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Feminisms
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fields of action and knowledge such as mathemat- (Hooks 1984; Arnot 1995; Lamas 1996; Estevez
ics, engineering, or biomedical sciences. Still, 2018).
their equal participation in politics, academics, Questioning the patriarchal imperative has also
or leading organizations is limited (ONU 2018). inspired men’s movements towards transforming
The matter is not only numerical: the referential the authoritarian and pathological views of a mas-
framework of knowledge, action, and power culinity that has inhibited their expression of
remains androcentric, racist, and sexist (Hill Col- affection and feelings, as well as the possibility
lins 2012). However, as Harding (1996) pointed of exercising non-oppressive power. Feminism,
out, women feminist academics have been the by questioning the biological determinism, has
ones noticing the androcentric biases in the scien- also contributed to rethink the notion of “mascu-
tific work, both in the definition of scientific prob- linity” and the emergence of “new masculinities”
lems as well as in research concepts, theories, against the oppressive relationship over women
methods, and interpretations. imposed on men by patriarchy (Hooks 2004;
García 2015). There is a growing number of men
working on deconstructing the historical role
Diverse Feminisms: Common assigned to them based on a dominant and author-
and Different Struggles itarian position that has had a negative effect on
their affective life and work relationships. This
To better understand feminisms from the South, it has propelled changes on social life and policies
is precise to acknowledge that the feminist move- so men could also share domestic and care respon-
ment is not a monolithic program. It has contrib- sibilities; develop collaborative (non-competitive)
uted to enhancing the conception and relationships in different spaces of the existence,
implementation of women’s human rights but including the academic work; solve conflicts
from different historical moments and without violence; and join feminist, ecological,
approaches. For example, the liberal feminism and ethnic efforts towards respect for nature and
emerged in Western society from women’s strug- their human rights (Geldres et al. 2013).
gle for equal rights in all social, economic, and Feminism has also contributed to put forward
institutional spheres, from the suppression of conceptual tools towards the recognition of the
labor discrimination to their increasing participa- human rights of other gender identities in the
tion in public life. To them we acknowledge the public sphere, such as the LGTBQ+ communities,
recognition of sexual and reproductive rights, the stigmatized for not being part of the binary divi-
creation of special provisions for the care of sion of the world in only two genders and having a
young children, as well as the facilitation of non-heteronomous sexual orientation. Looking
women’s access to educational institutions and for the inclusion of the LGTBQ+ rights in the
academia (Castells 1998; Varela 2005). However, feminist agenda means transforming numerable
from feminism of the difference or radical fem- prejudices, among women themselves, who do
inism, some scholars argued that women’s greater not see transgender women as being real women
inclusion in fields of male domination was not because they were biologically born a male; how-
confronting and transforming the patriarchal soci- ever, these women are the most prone to discrim-
ety. This discussion deeply re-signified the notion ination and hateful rhetoric:
of gender as a cultural construction, non- In today’s current political climate, both nationally
biological, further challenging the historical deter- and internationally, it is painfully obvious that the
minism that reduced women’s role to the LGBTQ+ community and women are not treated as
“feminine” domestic, male satisfaction, and equals towards their straight, male counterparts.
Both women and the LGBTQ+ community have
reproductive sphere. It also unveiled the poverty an obligation to fight for their rights. Their right to
and discrimination of women from diverse ethnic, not be discriminated against based on their gender
racial, linguistic, and sexual groups, and their and/or their sexual orientation; their right to not be
struggles to get them visible within society harassed in their everyday lives; and their right to
4 Feminisms
live a peaceful, happy lifestyle in whatever way perspectives have fed the feminist movement,
they choose, without prying eyes judging their which finally achieved that the United Nations
every breath and move. (Grain 2017: 1)
General Assembly declared the first World Con-
By the late decades of the twentieth century, the ference on Women by 1975 and the Decade for
magnitude of the ecological crisis confronted the Women’s rights from 1976 to 1985. On
ideological and epistemological androcentric and 18 December 1979, the Convention on the Elim-
anthropocentric frameworks that have oriented ination of All Forms of Discrimination against
modern society, which disregard nature as the Women (CEDAW) was adopted by the United
essential milieu for all life. This anthropocentric Nations. The Fourth World Conference on
thinking conceives growth, social progress, and Women, held in Beijing in September 1995,
human creativity beginning and ending with the despite the great diversity and different global
individual (Shea 1998). A global neoliberal mar- provenance of participants, shared a single goal:
ket economy imposed individual consumerism gender equity and the empowerment of all
that demands more and more natural resources women, everywhere.
