Habituation and Memory: Infant Cardiac Responses to Familiar and Discrepant Auditory

Stimuli
Author(s): Alan B. Horowitz
Source: Child Development, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar., 1972), pp. 43-53
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1127870
Accessed: 27-06-2016 03:04 UTC

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 HABITUATION AND MEMORY: INFANT CARDIAC
RESPONSES TO FAMILIAR AND DISCREPANT
AUDITORY STIMULI

ALAN B. HOROWITZ

Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota

HOROWITZ, ALAN B. Habituation and Memory: Infant Cardiac Responses

to Familiar and Discrepant Auditory Stimuli. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1972,
43, 43-53. Cardiac deceleration patterns of 32 6-month-old male infants
were assessed in the presence of familiar and discrepant auditory stimuli. All
infants displayed habituation to repeated presentations of a standard stimulus
(a 2-tone configuration). Following habituation, each infant was presented
with a test stimulus which consisted of a change in either the first, second,
first and second, or an order reversal of the 2 standard stimulus tones. Control
infants were presented with an additional presentation of the standard
stimulus. Significant dishabituation was displayed only to a change in the
first tone and a reversal of the standard tones. The amount of standard
stimulus experience was found crucial in determining an infant's response to
the test stimuli. Findings are discussed with regard to the habituation-mem-
ory relationship and stimulus-discrepancy literature.

Recent studies with young infants have continued to find evidence for
what appears to be the developing infant's ability to retain information about

This paper was based on a thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Minnesota, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D.
degree in child psychology. Portions of this research were presented by me in a
paper read at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Develop-
ment, Minneapolis, April 1971. The research was supported by a predoctoral
training grant from the National Institute of Mental Health. I wish to express
my appreciation to Drs. Harold Stevenson, Joseph Glick, and L. Alan Sroufe for
their valuable help throughout the course of this research. Author's address:
Department of Applied Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis,
California 95616.

[Child Development, 1972, 43, 43-53. @ 1972 by the Society for Research in Child Develop-
ment, Inc. All rights reserved.]

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CHILD DEVELOPMENT

a variety of natural and experimentally produced stimuli (e.g., Fantz 1964;

Lewis, Goldberg, & Campbell 1969; McCall & Kagan 1967, 1970; McCall &
Melson 1969, 1970; Meyers & Cantor 1966, 1967; Saayman, Ames, & Moffet
1964). These investigations have employed some form of familiarization
procedure in which a particular stimulus is presented continuously or re-
peatedly to the young infant. Following the presentation of this "familiar"
stimulus, new or altered stimuli are introduced. Throughout the presentation
of these stimuli, various behavioral and autonomic responses of the young
infant are monitored. In particular, several investigations have found that
visual fixation and heart rate measures seem to indicate a pronounced
increment in response to the first presentation of respective visual and au-
ditory stimuli (Clifton & Meyers 1969; Graham, Clifton, & Hatton 1968;
McCall & Melson 1970; Melson & McCall 1970). Over successive presenta-
tions of such stimuli, these increments diminish progressively (i.e., habituate)
until no appreciable change in response accompanies the onset of the re-
peated stimulus. With the subsequent introduction of a new or altered
stimulus, fixation and heart rate measures again evidence a marked incre-
ment in response (i.e., dishabituate).
Theoretically, these patterns of response habituation and dishabituation
have been suggested to reflect the young infant's acquisition of a memory
engram for the repeated stimulus and his attention to subsequent stimuli
which are novel or reasonably discrepant from this engram (Jeffrey 1968;
McCall & Kagan 1967; Lewis et al. 1969; Sokolov 1963). More specifically,
it has been argued that the infant will orient to the onset of a stimulus (Si),
and that the marked increments in fixation and heart rate response measures
are characteristic of this orienting response (OR). Over repeated presenta-
tions of Si, the infant acquires a memory or internal model of that stimulus.
This model then serves as an internal standard to which subsequently
encountered stimuli are compared. With the acquisition of this internal
model, the OR and its various response measures undergo progressive hab-
ituation in the repeated presence of Si, the now-familiar stimulus. However,
if at this time a new or altered stimulus (S2) is presented, that is, one
"judged" by the infant to be novel or discrepant (at least within some
"optimal" range of discrepancy) from his internal model of Si, then the pre-
viously habituated response components of the OR undergo immediate
dishabituation. This dishabituation or reinstatement of the OR is considered
to facilitate the assimilation of those new or altered elements in S2 which
do not coincide with the infant's internal model of S1.
While this description of the relationship between OR habituation and
the acquisition of an internal model generally accounts for the data from
various studies with young infants, little has been specified about the nature
of this model acquisition process, or, for that matter, what is modeled by the
infant during the course of OR habituation. Such a specification would
facilitate the interpretation of data from habituation studies in which com-

