11

Steam Generators
11.1. Introduction. 11.2. Classificationofboilers. 11.3. Comparisonbetween'frre-tubeandwater-
tube'boiiers. 11.4. Selection ofa boiler. 11.5. Essentials ofa good steam boiler. 11.6. Boiler terms.
11.7. Fire tube boilers : Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Cornish boiler, Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler, Scotch boiler. 11.8. Water tube boilers : Babcock and Wilcox water-tube boiler,
Stirling boiler. 11.9. High pressure boilers : Introduction, Unique features of the high pressure
boilers, Advantages ofhigh pressure boiles, Lamont boiler, Loeffler boiler, Benson boiler, Velox
boiler, Super-critical boilers, Superdrarged boiler. 11.10. Combustion equipment for steam boilers :
General aspects, Burningof coal; Stokerfiring,Pulverisedfuelfiring-Highlights-Objective 15rpe
Questions-Theoretical Questions.

r1.1. INTRODUCTION
In simple a boiler may be defined as a closed uessel in which stiam is prod.uced. from water
by combustion of fuel.
According to Ameriean Society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.) a ,steanx generating
unit' is defined as :
"A comhination of apparatus for producing, furnishing or recouering heat together with
the apparatus for transferring the heat so made auailable to the fluid being heated and, uapourised.,,.
The steam generated is employed for the following purposes i
(i) For generating power in steam engines or steam turbines.
(ii) In the textile industries for sizing and bleaching etc. and many other industries like
sugar mills ; chemical industries.
(izi) For heating the buildings in cold. weather and for producing hot water for
hot water
supply.
tlae primary reqwiretnents of steam generators or boilers are :
(i) The water must be contained safely.
(il) The steam must be safely delivered in desired condition (as regards its pressure, tem_
perature, quality and required rate).

1T.2. CI,ASSIFICATION OF BOILEBS

The boilers may be classified as follows :
1. Horizontal, Vertical or Inelined
Ifthe axis ofthe boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal, ifthe axis is vertical,
it is called uertinal boiler and if the axis is inclined it is known as inclined, boiler. The pafis of a
horizontal boiler can be inspected and repaired easily but it occupies more space. The uertical
boiler occupies less floor area.
Z. Fire Tube and lVater Tube
In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the'tubes and the water surrounds the
tubes. Examples : Cochran, Lancashire end, Locomotiue boilers,

516
STEAM CENERATORS
5t7

In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround thern,
Examples : Babcoch atd Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc.
$. Hxternally Fired Bnd Internally Fired
The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the shell. Examples : Babcoch
ancl Wileox boiler, Stirling boiler etc.
In eage of internally Iired boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Exampp; :
Cochran, Lanaashire boiler etc.
4. Foroed Circulation and Natural Circulatlon
In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a foreed, pump.
Examples : Velox, Lamont, Benson boiler ete,
ln notural cireulation type of boilers, circulationof water in the boiler takes place due to
natural conuention currents produced by the application ofheat. Examples : Lancasiire, Babcach
and Wilcox boiler etc.
5. High Pressure and Low Pressure Boilers
The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and aboue are called high pressure
boilers. Examples : Babcock ar..d Wilcox, Velox, Lamont, Benson boilers,
The boilers which'produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure boilers.
Examples : Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
6. Stationary and Portable
Primarily, the boilers are classified as either stationary (tand.) or mobile (marine arrd
-
locomotiue)
Stationary boilers are used for power plant-steam, for central station utility power
- plants, for plant process steam etc.
Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other srnall units for
- temporary use at sites (ust as in small coal-fieid pits).
7. Single Tube and Multi-tube Boilers
The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon
whether the frre tube is one or more than one. The examples of the former type are cornish, simple
verLical boiler and rest of the boilers are multi-tube boilers.

11.3. COMPARISON BETWEEN'FIRE.TUBE AND WATER.TUBE' BOILERS

Position ofwater and. hot gases Hot gases inside the tubes
andwater outside the tubes.
2. Mod.e of firing Generally internally fired.
3. Operating pressure Operating pressure limited
to 16 bar.
4. Rate of stearn production Lower
5. Suitability
Not suitable for large power
plants.
Risk on bursting Involves lesser risk on
explosion due to lower
pressure.
Floor area For a given power it occupies
more floor area.
Water inside the tubes and
hot gases outside the tubes.
Externallyfired.
Can work under as high
pressure as 100 bar.
Higher.
4
Suitableforlarge
power plants.
Involves more risk on
bursting due to high
pressure,
For a given power it
occupies less floor-area,
518 THERMAL ENGINEERING

8. Construction Diffrcult Simple

9. Transportation Dffieult Simple
10. Shell d.iamcter Large for same power Small for same power
11. Chances of explosion Less More
12. Tbeatment ofwater Not so necessary More necessary
13. Acces sibility af aarious parts Various parts not so easily Various parts are more
accessible for cleaning, repair accessible,
andinspection.
14. Requirement of skill Require less skill for effrcient Require more skill aod
and economic working. careful attention.

11.4. SELECTION OF A BOILER

While selecting a boiler the following factors should be considered :
1. The working pressure and quality of steam required (1.e., whether wet or dry or super-
heated).
2" Steam generation rate.
3. Fioor area available.
4. Accessibiiity for repair and inspeetion.
5. Comparative initial cost.
6. Erection facilities.
7. The portable load factor.
8. The fuel and water available"
9. Operating and maintenance costs.

11.5. ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD STEAM BOILEB

A good boiler should possess the following features :
1. The boiler should prodrrce the maximum weight of steam of the required quality at
minimum expenses.
2. Steam production rate should be as per requirements.
3. It should be absolutely reliable.
4. It should occupy minimum space. l

5. It should be light in weight.

6. It should be capable ofquick starting.
7. There should be an easy access to the various parts ofthe boiler for repairs and inspection.
8. The boiler components should be transportable without difficulty.
.9. ?he installation of the boiler should be simple.
1.0. The tubes of the boiler should not aceumulate soot or water deposits and shoold be
sufliciently strong to allow for wear and corrosion.
11; The \r.ater and gas circuits should be such as to allow minimum fluid velocity (for low
frictional losses).
STEAM GENERATOR.S 519

I.l.G. EOILEB TERMS

Shetl. ?he shell of a boiler consists of one or more steel plates bent into a cylind.rical forrn
and riveted or welded together" The shell ends are closed with the end plates.
Setting. The primary function of setting is to confine heat io the hroiler and form a passage
for gases. It is rnade of brickwork and may form the wail of the fi:rnace and the combustion
ehamber. It also provides support in some types of boilers (e.g., Lancashire boilers)"
Grate. It is the platform in the furnace upon which fuel is burnt and it is made cf cast iron
bars. The bars are so arranged that air may pass on to the fuel for combustion. The area of the
grate on which the fire rests in a coal or wood fired boiler is called grofe surf,ace,
Furnace. It is a chamber formed by the space above the grate and below the boiler shell, ia
which combustion takes place. It is also called a fi.re-box.
Water space and steam spaee. The volume of the sheli that is occupied by the rrsater is
termed u;ater spaee while the entire shell volume less the water and tubes (if any) space is called
steam.spece.
Mountings. The items such as stop valve, safety valves, water ievel gauges, fusibie plug,
blow-off cock, pressure gauges, water level indicator etc. are termed as mountings ar1d a boiler
cannot warh safely withitut them.
Accessories" The items such as superheaters, economisers, feed pumps etc. are terrned as
accessories and they form integral part of the boiler. They increase the efficiency of the boiler.
Water level. The levei at which water stands in the boiler is c,al\ed water leuel. Tine space
above the water level is called steam space.
Foaraing. Formatioa of steam bubbles on the surface of boiler waier due to high surface
tension of the water.
Scale. A deposit of medium to extrerne hardness oceilrring on rvater heating surfaces of a
boiler because of an undesirable condition in the boiler water.
Blowing off. The removal of the mud and other impurities of lvater frorn the lowest par-t of
the boiler (where they usually settle) is termed as'blawing offl. ?his is accornplisherl with the help
of a blow off cock or valve.
tagging. Blocks of asbestos or magnesia insulation wrapped on the outside of a boiler shell
or steam piping.
Refractory. A heat insulation material, such as fire brick or plastic fire elay, used for such
purposes as lining combustion chambers.