and land, which in turns expels local people More recently, expressions of diverse poly-
from their territories and generate unwelcome phonic voices from the South were articulated in
migrations, particularly from the Southern hemi- the III World Conference against Racism orga-
sphere. As Vandana Shiva (2001) has stated: nized in South Africa in 2001; the United Nations
Globalization is causing new slavery, new holo- Declaration of Human Rights of Indigenous Peo-
causts, new apartheids. It is a war against nature, ples, adopted in 2007; and the United Nations
women, children, and the poor. Ecofeminism has Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other
thus become a powerful current of thought and a People Working in Rural Areas, approved in
social movement that links environmentalism and 2018. All contains special articles on gender
feminism, revealing that the subordination of equity rights as a result of long consultations
women to men and the exercise of patriarchal within and among very diverse social movements
power are also an expression of the submission and organizations.
of life to the predatory demands of accumulation
and exploitation of nature (Herrero 2013).
Decolonial feminisms or feminisms from the Feminisms from the South: Anti-racist
South have also emerged across the planet and Decolonial Resistances3
denouncing the strong relation between capital-
ism and colonialism, which has increased
Afro-descendant women face double discrimina-
women’s oppressive experiences around the tion because of our race and gender, and additional
globe and their aspirations for living with dignity discrimination because of poverty. (Charo Mina-
(Gargallo 2012; Herrero 2012; Wylie 2001). Rojas 2018: 1)4
These feminisms will be more widely described In the community assemblies, we say that we agree
in the next section. to declare our territories free of transnational corpo-
rations. In the same way, we also want these same
We agree with Castells (1998) that this polyph-
territories to declare themselves free of violence
ony and multiplicity of feminist identities should
not be considered as a source of weakness but of
strength, considering the emergence of global net-
works and diverse dynamics of social conflicts 3
Because of our personal experience and knowledge,
and power struggles to question patriarchy in its we limit ourselves here to some approaches from Latin
very diverse manifestations: homophobia, under- America. The rich contributions to feminisms from
the South, from Islamic and Secular Arabic women’s
valuation of girls and women, exploitation of
movements, as well as from other non-European cultures
nature, and the apology for authoritarianism and from Africa, Asia, or the Pacific, deserve a further dialogue
militarism. All these discussions and diversity of with authors from these contexts.
4
Our own translation to English from Spanish.
Feminisms 5
against women. (Aura Lolita Chávez Ixcaqui 2014: Indigenous and African origin people across all
19)5 Latin America.
The structure of modern society and its worldview Undermining the feminine in non-European
became strongly influenced by the European colo- cosmogonies increased patriarchal traditions
nial project since the sixteenth century: a global under colonialist domination up to today. Chris-
hegemonic structure of power put in place by the tian colonizers declared these cosmogonies super-
conquest of territories overseas, articulating race stitious and inferior; they were violently banned,
and labor, land and people on the basis of material some of them giving rise to what Paredes (2014)
gains (Escobar 2007; Walsh 2012). As Escobar call a patriarchal junction, the crossing between
(1998) explained, concepts like “poverty,” “Third ancestral patriarchal practices and Western
World,” or “underdevelopment” were coined to male-centered culture. Today, women’s from
globally promote the First World’s capitalist Indigenous, Afro-descendant, and Mestizo Peas-
model of development, imposing extractive and ant origin have called the attention to the com-
monocultivation economies, with extended costly plexity of being doubly oppressed: by the
credits to Southern countries. This has ended up in dominant colonial culture and by their own tradi-
the displacement and the loss of the territories of tions. As the Maya leader woman Lorena Cabnal
Indigenous, Mestizo Peasant, and Afro- expressed: “I was told that most of us Indigenous
descendent rural communities, with devastating peoples lived in harmony; then I begin looking at
impact on women and children. my own world and recognized forms of machismo,
Coloniality, the dark face of modernity, has what I later called the original ancestral patriar-
denied and made invisible epistemic rationalities chy” (in Giménez and Bravo 2017: 1).
