.2mg/L)

Screening
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Velocity | 0.8 to 1m/sec
Principle is based on stokes law.
Goli
sp
Q
5
Setting velocity VS 
.L
5
L
2
Design Criteria CA
TION, 9
ga
Q
Over flow rate =
BH
500–750 lit/hr/m2 for plain sedimentation, Depth = 03 to 4.5m Width B  10 m
.c
Coagulants
1. Use of Alum
2. Use of copperas: (FeSo4,7H2O)
w
3. Use of chlorinated copperas (Fe2(So4)3+FeCl3),

4. Use sodium Aluminate (Na2Al2O4)
w
Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter

Cu = 5 Cu = 1.3–1.7
D10 = (0.2–0.3) mm D10 = (0.45–0.7) mm
w
Frequency of cleaning = (1–3) months Cleaned through Back washing
Design period = 10 year n = 1.22 Q

Rate of filtration is very low as Operational Troubles–

93
compared to R.S.F., but efficiency (a) Air Binding

is High (b) Mud ball formations
(c) Cracking of filter
1. Minor Methods.
m
(i) Boiling
(ii) Treatment with excess lime.
(iii) Treatment with ozone (KMNO4)
o
(iv) Treatment with silver or Electrokatadyne Process.
2. Major Method Chlorination (Disintection with Cl2)
.c
pH 5
 Cl2  H 2 O   HOCl  HCl
ts
 pH  8
HOCl   H   OCT 
V I L Ki G
pH  7
 HOCl   H   OCl –
C I
an
NH3 + HOCl is called combined chlorine.
9
 NH 3  HOCl   2 Cl  H 2 O
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62402
Formation of free chlorine and

Presence of chloro-organic
Chlorine residual (p.p.m)
0.5
RRB Ki
compounds not destroyed
I PUB
II
ir
Destruction of chloramines l
0.4 ua
and chloro organic comp id
Free residual
I res
ed
0.3 Formation of chloro-organic bin
compounds and chloramines om
dc
C III
Goli an
sp
0.2 Destruction of ee
al Fr
chlorine by idu
5
reducing compound d res

0.1 ine
mb D
Co
5
Break Combined residual

L
point
0
2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Chlorine Added (p.p.m)
CA 0.9
ga
1. Treatment with Copper Sulphate (CuSO4.H2O)

TION, 9
 Added to open reservoir and lakes to kill algae or to check the growth.
2. Treatment with KMNO4
.c
 Acts as oxidizing agent to remove to taste, odour and colour and to kill bacteria.
3. Aerations
 For increasing Di-oxygen to remove CO2, upto some extent removal of Fe and Mn.
w
4. Fluoridation
 Necessary if F < 1mg/L. Add Naf or Na2 SiF6 or H2SiF6 to keep fluorine content between 1 to 1.5
w
mg/L
(1) De-Fluoridation. (if F > 1.5 mg/L) In India, Treatment is done by Nalgonda Technique (Use
Alum for reducing flurides)
w
5. Removal of Radioactive Substnces By coagulation and filtration.

6. Desalination
(i) By evaporation and distillation

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(ii) Electrodialysis
(iii) Reverse Osmosis.
Pipes except the service connections are usually made of cast. iron with some type of coating to avoid
rusting where as for service connections galvanised iron pipes are used.
m
(i) Dead end or tree system.
(ii) Grid system or reticular system
(iii) Ring or circular system
o
(iv) Radial system
APPURTENANCES IN PLUMBING SYSTEM
.c
1. Ferrules
2. Goose Neck
3. Service Pipe
ts
4. Stop Cock
5. Water Meter
IV I L Ki G
C
an
Hydraulic design of sewers
9
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1 2 / 3 1/ 2
r S (manning, formula)
62402
Velocity of flow in channel V =

n
RRB Ki
I PUB
Oxgen Demand
ir
dLt
= KL, L t  L 0  10 k p t
dt
Goli
sp
5
 t = L 0  L t  L 0 1  10 k D t 
 