11.7. FIRE TUBE BOILERS 1

The various fire tube boilers are described as follows :

11.7.1. Simple Vertical Boiler

Refer Fig. 11.1. It consists of a cylindrical
sheil, the greater portion of which is full of water
(which surrounds the fire box also) and remaining is the steam space. At the bottom of the frre box
is grate on which fuei is burnt and the ash from it falls in ihe ash pit.
The fire box is provided with two cross t:.rbes. This increases the heating surface 6nd the
circulation of water. The cross tubes are fitted inclined. This ensures efficient circuiation of water.
At the ends ofeach cross tube are provided hand holes to give access for cieaning these tubes, The
combustion gases after heating the water and thus converting it intc steam qscape to the atmos-
phere through the chimney" Man hoie, is provided to clean the interior of the boiler and exterior of
the combustion chamber and chimney. The various mountings shown in Fig. 1L,1 are ff) pressure
gauger (jj) Water level gauge or indicator, (ilr) Safety valve, (iu) Steam stof valve, (u) Feed check
valve, and (uz) Man hole,
520 THERMAL ENGINEERINC

Flow of combustion gases and circulation of water in water jackets are indicated by arrows
in Fig. 11.1.

I I)tS
(i'ffi'(r
,$,\$ \t.( \ r r

;r(\((l

CS= Cylindricalstrell C = Chimney

MII= Manhole .EIII= Handhole
C?= C1qss1r5.. FD- Firedoor
G = Grate .EB= Firebox
PG = Pressure gauge AP= Ashpit
SV= SafstrYt.1t. SSV= Steamstopvalve
WLG= Water level gauge FCY= Feed checkvalve
Fig. 11.1. Simple vertical boiler.
The rate ofproduction in such a boiler normally does not exceed 2500 kg/hr and presstre is
normally limited to 7.5 to 10 bar.
A simple vertical boiler is self-contained and can be transported easily.
STEAM GENER.ATORS
52t
I1.7.2. Cochran Boiler
It is one of the best types of vertical multi-tubular boiler, and has a number of horizontal
- tubes.
fire
Dimensions, working pressure, capacity, heating surface and effi'ciency are given below
:
Shell diameter ..,...2.75 m
Height ...... 6.79 m
Working pressure ...... 6.5 bar (max. pressure = 15 bar)
$team capacity ...... 8500 kg/hr (max. capacity = 4000 kg/hr)
Heating surface ...... 120 m2
Efficiency ...... 70 to 75Vo (depending on the fuel used)

Mcc

t
t
I
CS= Cylindricalshell .F'? -
Flue tube
CC = Courbustion dramber ,SB= Smoke box
FB.L= Firbricklining C= Chimney
.F = Furnace (dome shaped) FII= Firehole
BOC = Blow offcock G = Grate
SSV= Steamstopvalve AP= dshpltr
APP= Antiprimingpipe SY= SafstrYr.1t.
PG = Pressure gauge Mlf= Manhole
WLG= Waterlevel gauge
FiS. U.2. Cochran boiler.
522 THERM,A,L ENCINEERINC

Cochran boiler consists of a cyiindricai shell with a dome shaped top where the space
is
provided for steam. The furnace is one piece construction and is seamless" Iis crown
has a hemi-
spherical shape and thus provides maximum volume of space. The fuet is burnt on the grate
and
ash is collected and disposed offrom ash pit. The gases ofcombustion produced by burning
offuei
enter the combustion- chamber through the fiue tube and strike against fire br-ick lining which
directs them to pass through number ofhorizontal tubes, being surrounded by water. After which
the gases escape to the atmosphere through smoke box and chimney. A number of hand.-holes are
provided around the outer shell for cleaning purposes.
The various boiler mountings shown in Fig. L!.2 are: (j) Water level gauge, Gl) Safety
valve, (iil) Steam stop valve, (lu) Blcw off cock, (u) Man hole and, (ui) Pressur" g:*"i".'
The path of combustion of gases and circulation of water are shown by arrows in Fig. J.1.2.
11.?.3. Cornish Boiler
This form of boiler was first adopted by Trevithick, the Cornish engineer, at the time of
introduction ofhigh-pressure steam to the early Cornish engine, and is stiliused-
Tlte speeifications ofCornish boiler are given below :
No. of flue tubes One
Diameter of the shell 1.25 to 1.?5 rn
Length of the shell 4to7rn
Pressure of, the steam 10.5 bar
Stearn capacity 6500 kg/h.

F:-:::----l

-{ ::\
!s:3r
_/:*
I l::,
\<===--Y-l

A = Fusibleplug F?= Plugtr!r5.

B.F = Be6lqm llt. SF= $ldsflr.
D = Damper C = Passage to chimney
Fig. 11.3. Cornish boiler.
 STEAM GENERATORS 523

Refer Fig. 11.3. It consists of a cylindrical sheil with flat ends through which passes a
smaller flue tube corrtaining the furnaee. ?he products of combustion pass from the fire grate
f,orward over the brickwork bridge to the end of the furnace tube ; they t\en return by the two side
flues to the front end ofthe boiier, and again pass to the back end ofa flue along the bottom ofthe
boiler to the chimney.
The various boiier mountings which are used on this boiler are : 0) Steam stop valve,
(ii) Pressure gauge, (iii) Water gauge, (ju) Fusible plug, (u) Blow off cock, (ui) High steam low
wal;er safety valve, (uij) Feed check valve and (uijj) Man hole.
The ad.uantage possessed by this type of boiler is that the sediment cantained in the water
falls to the bottom, where the plates are not brou.ght into cantact with the hottest portian of the
furnaee eioses. The reason for carrying the product of combustion first through the side flues, and
lastly through the bottom flue, is because the gases, having parted with much of their heat by the
time they reach the bottom flue, are less liable to unduiy heat the plates in the bottom of the boiler,
where the sediment may have collected.
11.7.4. Lancashire Boiler
This boiler is'reliitble,lnas simplicity of design, ease of operation and less aperating and,
r'naintenance costs. It is commonly used in sugar-rnills and textile inQustries where alongwith the
power steam and steam for the process work is also needed. In addition this boiler is used where
larger reserve ofwater and steam are needed.
T}re specificatians oflancashire boiler are given belo*, :
Diameter of the shell 2toBm
Length of the shell 7to9m
Maximum working pressure L6 bar
Steam capacity 9000 kg/h
Efficiency 5o ta ToVo
Refer Fig. 1"1.4. The Lancashire boiler consists of a cylindricai shell inside which two large
tubes are placed. The shell is constructed with several rings of cylindrical from and it is placed
horizontally over a brickwork whieh forrns several ehannels for the flow of hot gases. These two
tubes are also constructed with several rings of cylindrical form. They pass frorn one and of the
shell to the other and are covered with water. The furnace is placed at the front end of each tube
and they are known as ftrrnace tubes. The coal is introduced through the fire hole into the grate.
?here is low brickvrork fire bridge at the back ofthe gate to prevent the entry ofthe br:rning coal
and ashes into the interior ofthe furnace tubes.
The combustion products from the grate pass upto the back end of the furnace tubes and
then in downward direction. Thereafter they move through the bottom channel or bottom flue upto
the front end of the boiler where they are divided and pass upto the side flues. Now they move along
the two side flues and come to the chimney flue from where they lead to the chimney. To control
the flow of hot gases to the chimney, dampers (in the form of sliding doors) are provided" Asp result
the flow of air to the grate can be controlled. The various mountings used on the boiler are shown
in Fig. 1L.4.
Note" In Cornish and Lancashire boiiers, conical shaped cross tubes known as galloway tubes (not shown)
may be fitted ineide the firnace tubes to increaee their heating surfaces and circulation of waier. But these tubes
have now become absolete for their considerable cost offitting. Moreover, they cool the furnace gases and retard
combustion.