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 ALAN B. HOROWITZ

plex auditory and visual stimulus configurations have been presented re-
peatedly to young infants (e.g., Bartoshuk 1962; Fantz 1964; McCall &
Kagan 1967, 1970; McCall & Melson 1969, 1970; Melson & McCall 1970).
The present investigation was an attempt to assess the nature of those
components of a particular auditory stimulus configuration which underlie
habituation of the cardiac deceleration response in the 6-month-old infant.
A familiarization procedure was employed in which one of several auditory
test stimuli was introduced after each infant had displayed habituation to
repeated presentations of a standard stimulus. As each test stimulus repre-
sented a particular change in the configuration of the standard stimulus, it
was presumed that the incidence of cardiac rate dishabituation -in the
presence of such a test stimulus would indicate the retention of at least
that component of the standard stimulus altered in the configuration of the
test stimulus. Based on this same assumption, continued habituation was
taken to indicate that the altered component in the configuration of the
test stimulus was not represented in the infant's internal model of the stand-
ard stimulus, and that perhaps another component of the standard stimulus
was responsible for the infant's response habituation. In general, then, it
was hoped that the resulting patterns of cardiac response habituation and
dishabituation in the presence of the various test stimuli would reflect the
specific nature of the auditory stimulus modeled during OR habituation.

METHOD

Subjects.-Cardiac response records of 32 6-month-old male infants

were included in this investigation. The infants ranged in age from 5 months,
26 days to 6 months, 18 days, with the mean age of 6 months, 7 days. The
response records of 13 other male infants were not included in the data
reported below due to evidence of crying, extreme restlessness, maternal
interaction during the experimental session, and/or experimenter and equip-
ment errors. All infants were recruited from birth notices in newspapers.
Letters were sent to the parents of appropriately aged infants residing within
a reasonable distance from the laboratory, and whose telephones were listed
and available to the general public. Participants were not paid for their
services, though transportation was provided or funded if necessary.
Stimuli and apparatus.-The same two-tone auditory stimulus was used
throughout all presentations of the standard stimulus. This stimulus con-
sisted of a 5-sec tone of 400 H contiguous with a 5-sec tone of 1,000 H. The
various test stimuli consisted of two-tone sequences in which (1) the same
two standard tones appeared in the same order as presented in the standard
stimulus (control condition: 400-1,000 H); (2) the same two standard tones
were used, but the order of presentation was reversed (experimental condi-
tion 1: 1,000-400 H); (3) the first tone differed from the first tone in the
standard stimulus, while the second tone was the same as the second tone

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CHILD DEVELOPMENT

in the standard stimulus (experimental condition 2: 700-1,000 H); (4) the

first tone was the same as in the standard, while the second tone differed
(experimental condition 3: 400-700 H); and (5) both the first and the
second standard tones were changed, with the two new tones presented in
the same additive frequency relationship as the two standard tones (experi-
mental condition 4: 600-1,200 H). Each test stimulus was 10 sec in duration,
while each tone in the sequence lasted 5 sec.
All of the pure tones used in this study were successfully pilot tested on
eight 6-month-old infants to assure individual discriminability. Discrimina-
bility of tones was determined by the consistent display of cardiac decelera-
tion coinciding with a change in each tone, from one 30-sec tone segment to
the next. All tones were generated by an Eico Audio Generator (model #377)
and recorded directly at near-equivalent intensity on a Wollensak stereo tape
recorder (model #T-1980) at 71/2 ft/second. These tone sequences were
played back at a constant volume (65 db) over an external 4-inch speaker,
positioned 20 inches from the infant.
Throughout the experimental session, the infant was seated in a stand-
ard infant seat. This seat was surrounded on three sides by a medium gray
enclosure, with 3 x 31/2-ft front and side panels. The speaker and a closed-
circuit television camera were mounted on the rear side of the front panel.
Throughout the session, the camera was used to observe the infant's gross
body movement and state of alertness via a television monitor in an adjacent
sound-insulated room.
The dependent measure of cardiac deceleration was monitored with a
set of Beckman Bio-Potential electrodes placed slightly above the infant's
nipples and a ground located above the navel. Cardiac responses were
recorded on a Beckman type-R polygraph with cardiotachometer, also
located in the adjoining room.
Procedure.-After the electrodes were placed on the infant, he was
positioned in the infant seat facing the front panel of the enclosure. His
mother was asked to interact with him until E adjusted the recording and
monitoring apparatus. This took approximately 1 min. The mother then
sat in a chair located to the rear of her infant and was instructed to remain
passive during the presentation of the various stimuli. If necessary, addi-
tional time was taken in order to let the infant adjust to the absence of his
mother.