5
L
2
y5 = [BOD5 = 0.684L0]
I
CA
TION, 9
ga
K K DT º = KD20 [1.047]T-20
Note: Minimum velocity about 0.45m/sec.
Disinfection
Oil and Grease Trap Biological Unit SST
Bar Grit (Skimming Tank)
.c
Screen chamber
SST
Sludge
Screening PST studge
Grits
w
Oil/Grease Underdrain
Optional Unit water Drying Beds Sludge Digester
Wastewater Flow Dried sludge Gases
Sludge Flow for sisposal Effluent for
w
Gases final disposal

Design Criteria for Grit Chamber
w
g d2
Setting velocity VS =  GS 1
18 V
Detention Time. 30-60S, Horizontal velocity of flow–15-30 cm/sec. Length to breath ratio of chamber varies
from 6 to 15 and length to depth ratio varies form 40 to 30, cleaning interval = 1 or 2 weeks, Channel

95
length = detention time × velocity of flow
Comparision of Low-Rate and High- Rate Trickling Filters
Parameter Low rate High-water
m
trickling filter Trickling filter
 Hydraullic loading in 1-4 10-40
3 2
m /m /d
 Organic loading in kg of 0.08-0.32 0.32-1
o
BOD5/d/m3
 Depth 1.8-3.0m 0.9m-2.5m(1.8m)
.c
 Efficient,% 55-98 60-75
Disposal of Soil Wastes . Done by various M/d
ts
 Sanitary land filling
V I L Ki G
 Burining or incineration
 Barging it out in to sea
C I
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 Pulverization
9
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 Compositing
62402
Composting– Ex By disgestion, by bacteria largency.
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
AIR & NOISE POLLUTION.
Primary pollution.
(i) Sulphur dioxide (So2)
Goli
sp
5
(ii) Co
5
L
(iii) Nitrogen oxide No and No2
2
(iv) Lead (pb)

CA
ga
(v) Hydrocarbons TION, 9

(iv) H2S, H2F, Fluorides
.c
w
w
w

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STEEL STRUCTURE
Permissible stress in Steel Structural Members
m
Types of stresses Notation stress FOS
(Mpa)
Axial Tensile stress at 0.6fy 1.67
Max axial Comp Stress ac 0.6fy 1.67
o
Bending Tensile stress bt 0.66fy 1.515
Max Bending Comp. stress bc 0.66fy 1.515
.c
Avg. shear stress va 0.1fy 2.5
Maximum shear stress vm 0.45fy 2.22
ts
Bearing Stress P 0.75fy 1.33
Stress in slab base bs 185 _
IV I L Ki G
Types of riveted/bolted joints
C
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9
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62402
Lap joint Butt joint
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Single cover Single cover
Single bolted
butt joint butt joint
lap joint
Goli
sp
55
L
2
Double bolted CA Single cover single

lap joint
TION, 9
bolted Double cover
ga
single bolted
Single cover double

.c
bolted
Double cover
double bolted
Specification in bolting Minimum pitch = 2.5d
w
Maximum pitch
(a). Tension = min (16t, 200 mm)
(b). Compression = min (12t, 200 mm)
w
(c). Tacking bolts

(i). Exposed to weather = min (16t, 200 mm)
w
(ii). Not exposed to weather = min (32t, 300 mm)

Note:- For 2 members placked back to back, tacking rivet should not exceed 1000 mm in tension members,
600 mm in compression member.
Minimum edge and end distance

97
(a). Sheared or hand plane cut edges (Rough) = 1.7 × hole dia
(b). Machine cut = 1.5 × hole dia
Member
m
 max
A member carrying 180
Compressive load
o
resulting from dead
load and imposed load
.c
A Tension member in 180
which reversal of direct
stress due to load other
ts
than wind and seismic
force
IV I L Ki G
A member subjected toC
an
250
compressive forces resulting
9
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from wind EQ force provide
62402
deformation of such member

RRB Ki
I PUB
does not affect stress
ir
Compression flange of 300
Beam
Goli
sp
5
A member normally act as a 350

