SECTION 1: THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS cycle each year (e.g., winter, spring, summer, fall).
, spring, summer, fall). All symmetry) is the simplest kind of symmetry.
PART 1: MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD
Core Idea: Mathematics is a useful way to think about
nature and our world.
Many patterns and occurrences exist in nature, in our
world, in our life. Mathematics helps make sense of these
patterns and occurrences. Mathematics is a tool to
quantify, organize, and control our world, predict
phenomena, and make life easier for us. Mathematics
helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.
Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and
phenomena in the world. Mathematics helps control
nature and occurrences in the world for our own ends.
Mathematics has numerous applications in the world
making it indispensable.
Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World
PATTERN
We usually think of it as anything that repeats AGAIN
and AGAIN.A pattern is an arrangement which helps
observers anticipate what they might see or what
happens next.
A pattern shows what may have come before. It
organizes information so that it becomes more useful.
Number patterns such as 2,4,6,8,10 and
5,10,15,20,25, are among the first patterns
encountered in younger years.
As we advance, we encounter more patterns and
discover that number patterns are not restricted to a
few types. They could be ascending, descending,
multiples of a certain number.
We learned patterns through the concept of functions
and sequences like arithmetic and geometric
sequences.
Mathematics is the science of patterns and
relationships.By applying mathematics to organize and
systematize ideas about patterns, we have discovered
a pattern in nature.
PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE
Patterns are everywhere. They are deeply embedded
all around us.
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found
in the natural world and can also be seen in the
universe. These patterns recur in different contexts
and can sometimes be modeled mathematically.
Patterns can be observed even in stars which move in
circles across the sky each day. The weather seasons
snowflakes contain sixfold symmetry which no two are
exactly the same. There is evidence presented by
mathematician that hexagonal snowflakes have an
atomic geometry of ice crystals.
Patterns can be seen in fish patterns like spotted
trunkfish, spotted puffer, blue spotted stingray, angel
fish.
These animals and fish stripes and spots attest to
mathematical regularities in biological growth and
form.
Zebras, tigers, cats and snakes are covered in
patterns of stripes.
Leopards and hyenas are covered in patterns of spots
while giraffes are covered in patterns of blotches.
Nature modifies and adapts these basic patterns as
needed, shaping them to the demands of a dynamic
environment. But underlying all the modifications and
adaptations is a hidden unity. - Pat Murphy’s “By
Nature’s Design”
Mathematical stories have its own beauty which start
from the clues and deduce the underlying rules and
regularities, but it is a different kind of beauty, applying
to ideas rather than things. The development of new
mathematical theories begins to reveal the secret of
nature’s patterns.
PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES
As we discover more about our environment, we can
mathematically describe nature. The beauty of a
flower, the majestic tree, even the rock formation
exhibits nature’s sense of symmetry.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PATTERNS
1. Symmetry
Symmetry is a sense of harmonious and beautiful
proportion of balance. occurs when there is
congruence in dimensions, due proportions, and
arrangement.
Object is invariant to any of various transformations
(reflection, rotation, or scaling).
Symmetry can be found everywhere. It can be seen
from different viewpoints namely nature, the arts,
architecture, mathematics, especially geometry and
science.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF SYMMETRY
a. Bilateral symmetry (or reflection
One of the most common kinds of symmetry
that we see in the natural world. It can also
be called mirror symmetry because an
object with this symmetry looks unchanged if
a mirror passes through its middle. The fold is
called a line of symmetry because it divides
the shape into two equal parts. Bilateral-
symmetric objects have at least one line or
axis of symmetry. The lines of symmetry may
be in any direction.
Animals mainly have bilateral symmetry, even
leaves of plants and some flowers such as
orchids.
b. Radial symmetry (or rotational symmetry)
is a type of symmetry around a fixed point
known as the center and it can be classified
as either cyclic (symmetry around a center
point, but no mirror lines) or dihedral
(symmetry around a center point with mirror
lines through the center point).
An equilateral triangle and circles are
examples. You can cut along three different
axes on the equilateral triangle while a circle
can be cut along an infinite number of axes.
Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea
anemones whose adults do not move and
jellyfish. Radial symmetry is also evident in
different kinds of flowers and fruits.
2. Fractals
Fractal is a curve or geometric figure and each part of
which has the same statistical character as a whole.
In mathematics, it is any of a class of complex
geometric shapes that commonly have “fractional
dimension”, a concept first introduced by the
mathematician Felix Hausdorff in 1918.
Fractals are useful in modeling structures in which
similar patterns recur at progressively smaller scales,
and in describing partly random or chaotic phenomena
such as crystal growth, fluid turbulence and galaxy
formation. Fractals can be seen in some plants, trees,
leaves and others.
A fractal is a never-ending pattern. Fractals are
infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across
different scales. They are created by repeating a
simple process over and over in an ongoing feedback
loop.
3. Spirals
Spirals are shapes that wind in a gradually widening or
tightening curve.
A logarithmic spiral (or growth spiral) is a self-similar
spiral curve which often appears in nature. It was first
described by Rene Descartes and was later
investigated by Jacob Bernoulli.
Spirals are more evident in plants. But we can also
see spirals in typhoons, whirlpool, galaxy, tail of
chameleon, and shell among others.
The Fibonacci Sequence
LEONARDO OF PISA (FIBONACCI)
Born in 1170 and died in 1250. Around 1200 ad,
published the Liber Abbaci, or Book of Calculation,
an arithmetic text which concentrated mainly on
financial computations and promoted the use of
Hindu-Arabic numerals.
GROWING RABBIT POPULATION
“A man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on
all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits are
produced from that pair in a year, if it is supposed that
every month, each pair produces a new pair, which
from the second month onwards becomes
productive?”
We start by defining:
F 1=1 and F 2=1.
For n > 2, we define: F n=F n−1+ F n−2
The sequence F 1 , F2 , F3 , … is then the Fibonacci
Sequence. This definition is called a recursive
definition because it starts by defining some initial
values and defines the next term as a function of the
previous terms.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE
1. Pinecones, Vegetables and Fruits
Spiral patterns curving from left and right can be seen
at the array of seeds in the center of a sunflower. The
sum of these spirals when counted will be a Fibonacci
number. The seed pods on a pinecone are also
arranged in a spiral pattern. Each cone consists of a
pair of spirals, each one spiraling upwards in opposing
directions. Spiral patterns can also be deciphered in
cauliflower and pineapples. Fibonacci sequence
appears on these fruits and vegetables.
2. Flowers and Branches
Most flowers express the Fibonacci sequence if you
count the number of petals on these flowers.
- The Vitruvian Man (“The Man in Action”) by
A trunk grows until it produces a branch, resulting in Leonardo Da Vinci. It's a study of the ideal
two growth points. The main trunk then produces proportions of the human form
another branch, resulting in three growth points and
then the trunk and the first branch produce two more
growth points, bringing the total to five as illustrated on
the image. Mathematics For Our World
When we hear the word “mathematics”, the first thing
3. Honeybee that floats in our mind is numbers. Numbers serve as
The family tree of a honeybee perfectly resembles the the raw materials which a great deal of mathematics is
Fibonacci sequence. A honeybee colony consists of a forged. However, some mathematical ideas are so
queen, a few drones and lots of workers. basic to our world and every day in our lives we
encounter mathematics.
4. Human Body
The human body has elements that show the In our daily life, we use mathematics directly or
Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio. indirectly in various fields.
5. Geography, Weather and Galaxies The application of mathematical methods in different
fields such as science, engineering, business,
computer science, and industry is a combination of
mathematical science and specialized knowledge.
The Golden Ratio
If we take the ratio of Fn to F n−1 for n ≥ 1. For example, statistics, combinatorics, and graph
theory are used by investigators to solve crimes.
The Golden Ratio is often denoted by the Greek letter
Roger Bacon (1214-1294), an English Franciscan
φ (Phi). This is approximately equal to 1.618. friar, philosopher, scientist and scholar of the 13th
century, once stated: “Neglect of mathematics
A rectangle whose side ratio (length:width) equals to 𝜑 works injury to all knowledge, since he who is
is called a golden rectangle.
ignorant of it cannot know the other sciences or
the things of the world.”
GOLDEN RATIO AND ITS CONJUGATE
1+ √ 5 Math helps us understand or make sense of the world
φ¿ ≈ 1.6180339887 – and we use the world to understand math.
2
1−√ 5 As it is valuable and integral in the life of man,
φ́ ¿ ≈−0.6180339887 mathematics is a discipline that introduces humanity
2
with the wide array of possibilities from honing
We can write the nth Fibonacci number explicitly using problem-solving skills to enriching aesthetic
n n judgement.
the formula: F n=¿ φ − φ́ , which is the
√5 APPLICATIONS OF MATHEMATICS
BINET’S FORMULA by Jacques Philippe Marie 1. Forensic Science
Binet. Mathematics is applied, specifically, the differential
and integral calculus to clarify blurred image to clear
GOLDEN RATIO IN ARCHITECTURE image.
- The Great Pyramid of Giza
- Taj Mahal Another application of calculus is optimization
- Notre Dame (maximize or minimize) surface areas, volumes, profit
- Parthenon and cost analysis, projectile motion, etc.
GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS 2. Medicine
- Mona-lisa by Leonardo Da Vinci seems to be Much of a function of a protein is determined by its
made purposefully line up with golden shape and how the pieces move. Many drugs are
rectangle. designed to change the shape or motions of a protein
by modeling using geometry and related areas.

