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CONTENT
• Introduction
• Solubility Limits
• Phases

Phase Diagrams
• Phase Equilibrium
• Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
• Binary Isomorphous Systems (Cu-Ni)
• Development of Microstructure
• Mechanical Properties
• Binary Eutectic Systems
• Development of Eutectic Alloy Microstructure

CONTENT ….. continue Components and Phases

• Equilibrium Diagrams with Intermediate Phases • Components:
or Compounds The elements or compounds that are mixed initially (Al and Cu).
• Phases:
• Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions A phase is a homogenous, physically distinct and mechanically
• Ceramic Phase Diagrams separable portion of the material with a given chemical
• The Gibbs Phase Rule composition and structure (a and b).

• The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram Aluminum-

Copper
• Development of Microstructures in Iron-Carbon Alloy
Alloys
• Hypoeutectoid Alloys
• Hypereutectoid Alloys
• Influence of Other Alloying Elements
3 4

Phase Equilibria: Solubility Limit Equilibrium

• Solution – solid, liquid, or gas solutions, single phase • A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at
• Mixture – more than one phase a minimum, given a specified combination of
Sugar/Water Phase Diagram temperature, pressure and composition.
• Solubility Limit:
Maximum concentration for 100
Solubility
which only a single phase L
80 Limit • The (macroscopic) characteristics of the system
Temperature (°C)

solution exists. (liquid)

60 L +
do not change with time — the system is stable.
Question: What is the
(liquid solution S
solubility limit for sugar in 40
water at 20°C? i.e., syrup) (solid
20 sugar)
• A change in T, P or C for the system will result in
Answer: 65 wt% sugar. an increase in the free energy and possible
At 20°C, if C < 65 wt% sugar: syrup 0 20 40 6065 80 100 changes to another state whereby the free
At 20°C, if C > 65 wt% sugar: syrup + sugar C = Composition (wt% sugar) energy is lowered.
Water

Sugar

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One Component Phase Diagram Phase Diagrams

• Indicate phases as a function of Temp, Comp and Pressure.
• Focus on:
- binary systems: 2 components.
- independent variables: T and C (P = 1 atm is almost always used).
T(°C)
1600 • 2 phases:
L (liquid)
1500 L (liquid) a (FCC solid solution)

1400 • 3 different phase fields:

Cu-Ni L
system 1300 L+ a
1200 a a
(FCC solid
1100
solution)
1000
7 0 20 40 60 80 100 wt% Ni 8

Effect of Temperature & Composition (Co) Determination of phase(s) present

• Changing T can change existing phases: path A to B. • Rule 1: If we know T and Co, then we know:
• Changing Co can change existingof phases: path B to D. --how many phases and which phases are present.

T(°C)
1600 • Examples:
1500 L (liquid)
Cu-Ni
1400 phase
B D
diagram
1300
Cu-Ni
system 1200 a
(FCC solid solution) Melting points: Cu =
1100 A 1085°C, Ni = 1453 °C

1000 wt% Ni
0 20 40 60 80 100 Solidus - Temperature where alloy is completely solid. Above this line, liquefaction begins.
Liquidus - Temperature where alloy is completely liquid. Below this line, solidification
Cu 9 begins. 10

Phase Diagrams: composition of phases Phase Diagrams: weight fractions of phases

• Rule 2: If we know T and Co, then we know: • Rule 3: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the composition of each phase. --the amount of each phase (given in wt%).
Cu-Ni • Examples:
• Examples: system
Cu-Ni system
At TA = 1320°C:
Only Liquid (L) present
CL = C0 ( = 35 wt% Ni)
At TD = 1190°C:
Only Solid (a) present
Ca = C0 ( = 35 wt% Ni) S
W  S 43  35
At TB = 1250°C: WLL R S 
43  32
 73wt %
Both a and L present R S
CL = C liquidus ( = 32 wt% Ni) R
W  R
Ca = C solidus ( = 43 wt% Ni) Waa R S = 27wt %
11
R S 12

