Topic 8: Cell Respiration & Photosynthesis

8.1/3.7 Cellular Respiration C6H12O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Define cell respiration.
 controlled release of energy in the form of ATP from organic compounds in cells.

State that in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into
pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP.
 Glucose is organic compound that is sometimes used in cell respiration. Chemical
reactions break Glucose into a simpler compound called pyruvate. A small amount of
ATP (2 ATP) is produced by using energy released from glucose.

Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm
into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide with no further yield of ATP.
 Lactic fermentation: in the process of glycolysis, glucose is transferred into two
pyruvate. Since no oxygen is available, the Krebs cycle cannot run which therefore also
stops the process of the electron transport chain. Too much pyruvate is built up in the
cytoplasm and we need to get rid of it. Therefore, it is transferred into the waste
product - lactate - that can be removed from the cell. No ATP is produced.

 Alcohol fermentation: since there is no oxygen, pyruvate is transferred into

ethanol/alcohol and carbon dioxide is created as a bi-product. This is how an one-celled
organisms overcome oxygen deficiency.

Explain that, during aerobic respiration, pyruvate cane be broken down in the
mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP
 If oxygen is available, the pyruvate is absorbed by mitochondrion. The pyruvate is then
broken down into carbon dioxide and water. A large amount of ATP is produced.

State that oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction
involves a gain of electrons; and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing
hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
 Oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves a
gain of electrons; and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing
hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
Outline the process of glycolysis, including phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP
formation. 

1. Glucose is phosphorylated. Two phosphate groups are

added to glucose to form hexose biphosphate. These two
phosphate groups are provided by two molecules of ATP. 
2. Lysis of hexose biphosphate. Hexose biphosphate splits
into two molecules of triose phosphate.
3. Each triose phosphate molecules is oxidised. Two atoms of
hydrogen are removed from each molecule. The energy
released by the oxidation is used to add another phosphate
group to each molecule. This will result in two 3-carbon
compounds, each carrying two phosphate groups. NAD+ is
the hydrogen carrier that accepts the hydrogen atoms lost
from each triose phosphate molecule. 
4. Two pyruvate molecules are formed by removing two
phosphate groups from each molecule. These phosphate
groups are given to ADP molecules and form ATP. 
5. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. Two ATP
molecules are used and 4 ATP molecules are produced.
Therefore there is a net yield of two ATP molecules. Also,
two NAD+ are converted into NADH + H+ during glycolysis. 

Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electron
micrographs.
 Explain aerobic respiration, including the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, the role of NADH+H,
the electron transport chain and the role oxygen.
1. Link Reaction
 Mitochondria in cells take up the pyruvate which is
formed from glycolysis in the cytoplasm. Once the
pyruvate is in the mitochondrion, enzymes within the
matrix of the mitochondrion remove hydrogen and
carbon dioxide from the pyruvate. This is called
oxidation (removal of hydrogen or addition of oxygen)
and decarboxylation (removal of carbon dioxide).
Therefore, the process is called oxidative
decarboxylation. The hydrogen removed is accepted by
NAD+. The link reaction results in the formation of an
acetyl group. This acetyl group is then accepted by CoA
and forms acetyl CoA. 

2. Krebs Cycle
 The carbon dioxide that is removed in these reactions
is a waste product and is excreted from the body. The
oxidations release energy which is then stored by the
carriers when they accept the hydrogen. This energy
is then later on used by the electron transport chain
to produce ATP.  acetyl group and the cycle is repeated.
1) In the first stage of the Krebs cycle, the acetyl
group from acetyl CoA is transferred to a four
carbon compound. This forms a six carbon
compound.
2) This six carbon compound then undergoes
decarboxylation (CO2 is removed) and
oxidation (hydrogen is removed) to form a
five carbon compound. The hydrogen is
accepted by NAD+ and forms  NADH + H+.
3) The five carbon compound undergoes
decarboxylation and oxidation (hydrogen is
removed) again to form a four carbon
compound. The hydrogen is accepted by
NAD+ and forms  NADH + H+.  
4) The four carbon compound then undergoes
substrate-level phosphorylation and during
this reaction it produces ATP. Oxidation also
occurs twice (2 hydrogens are removed). The
one hydrogen is accepted by NAD+ and
forms  NADH + H+. The other is accepted by
FAD and forms FADH2.  The four carbon
compound is then ready to accept a new
 3. Electron Transport Chain