3. Engineering
Engineers use numerical analysis in phenomena
involving heat, electricity, and magnetism, relativistic
mechanics, quantum mechanics, and other theoretical
constructs.
4. Information Technology
Modern computers are invented through the help of
mathematics. An important area of applications of
mathematics is in the development of formal
mathematical theories related to the development of
computer science.
Computer science development includes logic,
relations, functions, basic set theory, counting
techniques, graph theory, combinatorics, discrete
probability, recursion, recurrence relations, number
theory, computer-oriented numerical analysis, and
operation research techniques.
Just like Google, they use linear algebra to set itself
apart from the other search engines by its ability to
quantify relevance with the help of mathematics. On
the other hand, Facebook uses graph theory to create
links between individuals.
5. Cryptography
Cryptography is a combination of both mathematics
and computer science and is affiliated closely with
information theory, computer security and engineering.
It is used in applications present in technologically
advanced societies; examples include the security of
ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic
commerce.
6. Archaeology
Archaeologists use a variety of mathematical and
statistical techniques to present the data from
archeological surveys and try to find patterns to shed
light on past human behavior and in carbon dating
artifacts.
7. Social Sciences
In social sciences such as economics, sociology,
psychology, and linguistics, all now make extensive
use of mathematical models, using the tools of
calculus, probability, game theory, and network theory.
In economics, mathematics such as matrices,
probability and statistics are used.
8. Political Science
Political analysts’ study past election result to see
changes in voting patterns and the influence of various
factors on voting behavior, on switching of votes
among political parties, and mathematical models for
conflict resolution using game theory and statistics.
9. Music and Arts
The rhythm that we find in all music notes is the result
of innumerable permutations and combinations. Music
theorists understand musical structure and
communicate new ways of hearing music by applying
set theory, abstract algebra, and number theory.
New forms of arts were also based in some
mathematical structures. The old Gothic Architecture
was based on geometry and even the Egyptian
Pyramids architecture and engineering were based on
mathematics.
PART 2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND
SYMBOLS
Core Idea: Like any language, mathematics has its own
symbols, syntax, and rules.
Mathematics is a language itself. Hence, it is useful in
communicating ideas. Mathematics as a language is
clear and objective. Language conventions are
necessary in mathematics for it to be understood by all.
Characteristics of mathematical language: precise,
concise, powerful. Four basic concepts: sets, functions,
relations, binary operations.
Propositions and Logical Connectives
PROPOSITIONS
Mathematics is a language. As in any other types of
language, we use sentences to communicate thoughts
and ideas. Mathematics is not an exception. We use
propositions to communicate mathematical ideas
precisely.
A proposition (or statement) is a declarative
sentence that can be objectively identified as either
true or false, but not both.
If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true and is
denoted by T or 1; otherwise, its truth value is false
and is denoted by F or 0.
Example:
Douglas MacArthur arrived in the Philippines in 1521.
Are you insane?
Is that your laptop?
Basketball players are handsome.
Sentence (1) is a proposition because Douglas
MacArthur either arrived in the Philippines in 1521 or
not. In fact, this proposition is false because historical
records show that Douglas MacArthur arrived in the
Philippines some time in 1900s.
Sentences (2) and (3) are not declarative sentences,
hence they are NOT propositions.
Although sentence (4) is a declarative sentence, it
cannot be considered as a proposition because the
meaning of the word “handsome” is subjective in
nature.
NEGATION
The negation of a proposition p is the proposition
which is false when p is true; and true when p is false.
The negation of p is denoted by ¬𝑝.
Example:
p: Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano
q: Today is Wednesday.
The corresponding negations are:
¬𝑝: Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano
¬𝑞: Today is not Wednesday.
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
A simple proposition is a proposition with only one
subject and only one predicate.
For example: “Every cat that barks has a PhD.” is a
simple proposition.
Subject: Every cat that barks
Predicate: has a PhD
In logic, we can combine simple propositions to form
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS using logical
connectives.
Some of the most common connectives are “or”, “and”,
“but”, “unless”, etc.
CONJUNCTION
Let p and q be given propositions. The conjunction of p
and q is the proposition “p and q”, denoted by 𝒑∧𝒒,
which is true only when both p and q are true. In other
words, if one of p or q is false, then 𝑝∧𝑞 is false.
We summarize this idea using the following table.
Note: Since each of p and q may assume two distinct
truth values, then there are a total of 2^2 = 4
combinations, hence the truth table must contain four
rows as shown below.
 q : Elephants are mammals.
r : Philippines is a first world country.