i
i
524 THERMAL ENGINEERING

Flre

Fire
It
:-,
t+
+- <-B <- +J

-> -+> -+ -->s D+

--+ liil3 ll* +
->ll --+ ll-> ->
-+ --+s --+D --+ --.>
;)

B = Bottom flue 1. High steam low water safetyvalve

C= Chimney 2. Manhole
D = Dampers 3. Antiprimingpipe
E = Firebridge 4. Steam stope valve
F= Fluetube 5. Safetyvalve
K= Mainflue 6. Pressuregauge
S = Sideflue . I . 7. Feed checkvalve
8. Watergauge
9. Blow down cock
10. Fusible plug
Fig. 11.4. Lancashire boiler.
11.7.5. Locomotive Boiler
It is mainly employed in locomotives though it may also be used as a stationary boilel It is
compact and its capacity for steam production is quite high for its size as it can raise large quan-
tity of steam rapidly.
Dimensions and the specifications of the locomotive boilers (made at Chitranjan works in
India) are given below :
Barrel diameter 2.098 m
Length ofthe barrel 5.206 m
Size ofthe tubes (superheater) 14 cm
STEAM GENERATORS 525

No. of superheater tubes 38

Size of ordinary tubes 5.72 cm
No. of ordinary tubes 116
Steam capacity 9000 kg/h
Working pressure 14 bar
Grate Area 4.27 m2
Coal burnt/hr 1600 kg
Heating surface 27L m2
Efficiency TAVo

Steam dome
Chamber Begulator
Regulator whistle

V{ater level
leading indicator
to engine
Smoke Fire hole
box grate
door

Biow-off cock
Ordinary fire tubes

;;)ry ^"
t"' \\ <- Air
Air
1-
Fig. 11.5. Locomotive boiler.
Refer Fig. 11.5. The locomotive boiler consists of a cylindrical barrel with a rectangular frre
box at one end and a smoke box at the other end. The coal is introduced through the frre hole into
the grate which is placed at the bottom of the fire box. The hot gases which are generated due to
burning of the coal are deflected by an arch of fire bricks, so that walls of the fire box may be heated
properly. The fire box is entirely surrounded by water except for the fire hole and the ash pit which
is situated below the fire box which is fitted with dampers at its front and back ends" The dampers
control the flow of air to the grate. The hot,gases pass from the fire box to the smoke box tlrrough
a series of fire tubes and then they are discharged into the atmosphere through the chimney. The
frre tubes are placed inside the barrel. Some of these tube are of larger diameter and the others of
smaller diameter. The superheater tubes are placed inside the fire tubes of larger diameter. Tlr,1e
heat of the hot gases is transmitted into the \Mater through the heating surface of the fire tubes.
The steam generated is collected over the water surface.
A dome shaped chamber known as steam dome is fitted on the upper part of the barrel, from
where the steam flows through a steam pipe into the chamber. The flow of steam is regulated by
means ofa regulator. From the chamber it passes through the superheater tubes and r6turns to
the superheated steam chamber (not shown) from which it is led to the cylinders through the
pipes, one to each cylinder.
In this bailer natural draught cannot be obtained because it requires a uery high chimney
which cannot be prouided on a locomotiue boiler since it has to run on roils. Thus some artificial
arrangement has to be used to produce a correct draught. As such the draught here is produced, by
exhagst steam from the cylinder which is discharged through the blast pipe to the chimney. When
526 THERMAL ENGINEERING

the locomotiue is standing and no exhaust steam is auailable from the engine fresh steam
from
the boiler is used for the purpose.
The various boiler mountings include :
Safety valves, pressure gauge, water level indicator, fusible plug, man hole, blorv-off cock
and feed check valve.
A locomotive boiler entails the following merits and demerits :

Merits :
1. High steam capacity.
2. Low cost of construction.
3. Portability.
4. Low installation cost.
5. Compact.
Demerits :
1. There are chances to corrosion and scale formation in the water legs due to the accumu-
lation of sediments and the mud particles.
2. It is difficult to clean some water spaces.
3. Large flat surfaces need bracing.
4. It cannot carry high overloads without being damaged by overheating.
5. There are practical constructional limits for pressure and capacity which do not meet
requirements.
1L.7.6. Scotch boiler
The scotch t;pe marine boiler is probably the most popular boiler for steaming capacities
upto about 1000 kg&r and pressure of about 17 bar.It is of compact size and occupies small floor
space.

('1

il
tj.B

?= Furnacetube R = Smoke box door

11= Fire hole C = Chimney
M = Combustion chamber S = Shell
B = Smoke box Y= Barstays
Fig. 11.6. Scotch boiler.
STEAM GE,NERATORS 521

Fig. 11.6 shows a single ended scotch type marine boiler..It consists of a cylindrical shell in
which are incorporated one to four cylindrical, eorrugated steel furnaces. The furnaces are inter-
nally frred and surrounded by water. A eombustion chamber is locased at the back end of the
furnace and is also surrounded by water. Usually each furnace has its'own combustion chamber.
A nest offire tubes run from the front tube plate to the back tube plate.
The hot gases produced due to burning of fuel move to the combustion charnbers (by means
of the draught). Then they travel to the smoke box through the frre tubes and finally leave the
boiler ulo uptake and the chimney.
In a double ended scoteh boiler furnaces are provided at each end. They look- like single
ended boilers placed back to back. A double ended boiler for same evaporation capacity, is cheaper
and occupies less space as compared to single ended boiler.

1I..8. WATER TUBE BOILERS

The types of water tube boilers are given below :

Longitudinal drurn

Two drum
Horizontal straight
tube (Babcock and
Four drum

Water tube
boilers
Three drurn

Bent tube Low head

three drum

11"8.1. Babcock and Wilcox Water-tube Boiler

The water tube boilers are used exclusively, when pressure above l0 bar and capacity in
excess of 7000 kg of steam per hour is required. Babcock and Wilcox water-tube boiier is an
example of horizontal straight tube boiler and may be designed for stationary or,marine purposes.
The particulars (dimer.sions, capacity etc.) relating to this boiler are given below :
Diameter of the drum L.22 to 1.83 rn
Length 6.096 to 9.144 m
Size of the water tubes 7.62 to 10.16 cm
Size of superheater tubes 3.84 to 5.71 cm
Working pressure 40 bar (rnax.)
Steaming capacity 40000 kg/h (max.)
Effrciency 60 to 807o
Fig. 11.7 shows a Babcock and Wilcox boiler with longitudinal drum. it consists of a drum
connected to a series offrcrnt end and rear end header by short riser tubes. To these heiders are
connected a seiies of incline<i water tubes of solid drawn mild steel.
The angle of inclination of the water tubes to the horizontal is about 15" or more. A hand
hole is provided in the header in front ofeach tube for cleaning and inspection oftubes. A feed valve
is provided to frll the drum and inclined tubes with water the level of which is indicated by the
water level indicator. Through the fire door the fuel is supplied to grate where it is burnt. The hot
gases are forced to rnove upwards between the tubes by baf{Ie plates provided. The water from the
528 THERMAL ENOINEBRING

drum flows through the inclined tubes uia downtake header and goes back into the shell in the
formof water and steam uio uptake header. The steam gets collected in the steam space of the
drum. The steam then enters through the antipriming pipe and flows in the superheater tubes
where it is further heated and is finally taken out through the rnain stop valve and supplied to the
engine when needed.

i:iilit !::z=,:gJj').'?'
i i E EE rnratarl E E J i
tl
l
I
gi+g
======
iE=EEEET
=- =- E
i5 =-r
==:=i
FV --+ --t =l

r r-,
<-MC

E
. D=Drum PG = Pressure gauge
DTH = Down take header S?- Superheatertubes
17?= Watertubes SV= Safetyvalve
BP= B6ffl6P1"guu MSV= Mainstopvalve
D = Doors APP= Antiprimingpipe
G = Grate .L = Lowerjunction box
.ED = Pils 6.., U= Upperjunctionbox
MC= Mudcollector .F 7= Feedvalve
IILI= Water level indicator
Fig. 11.7. Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
At the lowest point of the boiler is provided a mud collector to remove the mud particles
tlrough a blow-down-cock.
' The entire boiler except the furnace are hung by means of metallic slings or straps or
wrought iron girders supported on pillars, This arrangement enables the drum and the tubes to
expand or contract freely. The brickwork around the boiler encloses the furnace and the hot gases.
STEAM GENERATORS
529

The various mountings used on the boiler are shown in Fig. 1i..?.
A tsabcoek Wilcox water tube boiler with cross draw differs from longitudinal drum boiler
in
a way that how drum is placed with reference to the axis of the water tubes cf the boiler.
The
longitudinal drum restricts the number of tubes that can be connected to one drum circumferen-
tially and limits the capacity of the boile.r. In the cross drum there is no limitation of the number
sf connecting tubes.
The pressure of steam in ease of cross drum boiler may be as high as 100 bar and sieaming
capacity upto 27000 kg/h.