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Ex: Equilibrium Cooling of a Cu-Ni Alloy • Development of

microstructure during
T(°C) L (liquid) L: 35wt%Ni the non-equilibrium
• Phase diagram:
Cu-Ni solidification of a 35
Cu-Ni system. system
1300 A wt% Ni-65 wt% Cu
• Consider L: 35 wt% Ni alloy outcome:
a: 46 wt% Ni B
microstuctural 35
changes that 32 C 46 • Segregation-
43
accompany the D nonuniform distribution
24 36 L: 32 wt% Ni
cooling of a of elements within
a: 43 wt% Ni
C0 = 35 wt% Ni alloy 1200 E grains.
L: 24 wt% Ni
a: 36 wt% Ni
• Weaker grain
a boundaries if alloy is
(solid)
reheated.
110 0
20 30 35 40 50
C0 wt% Ni
13

Cored versus Equilibrium Phases Mechanical Properties: Cu-Ni System

• Ca changes as it solidifies. • Effect of solid solution strengthening on:
• Cu-Ni case: First a to solidify has Ca = 46wt%Ni. --Tensile strength (TS) --Ductility (%EL,%AR)
Last a to solidify has Ca = 35wt%Ni.
• Fast rate of cooling: • Slow rate of cooling:
Cored structure Equilibrium structure

--Peak as a function of Co --Min. as a function of Co

• Coring can be eliminated by means of a homogenization heat treatment carried out at
temperatures below the alloy’s solidus. During the process, atomic diffusion produces grains 16
that are compositionally homogeneous.

Binary Isomorphous Systems

Cu-Ni system: Solid Solution
• The liquid L is a homogeneous liquid solution composed of
Cu and Ni.
• The α phase is a substitutional solid solution consisting of
Cu and Ni atoms with an FCC crystal structure.
• At temperatures below 1080 C, Cu and Ni are mutually
soluble in each other in the solid state for all compositions.
• The complete solubility is explained by their FCC structure,
nearly identical atomic radii and electro-negativities, and
similar valences.
• The Cu-Ni system is termed isomorphous because of this
complete liquid and solid solubility of the 2 components.
17 18

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Criteria for Solid Solubility Isomorphous Binary Phase Diagram

• Phase diagram:
Simple system (e.g., Ni-Cu solution) Cu-Ni system. T(°C)
• System is: 1600
Crystal
electroneg r (nm) Cu-Ni
Structure -- binary 1500 L (liquid) phase
2 components: diagram
Ni FCC 1.9 0.1246 Cu and Ni. 1400
-- isomorphous
Cu FCC 1.8 0.1278 1300
i.e., complete
solubility of one
1200 a
• Both have the same crystal structure (FCC) and have component in
similar electronegativities and atomic radii (W. Hume – another; a phase (FCC solid
1100
Rothery rules) suggesting high mutual solubility. field extends from solution)
0 to 100 wt% Ni. 1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 wt% Ni
• Ni and Cu are totally soluble in one another for all proportions.

19 20

Importance of Phase Diagrams Microstructure

• There is a strong correlation between • In metal alloys, microstructure is
microstructure and mechanical properties, characterized by the number of phases,
their proportions, and the way they are
and the development of alloy
arranged.
microstructure is related to the
characteristics of its phase diagram.
• The microstructure depends on:
– Alloying elements
• Phase diagrams provide valuable – Concentration
information about melting, casting, – Heat treatment (temperature, time, rate of
crystallization and other phenomena. cooling)

21 22

• The phase diagram displays a simple binary

Eutectic system composed of two components, A and B,
which has a eutectic point.
• A eutectic or eutectic mixture is a mixture of two or • The phase diagram plots relative concentrations
more phases at a composition that has the lowest of A and B along the X-axis, and temperature
along the Y-axis. The eutectic point is the point
melting point. where the liquid phase borders directly on the
solid α + β phase; it represents the minimum
melting temperature of any possible A B alloy.
• It is where the phases simultaneously crystallize from • The temperature that corresponds to this point is
molten solution. known as the eutectic temperature.
• Not all binary system alloys have a eutectic point:
those that form a solid solution at all
• The proper ratios of phases to obtain a eutectic is concentrations, such as the gold-silver system,
identified by the eutectic point on a binary phase have no eutectic. An alloy system that has a
eutectic is often referred to as a eutectic system,
diagram. or eutectic alloy.
• Solid products of a eutectic transformation can
often be identified by their lamellar structure, as
• The term comes from the Greek 'eutektos', meaning opposed to the dendritic structures commonly
'easily melted.‘ seen in non-eutectic solidification. The same
conditions that force the material to form lamellae
can instead form an amorphous solid if pushed to
23 an extreme. 24