We know that p and q are true and r is false.

Therefore, the statement “Either 3 is odd or elephants

Example: Given the propositions
p : 3 is odd.
q : Elephants are mammals.
r : Philippines is a first world country.
We know that p and q are true and r is false.
are mammals.” symbolized by "𝒑∨𝒒" is true since both
of them are true.
Also, “Either 3 is odd or Philippines is a first world
country.” symbolized by “𝒑∨𝒓” is true since one of the
proposition, which is p, is true.
SOLUTION / ANSWER FOR PART B
In row 2 of the truth table, we see that when p is true
and q is false, the proposition ¬(¬𝑝∨𝑞)∨𝑞 in the
rightmost column is true.

Example: Given the propositions

p : 3 is odd.
q : Elephants are mammals.
r : Philippines is a first world country.
Therefore, the compound proposition :
“3 is odd and elephants are mammals.” has the
symbol 𝑝∧𝑞 while the compound proposition: “3 is odd
and Philippines is a first world country.” is symbolized
by 𝑝∧𝑟.
Example: Given the propositions
p : 3 is odd.
q : Elephants are mammals.
r : Philippines is a first world country.
Also, 𝑝∧𝑞 is true since both p and q are true, while 𝑝∧𝑟
is false since one proposition, which is r, is false.
DISJUNCTION
Let p and q be given propositions. The disjunction of p
and q is the proposition “p or q”, denoted by 𝒑∨𝒒,
which is false only when both p and q are false. In
other words, if one of p or q is true (or both), then 𝒑∨𝒒
is true.
We summarize this idea using the following table.
TRUTH TABLES
We consider methods of constructing truth tables for a
proposition that involves a combination of
conjunctions, disjunctions and/or negations. If the
given proposition involves only two simple
propositions, then start with a table with 2^2 = 4 rows,
called the standard truth table form, allotted for the Example 2
combination of truth values for p and q and proceed as Construct a table for (𝑝∧𝑞)∧(¬𝑟∨𝑞).
shown in Example 1.
Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth
value of(𝑝∧𝑞)∧(¬𝑟∨𝑞), given that p is true, q is true,
and r is false.
SOLUTION / ANSWER FOR PART A
- Start by constructing the truth table for p, q
and r.
- Add a column for 𝑝∧𝑞.
Example 1 - Add a column for ¬𝑟.
Construct a table for ¬(¬𝑝∨𝑞)∨𝑞. - Add a column for ¬𝑟∨𝑞.
- As our last step, we form (𝑝∧𝑞)∧(¬𝑟∨𝑞) and
Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth place the results in the rightmost column of
value of ¬(¬𝑝∨𝑞)∨𝑞, given that p is true and q is false. the table.
SOLUTION / ANSWER FOR PART A
- Start by constructing the truth table and then
include a ¬ p column.
- Now, use the truth values from the ¬𝒑 column
and q column to produce the truth values for
(¬𝑝∨𝑞).
- Negate the truth values in the (¬𝑝∨𝑞) column
to produce the following table.
- As our last step, we form the disjunction of
¬(¬𝑝∨𝑞) with q and place the results in the SOLUTION/ANSWER FOR PART B
rightmost column of the table.

Let us use the given propositions from the preceding

example:
p : 3 is odd.