The experimental session began with a 30-sec prestimulus interval in

which the infant was able to adapt to the general surroundings and a steady
heart rate was obtained prior to the onset of the first stimulus. Eight infants
were systematically assigned to the control condition and to each of the first
three experimental conditions; the first S to the control condition, the second
to experimental condition 1, the third to experimental condition 2, the
fourth to experimental condition 3, the fifth to the control condition, etc.
The standard stimulus was repeatedly presented to all infants until habitua-

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 ALAN B. HOROWITZ

tion (i.e., no deceleration in cardiac response rate with stimulus onset) was
observed on three consecutive stimulus presentations. At that time, a test
stimulus was introduced in accord with the S's condition assignment. Follow-
ing the presentation of the test stimulus in the control condition, Ss were
presented with the fifth test stimulus, thereby also serving as the Ss in
experimental condition 5. A 15-sec period of silence served as an inter-
stimulus interval throughout the session. Following the presentation of the
last stimulus, cardiac rate was monitored for 30 sec in the absence of
stimulation.

Data reduction and the dependent measure.-The dependent variable

of cardiac deceleration was computed by procedures adapted from Lewis
et al. (1969). The mean heart rate for beats within each of the 5 sec prior to
stimulus onset was calculated. The mean of these mean beats per second
served as the prestimulus cardiac rate. The mean of the five mean beats per
second for 5 sec after stimulus onset (or the onset of the stimulus change
in the case of test stimuli) served as the cardiac rate during stimulus presen-
tation. The difference between the stimulus rate and the prestimulus rate
was the measure of cardiac rate change for a given trial. A negative differ-
ence score indicated cardiac deceleration (and dishabituation on the test
stimulus presentations), while zero difference or small positive scores (i.e.,
cardiac acceleration) were taken to indicate cardiac response habituation. It
should be noted that only two Ss recorded small positive difference scores
on their test trials (one in the control condition, the other in experimental
condition 1). In both cases, these scores were converted to difference scores
of zero beats. This adjustment was based on the construct validity of cardiac
deceleration rather than acceleration as an index of the OR in the 6-month-
old infant (Graham & Clifton 1966). Difference scores were computed for
each S during the first presentation of the standard stimulus, the last cri-
terional habituation trial, and the presentation of each test stimulus.

TABLE 1

INFANT CARDIAC RESPONSE RATES (IN BEATS/MINUTE) DURING SELECTED 5-

SECOND INTERVALS THROUGHOUT EXPERIMENTAL SESSION

HEART RATE

SELECTED 5-SECOND INTERVALS M Range

Prior to first standard .................... 136 121-164
Onset of first standard .................... 127 112-153
Onset of criterional standard ............... 139 123-164
Prior to test stimulus ...................... 141 121-170
Onset of test stimulus:
Habituation ............................ 140 121-165
Dishabituation .......................... 134 118-155
Deceleration to first standard .............. 9 2-18
Deceleration to test stimulus ............... 7 2-21