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Binary-Eutectic Systems Copper-Silver Phase Diagram

has a special composition
2 components with a min. melting T.
T(°C)
Cu-Ag system 1200
• 3 single phase regions L (liquid)
(L, a, b) 1000
• Limited solubility: a L + a
TE 800 779°C L+b b
a: mostly Cu 8.0 71.9 91.2
b: mostly Ag 600
• TE : No liquid below TE a  b
• CE : Composition at 400
temperature TE 200
0 20 40 60 CE 80 100
• Eutectic reaction C , wt% Ag
L(CE) a(CaE) + b(CbE)
cooling
L(71.9 wt% Ag) a(8.0 wt% Ag)  b(91.2 wt% Ag) 25
heating

Eutectic Reaction Pb-Sn Phase Diagram

• Solvus – (solid solubility line) BC, GH
• Solidus – AB, FG, BEG (eutectic isotherm)
• Liquidus – AEF
• Maximum solubility: α = 8.0 wt% Ag, β = 8.8 wt %Cu Liquidus
• Invariant point (where 3 phases are in equilibrium) is at E; Solidus
Solidus
CE = 71.9 wt% Ag, TE = 779C (1434F).

• An isothermal, reversible reaction between two (or more)

Solidus
solid phases during the heating of a system where a
single liquid phase is produced. Solvus Solvus

Eutectic reaction
L(CE) a(CaE) + b(CbE)

cooling
L(71.9 wt% Ag) a(8.0 wt% Ag)  b(91.2 wt% Ag)
heating 27

Solidification of Eutectic Mixtures (Ex 1) Pb-Sn Eutectic System

• A mixture of lead & tin that is eutectic is only partially soluble when • For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 150°C, determine:
in the solid state. -- the phases present Pb-Sn
T(°C)
Answer: a + b system
• Lead & tin have different crystal structures (FCC versus BCT) and -- the phase compositions
lead atoms are much larger. No more than 18.3 weight % solid tin Answer: Ca = 11 wt% Sn 300 L (liquid)
can dissolve in solid lead and no more than 2.2% of solid lead can Cb = 99 wt% Sn
dissolve in solid tin (according to previous phase diagram). a L+ a
-- the relative amount 200 183°C L+b b
of each phase 18.3 61.9 97.8
• The solid lead-tin alloy consists of a mixture of two solid phases, one Answer: 150
consisting of a maximum of 18.3 wt% tin (the alpha phase) and one C - C0 100
W = b a + b
consisting of a maximum of 2.2 wt% lead (the beta phase). a Cb - Ca
99 - 40 59
= = = 0.67
99 - 11 88 0 11 20 40 60 80 99100
C - C Ca C0 C, wt% Sn Cb
Wb = 0 a
Cb - Ca
40 - 11 29
29 = = = 0.33 30
99 - 11 88

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(Ex 2) Pb-Sn Eutectic System Pb-Sn Eutectic System

• For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 220°C, determine:
-- the phases present: • For lead & tin the eutectic composition is
Answer: a + L T(°C) 61.9 wt% tin and the eutectic temperature
-- the phase compositions
300
is 183ºC -- which makes this mixture
Answer: Ca = 17 wt% Sn L (liquid)
CL = 46 wt% Sn L+a useful as solder.
-- the relative amount 220 a
200 L+b b
of each phase 183°C
Answer: • At 183ºC, compositions of greater than
CL - C0 46 - 40 100
a + b 61.9 wt% tin result in precipitation of a tin-
Wa = =
CL - Ca 46 - 17 rich solid in the liquid mixture, whereas
=
6
= 0.21 0 17 20 40 46 60 80 100 compositions of less than 61.9 wt% tin
29 Ca C0 CL C, wt% Sn
result in precipitation of lead-rich solid.
C0 - Ca 23
WL = = = 0.79 32
CL - Ca 29 31

Microstructural Developments Microstructural Developments

in Eutectic Systems - I in Eutectic Systems - II
L: C0 wt% Sn
T(°C) L: C0 wt% Sn Pb-Sn T(°C)
400 400
system
• For alloys where L
a
L
C0 < 2 wt% Sn 300 L 300
L
a
2 wt% Sn < C0 < 18.3 wt% Sn
• Result at room temperature is L+a
L+ a • Results in polycrystalline a: C0 wt% Sn
a polycrystalline with grains of a a
a
200
microstructure with a grains 200
phase having composition C0 TE a: C0 wt% Sn
TE
and small b-phase particles at a
b
100
a+b
lower temperatures.
100
a+ b
Pb-Sn
system 0 10 20 30
C0 C, wt% Sn 0 10 20 30
2
(room T solubility limit)
2 C0 C, wt% Sn
(sol. limit at T room ) 18.3
(sol. limit at TE)
33 34