5
tie in Roof Truss

2
CA
ga
Tension member other than

Pre-tension
TION, 9 400
Strength of plate between rivet holes in Tension

.c
= at × (p-d)x t
Bearing strength of rivet.
w
= at × d × t or = Pb×d×t.
Shear Strength of rivet.
w
 2
= Tvf   d (in single shear),


w
2  Tvf   d 2 (in double shear)


d = diameter of rivet

98
d  6.01 t (unwins formula)
Diameter
Grosss diameter = nominal diameter + 1.5 mm (if 25mm)
m
Nominal diameter + 2mm (if > 25mm)
Pitch
Should not exceed 16t or 200mm, which ever is less in tension member, and 12t or 200mm, which ever is
o
less in Compression Members. Tacking rivets should not exceed 32 t or 300 mm which ever is less.
Tacking rivets.
.c
Thickness of member Minimum diameter of rivets
Up to 10 mm 16mm
ts
Over 10mm to 16 mm 20 mm
V I L Ki G
Over10 mm 22mm
Force due to axial load on each rivet.

C I
an
W
9
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Fa =
62402
n
Force due to moment M on any rivet
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Mr
Fm =
 h2
Goli
sp
Area along Section ABCDE

55
  S2 S2 
Ant = t  b  n  d   1  2 
2
CA   4  g1 4  g 2 
TION, 9
ga
NET EFFECTIVE AREA

.c
l1
w
l2
w
 A net  A1  A 2  k1
3  A1
k1 
w
 3  A1  A 2
 A1  (l1  t / 2  d' )t

99
 A 2  (l2  t / 2)  t A net  (l1  l2  t)t
 For pair of Angle Placed back to back connected by only one lag of each angle.
 A net  A1  A 2  k 2
m
5  A1
 K2 
5  A1  A 2
o
The area of a web of Tee
.c
= Thickness of web × (depth - thickness of flange)
ts
Tacking rivet
IV I L Ki G
C
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Gusset plate
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
SHAPE FACTOR
ir
Mp a yzp zp
S= = 
My a yz z
Goli
sp
5
Shape factor For different Shapes

5
Section Shape factor

2
1. Rectangular Section
CA 1.5
ga
2. Solid circular Section TION, 9

1.7
3. a. Triangular Section 2.34
(vertex upward)
b. Trinagular section 2.00
.c
(vertex horizontal)
 1  k3 
4. Hallow circular Section 17   4 
w
1 k 
5. a. Diamand Section Rhombus 2.00

b. Thin Hollow Rhombus 1.50
w
6. Thin Circular ring Solid 1.27

7. I section
a. About strong Axis 1.12
w
b. About weak Axis 1.55

8. T Section. 1.90 to 1.95
Method of Analysis

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Plastic moment
condition
(a) Lower bound theorem
(P Pu)
m
Equilibirim
condition
(a) Upper bound theorem
(P Pu)
Mechanism
o
condition
.c
COLLAPSE LOADS
ts
V I L Ki G
W
Simply supported Beam
C I
an
L/2 L/2
9
OL
4MP
62402
Wu 
L
RRB Ki
I PUB
Fixed Beam
ir
W
Goli
sp
L/2 L/2
55
8MP
Wu 
2
CA L
TION, 9
ga
ECCENTRIC LOAD
Simply Supported Beam
.c
L
w
Wu  M P
ab
Fixed Beam
w
a b
w
2N P L
Wu 
ab

101
UNIFORMLY LOAD AT CENTRE

W
m
8MP
Wu 
L
o
W
.c
L
16MP
Wu 
ts
L
V I L Ki G
CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE
I
C
an
W
9
OL
62402
l/2 l/2
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
6M P
Wu 
L
Goli
sp
W
55
L
a b
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
Lb
Wu  MP
ab
Lacings
.c
1.  = between 40º to 70º,
le
w
2. Slenderness ration. | 145.

r
3. For Local Buckling Criteria.
w
L
c
 50 ,  0.7  whole section
r min
w
4. Width of Lacing >> 3 × Nominal rivet Diameter

5. For single lacing (compressive or Tensile)

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 v/n 
F=  
 sin  
6. No. of rivet required.
m
2Fcos 
= Rivet value.
Battens : Design Specification
o
C
| 50, or 0.7 times the slenderness ratio Depth for intermidiate battens d   3  , d > a check for longitu-
.c
c
r 4
V1
dinal shear stress = | av.
D t
ts
M M
Check for Bending Stress -  |  b
V I L Ki G
Z 1
D  t2
6
C I
an
CHECK FOR SHEAR
9
OL
62402
 Average shear force 
RRB Ki
   0.4fy
I PUB
 t w .D 
ir
CHECK FOR DEFLECTION
Goli
sp
Span
5
 max 
325
5
L
2
Check for Web Crippling