11.8.2. Stirling Boiler

Stirling water tube boiler is an example of bent fabe boiler. The main elements of a bent
type water tube boiler are essentially drum or drums and headers connected by bent tubes. For
large central power stations these boilers are very popular. They have steaming capacities
as high
as 50000 kglh and pressure as high as 60 bar.

1t

tt]I
I
,(

l'r'1. ?--
IID
,//-/
I -+

_ Jt la
()
-e _-.3/r4,.-'
// _ --a i;r*----j lt
Y= Stopvalve S7= $upffhratertubes
P= Steampipe ? = Water tubes
6 = Waterbaffle G = Grate
B = Bafflewall M= Muddrum
Fig. 1 1.8 Stirling boiler
 530 THERMAT ENGINEERING

FiS. 11,8 showe a small-sized stirling water tubc boiler. It consiets of two uppcr drums
known as steatl drume and a lower drum known Ea rnud, or water d,rum.'The eteam drume are
eonneeted to mud drum by banks ofbent tubes. The steam and water space ofthe steam drums are
interconnected with each other, so that balance of water and steam may be obtained. For carrying
out cleaning operation a man hole at one end of each drum is provided. The feed water from the
economiser (not shown) is delivered to the steam drum-1 which is frtted with a baflle. The baffle
deflects the waJer to move downwards into the drum. The water flows f,rom the d.rum 1 to the mud
'
drum throughihe rearmost water tubes at the backside. So the mud particles and other impuri-
ties will move to the mud drum, where these particles may be deposited. As this drum is not
subjected to high temperature, so the impurities may not cause harm to the drum. The blow-off
cock blows offthe impurities. The baffle provided at the mud drum deflects the pure water to move
upwards to the drum 1 through the remaining half of the water tubes at the back. The water also
flows from it to the drum 2 through the water tubes which are just over the furnace. So they attain
a higher temperature than the remaining portion of the boiler and a major portion of evaporation
takes place in these tubes. The steam is taken from the drum 1 through a steam pipe and then it
passes through the superheater tubes where the steam is superheated" Finally the steam moves to
the stop valve from where it can be supplied for further use.
The combustion products ensuing from the grate move in the upward and downward direc-
tions due to the brickwall baffles and are finally discharged through the chimney into the atmos-
phere. Fire brick arch gets incandescent hot and helps in combustion and preventing the chilling
of the furnace when fire door is opened and cold air rushes in.
The steam drums and mud drum are supported on steel beams independent of the brick-
work.
It is lighter and' more f'lexible than the straight tube boilers. but it is comparatiuely more
dfficult to clean and inspect the bent tubes.

1T.9. HIGH PRESSIIRE BOILERS

11.9.1. Introduction
In applications where steam is needed at pressure, 30 bar, and individual boilers are required
to raise less than about 30000 kg of steam per hour, shell boiters are consid,erably cheapei than
the water tube boilers. Above these limits, shell boilers (generally factory built) are diffrcult to
transport if not impossible. There are no such limits to rvater tube boilers. These can be site
erected from easily transportable parts, and moreover the pressure parts are of smaller diameter
and therefore can be thinner. The geometry can be varied to suit a wide range of situations and
furnace is not limited to cylindrical form. Therefore, water tube boilers are geierally prefened.
for
high pressure a,nd high output whereas shell boilers for low pressure und.Tow outpit.
The modern high pressure boilers employed for power generation. are for steam capacities S0
to 650 tonnes/h and above with a pressure upto 160 bar and maximum st6arn temperaturc of about
540"C.
11.9.2. Unique Features of the High Pressure Boilers
Following are the unique features of high pressure boilers :

1. Method of water circulation 4

2. Type oftubing
8, Improved method of heating.
1. Method of water clraulatlon. ?he circulation of water through the boilcr may be
natu.ral cireulation due to density difference or foreed circulation, In all riodern high pres;ure
boiler plants, thc water eirculation ig mainteined with the hclp of pump whieh forccs thc watcr
STBAM GENERATORS 53I

ll.qosh the boiler plant, The uee of natural eireulation ic timited, to aub.aritieal boilers d,uc ta ita
limitatiana,
2. I}pe of tubing. In most of the high pressure boilers, the water circulated through the
tubes and their external surfaces are exposed to the flue gases. In water tube boilers, ifthe flow
takes place through one continuous tube, the large pressure drop takes place due to friction. This
is considerably reduced by arranging the flow to pass tbough parallel iystem of tubing. In most
of the cases, several sets of the tubings are used. This type of heips to red.uce the
pressure /osq and better control over the quality of the steam. ".rarrgement
S. Im.proved method of heating. The following improved methods of heating m-*y be -.::ed
to increase the heat transfer :
(i) The saving of heat by euaporation of water above critical pressure of the steam.
(ii) The heating of water can be made by mixing the superheated. steam. The mixing phe-
nomenon giues highest heat transfer co-efficient.
(iiD The overall heat transfer coefficient can be increased by increasing the water uelocity
inside the tube and increasing the gas uelocity aboue sonic uelocity.
11.9.3. Advantages of High Pressure Boilers
The following are the advantages of high pressure boilers.
1. In high pressure boilers pumps are used to maintain forced circulation of water through
the tubes ofthe boiler . TLLis ensures positiue circulation of water and. increases euaporatiue
capacity of the boiler and less number of steam drums will be required,.
2. The heat of combustion is utilised more effi.cicntly by the use of small diameter tube in
large number and in muitiple cireuits.
3. Pressurised combustion is used which increases rate of firing of fuet thus increasing the
rate ofheat release.
4. Due to compactness less floor space is required.
5. The tendency of scale formation is eliminated due to high velocity of water through the
tubes.
6. All the parts are uniformlyheated, therefore the danger of overheating is reduced and
thermal stress problem is simplified.
7. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility ofgas and air leakages
8. The components can be arranged horizontally as high head. requlred for natural circu)a-
tion is eliminated using forced circulation. There is a greater flexibility in the compo-
nents arrangement. j,

9. The steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements without the use
of complicated coritrol devices.
10' The efficiency of plant is increased upto 40 to 42 per cent by using high pressure an4
high temperature steam.
11. A very rapid start from cold is possible if an external supply of power is available. Hence
the boiler can be used, for carrying peak loads or stand by purposes with hydraulic
station.
12. Use of high pressure and high temperature steam is economical.
11.9.4. LaMont Boiler
This boiler works on a foreed eireulation and the cireulation is maintained by a eentrifugal
?ump, driven by a steam turbine using steam from the boiler, For emergeury an eleetricaliy.
drivcn pump is aleo fitted,
532 THERMAI- ENGINEERINc

Fig. 11.9 shows a LaMont steam boiler. The feed water passes through the economiser to
the drum from which it is drawn to the circulation pump. The pump delivers the feed water to the
tube evaporating section'which in turn sends a mixture of steam and water to the drum. The
steam in the drum is then drawn through the superheater. The superheateil steam so obtained is
then supplied to the prirne rnover.

Convection
superheater
Steam to
prime mover

1---+--
Water ---+ Steam

Economiser Water
---*
'---)Fluegas

Tube
Water
section
pump

Fig. 11.9. LaMont boiler.