Microstructures in Eutectic Systems - III Lamellar Eutectic Structure

A 2-phase microstructure resulting
from the solidification of a liquid
having the eutectic composition
where the phases exist as a
• Co = CE lamellae that alternate with one
another. Pb-rich
• Results in a
eutectic
Sn-rich
microstructure Formation of eutectic layered
with alternating microstructure in the Pb-Sn system
layers of a and during solidification at the eutectic
b crystals. composition. Compositions of α and
Pb-Sn
β phases are very different.
system
Solidification involves redistribution
of Pb and Sn atoms by atomic
diffusion.
cooling
L(61.9 wt%Sn) a (18.3 wt%Sn)  b (97.8 wt%Sn) 36
heating

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Pb-Sn Microstructures Ni-Al Copper phosphorus eutectic

The dark layers are Pb-rich α

phase, the light layers are the Sn-
rich β phase.

Pb-Sn 20mol% CeO2-80mol% CoO.

Ir-Si

37 38/57

Microstructures in Eutectic Systems - IV Intermetallic Compounds

Pb-Sn
• For alloys with18.3 wt% Sn < C0 < 61.9 wt% Sn system
• Result: a phase particles and a eutectic microconstituent

T(°C)
• Just above TE :
L: C0 wt% Sn
a L
L Ca = 18.3 wt% Sn
300 L CL = 61.9 wt% Sn
a CL - C0
L+ a Wa = = 0.50 19 wt% Mg-81 wt% Pb
a b CL - Ca
200 L+
TE b W L = (1- W a ) = 0.50
• Just below TE : Mg2Pb
100 a+b Ca = 18.3 wt% Sn
Primary α
eutectic a Cb = 97.8 wt% Sn
eutectic b Cβ - C0
Wa =
Cβ - Ca = 0.727
0 20 40 60 80 100 Note: intermetallic compounds exist as a line on the diagram - not a
18.3 61.9 97.8
phase region. The composition of a compound has a distinct chemical40
C, wt% Sn Wb = 0.273 wt% Sn 39
formula.

Cu-Zn System (Brass) Eutectoid & Peritectic

Peritectic transformation  + L 

Cu-Zn Phase diagram

Cartridge brass:
70 wt% Cu

Eutectoid transformation  +

42

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Eutectic, Eutectoid, & Peritectic

• Eutectic - liquid transforms to two solid phases
L cool a + b (For Pb-Sn, 183C, 61.9 wt% Sn)
heat

• Eutectoid – one solid phase transforms to two other solid phases

Solid1 ↔ Solid2 + Solid3
 cool a + Fe3C (For Fe-C, 727C, 0.76 wt% C)
heat

• Peritectic - liquid and one solid phase transform to a 2nd solid phase
Solid1 + Liquid ↔ Solid2
cool
 +L heat ε (For Cu-Zn, 598°C, 78.6 wt% Zn)

43 44

Ceramic Phase Diagrams APPLICATION: REFRACTORIES

• Need a material to use in high temperature furnaces.
MgO-Al2O3 diagram: • Consider Silica (SiO2) - Alumina (Al2O3) system.
• Phase diagram shows: mullite, alumina and crystobalite (made up
of SiO2) are candidate refractories.

2200 3Al2O3-2SiO2

T(°C)
mullite
2000 Liquid
(L) alumina + L

1800
crystobalite mullite alumina
+L +L +
1600 mullite
mullite
+ crystobalite
1400
0 20 40 60 80 100
45 Composition (wt% alumina) 46

Ceramic Phases and Cements Gibbs Phase Rule

• Phase diagrams and phase equilibria are subject to the laws of thermodynamics.
• Gibbs phase rule is a criterion that determines how many phases can coexist within a
system at equilibrium.
P+F=C+N
P: # of phases present
F: degrees of freedom (temperature, pressure, composition)
C: components or compounds
N: noncompositional variables
For the Cu-Ag system @ 1 atm for a single phase P:
N=1 (temperature), C = 2 (Cu-Ag), P= 1 (a, b, L)
F = 2 + 1 – 1= 2