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
If the given proposition has n simple propositions, then
start with a standard form that has 𝟐^𝒏 rows.
In each row, enter the truth value for each simple
proposition and their negations.
Use the truth values from Step 1 to enter the truth
value under each connective within a pair of grouping
symbols (parentheses, brackets, braces). If some
grouping symbols are nested inside other grouping
symbols, then work from the inside out.
Use the truth values from Step 2 to determine the truth
values under the remaining connectives.
Example:
Construct a table for 𝑝∨[¬(𝑝∧¬𝑞)].
Solution:
The given proposition 𝑝∨[¬(𝑝∧¬𝑞)] has the two simple
propositions p and q. Thus, we start with a standard
form that has 2^2=4 rows.
Step 1: In each column, enter the truth values for the
propositions p and ¬𝑞, as shown in the columns
denoted by A, B and C of the following table.
Step 2: Use the truth values in columns B and C to
determine the truth values to enter under the “and”
connective. See the column denoted by D. Now,
negate the truth values in the column D to produce the
truth values in the column denoted by E. statement p → q is the proposition “If p, then q” which
is false only when p is true and q is false. The
converse, inverse and contrapositive of p → q are the
conditional statements q → p, ¬p → ¬q , and ¬q → ¬p,
respectively.
The following is the truth table for p → q:
In the proposition p → q, the proposition p is also
called as the premise and q is called as the
conclusion.
Step 3: Use the truth values in columns A and E to
determine the truth values to enter under the “or”
connective.
Note: See the column denoted by F, which is the truth
table for 𝑝∨[¬(𝑝∧¬𝑞)].
EXAMPLE
Suppose that your mother exclaims “If you don’t wash
the dishes, then you don’t get money for a buffet.”
In this conditional statement, the premise is “You don’t
wash the dishes” and the conclusion is “You don’t get
money for a buffet.”
This statement can only be false when you don’t wash
Check your learning now. the dishes but you still get the money for the buffet.
Construct a table for (¬𝑝∧𝑟)∨(𝑞∧¬𝑟)
Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth Note: ▪There are many ways to say p → q aside from
value of(¬𝑝∧𝑟)∨(𝑞∧¬𝑟), given that p is false, q is true, “If p, then q.” Alternatively, we can say the following:
and r is false. - “q if p”
- “p implies q”
SOLUTION/ANSWER FOR SEATWORK - “p is sufficient for q”
- “q is necessary for p”
In row 6 of the truth table, we see that when p is false,
q is true and r is false, the proposition(¬𝑝∧𝑟)∨(𝑞∧¬𝑟) is EXAMPLE
true. Given the statements
p: “π is irrational.
q: “3 is less than 2.”
Then, p → q would mean “If π is irrational, then 3 is
less than 2.”
EXAMPLE
Given the statements
p: “π is irrational.”
q: “3 is less than 2.”
The converse, q → p would mean “If 3 is less than 2,
then π is irrational.”
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
Let p and q be given propositions. The conditional EXAMPLE
Given the statements
p: “π is irrational.”
q: “3 is less than 2.”
The inverse, ¬p → ¬q would mean “If π is not
irrational, then 3 is not less than 2.”
NOTE: The negation of “π is irrational” as “π is not
irrational” is considered to emphasize the fact that it is
not assumed that the opposite of being irrational is
being rational, unless otherwise stated.
EXAMPLE
Given the statements
p: “π is irrational.”
q: “3 is less than 2.”
The contrapositive, ¬q → ¬p would mean “If 3 is not
less than 2, then π is not irrational.”
EXAMPLE
Given the statements
p: “π is irrational.”
q: “3 is less than 2.”
Note: If we assume that p is true and q is false (just
like how they really are in mathematics), it can Be
verified that both p → q and ¬q → ¬p are false, while
both q → p and ¬p → ¬q are true.
BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional
statement p ↔ q to be read as “p if and only if q” is
the proposition which is true only if both p and q are
true or both p and q are false.
A compound proposition is a tautology if its truth value
remains true regardless of the truth values of its
component propositions.
On the other hand, a compound proposition is a
contradiction if its truth value remains false regardless
of the truth values of its component propositions.
EXAMPLE
The compound statement p ∨ ¬p is a tautology and
the compound statement p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.
This can be observed by looking at the truth table
below.
Let p and q be propositions (possibly compound). We
say that p logically implies q, expressed as p ⟹ q, if
the conditional statement p → q is a tautology.
If p ⟹ q and q ⇒ p, we say that p and q are logically
equivalent and we write p ⇔ q. A Z that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.
EXAMPLE:
By constructing truth tables, show that p ⇒ p ∨ q and p
∧ q ⟹ p.
In logic, the implication p ⇒ (p ∨ q) is called as the law
of addition and the implication (p ∧ q) ⟹ p is the law
of simplification.
The following are some of the b.
Theorem:
Let p, q, and r be propositions.
1. p ⟺ q if and only if p ↔ q is a tautology.
2. p ⇔ p.
3. p ∨ q ⟺ q ∨ p and p ∧ q ⟺ q ∧ p. (Commutative
Properties)
4. p ∨ q ∨ r ⟺ p ∨ q ∨ r and p ∧ q ∧ r ⟺ p ∧ q ∧ r.
(Associative Properties)
5. p ∨ q ∧ r ⟺ p ∨ q ∧ p ∨ r and p ∧ q ∨ r ⟺ p ∧ q ∨ p
∧ r . (Distributive Properties)
6. De Morgan’s Laws
(a) ¬ p ∨ q ⟺ ¬p ∧ ¬q .
(b) ¬ p ∧ q ⟺ ¬p ∨ ¬q .
7. p → q ⟺ ¬p ∨ q.
8. ¬ p → q ⟺ p ∧ ¬q .
9. p → q ⟺ ¬q → ¬p .
10. p ⟷ q ⟺ p → q ∧ q → p .
The Language of Mathematics
Language serves as a tool for learning mathematical
concepts. It can show how to make syntax and
structure of mathematical language clear and explicit
to understand the fundamental mathematical
concepts.
Language serves as a major pedagogical tool to
understand how, what, and why things are said.
The Language of Sets
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies
sets or the mathematical science of the infinite. The
study of sets has become a fundamental theory in
mathematics in 1870s which was introduced by Georg
Cantor (1845-1918), a German mathematician.
SET – a well-defined collection of objects called
elements.
Example:
a. A collection of enrolled students in GEED
10053 MMW class for SY 2021-22 is a set.
(Note: Students can easily be identified as
enrolled or not in the said class)
b. A collection of the women presidents of the
Philippines is a set. (Note: The women
presidents of the Philippines are Pres.
Corazon Aquino and Pres. Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo)
c. A collection of five best basketball players of
all time. NOT a set. (Note: Because of the
word “best”, which is clearly subjective in
nature, this collection is NOT a set.)
d. The collection of real numbers such that
𝑥^2−1=0
e. The collection of vowel letters
f. The collection of integers such that 1<𝑥<8
FACTS ABOUT SETS
Sets are denoted by capital letters (e.g. A, D, C,…).
The objects of a set are separated by comma and
are enclosed by braces.
These objects are called the elements or members
of the set.
If A is a set, the notation x ∈ A means that x is an
element of A. (x belongs to A)
The notation x ∉ A means that x is not an element of letter J} 2.) A is the set of positive integers less than 10.
A. 2. L = {y|y is a whole number less than 5} A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
n(A)=9
HOW DO WE WRITE A SET AND ITS ELEMENTS? SET NOTATIONS
ℕ for the set of natural or counting numbers (positive If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, written
 A set contains the months of the year beginning with integers): 𝐴⊆𝐵, if and only if, every element of A is also an
the letter J {1,2,3,4,…} element of B. Symbolically, 𝐴⊆𝐵⇔∀𝑥, 𝑥∈𝐴→𝑥∈𝐵.
M = {January, June, July}
January ∈ M ℤ for the set of integers: (Note: ∀ means “for all” or “for every” and remember,
August ∉ M  {…,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,…} ⇔ means “if and only if”)