These boilers have been built to generate of 45 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a
pressure of 130 bar and at a temperature ofE00"C.
11.9.5. Loeffler Boiler
In a LaMont boiier the major difliculty experienced is the deposition of salt and sediment on
the inner surfaces of the water tubes. The deposition reduces the heat transfer and ultimately the
generating capacity. This further increases the danger ofoverheating the tubes due to salt deposi-
tion as it has high thermal resistance. This difficulty was solved in Loeffler boiler by pr"u"iting
the fiaw of water into the boiler tubes
This boiler also makes use of forced circulation. Its novel principle is the euaporating of the
feed. water by means of superheated. steqm frorn the superhe.ater, the hat gases from the furnace
being primarily used for superheating purposes.
Fig. 11.10 shows a diagrammatic view of a Loeffler boiler. The high pressure feed pump
draws water through the economiser (or feed water heater) and deliver it irrto the evaporating
drum. The steam circulating pump draws saturated steam from the evaporating drum and pu.rus
it through radiant and convective superheaters where steam is heated to required temperature.
From the superheater about one-third of the superheated steam passes to the prime moverJtur-
bine) the r€maining two-thirds passing through the water in the evaporating drum in order to
evaporate feed water.
This boiler aan carry hi,gher salt concentratians than any other type and. is rnore cornpaet
than indireetly heated' boilers hauing natural circulation. These qualiiies fit it for land, or sea
transport power gcneration.
Loefller boilers with generating capacity of 100 tonnes/h and operating at 140 bar are al-
ready commissioned.
STEAM CENERATORS
53-1

I
r Flue gas Superheated steam to
prime moVer
^lI

Economiser--)

superheater

Radiant
superheater

Saturated Feed pump

steam Superheated 1
steam
d
Steam
circulating-----+
pump

Evaporating
drum

Fig. 11.10. Loefiler boiler.

11.9.6. Benson Boiler

In the LaMont boiler, the main difficult experienced is the formation and. attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached. bubbtes to the tube surfaces
reduce the heat flow and, steann generation as it offers high thermal resistance than water'fi1m.
Benson in 1922 argued, that if the boiler pressure utas raised, to critical pressure (2ZS atnr.), the
steam and, water haue the same density and, therefore, the d.anger of bubbte
formation can be
easily eliminated, The first high pressure Benson boiler was put into operation in lg27 in West
Germany.
This boiler too rnakes use offorced cireulation and uses oil as fuel. It chiefnovel principle is
that it eliminates the latent heat of water by first compressing the feed to a pressurn of ZSS bar, it
is then aboue the critical pressure and its latent heat is zero.
Fig. 11.1"1 shows a schematic diagrarn of a Benson boiler. Thiri boiler doei not uise any
drum. The feed water after circulation through the economic tubes flows through the radiant
parallel tube section to evaporate partly. The steam water mixture produced then moves to the
transit section where this mixture is converted into sieam. The steam is now passed through the
convection superheater and frnally supplied to the prime mover.
. Boilers having as high as 650"C temperature of steam had been put into service" The
maximum working pressure obtained so far from commercial Benson boiler is 6oo .t-. The Benson
boilers of 150 tonnes/tr generating capacity are in use.
534 THERMAL ENGINEERINC

Steam to-5

Radiant parallel
tube section Feed
pump

Fig. 11.11. Bensonboiler.

Advantages of a Benson Boiler
The Benson boiler possesses the following aduantages :
1. It can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area.
2. The total weight of a Benson boiler is 207o less than other boilers, since there are no
drums. This also reduces the cost of the boiler.
3. It can be started very quickly because ofweldedjoints.
4. Natural eonvection boilers require expansion joints but these are not required for Benson
boiler as the pipes are welded. ,, .
5. The furrace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using smaller diam-
eter and closed pitched tubes.
6. The transfcr of parts of the boiler is easy as no drums are required and majority of the
parts are carried to the site without pre:assembl],
7. It can be operated most economically by varying the temperature and pressure at partial
lcads and overloads, The desired temperature can also be maintained constant at any
pregsurc, 4

8, The blow-down losscs of thc boiler are hardly AVs af natwal eireulation boilcr of thc came
eapacity,
0. Exploelon hazards are Rot Ecvers aa it eonsistc of only tubcs of cmall diameter and hae
very little Etoregc eapacity.
10. The supcrheater in a Benson boiler is an integral part offoreed circulation 6yctem, there-
fsre no special starting arrangement for superheater is required.
STEAM GENERATORS s35

11.9.7. Velox Boiler

It is a well known fact that when the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is
transferred from the gas at a much higher rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The
advantage of this theory is taken to effect the large heat transfer from a smaller surface area in
this boiler.
This boiler makee use*of preaaurlsed combustlon.
The gas turbine drivee the axial flow compressor which raises the incoming air from atmos-
phere preseure to furnace pressure. The combustion gases after heating the watei and steam flow
through the gas turbine to the atmosphere. The feed water after passing through the economiser is
pumped by a water circulating pump to the tube evaporating section. Steam separated in steam
separating section flows to the superheater, from there it moves to the prime mover.

Steam to
prime mover

*+ Steam
super heater
water
-.)>
- -> Flue gas

Steam L-----
separating I Flue
section Tube
Io" evaporating
I section

Flue gas

Feed
pump

Economiser
Water circulating
pump
Axial Gas turbine
compressor

Water

Fig. 11.12. Velox boiler.

The size of the Velox boiler is limited to 100 tonnes/tr because 600 B,H,P, ie requirbd to run
the air comprcggor at this output, The power developed by,the gas turbine ic not auflieient to run
the comprecgor and therefore Bomc power from external gourec muat be supplied,
AdvantagoC
1, The boiler is very compact and hac greater flexibility.
2. Very high combustion rates are possible.
8, It can be quickly started.
4. Low excess air is required as the pressurised air is used and the problem of draught is
simplifred.
 536 THERMAL ENGINEERING

11.9.8. Super-eritical Boilers

A large nurnber of steam generating plants are designed between working ranges of 125
atm, and 510'C to 300 atm. and 660'C ; these are basically characterised as trub-eriticat and,
super-critical
Udually a sub'critical boiler consists of three distinct section as preheater (economiser),
euaporator arrd. superheater,
A, super-critical boiler requires orrly preheater and superheater.
The constructional layout ofboth the above types ofboilers is, however, practically identical.
These days it has become a rule to use super-critical boilers aboue 300 MW capacity units.
The super-critical bcilers claim the foliowing ad,uantages over critical tSpe :
1. Large heat transfer rates.
2. Owing to lbss heat capacity of the generator the pressure level is more stable and there-
fore gives better response.
3. Because of absence of two phase mixture the probiems of erosion and corrosion are mini-
mised.
4. More adaptable to load fluctuations (because of great ease of operation, simplicity and
flexibility).
5. The turbo-generators eonnected to super-critical boilers can genelate peak loads by changing
the pressure of operation.
6. Higher thermal efficiency.
Presently, 246 atm. and 538"C are used for unit size above 500 MW capacity plants.
11.9.9. Supercharged Boiler

- In a supercharged boiler, the combustion is carried out under pressure ih the combustion
chamber by supplying the compressed air. The ex&aust gases from the combustion chamber are
used to run the gas turbine as they are exhausted to high pressure. The gas turbine runs the air
compressor to supply the compressed air to the combustion chamber.
Advantages:
1. Owing to very high overall heat transfer co-efficient the heat transfer surface required is
hardly 2O to 25Vo ofthe heat transfer surface ofa conventional boiler.
2' The part lfthe gas turbine output can be used to drive other auxiliaries.
3' Small heat storage capacity ofthe boiler plant gives better response to control.
4. Rapid start of the boiler is possible.
5. Ccmparatively less number of operators are required

11.10. CoMBUSTION EQLnPMEIVT FOR STEAM BOILEBS

11.10.1. General Aspects

The combustion equipment is a component of the steam generator. Since the source of heat
is the combustion of a fuel, a working unit must have whateveiequipment is necessary to receive
the and air, proportioned to each other and to the boiler stuam demand, mix, ignit€ and
^fuel
perform any other speciai combustion duties, such as distillation of volatile from coa-i prior to
ignition.
Fluid fuels are handled by burners; solid lump fuels by stokers.
In boiler plants hand firing on grates is practically unheard of now-a-days in new plants,
although there are many small industrial planti still in service with hand firing.
STE,AI\4 CENERATORS 537

Since so many different principles are used in cornbustion equipment, Table 11.1 gives the
more important manufactured types of stokers and burners.