This means that to characterize the alloy within a single phase

field, 2 parameters must be given: temperature and composition.
If 2 phases coexist, for example, aL , bL, ab, then according to GPR, we have 1
degree of freedom: F = 2 + 1 – 2= 1. So, if we have Temp or composition, then we can
completely define the system.
If 3 phases exist (for a binary system), there are 0 degrees of freedom. This means the
composition and Temp are fixed. This condition is met for a eutectic system by the
47 eutectic isotherm. 48

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Iron-Carbon System Iron-Carbon System

• Pure iron when heated experiences 2
changes in crystal structure before it
melts.
• At room temperature the stable form,
ferrite (a iron) has a BCC crystal
structure.
• Ferrite experiences a polymorphic
transformation to FCC austenite ( iron)
at 912 ˚C (1674 ˚F).
• At 1394˚C (2541˚F) austenite reverts
back to BCC phase  ferrite and melts at
1538 ˚C (2800 ˚F).
• Iron carbide (cementite or Fe3C) an
intermediate compound is formed at 6.7
wt% C.
• Typically, all steels and cast irons have
carbon contents less than 6.7 wt% C.
• Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron
and forms a solid solution with the a, , 
phases. 49

ALPHA,GAMMA,DELTA ARE ALLOTROPHES OF IRON

4 Solid Phases

Though carbon is present in relatively low concentrations, it

significantly influences the mechanical properties of ferrite: (a) α
ferrite, (b) austenite.

AT ROOM TEMP ALPHA FERRITE IS 0.008%

Iron carbide (Cementite or Fe3C) Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Phase Diagram

T(°C)
• Forms when the solubility limit of carbon in • 2 important points 1600

a ferrite is exceeded at temperatures below - Eutectic (A): 1400 L
727 ˚C. L ↔  + Fe3C
1200
  +L A
- Eutectoid (B): 1148°C L+Fe3C
(austenite)
• Mechanically, cementite is very hard and
Fe3C (cementite)

 ↔ a +Fe3C 1000  
brittle.    +Fe3C
800
a B 727°C = T eutectoid
• For ferrous alloys there are 3 basic types,
based on carbon content: 600
a+Fe3C
400
 Iron (ferrite phase): <0.008 wt% C room temp 0
(Fe) 0.76
1 2 3 4
4.30
5 6 6.7
120 mm C, wt% C
 Steel (a + Fe3C phase): 0.008 to 2.14 wt% C Result: Pearlite = Fe3C (cementite-hard)
alternating layers of
 Cast iron: 2.14 to 6.70 wt% C a and Fe3C phases, a (ferrite-soft)
53 not a separate phase. 54

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Eutectoid reaction:
 ↔ a + Fe3C
Pearlite Hypoeutectoid Steel
T(°C)
1600

1400 L

a   +L
a  1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
 a
1000
C - C0  + Fe3C
Wa =
C - Ca 800 727°C
W  =(1 - W a) a
600
a a + Fe3C
pearlite 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) C0 C, wt% C

0.76
pearlite = a + Fe3C
CFe3C - C0
Redistribution of carbon by diffusion W a’ = Microstructures for iron-iron carbide alloys that are below
Austenite – 0.76 wt% C
CFe3C - Ca
Ferrite - 0.022 wt% C Wpearlite = (1 – W a’) the eutectoid with compositions between 0.022 and 0.76
Cementite - 6.70 wt% C
wt% Carbon are hypoeutectoid.

EUTECTIOD ALPHA = ALPHA TOTAL - PRO ETECTIOD ALPHA

ALPHA TOTAL = PRO E + EUT = (6.7-Co)/(6.7-0.022)
PRO EUTECTOID ALPHA = (0.76-Co)/(0.76-0.022)

Hypoeutectoid Steel Proeutectoid

T(°C)
1600 • Formed before the eutectoid

• Ferrite that is present in the pearlite is called eutectoid ferrite.
1400 L
• The ferrite that is formed above the Teutectoid (727°C) is proeutectoid.
    +L
  1200 1148°C L+Fe3C
Fe3C (cementite)

(austenite)
  1000
   + Fe3C
a
a  800 727°C
 a a
600
a + Fe3C
400
a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)C0 C, wt% C
0.76

pearlite

57 58

Hypereutectoid Steel
T(°C)
1600

1400 L
Fe3C   +L
1200
  1148°C L+Fe3C
Fe3C (cementite)

(austenite)
  1000
 +Fe3C
W  =x/(v + x)
800 v x
WFe3C =(1-W )
a
600
V X
a +Fe3C
pearlite
400
0 1 C0 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
0.76

(Fe) C, wt%C
W pearlite = W 
W a = X/(V + X) Microstructures for iron-iron carbide alloys that have
WFe3C’ =(1 - W a)
compositions between 0.76 and 2.14 wt% carbon are
59 hypereutectoid (more than eutectoid).