A set contains the whole numbers less than 5 ℚ for the set of rational numbers: A is a proper subset of B, written 𝐴⊂𝐵, if and only if,
L= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} {├ 𝑎/𝑏┤|𝑎,𝑏∈ℤ,𝑏≠0} every element of A is in B but there is at least one
3 ∈ L element of B that is not in A.
10 ∉ L  ℝ for the set of real numbers
On contrary, the symbol ⊄ denotes that it is not a
WAYS OF DESCRIBING SETS DEFINITION proper subset.
1. Descriptive Method - uses a verbal statement to A finite set A is a set whose elements are limited or A equals B, written, 𝐴=𝐵, if and only if, every element
describe the set.    countable, and the last element can be identified. of A is in B and every element of B is in A.
Examples: Otherwise, A is said to be infinite. Symbolically, 𝐴=𝐵⇔(𝐴⊆𝐵)∧(𝐵⊆𝐴).
M is the set of all the months of a year
beginning with the letter J. Examples of finite sets: REMARKS
L is the set of all positive integers less than 5.  1.) A is the set of positive integers less than 10. 1. For any set A, 𝐴⊆𝐴 and ∅⊆𝐴.
A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} 2. If A and B are finite sets and 𝐴=𝐵, then n(𝐴)=n(𝐵).
2. Roster Method or Listing Method - list all the 2.) C is the set of letters in the word “mathematics”
elements of the set enclosed with braces C={m,a,t,h,e,i,c,s} EXAMPLES
Examples: Examples of infinite sets: Let A be the set of all mathematicians 20 feet high and
M = {January, June, July} ℕ,ℤ,ℚ,ℝ B be the set of all PUP students.
L= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} We can conclude that
A unit set is a set with only one element; it is also 𝐴=∅ and
For sets with more elements, show the first few entries called singleton. 𝐴⊆𝐵 (by remark #1 in the previous slide)
to display a pattern, and use an ellipsis  (…) to
indicate “and so on.” Examples: Suppose U = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g}
Example: 1.) P = {w} A = {c, d, e}
The set of the first 50 positive integers.    2.) I = {x|x is a whole number greater than 1 but less B = {a,b,c,d,e}
{1,2,3,…,50}  than 3} C = {e,a,c,b,d}
I = {2}
3. Rule Method or Set Builder Notation - uses a Thus, the following holds true:
variable (a symbol, usually a letter, that can represent The set with no elements is called the empty set (or A and C are both subsets of B. But, 𝐴⊂𝐵,
different elements of a set), braces, and a vertical bar | null set). It is denoted by the symbol ∅ or {┤}. whereas 𝐶⊄𝐵.
that is read as “such that”. Example:
K= {x|x is an integer less than 2 but greater than 1} DEFINITION
This is usually used when the elements are too many Since there is no integer between 1 and 2, the set has
to list down. no element. Therefore, K = { }. Given a set S from the universal set U, the power set
of S denoted by ℘(𝑆), is the collection (or sets) of all
All sets under investigation in any application of set subsets of S.
theory are assumed to be contained in some large
fixed set called the universal set, denoted by the A set S of n elements has 2^𝑛 subsets.
symbol, U.
Example # 1: EXAMPLE
a. M is the set of all the months of a year The cardinal number of a set is the number of Given: A = {e,f}
beginning with the letter J elements or members in the set. The cardinality of set
b. L is the set of whole numbers less than 5 A is denoted by n(A). Since A has two elements, it has 2^2=4 subsets,
Answers: Examples: namely {e}, {f}, {e,f}, ∅
1. M = {x|x is a month of the year which begins with 1.) E = {a,b,c,d,e}
n(E)=5
 Therefore, the power set of A is ℘(𝑨)={{𝒆}, {𝒇}, Mathematical problem solving takes time. Solutions are
{𝒆,𝒇},∅} not always apparent to a solver. There may be more than
one approach in solving mathematical problems.
The complement of A, denoted by 𝐴^′, is the set of all
elements x in the universal set U such that x is not in INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
A. Reasoning is our ability to use logical thinking to
Symbolically, 𝑨^′={𝒙∈𝑼"|" 𝒙∉𝑨} come up with a decision.
Two types:
EXAMPLE: Inductive Reasoning
Given: A = {a,b,c,d,e} Deductive Reasoning
U = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g}
Inductive reasoning – the process of reasoning that
Then, ^′={𝒙∈𝑼"|" 𝒙∉𝑨} 𝑨^′={𝒇,𝒈} arrives at a general conclusion based on the
observation of specific examples.
Deductive reasoning – the process of reasoning that
arrives at a conclusion based on previously accepted
general statements.
The conclusion drawn by using inductive reasoning is
called conjecture. The conjecture may be true or false
depending on the truthfulness of the argument.
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true
in all cases and it only takes one example to prove the
conjecture is false, such an example is called a
counterexample.
Note: they can be represented in terms of venn
diagram. Logically speaking, we cannot prove a general
EXAMPLE statement from a number of specific examples unless
Given: A = {0,1,3,5,7} there are only finitely many examples and we can
B = {1,2,4,7,9} exhaust them. However, only one counterexample can
prove that our conjecture is false.
Then, 𝑨∪𝑩={𝟎,𝟏,𝟐,𝟑,𝟒,𝟓,𝟕,𝟗}
𝑨∩𝑩={𝟏,𝟕} Deductive reasoning does not rely on examples.
𝑨∖𝑩={𝟎,𝟑,𝟓} We make our conclusion based on general statements
whose truth value is known or assumed. Formal
mathematics is usually based on this type of
reasoning. We first lay down definition of terms, and
assume basic true statements called axioms and
derive true statements from these axioms called as
theorems.
Inductive reasoning cannot in general prove
general statements as this relies on examples
PART 3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING only. In contrast, we can use deductive reasoning to
prove a certain conjecture.
Core Idea: Mathematics is not just about numbers; much
of it is problem solving and reasoning. EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE REASONING
1.) 1 is an odd number. 11 is an odd number. 21 is an
Mathematics requires not only facility with numbers but odd number.
also to critically think through situations, to reason and Therefore, all numbers ending with 1 are odd
argue logically and to creatively solve problems. numbers.
Mathematics is an active human endeavor. We can
create the mathematics we need to solve problems. 2.) Essay test is difficult. Problem solving test is
Mathematics is for everyone who cares to learn it. difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult.
3.) Mark is a Science teacher. Mark is bald.
Therefore, all Science teachers are bald.
EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING
1.) All birds have feathers. Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.
2.) All Science teachers are bald. Mark is a Science
teacher.
Therefore, Mark is bald.
3.) All engineers are men. My sister is an engineer.
Therefore, my sister is a man.
Note: Logical reasoning may be valid but not
necessarily true.
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
GEORGE POLYA (1887-1985)
In 1945, mathematician George Polya devised a
model for problem solving and published it in his book
“How to Solve It”. The book contains a collection of
mathematical problems and selected strategies on
dealing these. He called his problem solving model
heuristic (or serving to discover).
POLYA’S PROBLEM- SOLVING STRATEGY
1. Understand the problem. (Ask questions,
experiment, or otherwise rephrase the question in your
own words.
2. Devise a plan. (Find the connection between the
data and the unknown. Look for patterns, relate to a
previously solved problem or a known formula, or
simplify the given information to give you an easier
problem.
3. Carry out the plan. (Check the steps as you go.)
4. Look back. (Examine the solution obtained. In other
words, check your answer.)
Together with these guidelines, the following are some
of the recommended strategies:
1. Draw a diagram.
2. Solve a simpler problem.
3. Make a table.
4. Work backwards.
5. Guess and check.
6. Find a pattern.
7. Use a formula or an equation.
8. Using logical reasoning.
Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
 Some types of pattern:
- Prime number pattern
- Imaginary number pattern
- Geometric number pattern
- Growing number pattern
SEQUENCE
Finite and Infinite
 An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is
the set of positive integers.
The function values a 1 , a2 , a3 , … , an−1 , a n … are
terms of the sequence.
If the domain of the function consists of the first n
positive integers only, the sequence is a finite
sequence.
A general sequence a 1 , a2 , a3 , … , an−1 , a n …
having the first term a 1, the second term a 2, the third
term is a 3, and the nth term, also called the general
term of the sequence, is a n.
DIFFERENCE TABLE