Table tr 1.1. Important Tylres of Stokers and Burners

Muitiniejet
I
Gas j Fanmix
t-
I rre-mrx Multipleburner
Pressure atomizing Beplaceable tip
Fluid
I
Widerangetip
I
fuels O'il I Steamatomizing Outsidemix
(Burners)
I notury *p Insidemix

[vapori"u. J
wict
IHotplut"
Short flame
I
Pulverized coal Lonsflame
I
Crushedand L Tangential
finelysized High turbulence furnace (cyclone)
coal
JDumpgrate
IMechanicalthrow {Overthrow
Spreader tUnderthrow lTtavellinggrate
stoker ]I J eirS*
Lrrmp tJetthrow lsteamjet
coal 0verfeed
stokers Conveyor
{
I}avellinggrate J
Naturaldraft
stoker IChaingrate IForceddraft
(
Horizontalretort Sin8le
I J J Ramfeed JGratesstationary
Underfeed { I fWi" 1 Sou* feed l Grates agitated
I
Slopingretort-Multiple report, large capacity.
The fuels are mainly bituminous coal, fuel oil, and natural gas mentioned in order of impor-
tance. AII are composed of hydrocarbons, arld coal has, as well much fixed carbon and little sul-
phur. To burn these fuels to the desired and products, CO, and HrO, requires (i) air in sufficient
proportions, (ii) a good mixing of the fuel and air, (iii) a turbulence or relatiue motion between
fuel and oir. ?he combustion equipment must fulft.ll tltese requiretnents qnd, in addition, be
capable of close regulation of rate of firing the fuel, for boilers ord,inarily aperate on uariable loud,.
Coal'firing'equipment must q.lso haue a nxeais for holding and discharging the ash resid.ue.
The basic requirements of combustion equipment are :
1. Thorough mixing of fuel and air. 1
2. Optimum fuel-air ratios ieading to most complete combustion possible maintained over
full losd raiige.
3. Ready and .accurate response of rate fuel feed to load demand (usuaily as reflected in
boiler steam pressure).
4. Continuous and reliable ignition of fuel.
.53I] THERMAL ENGINEERING

5" Practical distillation of volatile components of coal followed by adequate

action in items 1
and 4 above.
6. Adequate control over point of formation and accumulation of ash, when coal
is the fuel.
. Natural gas is used as a boiler fuel in gas well regions where fuel is relatively cheap and
coal sources comparatively distant. The transportation o1 natural gas overlanJ
i. rlppry'riii",
with rlomestic and industrial heat has made tlie gas in the well more valuable and the gas
fired
steam generator more diflicult to justiff in eomparison with coal, on fuel cost
atone.-Cteintirress
and convenience in use are other criteria of selection, but more decisive in smatipi"itr
in central
power stations.
Transportation costs add less to the delivery price of oil than gas ; also fuel oil may be stored
in tanks at a reasonable cost, whereas gas cannot. Hence althouglifuei oil is usualiy more costly
than coal per kg of steam generated, many operators select fuefoil burners rather than stokers
because of the simplicity and cleanliness of storing and transporting the fuel from
storage to
burner.
11.10.2. Burning of Coal
The two most commonly used methods for the burning of coal are :
1. Stoker firing
2. Puluerised, fael firing.
The selection of one of the above methods depends upon the followingfoctors
i
ti) Characteristics ofthe coal available.
(ir) Cur."tr, of the boiler unit.
(lii) Load fluctuations.
(iu) Station load factor.
(u) Reliabili8 and efficiency of the various types of combustion
equiprnent available.
11.10.2.1. Stoker Firing
A stoker is a power operated, fuel feed,ing mechanism and, grate.
Stoker frring (as compared to hand firing) entails the followin g aduantages g;1td. d.isad.uan-
tages.
Advantages :
1. A cheaper grade offuel can be used.
2. A higher efficiency attained.
3. A greater flexibility ofoperations assured.
4. Less smoke produced.
5. Generally less building space is necessary
6. Can be used for small or large boiler units.
7. Very reliable, and maintenance charges are reasonably low.
8. Practically immune from explosions.
9. Beduetion in auxiliary plant. 1
Dieadventagea !
1, Oonctruction it complicated.
I' In very large unite the initial eost may be rather higher than with pulverised fuel,
eaea of
8, There is always a certain amount sf lose of coal in the form of riddlinls
through the
grates,
4. Sudden variations in the steam demand cannot be met to the same
degree.
STEAM GBNERMORS 539

5. Troubles due to slagging an*clinkering of combustion chamber walls are experienced.

6. Banking and stand by losses are always present.
Claseifloation of stokcr firlng
Automatic stokers are classified as follows I

2. Und,erfeed, atohers"
In the case ofouerfeed, stokers, the coal ie fed into the grate above the point ofair admission
and in case of anderfeed, stohers, the coal is admitted into the furnace below the point of air
admission. The differenee is made clear in Fig. 11.13.

Distillation
Reduction
Oxidation

Underfeed

Fig. 11.13. Di{ference between underfeed and overfeed stoker {iring.

1. Overfeed stokers
These types of stokers are used for large capacity boiler installation where the coal is
burned without puluerisation. The overfeed stokers are of mainly two types : (i) Travelling grate
stoker, and, (ii) Spreader stoker.
Trauelling grate stoker. The travelling stoker may be chain grate type or bar grate type.
These two differ only in the details of grate construction
Fig. 11.14 shows a chain grate stoher. The speed of the stoker is 12.5 cm to 50 cm_per
minute. An index plate with pointer shows the coal bed thickness at all times. This can be regu-
lated either by adjusting the opening ofthe fuel gate or by the speed control ofthe stoker driving
motor" The air is admitted from the underside of the grate which is divided into several compart-
ments each connected to an air duct. The grate should be saved from being overheated. For this,
the coal ehould have sufficient ash content which will form a layer on the grate, Since there is
practically no agitation of the fuel bad, non-cohing aaala dre best suited, for chain grate €tdherd,
The ratE of burning with this stoker is 200 to 800 kg per m2 per hour when forced draught
ic uscd,
The advantages and disadvantageE ofchain gratc stokcr arc liEted below :

Ad,vonta.gee
1. $imple iu construction,
2. Low initial cost.
 540
THERMAL ENGINEERING

Over fire or
secondary
air ports

Adjustable
luel gate

Primary air

Ash Exhaust
Fig. 11.14. Chaingrate stoker.
3. Maintenance charges low.
4. Self-cleaning stoker.
5. Gives high heat release rates per unit volume of the furnace.
6. Heat release rates can be controlled just by controlling the speed sfchain.
Disadaantages :
1. The temperature of preheated air is limited as 1g0.C.
2. The clinker troubbs are very common.
3. Ignition arches are required.
4. There is always some loss of coal in the form of fine particles carried with
the ashes.
5. This cannot be used for high capacity boirers (200 tonneslh) or more.
Spreader stoker
Refer Fig. 11.15. In a spreader stoker the coal is not fed into the furnace
by means of grate.
The function of the grate is only to support a bed of ash and move it out
of the furnace. From the
coal hopper, coal is fed into the path of a rotor by means of a conveyor,
and i" th.;n i;;; fi;
furnace by the rotor an'l_is burnt in suspension. The air for combustion is
supplied through the
holes in the grate. overfire air or secondary air to create turbulence."d
r;ppiy;;;gen for the
thorough combustion of coal is supplied through nozzles located directly.uo#tir"
Unburnt coal and ash are deposited on the grate which can be moved
ifrition arch.
ieriodically to"remove ash
out of furnace.
Spreader stokers can be used for boiler capacities from 70000 kg per hr ofsteam
tg about
140000 kg per hr,
Ad,uantagea :
1. A wide variety ofcoal can be burnt.
2' The clinkering difficulties are reCuced even with coals which have high clinkering ten-
dencies.
3. The use of high temperature preheated. air is possible.
4. Operation cost is considerably low.
STE^M 6ENERATORS 54r

,,t
Coal
hopper
)-

(6'/t .-/'-.1./,i-*_:S::
/J -o-f;o
tr4/,/3-nt;";":
/---/
z7--/2/t=.J-o 3"-o]oi
/, ----e,lf o uu
-t"oa
soo.-
<- Rotor
-_1-..--_ _< o a^a-(
Secondary air

Primary air

Fig. 11. 15. Spreader stoker.