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T(°C)
Hypereutectoid Steel Hypereutectoid Steel (1.2 wt% C)
1600

1400 L
    +L
1200
  1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
  1000
   +Fe3C
Fe3C
  800
  a
600
a +Fe3C
pearlite
400
0 1 C0 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
0.76

(Fe) C, wt%C
pearlite

61 Proeutectoid: formed above the Teutectoid (727°C)

Hypoeutectic & Hypereutectic

300
L
T(°C)
a L+a
200 L+b b (Pb-Sn
TE

a+b
System)
100

0 20 40 60 80 100 C, wt% Sn
eutectic
hypoeutectic: C0 = 50 wt% Sn 61.9 hypereutectic: (illustration only)

eutectic: C0 = 61.9 wt% Sn

a b
a b
a a b b
a b
b
a 160 mm
175 mm eutectic micro-constituent
63 64

Example Problem Solution to Example Problem

a) Using the RS tie line just below the eutectoid
For a 99.6 wt% Fe-0.40
wt% C steel at a Ca = 0.022 wt% C
CFe3C = 6.70 wt% C
temperature just
b) Using the lever rule with
below the eutectoid, the tie line shown 1600

determine the 1400 L
R C  Ca T(°C)
following: WFe 3C   0
R  S CFe 3C  Ca   +L
Fe3C (cementite)

1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

(austenite)
a) The compositions of 0.40  0.022 1000
  0.057  + Fe3C
Fe3C and ferrite (a). 6.70  0.022
800 727°C
b) The amount of R S
Amount of Fe3C in 100 g 600
cementite (in grams) a + Fe3C
 = (100 g)W Fe3C 400
that forms in 100 g of 0
Ca C0
1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
CFe
C, wt% C 3C
= (100 g)(0.057) = 5.7 g
steel. 65 66

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Alloying steel with other elements changes the Eutectoid

Temperature, Position of phase boundaries and relative
Amounts of each phase

67 68

Cooling Curves

69 70

71 72

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Summary
• Phase diagrams are useful tools to determine:

-- the number and types of phases present,

-- the composition of each phase,
-- and the weight fraction of each phase
For a given temperature and composition of the system. Review
• The microstructure of an alloy depends on
-- its composition, and
-- rate of cooling equilibrium

73 74

• Heating a copper-nickel alloy of composition 70 wt% Ni-30 wt% Cu from 1300°C.

At what temperature does the first liquid phase form?
• Solidus - Temperature where alloy is completely solid. Above this line,
liquefaction begins.
• Answer: The first liquid forms at the temperature where a vertical line at this
composition intersects the α-(α + L) phase boundary--i.e., about 1350°C;
• (b) What is the composition of this liquid phase?
• Answer: The composition of this liquid phase corresponds to the
intersection with the (α + L)-L phase boundary, of a tie line
constructed across the α + L phase region at 1350°C, 59 wt% Ni;

Wt% Ni 75 Wt% Ni 76

• (c) At what temperature does complete melting of the alloy occur?
• Liquidus - Temperature where alloy is completely liquid. Below this line,
solidification begins.
• Answer: Complete melting of the alloy occurs at the intersection of this same
vertical line at 70 wt% Ni with the (α + L)-L phase boundary--i.e., about 1380°C;
• (d) What is the composition of the last solid remaining prior to complete melting?
• Answer: The composition of the last solid remaining prior to complete melting
corresponds to the intersection with α-(α + L) phase boundary, of the tie line
constructed across the α + L phase region at 1380°C--i.e., about 78 wt% Ni.

Wt% Ni Wt% Ni
77 78

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 2/22/2020

THE LEVER RULE: A PROOF

• Sum of weight fractions: WL  Wa  1
• Conservation of mass (Ni): Co  WL CL  WaCa
• Combine above equations:

• A geometric interpretation:
moment equilibrium:
WLR  WaS

1 Wa
solving gives Lever Rule
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