I
CA
TION, 9
ga
P
Bending stress P  b t ,
1
b1= b  2h 2 3
.c
Web Buckling
1 VAY
RV = S
w
2 I
Economic Depth of the girder
w
M
D = 101
b t ×t x
w
Design of Web
d1 816 1344
  lesser of and and 85. (No. stiffener is required)
tw  va.cal fy

103
d2 3200
  lesser of and 200. (Vertical Stiffeners are provided)
tw fy
 Width of angle in the plane perpendicular to the roof covering
m
L

45
 Width of angle in the plane perallel to the roof covering
o
L

.c
60
 Maximum bending moment in the purlin
ts
W  L2
M
V I L Ki G
10
 The thickness of a rectangular slab
C I
an
9
3  2 b2 
OL
t= wa  
62402
 bs  4 
RRB Ki
I PUB

ir
Thickness of a square slab base plate
90w B
t = 10 
Goli 16bs (B  d o )
sp
5
Merchant Rankine formula

5
L
2
CA ac = 0.6
fcc  fy
ga
TION, 9  (fcc )  (fy )n 

n 1/ n.
where fcc = Elastic critical stress in
  E
.c
Compression =
2
Maximum Stenderness Ratio: (IS 800–1984)
w
Types of Member Slenderness Ratio

A member carrying compressive 180
loads resulting from dead load and
w
superimposed loads
A member subjected to compressive 250
w
loads resulting from wind/ earthquake

forces provided the determination of such
members does not adversety affect the
stress in any part of the structure.

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A member normally carrying tension 350

but subjected to reversal of stress due to
wind or earthquake forces.
o m
.c
ts
IV I L Ki G
C
an
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
TION, 9
ga
.c
w
w
w

105
Estimate Costing
Description Unit
Earthwork, Stone/Brick Work, Wood Work/Sunshade m3
m
Surface/Shallow Excavation, Door, Shutter, Pannel, m2
Pointing, Soling, DPC, Plastering m2
Steel/Iron Work kg/Quintel
o
Dressing of stone/Half Brick wall/partition wall, batten m2
Painting Work/Distemper/Colour Washing/Jali Work m2
.c
NOTE-
Cornice is measured in Running Meter.
ts
No. of bricks used in Flat & Edge soling is 39 & 56 respectively using conventional brick size.
V I L Ki G
In earthwork , lead (Horizontal Distance) & lift (vertical distance) is 30m & 1.5m respectively.
C I
an
Degree of Accuracy
9
OL
Wood Work: 2mm, Weight – 1 kg
62402
length – 1 cm, Area – 0.01 m2, Volume – 0.01 m3
RRB Ki
I PUB
• Purpose of Valuation
ir
(a) Taxation– (10–14%)
(b) Rent fixation – (6 –10% of total value)
Goli
sp
Outgoing
5
(a) Repairness – (10 – 15)% of total Income

5
(b) Management and collection Charge – (5 – 10)% of total Income.

2
Scrap Value
CA
ga
TION, 9
It is about 10% of total value. It is the value of Dismental Material.
Salvage Value
It is value at the end of Utility period without being this dismental.
.c
Sinking Fund
S.i.
Annual Installment (I) =  IC .S
(1  i)n  1
w
(a) Straight line Method:

w
CS
Assume depreciation by same amount D =
n
(b) Constant percentage Method: Also called Balancing Decline Method. It assume depreciation by
w
1/ n
c
same percentage. D = 1    ( Correct this formula )
s

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General Overhead Cost Job Overhead Cost