Disad.oa.nta.ges :
1. It is always diffieult to operate spreader with varying sizes of coal with varying moisture
content.
2. Fly-ash is much more.
2. Underfeed stokers
Ref'er Fig. 11.16. In these stokers, the coal is fed into the furnace below the point of air
admission. Coal from the hopper is pushed into the retort by means of reciprocating plungel". When
coal gets heated, all the volatiles in it are distilled and when coal reaches the zone of active combus-
tion, it is in the form of coke and ash. The ash discharge plates are at the back of the furnace and
by the time coal is pushed down on to those, all the combustion has been completed. Air is admitted
into the furnace through holes in the sides of the retort. The coal is continuously agitated by the
plunger and also by three pusher plates along the bottom of the retort. Due tu this, thd fuel bed
remains porous and free from clinkers.
Underfeed stokers are suitable for.non-clinkering, high uolatile coals hauing coking proper-
ties and, low ash content.
Aduantages:
L. Give higher thermal efficiency compared with chain grate stokers.
2. Combustion rate is considerably higher.
3,. The grate is self cleaning.
4. Different variety of coals can be used.
5. Grate bars, tuyeres and retorts are not subjected to high temperature as they remain
always in contact with fresh coal. -
6. Smokeless operation is possible even at very light load.
542 TTIERMAT ENCINBERINC

lncandescent
Tuyeres

Distillation zone

Green coal

Draft gauge
connection

Extension
grate

Draft gauge

-ri\
connection

Er

{
Fig. 11.16. Underfeed stokers.
Disad,oantages :
1. High initial cost.
2. Requires large building space.
3. The clinker troubles are usually present.
4. Low grade fuels with high ash content cannot burn economically.
11.10.2.2. Pulverised Fuel Firing
In a pulverised fuel firing syste m the cot:l is red.uced, to a ftne powd,er with the help of
g4inding ruill and, then projected into the combustion chamber with the help of hot air current.
The amount of air required (known as secondary air) to complete the combustion is supplied
separately to the combustion chamber. The resulting turbulence in the combustion chamber helps
for uniform mixing of fuel and air and thorough combustion. The amount of air which isltsed to
carry the caal and to d,ry it before entering into the combustion chamber is hnown as'prirnary
air' and'the'amount of air which is supplicd, separately for cotnpleting the combastion is hnown as
'aecond,orlrair'. The efficiency of pulverisid Tu-el firing Byctem moatly depends upon the size of the
powder, The fineness of the eoal should be guch aa 70?o of it would pass through a 200 mesh sieve
and 907o through 60 mesh sieve,
STEAM QENBRATORS 543

Several modern thermal power planta use pulverieed fuel cystem when the available eoal is
cheap and is not suitable for stoker firing,
Ad,vantages :
1.Any grade ofcoal can be used since coal is powdered before usel
2. The rate of feed of the fuel can be regulated properly resulting in fuel economy.
3' Since there is almost complete combustion of the fuel there is increased rate of evapora-
tion and higher boiler efficiency.
4. Greater capacity to meet peak loads.
5. The system is practically free from sagging and clinkering troubles.
6. No standby losses due to banked fires.
7. Practically no ash handling troubles.
8. No moving parts in the furnace subjected to high ter.nperatures.
9. The external heating surfaces are free from corrosion.
10. This system works successtully with or in combination with gas and oil.
Disad,aantages :
1. High capital cost.
2. Lot of fly ash in the exhaust which makes the removing of fine d.ust uneconomical.
3. The possibilities of explosion are more as coal burns like a ghs.
4. The maintenance of furnace brick work is costly.
5. Special equipment is needed to start this system.
6. The skilled operators are required.
Coal burners. A coal burner fires the pulverised coal along with primary air into the
furnace' The secondary air is admitted separateiy below the burner, arorrrrd the blrner or eise-
where in the furnace. Ignition takes place by means of radiation and flame propagation from the
fuel already burning in the furnace.

, z-- -:---jr)
t< - -,'---- -'.'-3'.jz'
)](,-.-'..?i -t t
i It'i:;'r',\ ri\I
il'ii,ii(:)],,,'
-rx\--:-;, ii
L__, 't l.it'
^
*-:-,--r]X)

Plan of furnace,
tangentlal firing

Fig, 11.17, Tangential firtrg.

544 THERMAL ENGINEERING

Coal burner may be classified according to their design and by their arrangement in the
furnace as discussed below :
ln "opposite firing" burners are placed on the opposite wails ofthe furnace and they fire
directly against each other. This results in intimate mixing of the fuel and the air"
Ii %ross firing", the burners fire in the vertical directions and in horizontal direction and
the fuel streams intersect with each other.
In"tangentialfiring", the burners are placed in the corners of the furnace and they send
horizontal streams of air and fuel tangent to an ;maginary circle in the centre of the farnace. This
results in intense turbuleruce and thorough mixing of the fuel and air. All the fuel and air nozzles
can be tilted 24'above and below the horizontal.
Fig. 11.17 shows the plqq view of the tangential frring.
Cyclone burners. In such burners crushed coal is used, and, not the puluerised fuel. Tinis
is done to eliminate puluerisers and to reduce the fly ash dfficulties. From the feeder the crushed
coal (max. 6.5 mm) and the primary air enter with a vortex motion at the centre of the cyclone.
The secondary air admitted separately aids in the vortex motion. The fuel is quickly burned and
ash in the form of molten slag drains down the inner wall of the cyclone. Hot flue gases with 10 to
2OVo of the ash in the coal in the form of fly ash enter the furnace. Due to centrifugal action, most
of this fly ash is thrown against the walls of the furnace and is drained iway along with the molten
film of slag. Thus the fuel gases leaving the furnace are quite clean to flow through the rest of heat
exchanger passages. This results in better heat transfer, good combustion Also, less furnace
cleaning is required and fly ash trouble is greatly red,uced.

Fig. 11.18. Cyclone burner.

tT;.e rnerits of the cyclone burner overthe other types aro listed below :
1.'Simplified coal crushing equipments can be used instead of costly pulverise mills.
2. Excess air required can be reduced to LSVo minimum using forced draught fan.
3.. The cyclone furnace can use low grade fuel5, reduces the size ofthe steam gerierator and
limits the fly ash emission so that excessive furnace cleaning and precipit'ations are not
required.
 $TEAM GENERATORS
545

Oil Burning
Fig, 11.19 showe the simple method of oil burning,

+-.Fuel

+-Air

Fig. 11.19. Principle of oil firing.