and cosmovisions different from those of Feminisms from the South (decolonial, popu-
European White men origin (coloniality of knowl- lar, community or Abya Yala6 feminisms)
edge), dehumanizing women and men from (Espinosa et al. 2013; Gargallo 2012) emerge as
non-European populations based on the reason- a political and ethical project, a new epistemolog-
racial rationality of “civilized individuals” ical and political pathway, developed from, to,
(coloniality of being) (Walsh 2008). Many ancient and through women from the South. They are
worldviews and epistemologies understood the diverse projects that propose the deconstruction
feminine and masculine as complementary; the of the current colonial/modern project, where race
masculine and feminine duality-unit was an inte- has been inseparably linked to a hierarchical divi-
gral part of the creation of the cosmos, of its sion of the world, subjugating racialized women’s
(re) generation, and maintenance (Marcos 2018). bodies, labor, thoughts, knowledge, and rights.
Diverse cosmogonies recognize not only gods but They are made up of diverse efforts to subvert
goddesses such as Pacha Mama or Mother Earth, historical determinisms, discover new roads for
source of life and wisdom for Indigenous peoples humanity, and tell other stories. They bring to
(Green 2011), or Lemanjá or Yemanyá, the mother light racialized women’s voices, wisdom, and
of all Orishas (divinities or gods), the womb from know-how that for years have been made invisible
which all the world's oceans were born for peoples and silenced by hegemonic male colonialist
of the African diaspora (Allegue 2020; Simpson- discourses.
Wilkey et al. 2020). However, the European con- As Lugones (2008) explains, an
quest and colonization of territories overseas was intersectionality perspective of gender, race, and
expanded under the patriarchy’s umbrella of the class is needed to interpret the complex realities
Christian monotheistic culture, which has been that Latin American women from Indigenous,
detrimental to the subjectivities of the diverse
6
Abya Yala is the name given to Latin America by the
Gunadule people, who inhabit the region between Panama
and Colombia since precolonial times. It means land in full
5
Our own translation to English from Spanish. maturity or land of vital blood.
6 Feminisms
Afro-descendent, and Peasant Mestizo origin solidarity networks and actions to radically trans-
endure. This means recovering their own selves, forming existing structures, institutions, and
knowledges, mysticism, and stories from which power relations, towards what Catherine Walsh
they were dispossessed, as well as re-encountering calls, the depatriarchalization, decolonization,
and re-signifying their own bodies. Bodies that and demercantilization of life, nature, and terri-
cannot be understood without the access to the tories (Walsh 2013).
territory, the water, and land that give them life. The Rural Women Workers Movement
As expressed by the Maya feminist Lorena Cabnal: emerged in 2004, as a political faction at the
I assume the recovery of my expropriated body for interior of the Landless Workers' Movement
the generation of life, joy, vitality, pleasures, and the (Movimento dos Trabalhadores Sem Terra,
construction of a liberating knowledge for my own MST) in Brazil, to bring to light the silences but
decision making. However, this personal power also the voices of rural women. Since the creation
needs to go along with the defense of my land
territory, because I cannot conceive my own of the MST in 1986, the place of peasant and
woman’s body without a space on earth that dig- working women within the movement was not
nifies my existence and promotes my life in full- noticeable. They had to rethink themselves and
ness. (Cabnal & ACSUR- Las Segovias 2010a, consolidate their participation, both for them-
p. 23)7
selves and for their peers, to become visible as
Feminisms from the South unfold from the political subjects. As the leader Etelvina Masioli
voices of marginalized women in Latin America, said, “It cannot be accepted that the same hand
who take a different stand-up from modern urban that plants agroecology and propose an equal
“Western” middle/upper class feminisms, which society, it is the same hand that hits, mistreats,
have had difficulties in acknowledging the com- assaults, and represses a woman” (in Longo
plex struggle that diverse Afro-descendent, Indig- 2015: 166). The MST, through women’s leader-
enous, or Mestizo Peasant women undergo: for ship, has thus become a peasant feminism, a
one side, the anti-imperial and anti-colonial resis- decolonial project against patriarchy and the com-
tance they entail collectively against territorial modification of the earth and life. It has been
displacement, labor exploitation, and extractive inspiring the construction of community and sol-
economies. For the other side, creating organiza- idarity feminisms around the world.