Telephone Bill Salary Delay
Travelling charges Establishment of a New Office
Printing, Post office Compensation
m
Description Quantity
Work in foundation with Mud Mortar 1.5 m3
Work in foundation with Lime/Cement Mortar 1.25 m2
o
Work in Superstructure with Mortar 1 m3
Work in Superstructure mud Mortar 1.25 m3
.c
Distemper (1 coat) 35 m2
White Washing/Colour Washing (3 Coat) 70 m2
ts
White Washing/Colour Washing (1 Coat) 200 m2
V I L Ki G
RCC Work 3m3
Half Brick wall/Partition Wall
C I 5 m2
an
Lime concrete in Roof 6 m2
9
OL
Lime Concrete in foundation/Floring 8.9 m2
62402
12 mm Plastering with cement/Lime Mortar 8 m2
RRB Ki
I PUB
Degree of Accuracy (descreasing order)
ir
Detailed > Cube rate > Plinth area > Rough estimate
Goli Area
sp
5
Plinth area Floor area

5
Circulation area Carpet area

2
CA
Vertical circulation area
TION, 9
ga
Horizontal circulation area
(Staircase, Lift) (Varandaha, Passes)

4-5% of P.A. 10-15% of P.A.
.c
F.A. = Plinth area – area occupied by walls/Intermediate supports

Courtyard, play ground, unclosed Balcony, cantilever porch is not included in plinth area.
Carpet Area: Useable area/Living area
w
C.A. = Total floor area – (circulation area + Non-useable area)

• C.A. in residential area (50 – 65)% and in commercial area (60 – 75)%.
Work % of Estimate
w
Departmental charges (centage charge) (10 – 15)

Contractor charge 10
w
Labour Charge 25
Electrification 8
Electric fan 4
Saniatory and Water Supply Charge 8

107
Contigences Charges (3 – 5)
Work Charge Establishment (1.5 – 2)
Tools and Plants
Security money is about 10% of total contract including Earnest Money.
m
Searity money and Earnest Money are refundable after some time Without Any Interest.
According to National building code, Buildings are classified in groups:
Group A – Residential Building
o
Group B – Educational Building
Group C – Institutional Building
.c
Group D – Assembly Building
Group E – Bussiness Building
ts
Group F – Mercantile Building
V I L Ki G
Group G – Industrial Building
Group H – Storage Building
C I
an
Group I – Hazardous Building
9
OL
62402
RRB Ki
I PUB
ir
Goli
sp
55
L
2
CA
ga
TION, 9
.c
w
w
w

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BULK UNIT WEIGHT

APPEARENT OR MASS SPECIFIC GRAVITY

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 Method for Determination of water content

PLASTICITY INDEX [IP]

W L = Liquid limit TION, 9

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RELATIVE DENSITY/DENSITY INDEX IV I L Ki G

CC = , 1  CC  3 for well Graded soil

Coarse grained soil classification based on grain size (mm)

Boulder Cobble Coarse grained soil Fine Grained soil

>300 300-80 80-20 20-4.75 4.75-2.0 2-0.425 0.425-0.075 0.075-0.002 <0.002

Indian Standard Soil Classification system (ISSCS)

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Reduction in volume of air voids at a Volume reduction due to expultion of pore

Specific compaction Technique By static load placed on soil

(use dynamic load)

Quick sand condition

soil, the effective stress in soil becomes zero. TION, 9

ie = exit hydraulic gradient.

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 Allen Hazen’s Equation

 Coefficient of Consolidation Equation

PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOILS

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T50 = 0.196 T90 = 0.848

CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADEINT

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Terzaghi Equation for one- dimension consolidation

Tv = 1.781 – 0.933 log (100 – u); u > 60%

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of Ca to clay negative pressure

Long term stability

CA Immediate analysis Long term analysis

Vane Shear test

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W cos , tan  tan 

Face/slope failure Toe failure most Base failure

Stability Number = SN = H.  F .H (Max. value = 0.261)

Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure

H earth soil block

Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure

with the horizontal the horizontal

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Strip Isolated/spread CA Raft/mat Combined Pile foundation

footing footing foundation footing

Net Safe Bearing Capacity

Net ultimate bearing capacity

q net = Factor of safety.

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Analytical methods Building codes Field test methods

q ult = 1.3 CNC + DfNq+0.4bN

Plate Load test: (IS 1888–1992)

(c) Safe settlement of foundation

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Standard Penetration Test