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CHILD DEVELOPMENT

RESULTS

Cardiac deceleration and stimulus change.-As the cardiac responses

measured in the present investigation displayed an erratic distribution (see
table 1), difference scores were subjected to nonparametric analyses.
The number of subjects in each condition who demonstrated cardiac
deceleration (i.e., dishabituation) in the presence of the test stimulus is
presented in table 2. A comparison of the difference scores obtained in each
of the experimental conditions with those obtained in the control condition
revealed only significant differences in experimental conditions 1 and 2.
That is, significantly more infants demonstrated dishabituation when there
was a change in the first of the two tones presented in the standard stimulus
(Fisher exact test, p = .01, df = 1) and when there was a reversal of the
two standard tones (Fisher exact test, p = .04, df = 1), than when the two
standard tones were presented as the no-change test stimulus. There was no
significant difference between the number of infants displaying dishabitua-
tion in experimental condition 3 when there was a change in the second
standard tone and the number displaying dishabituation in the control con-
dition (Fisher exact test, p = .23, df - 1). These results were not attrib-
utable to differences among the conditions in either the magnitude of the
initial cardiac response on trial 1, or to the magnitude of response on the last
presentation of the standard stimulus. This conclusion is based on the fact
that there were no significant differences among the conditions in the mag-
nitude of response to the first presentation of the standard stimulus, Kruskal-
Wallis ANOVA, H (3) = 2.32, p < .50. Furthermore, infants in all of the test
conditions responded in a similar manner (i.e., no significant deceleration)
on the criterional habituation trial just prior to the presentation of the test
stimulus.

A binomial test comparison of the number of infants in experimental

condition 4 who demonstrated dishabituation when the test stimulus con-
sisted of a change in both of the standard tones with those infants in the
control condition who had previously displayed habituation in the presence
of the no-change test stimulus, approached significance (p = .06). More
specifically, only four of the eight infants in experimental condition 4
demonstrated dishabituation when presented with the test stimulus of two
changed tones. Thus more infants were found to display dishabituation in
the presence of test stimuli which consisted of a change in the first standard
tone and reversal of the two standard tones than to a test stimulus repre-
senting no change in the standard stimulus configuration. No significant
differences were found in the number of infants demonstrating dishabitua-
tion when the test stimuli consisted of changes in either the second or
both of the standard tones.
In addition, a one-way analysis of variance revealed that there were
no significant differences among the various conditions in the number of

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CHILD DEVELOPMENT

trials to criterional habituation F(3,28) = .16. Infants in the control condi-

tion and experimental conditions 1, 2, and 3 required a mean of 16, 15, 16,
and 15 presentations of the standard stimulus, respectively, before display-
ing criterional habituation. Finally, no significant differences were found in
the magnitude of the deceleration responses displayed by infants in the
various test conditions, Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA, H (3) = 6.94, p < .10. That
is, when deceleration responses occurred, no greater magnitude of response
was evident in the presence of any particular test stimulus.
Habituators and dishabituators.-Overall, those infants in the experi-
mental conditions who displayed dishabituation in the presence of the test
stimuli (i.e., the dishabituators) received a mean of 18.94 presentations of
the standard stimulus prior to criterional habituation, while those who con-
tinued to show habituation in the presence of the same test stimuli (i.e.,
the habituators) received a mean of 12.25 presentations of the standard
(see table 2). This difference was found to be significant, t(30) = 4.84,
p < .001. A comparison of the magnitude of the deceleration responses dis-
played by habituators and dishabituators on the first presentation of the
standard stimulus revealed no significant differences, t(30) = 1.54, p < .10.
Thus the occurrence of dishabituation did not appear to be a function of
initially greater magnitudes of deceleration in the case of the dishabituators.

DISCUSSION

Dishabituation and stimulus discrepancy.-Dishabituation is an indi-

cation of an organism's ability to attend to a change in the stimulus. It can
occur, therefore, only if the individual retains information about the pre-
viously presented stimulus. Accordingly, the various patterns of dishabitua-
tion displayed in the presence of the discrepant test stimuli used in the
present investigation should tell us what the 6-month-old infant has retained
from his repeated exposure to the two-tone standard stimulus.
Significantly more infants were found to demonstrate dishabituation
when test stimuli consisted of a change in the first tone and a reversal of the
two standard tones, while a change in the second tone produced more
equivocal results. Thus more infants seem to retain information about the
first than of the second temporal component in the standard configuration.
Perhaps this represents a primacy effect in which infants encountering a
repetitive two-tone sequence attend to and acquire information about the
first tone prior to (or to the exclusion of) the second tone, rather than be-
ginning with the second tone or processing the stimulus configuration as a
whole. Such an argument lends support to Jeffrey's (1968) "serial habitua-
tion hypothesis," which proposes that an infant will show habituation to
each discriminable element of the stimulus configuration in a serial, piece-by-
piece fashion.
On the other hand, some infants may retain information about the sec-