It shows the differences between successive terms of
the sequence. The differences in rows maybe the first,
second, and third differences. In the first differences,
each number in the first row of the table is the
differences between the closest numbers just above it
(subtract the upper left number to the upper right
number). If the first differences are not the same,
compute the successive differences of the first
differences (called the second and third differences).
SECTION 2: MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL
Part 1: STATISTICS AND DATA MANAGEMENT
Core Idea: Statistical tools derived from mathematics are
useful in processing and managing numerical data in
order to describe a phenomenon and its effects.
Statistics
STATISTICS is the study of the collection,
organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation
of data.
It deals with all aspects of data, including the planning
of its collection in terms of the design of surveys and
experiments.
In statistics, we are often interested in gathering
information from a group of objects. If the groups in
consideration consists of large number of objects, we
try to obtain information about the group by examining
its subgroup.
Branches of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics – is concerned with
the description and summarization of data. It
deals with the techniques used in the
collection, presentation, organization, and
analysis of the data on hand.
2. Inferential Statistics –
Steps in Statistical Investigation
1. DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Identify a specific problem.
Define the scope and limitations, assumptions to be
made, and expected outcomes.
2. COLLECTION OF DATA
Make sure to collect the data properly.
Incomplete, fabricated, outdated and inaccurate data
are useless.
3. SUMMARIZATION AND TABULATION OF DATA
This refers to organization of data in text, tables,
graphs and charts, so that logical conclusion can be
derived from them.
Explore the data to obtain additional insight that could
contribute to the study.
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA
This pertains to the process of deriving from the given
data relevant information from which numerical
descriptions can be formulated.
Summarized data must be examined so that insights
and meaningful information can be produced to
support decision-making or solutions to the question or
problem at hand.
5. INTERPRETATION OF DATA AND RESULTS
Refers to the task of drawing conclusions from the
analyzed data.
Results must be able to answer the research problem
and give recommendations.
6. PRESENTATION OF THE RESULT
Present all pertinent results in a clear and concise
manner.
Use appropriate form of media to present results.
Population and Sample
The total collection of all the elements that we are
interested in is called a population. A subgroup of the
population that will be studied in detail is called a
sample.
A sample of k members of a population is called a
random sample, also called a simple random
sample, if the members are chosen in such a way that
all possible choices of the k members are equally
likely.
SAMPLING
Sampling refers to the process of obtaining samples
from the population. Sampling maybe categorized as
either probability sampling or non-probability sampling.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING VS. NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Probability sampling, also referred to as random
sampling, is the method of sampling in which every
member of the population have equal chance of being
selected as sample; otherwise, it is considered as
non-probability sampling.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1.) Simple Random Sampling – This is also
known as the fish-bowl method or the lottery
method. Each member in the population is
assigned a number from 1 to N. Each number
is written on a piece of paper (or a ballot),
which is then placed and thoroughly mixed in
a bowl or a convenient container such as a
tambiolo. The researcher then draws out n
number of these ballots. The numbers are
then listed and their corresponding
participants are identified.
2.) Stratified Random Sampling – The
population is divided into groups based on
certain characteristics. The groups are called
strata.
3.) Systematic Random Sampling – This is the
method of selecting every kth element in the
population list. The value of k is determined
by the formula 𝑘=𝑁/𝑛, where N is the
 population size and n is the sample size. The
first element in the list is randomly selected.
Thereafter, every kth element is elected until
the sample is completed.
4.) Cluster Random Sampling – The total
population is grouped based on some
“natural” means. For instance, schools are
grouped according to their geographical
locations. Then random sampling is applied
to choose which cluster is treated as the
sampling unit such that analysis is done on
population of clusters.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1) Accidental Sampling – Sample is chosen by the
researcher by the obtaining members of the
population in a convenient, often haphazard way.
Also known as Convenience Sampling.
2) Quota Sampling – There is specified number of
persons of certain types is included in the sample.
The researcher is aware of categories within the
population and draws samples from each
category. The size of each categorical sample is
proportional to the proportion of the population
that belongs in that category.
3) Purposive Sampling – The researcher employs
his or her judgments on choosing which he or she
believes are representative of the population.
4) Snowball Sampling – This technique is also
called referral sampling. A primary set of samples
are chosen based on the criteria set by the
researcher. Information on where to find
succeeding set of sample having the same criteria
will be gathered from this primary set in order to
expand the number of samples.
5) Multistage Sampling – The sample is selected
by combining at least two different sampling
methods.
Sample Size Considerations
The sample size is typically denoted by n and it is
always a positive integer. No exact sample size can be
mentioned as it can vary in different research settings.
However, all else being equal, large sized sample
leads to increased precision in estimates of various
properties of the population.
Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the sample size
n given the population size and a margin of error e. It
is a formula used to estimate sampling size of a
random sample from a given population. We can
compute
where N is the population size
The higher the margin of error, the less likely it is that
the results of the sample are true for the whole
population.
Example:
A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food
preference of BS Accountancy students. If the
population of students is 1000, use the Slovin’s
formula to find the sample size if the margin of error is
5%.
Solution
Given: N = 1000, e = 0.05
Using the Slovin’s formula,
N gender could be classified as M, and transgendered
𝑛=
1+ N e2
we get
1000
n=
1+(1000)¿ ¿
≈ 285.71
Therefore, the researcher needs to survey 286 BS
Accountancy students.
Methods of Data Collection
1. Survey Method. The survey is a method of
collecting data on the variable of interest by asking
people questions. This may be done by interview or by
using questionnaires.
2. Experiment. Experimental data are collected
through active intervention by the researcher to
produce and measure change or to create difference
when a variable is altered. Experimental data typically
allows the researcher to determine a causal
relationship and is typically projectable to a larger
population. This type of data are often reproducible,
but it often can be expensive to do so.
3. Observations. Observational data are captured
through observation of a behavior or activity. It is
collected using methods such as human observation
or the use of an instrument or sensor to monitor and
record information. Because observational data are
captured in real time, it would be very difficult or
impossible to re-create if lost
Level of Measurement
It is important to understand the level of measurement
of variables in research, because the level of
measurement determines the type of statistical
analysis that can be conducted, and, therefore, the
type of conclusions that can be drawn from the
research.
1. NOMINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
In this level of measurement, words, letters, and alpha-
numeric symbols can be used. It classifies data into
mutually exclusive (non-overlapping) categories in
which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
 