The functions of the oil burner are to mix the fuel and air in
the proper proportion and to
prepare the fuel for combustion. Following are the two
ways to achieve it :
1. The oil may be vaporised or: gasified. by heating within
the burner.
2' The oil may be atomised by the burner and its vaporisation
occurs in the combustion,
space.
Vaporising burners find little use as the-re are lirnited range of
fuels they can handle. In the
second arrangement, the atomisation of the oil is done in three
Lasic vrays :
(i) The oil is broken irrto small d.roplets by using
air or steam under pressure.
(li) Forcing oil under pressure through a suitable
sazzle.
(ili) Tearing an oil film into drops by centrifugal force.
Gas burning. Gas burning is much simpler as the fuel is ready
for combustion and requires
no preparation. The remaining parts of the job Le., proportio"trrgjmlxtd-;;;
achierred in many wa1s, Tfe most simple and famitia" gur
i".ii"g ean be
u"r""r is the atmospheric burner. In
this the momentum of the incoming low pressure gas stream is used
to draw il;;;";ir.te the air
needed for combustion. Gas- and air toiether pass through
a tube leading to the burner ports,
mixing in the process. The mixture burns"at the
iorts o, tt u-opuniogs in the
air is drawn into the flame from the surrounding atmosphere. Larger b-urner head. Secondary
counterparts of this type
having ring or sectional burning heads with many ports are used
to fire Uoii"rr.
Example 11.1. Shetch and, d,escribe the working of a onee-through "*uff boiler. .
special Discuss its
features. (u'P's'c'' 1997)
solution.
The once'through boiler or steam generator is also called t:ne
' Benson or uniuersal pressure boiter.bicause it is applicable forced. circulation,
to alt tirnperature and,
pressures, although economically it is suited to largi
sizes and. pr"rruiii-in the high
subcritical and supercritical ran ge
. fn a once through boiler, in contrast to the drum type [Fig. 11.20J, the
feedwater goes.
through the economiser, furnace walls, and rop""hot.rections, changing
sequentially
to saturated water, saturated steam, and superheated steam i"
oni ii=nli.nuru, po*
[Fig' 11'21]. No. steam drum is
_required, ti separarc saturatpd. steam from boiling
wate' and no water circulation takes place. Rehelt of steam rit"" ii i* *Juia.a in the
high-pressure turbine is accomplishea ly a reheater in the ,.out
*uro"i.
546 THERMAI- ENCINEERINC

Superheated
steam
Saturated steam

Superheated
Feed st6em
water

Recirculation

Feed water

Drum type steam generator Once through boiler or steam generator

Fig. 11.20 Fis.11.21

o Because of the once-through mode of operation, uery high purity feed water is required.
a Fig. 11.21 shows a typical once-through steam generator. .
o The once-through boiler in the only type suited to supercritical pressure operation
(above 221bar, for steam) because the latent heat ofvaporisation at and beyond critical
pressure is zero, and liquid and vapour are one and the same, so no separation is drum
is possible or neccsSary.
While particularly applicabte to supercritical pressure, once-through steam generq.-
tors are used, economically for high pressure and sub-critical stearn.

A 'boiler' is defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of fuel.
A 'steam generating unit' is a combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing or recovering heat
together with the apparatus for transferring the heat so made available to the fluid being heated and
vaporised.
?* Fire tube boilers. In these boilers the hot gases are inside the tubes and water surrounds the tubes.
Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
dt Water tube boilers. In these boilers the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them.
Examples: Babcoch and Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc.
4. High pressure boilers. The modern high pressure boilers employed for power generation have steam
capacities 30 to 650 tonnes/h and above with a pressure upto 160 bar and minimum steam temperature of
about 540'C.
Examples: LaMont, Loe{fler, Benson, Velox boilers.
Alarge number of steam generatingplants are designed between working ranges of 125 atm. and 810"C
toS00atm.and660"C,thesearebasicallycharacterisedassub-criticalandsuper-criticat. '-
6. In a super-charged boiler, the combustion is carried out under pressure in the combustion chamber by
supplying the compressed air.
'Burning ofcoal' can be carried out by :
(i) Stokerfiring
(ir ) Pulverised fuel frring.
srEAM GENERATORS
547
Automatic stokers are classified. as :
(i) Overfeed stokers
(ii) Underfeed stokers.
In alulverlsed fuelflringsyetem'the coarillea,yce-ap
afinepowderwith the help ofgrindingmill and
then projected into the comluition chamber with tho
rterp oirroiur current.

Say Yes'or T.[o,

1' A closed vessel in which steam is produced from water combustion of fuel
Z, There is no difference between,steam generatingunit, by and,boiler,
is called a,boiler,.
3. It is very diffrcult to inspect and repairihe parts ofa horizontar
4 Ifthe axis ofthe boiler is vertical, it is cared a vertical boiler. boiler.
5. Locomotive boiler is a water tube boiler.
6. Stirling boiler is a fire tube boiler.
7. Babcock and Wilcox is a water tube boiler.
q Velox boiler uses a forced pump for circulation of the fluid.
9' the circulation ofwater takes place due to naturat
convection currents produced by the
*r"ff#:ffif:"fr
10. Benson boiler is a high pressure boiler.
11. Velox boiler is a low pressure boiler.
L2, Cornish boiler is a single tube boiler.
13. Fire-tube boilers are not suitable for large power plants.
14 For a given power, water tube boilers, occupy more
floor area.
I5. ltre construction ofa frre tube boiler is difficult.
16. There are more chances of explosion in water tube boilers.
17, A fire tube boiler has a higher rate of steam production.
1& A simple verticar boiler is serfcontained and can be transported easily.
l9' A locomotive boiler is mainly employed in locomotives
zo. stirlingwater tube bo,er is an example of bent tubebotrer.it may"also
though r^vv be uosu a'
vv used as 4 stationary boiler.
a Dualru'ar

2l' water tube boilers are generally preferred for low pressure and low
output.
2,2. A velox boiler makes use of pressurised combustion.
B. A stoker is a power operated fuel feeding mechanism and grate.
2'L overfeed stokers are used for large capacity boiler installation where
the coal is burned without pulverisation.
zft. In underfeed stokers the coal is fed into frr"rru"" above the point ofair
admis.ion.
26. In pulverised fuel firing the ash handling troubles are very acute.
27. Cyclone burners use pulverised fuel.

1. Yes 2No 3. No 4 Yes 5. No 6. No

& Yes 9. Yes 10. Yes 11. No 12. Yes 13. Yes
7. Yes
15. Yes 14. No
16. Yes 17. No L8. Yes 19. Yes 20. Yes
n Yes 23. Yes 2t,Yes 25. No 26. No
21. No
27. No.

THEORETICAL QUESTIONS
1. .a
Define 'a boiler' and steam generating unit,.
q
State the uses ofsteam produced by the boilers.
3. Ljst the primary requirements of steam generators.
4. How are boilers classilied ?
5. Give the comparison between'Fire-tube and water-tube'
boilers.
548 THERMAI, ENCINEERINS

6,Stcte the differenese between tho followlng boilera r

(d) Externally flred and intemally lired.
(j j) Forced circulation and natural cirsulation.
(iii) High pressure and low pressure.
(du ) Stationary and portable.

' (u) Singletube andmulti-tube.

7. ' Enurnerate the factors which should be eonsidered while selecting a boiler.
& What are the esseniials ofa good steam boiler ?
9. Explaiu the followingboiler terrns :
Shell, setting, grate, furnace, water space and steam space, mountings, accessories, water level, foaming,
scale, blowing off, lagging, refoactory.
10. Explain with the help of neat diagrams any two of the follow-ing fire-tube boilers :
(i) Simpleverticalboiler. (ii) Cochrauboiler.
(idi) Cornishboiler. (iu) Lancashireboiler.
(u) Locomotiveboiler. (ui) Scotchboiler.
11. Give the construction and working of the following water tube boilers :
(i) BabcockandWileoxboiler (ii) Stirlingboiler.
12. Expiain the unique features ofthe high pressure boilers.
13. List the advantages ofhigh pressure boilers.
14. Explainwithneatsketchestheconstructionandworkingofanytwoofthefollowinghighpressureboilers:
(i) LaMontboiler (ii) Loef{lerboiler
(iii) Bensonboiler (iu) Veloxboiler.
15. Write short notes on the following :
(i) Superchargedboilers (ii) Supercriticalboilers.
16. What are the basic requirements of combustion equipment ?
17. Explain briefly the following methods of burning of coal :
(i) Stokerfiring (ii) Pulverisedfuelfiring.
18. Explainbrieflythefollowing:
(i) Tlavellinggratestoker (li) Spreaderstokers.
19. What is the difference betrryeen'overfeed stokers and underfeed stokers'?
20. Write a short note on'pulverised fuel firing'.
2!. What are the advantages of 'Pulverised fuel firing'over'stoker firing'? 6
22. Write a short note on coal burners.