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 ALAN B. HOROWITZ

ond tone in the standard configuration; two of eight infants in experimental

condition 3 displayed dishabituation to a change in the second standard
tone. In addition, four of eight infants in experimental condition 1 continued
to show habituation when presented with a reversal of the two tones. These
infants may have perceived the reversal, but "considered" it to be an "old
stimulus." That is, they may have remembered the two tones from presenta-
tions of the standard stimulus, despite a change in their order. Or, perhaps
such a change in the order of the two tones was not of sufficient discrepancy
to elicit the attention of these infants. In any case, some infants seem to
acquire information about more aspects of the stimulus configuration than
other infants, or about components other than the first in a temporally pre-
sented stimulus configuration.
Finally, the fact that some infants continued to display habituation
when presented with the various test stimuli, particularly a test stimulus
with two new tones (i.e., in experimental condition 4), may indicate that
some components or aspects of the experimental situation other than those
previously defined by the experimenter (and manipulated in the various
"discrepant" test stimuli) may be responsible for the display of habituation.
For example, if an infant remembered only that the standard stimulus had
two tones, regardless of the specific tones presented, he might display habitu-
ation in the presence of all of the two-tone stimuli- used in the present in-
vestigation. In this case, both the standard stimulus and test stimuli would
be consistent with the infant's internal representation of the standard
stimulus. Perhaps future investigations that employ a wider range of test
stimuli and present multiple test trials to a single subject will be able to
detail those "individualized" aspects of the experimental stimulus which may
be the subject of the young infant's attention and retention. This suggestion
is of particular importance for future studies into the effects of stimulus
discrepancy, for an infant's internal model of the standard stimulus may not
be the same as the experimenter-defined standard from which the degree of
discrepancy accorded to a test stimulus is usually assessed. In fact, in light of
the present findings I remain perplexed over the degree of approximation
achieved by experimenter-defined discrepancy levels in ordering data from
some previous investigations (e.g., McCall & Kagan 1970; McCall & Melson
1969, 1970; Melson & McCall 1970). It may well be that some infants are
capable of responding to particular stimuli in a manner approximating that
of the "naive" experimenter.
Habituation and memory.-In general, the fact that an infant had
reached the criterion for habituation in the present investigation did not
appear to be related to his subsequent response in the presence of a change
in the configuration of the standard stimulus. Having reached the criterion
for habituation, an infant was no more likely to display dishabituation in
the presence of the test stimuli than he was to display continued habituation.
Rather, a crucial factor in determining the infant's response to a discrepancy

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CHILD DEVELOPMENT

between the standard and test stimuli appears to be the amount of experi-
ence that an infant has with the standard stimulus. An infant who receives
more exposure to the standard stimulus prior to habituation is more likely to
respond to a discrepancy between the standard and subsequent test stimuli
than an infant who displays habituation after fewer presentations of the
standard. This conclusion is supported by the fact that dishabituators "re-
quired" more presentations of the standard stimulus prior to reaching the
criterion for habituation than did the habituators. The importance of greater
experience with the standard has also been suggested by McCall and Melson
(1970), who found that cardiac deceleration in the presence of a discrepant
stimulus increased as a function of the amount of familiarity with the stand-
ard stimulus. Perhaps even habituators in the present investigation would
have acquired information about the standard sufficient to display dishabitu-
ation in the presence of the discrepant stimuli if they had been provided
additional experience with the standard stimulus after reaching the criterion
for habituation. A confirmation of this hypothesis would highlight the role
of experience in the habituation-memory relationship.
A second important factor in the determination of cardiac dishabituation
appears to be the nature of the discrepancy between the test and standard
stimulus. If an infant has not retained information about a given aspect
of the standard stimulus, he cannot be expected to respond with dishabitua-
tion to a change in that aspect of the stimulus configuration. As suggested
above, an infant must retain those aspects of the standard stimulus that are
to be changed during test trials if he is to perceive a discrepancy between
the standard and test stimuli. In the present study, a greater incidence of
dishabituation was found when the test stimulus consisted of a change in the
frequency of the first tone in the standard stimulus than when a change
was made in either the second tone or both the first and second standard
tones. Thus a discrepancy between the standard and test stimuli which
consists of a change in at least the first component of a temporarily presented
standard stimulus appears more likely to be accompanied by the onset of
cardiac dishabituation than a discrepancy resulting from changes in later
components of the standard stimulus configuration.

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 ALAN B. HOROWITZ

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