Examples
Suppose there are data about people belonging
to three different gender categories. In this case, the
person belonging to the female gender could be
classified as F, the person belonging to the male
classified as T.
For example, jersey numbers in basketball are
measures at the nominal level. A player with
number 30 is not more of anything than a player with
number 15, and is certainly not twice whatever
number 15 is.
3. ORDINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
This level of measurement depicts some ordered
relationship among the variable’s observations.
Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in
the class.  In this case, he would be assigned the first
rank.  Then, another classmate scores the second
highest grade of an 92; she would be assigned the
second rank.  A third student scores a 81 and he
would be assigned the third rank, and so on.   The
ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of
the measurements.
Examples
Rating Scale
Ranking in a contest (First place, Second place,
etc.)
Note: Distances between attributes do not have any
meaning.
For example, on a survey you might code
Educational Attainment as 0=less than high school;
1=some high school.; 2=high school degree; 3=some
college; 4=college degree; 5=post college. In this
measure, higher numbers mean more education. But
is distance from 0 to 1 same as 3 to 4?
3. INTERVAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
The interval level of measurement not only classifies
and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that
the distances between each interval on the scale are
equivalent along the scale from low interval to high
interval.  For example, an interval level of
measurement could be the measurement of anxiety in
a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval
is the same as that of a student who scores between
40 and 41.   1. TEXTUAL FORM
Examples
Temperature (Celsius and Fahrenheit)
IQ
For example, when we measure temperature (in
Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as
distance from 70-80. The interval between values is
interpretable. Because of this, it makes sense to
compute an average of an interval variable, where it
doesn’t make sense to do so for ordinal scales.
4.RATIO LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
In this level of measurement, the observations, in
addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of
zero as well.  The zero in the scale makes this type of
measurement unlike the other types of measurement,
although the properties are similar to that of the
interval level of measurement.
Examples
Weight
Height
Salary
In applied social research most “count” variables
are ratio, for example, the number of clients in past six
months. Why? Because you can have zero clients and
because it is meaningful to say that “…we had twice
as many clients in the past six months as we did in the
previous six months.”
It’s important to recognize that there is a hierarchy
implied in the level of measurement idea. At lower
levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be less
restrictive and data analyses tend to be less sensitive.
At each level up the hierarchy, the current level
includes all of the qualities of the one below it and
adds something new. In general, it is desirable to have
a higher level of measurement (e.g., interval or ratio)
rather than a lower one (nominal or ordinal).
Presentation of Data
Data are presented in paragraph or text. The text
highlights the important figures or results that the
researcher wishes to focus on.
2. TABULAR FORM
Data appears in a systematic manner in rows and
columns.
a. simple or one-way table
b. two-way table
3. GRAPHICAL FORM
Data or relationship among variables could be
presented in visual form, thru graph or diagrams. In
that manner, the reader can easily perceive what is
being meant by the figure or any trend being portrayed
by the data.
Class Midpoint, Frequency, Cumulative Frequency
Class Midpoint or Class Mark- The midpoint of each
class interval
A frequency table for a data set containing a large
number of data values is constructed as follows:
- Determine the data range of the data set.
- Decide the width of the class intervals.
- Divide the range by the chosen width of the
class interval to determine the number of
intervals.
Range - The difference between the largest value and
smallest value in the data set
How many classes should we use?
The number of categories of equal length that will be
used to group the data.
RANGE: BS – SN
LENGTH OF CLASS INTEVAL:
Range / No. Of Classes
Step 1: Determine the data range of the data set.
Step 2: Decide the width of the class intervals.
Step 3: Divide the range by the chosen width of the
class interval to determine the number of intervals.
Cumulative Frequency- The total of a frequency and
all frequencies so far in a frequency distribution. It is
the “running total” of frequencies.
HISTOGRAM
A histogram is a graph in which the classes are
marked on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the class on
the vertical axis (y-axis). The height of the bars
represents the class frequencies, and the bars are
drawn adjacent to each other.
FREQUENCY POLYGON
A frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data
using points which are connected by lines. The
frequencies are represented by the heights of the
points at the midpoints of the classes.
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY POLYGON / OGIVE
A cumulative frequency polygon or ogive is a graph
that displays the cumulative frequencies for the MEAN OF UNGROUPED DATA
classes in a frequency distribution. We will let n represent the number of data points in the
distribution. Then,
PARETO CHART
A pareto chart is a graph used to represent a
frequency distribution for a categorical data (or
nominal-level) and frequencies are displayed by the
heights of vertical bars, which are arranged in order
x=¿
∑ of values
from highest to lowest.
number of values
BAR CHART
MEAN OF GROUPED DATA
A bar chart is similar to bar histogram. The bases of
the rectangles are arbitrary intervals whose centers
are the codes. The height of each rectangle represents
the frequency of that category.