tional and creative strategies to change patriarchal A similar purpose on building a peasant femi-
beliefs and practices at the interior of their own nism can be found in the experience of the Asso-
families and communities to transform authoritar- ciation of Organized Women of Yolombó
ian and violent patterns and behaviors of leaders, (AMOY) in Colombia. As Cárdenas (2013)
fathers, partners, and other male members of their describes, AMOY was born in 1995 in the midst
communities, who are oppressed as well of the Colombian armed conflict, oriented to pro-
(Gargallo 2012; Paredes 2014). tect rural women’s human rights and territories;
promote their autonomy, subsistence, and sustain-
ability; support their visibility in political and
Transforming Women’s Oppressive communitarian spheres; and strength their resis-
Realities: Some Experiences from tance practices exercised in defense of their lives
the Ground and their territories. Women meet in group and
start together the recovery and reconstruction of
The following are a few examples from the many their identities as peasant women. The collective
diverse initiatives that describe how feminisms work was a strategy for the construction of their
from the South in Latin America are growing by autonomy in different aspects: productive, indi-
creating alternative historical projects to build vidual, family, and community, all interrelated
and understood as a complex fabric of vital
relationships.
7
Our own translation to English from Spanish.
Feminisms 7
dreams, and create together a utopia. Since its Beauvoir, Simone. (1998). El segundo sexo. Madrid:
naissance, feminist thought has strongly worked Cátedra.
Cabnal, Lorena. (2010a). Feminismos diversos: el
to demystify and denaturalize the ways of being, feminismo comunitario. Madrid: ACSUR-Las
doing, and feeling, which have determined the Segovias, Asociación para la cooperación con el Sur.
way women are understood and understand them- Available: https://porunavidavivible.files.wordpress.
selves through history. In this way, feminism, in com/2012/09/feminismos-comunitario-lorena-cabnal.
pdf.
its different expressions, has questioned the role Cabnal, Lorena. (2010b). Acercamiento a la construcción
that men and women have occupied in society, de la propuesta de pensamiento epistémico de las
supported by an alleged biological determinism mujeres indígenas feministas comunitarias de Abya
that undervalues women. It has been opening Yala. In Feminismos Diversos: El Feminismo
Comunitario. Guatemala: Acsur.
paths towards the construction of other possibili- Cárdenas, Sonia. (2013). Autonomía, subsistencia y
ties of being, other ways in which women can be sustentabilidad: apuestas de mujeres campesinas aun
recognized and recognize themselves. en contextos hostiles. Revista de la Facultad de
Feminisms from the South take shape from the Trabajo Social, 29(29), 83–101. Available: https://
revistas.upb.edu.co/index.php/trabajosocial/article/
voice of marginalized and racialized women in viewFile/2328/2072.
Latin American, asking questions to the academic Castells, Manuel. (1998). El fin del patriarcado:
world that otherwise would not have been asked. movimientos sociales, familia y sexualidad en la era
They are a quest to advance women’s human de la información. In M. Castells (Ed.), La era de la
información: Economía, sociedad y cultura (Vol. 2, pp.
rights as part of the struggle against racism, 159–267). Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
ethnocide, and the domination and subjugation Chávez Ixcaqui, Aura Lolita. (2014). Mujeres indígenas,
of entire populations, who have been considered cuerpos, territorios y vida en común. Colección
primitive and inferior by different economic pow- Feministas Siempre. Madrid: ACSUR-Las Segovias,
Asociación para la cooperación con el Sur. Available:
ers. It also means the defense of the territories, https://suds.cat/es/publicacions/feminista-siempre-
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plural and solidarity feminism cannot be built Chesler, Phyllis & Hughes, Donna. (2004). Feminism in
the 21st century. The Washington Post, February
without considering the human rights of 22, 2004.
impoverished women from the South to health, Cogollo, Julia; Flórez, Juliana & Ñáñez, Angélica. (2004).
education, and political participation. This means El patriarca imposible. In E. Restrepo, A. Rojas, &
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los estudios de la gente negra en Colombia
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communities. Coronado, Nuria. (2017). El feminismo es una revolución
pacífica. Entrevista a Nuria Varela. Diario 16, Sevilla
(Spain). Available: https://diario16.com/feminismo-
una-revolucion-pacifica/
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10 Feminisms