PIE CHART
A pie chart is a circle divided into portions that
represent the relative frequencies (or percentages) of
the data belonging to a different categories.

TIME SERIES GRAPH

A time series graph represents data that occur over
specific period of time under observation. In addition, it
shows a trend or pattern on the increase or decrease
over the period of time.

PICTOGRAPH
A pictograph immediately suggests the nature of the MODE
data being shown. It is a combination of the attention- MODE OF UNGROUPED DATA
getting quality and the accuracy of the bar chart.
Appropriate pictures arranged in a row (sometimes in
a column) present the quantities for comparison. MEDIAN
MODE OF GROUPED DATA
SCATTER PLOT
A scatter plot is used to examine possible relationships
between two numerical variables. The two variables MEDIAN OF UNGROUPED DATA
are plotted in x-axis and y-axis. First, order the data.
(n + 1) / 2

Measures of Central Tendency MEDIAN OF GROUPED DATA x lb = lower boundary of the modal class
A measure of central tendency or average is a location d 1 = difference between the frequency of the class
measure that pinpoints the center or typical middle mode and the class before the modal class
value of a data set. A convenient way of describing a
set of data with a value that describes the average
d 2 = difference between the frequency of the class
characteristic of a data set. The three common mode and the class after the modal class
measures of central tendency are the mean, median i = class width
and mode.
x lb = lower boundary of the median class
Grouped Data vs Ungrouped Data 𝑛 = total frequency
Data is often described as ungrouped or cf b = cumulative frequency before median class
grouped. Ungrouped data is data given as f m = frequency of the median class
individual data points. Grouped data is data given in
intervals.  i = class width
MEAN