 The electron transport chain is a

series of protein complexes
embedded in the mitochondrial
membrane. Electrons capture from
donor molecules are transferred
through these complexes. Coupled
with this transfer is the pumping of
hydrogen ions, which generates
the gradient used by the ATP
synthase complex to synthesize
ATP.
1) NADH attaches to NADH dehydrogenase and the H+ is removed along with 2 electrons.
NAD+ is released. The proton is pumped into the intermembrane space. The two electrons
are ‘excited’ to a higher energy level.
2) These two electrons are collected by ubiquinone and are carried to the cytochrome b-c1
molecule. Here, the electrons are again raised to a higher energy level. One proton is
pumped per electron transfer.
3) The electrons are then accepted by cytochrome c, one at a time. Four electrons must be
moved to cytochrome oxidase for the next step to occur.
4) An O2 molecule and eight H+ ions are combined with the four electrons to form two H2O,
which are released into the matrix of the mitochondria. Four H+ are to be pumped into the
intermembrane space.
5) All this is done to set up the proton (H+) concentration gradient across the membrane. The
difference in concentration sets up a potential and the movement of the H+ protons back
across the membrane at ATP synthase provides the energy for the creation of ATP. As each
H+ moves back through the membrane, the ATP synthase molecule rotates a partial turn
and P is attached to ADP, forming (finally ATP). The H+ ion energy is converted into
mechanical energy by the ATP synthase molecule. This molecule ‘machine’ will have a
number of ATP at different phases of construction at any given time. If the concentration of
ATP rises too high, the ATP synthase can run in reverse.

 The Role of Oxygen: Oxygen is important for cell respiration as at the end of the electron
transport chain, the electrons are donated to oxygen. This occurs in the matrix at the surface
of the inner membrane. At the same time oxygen binds with hydrogen ions and forms water.
If there is no oxygen then electrons can no longer pass through the electron transport chain
and NADH + H+ can no longer be reconverted into NAD+. Eventually NAD+ in the
mitochondrion runs out and therefore the link reaction and Krebs cycle no longer take place. 
Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
 Electrons are given to proton pumps that are embedded in the membrane between the
matrix and inner membrane/cristae of the mitochondrion. The pumps are reduced,
giving them energy to pump protons into the inner membrane space. The electrons are
transferred along a chain of pumps, continuously losing energy. The proton pumps
create a high concentration gradient of protons (H+) inside the inner membrane space.
Thus, protons diffuse back into the matrix through facilitated diffusion of ATP synthase
(channel protein and enzyme). As the protons pass along this protein channel, the
kinetic energy of the protons causes the ATP synthase molecule to turn slightly,
exposing active sites that create ATP by binding ADP with inorganic phosphate
molecules. The result is 34 ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation.

Explain the relationship between the structure of the mitochrondrion and its function.
 Mitochondrion have a large inner matrix, allowing for the Krebs cycle to occur. After the
Krebs Cycle is complete, the mitochondria has a fairly small inner membrane space
where protons are pumped into. Due to its size, diffusion of protons back into the matrix
occurs quickly, resulting in ATP produced at a faster rate. The inner membrane contains
many electron transport chains of proton pumps and ATP synthase enzymes, allowing
for much ATP to be produced. The membranes are also structured to prevent the
protons from diffusing though the membrane, forcing them to enter the matrix only
through ATP synthase molecules.
8.2/3.8 Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
 Photosynthesis involves energy conversion. Light energy, usually sunlight, is
converted into chemical energy.

State that white light from the sun is composed of a range of wavelengths.
 Sunlight is called white light, but it is actually made up of a range of wavelengths
including red, blue, and green.

State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment

 The structure of chlorophyll allows it to absorb some colours of wavelength better
than others.

Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll
 Red and blue light are absorbed more than green. The green light that cannot be
absorbed is reflected giving plants (and the pigment chlorophyll) their green colour.

State that light energy is used to produce ATP and to split water molecules (photolysis) to
form oxygen and hydrogen.
 Some of the energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to produce ATP.
 Some of the energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split water molecules. This is
called photolysis of water.
 Photolysis of water results in the formation of oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen is
released as a waste product.

State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon
dioxide to make organic molecules.
 Carbon dioxide is absorbed for use in photosynthesis.
 The carbon from it is used to make a wide range of organic substances.
 The conversion of carbon in a gas to carbon in solid compounds is called carbon
fixation, which involves the use of hydrogen from photolysis and energy from ATP.

Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of
oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by the increase of biomass.
 Uptake of carbon dioxide: since carbon dioxide is important in the light-independent
reactions of photosynthesis, its consumption by plants can be measured as a means
to determine the rate of ATP and electron carriers used for carbon fixation.
 Production of oxygen: aquatic plants release bubbles of oxygen when they carry
photosynthesis. e.g. these bubbles are collected; their volume can be measured.
 Increase in Biomass: if batches of plants are harvested at a series of times and their
biomass determined, then the rate of photosynthesis can be determined by an
increase in biomass.
Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration on the
rate of photosynthesis.
 Light Intensity: At low medium light intensities the rate is directly proportional to
light intensity. At high light intensities the rate reaches a plateau.
 Carbon Dioxide: No photosynthesis at very low CO2 concentrations. At low to fairly
high CO2 concentrations the rate is positively correlated with CO2 concentration. At
very high CO2 concentrations the rate reaches a plateau.
 Temperature: As temperature increases the rate increases more and more steeply. If
the temperature increases with 10¤C it roughly doubles the rate. When it reaches it
maximum point it is said to be its Optimum Temperature which is around 40¤C.
Above the optimum temperature the rate slows down rapidly and then stops. This
happens because the excessive heat destroys the enzymes which are responsible for
catalyzing chemical reactions.

Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron
micrographs.

State that photosynthesis consists of light-dependant and light-independent reactions.

 In photosynthesis there are two reactions:
1) Light-Dependant reactions, which require light trap energy in chemical form.
2) Light-Independant reactions, otherwise known as ‘dark’ reactions or the Calvin
Cycle, which occurs in both light and darkness, as long as energy from the light-
dependant reaction lasts.

Explain the light-dependant reactions.

 Light-dependant reactions include two

photosystems: photosystem II (which is
first) and photosystem I (second). A
photosystem is made up of hundred of
antenna pigment molecules, which pass
energy from a photon to one of the two
reaction center chlorophyll molecules.
  Once sufficient energy has been gathered, photosystem II pushes an electron to a higher
energy level. This electron is accepted by the first molecule in the electron transport
chain (ETC) to photosystem I.
 This electron replaced in photosystem I by an electron from water. Four replacements
liberate an O2 molecule and four protons (H+) from two water molecules.
 Those H+ are pumped across the inner membrane of the thylakoid membrane by the
energy released and the excited electron drops in energy level through the receptors of
the ETC. The H+ are used as energy to drive non-cyclic phosphorylation which makes
ATP from ADP+P.
 Between photosystem II & I, two ATP’s are made.
 At the same time, photosystem I is also pushing an electron to a higher energy level
from the collected phototonic energy from its antenna pigments. The electron lost in
photosystem I is replaced by the electron coming from photosystem II.
 The high energy from photosystem I can be used to make NADPH from NADP+H.
 A second option for that electron is that the electron acceptor can divert to cyclic
phosphorylation instead of making NADPH.
 From this point, the NADPH created (stored energy) passes into the stroma, where they
are used in the light-independant reaction/Calvin Cycle.

Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.

 Photophosphorylation is the production of ATP using the energy of sunlight.
Photophosphorylation is made possible as a result of chemiosmosis. Chemiosmosis is the
movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their concentration
gradient. During photosynthesis, light is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules. Electrons
within these molecules are then raised to a higher energy state. These electrons then travel
through Photosystem II, a chain of electron carriers and Photosystem I. As the electrons
travel through the chain of electron carriers, they release energy. This energy is used to
pump hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane and into the space within the
thylakoid. A concentration gradient of hydrogen ions forms within this space. These then
move back across the thylakoid membrane, down their concentration gradient through ATP
synthase. ATP synthase uses the energy released from the movement of hydrogen ions
down their concentration gradient to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Explain the light-independant reactions.

 Light-independent reactions are also known as “dark reactions” or as the Calvin Cycle.
 Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
 Uses the ATP and NADPH which were made in the light-dependant reaction.
 It is thought that the chloroplast uses three CO2 molecules at this time, but it is not certain.
 Three CO2 molecules react with three existing molecules of ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)
with help from the enzyme rubisco. This creates an activated complex of eighteen carbon
atoms that instantaneously re-sort themselves into six 3-carbon compounds:
phosphoglycerate.
  The six 3-carbon phosphoglycerate
molecules are phosphorylated
(adding a phosphate group) using
six ATP molecules from the light
reaction. Six molecules of NADPH
from the light reaction are used to
reduce the three new carbon atoms,
making the molecules “energy-rich”.
The result is six molecules of
glyceralehyde phosphate. The three
energy-rich carbons are removed
from the Calvin Cycle and can be
used to make glucose or other
organic compounds.
 The fifteen remaining carbons are
reacted with three ATP molecules
and are reorganized into three 5-
carbon RuBP molecules – this is
where we get back our original three
RuBP.

Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function.
 The stroma: contains many enzymes, including rubisco, which are important for the
reactions of the Calvin cycle.
 The thylakoids: have a large surface area for light absorption and the space within them
allows rapid accumulation of protons.

Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of
photosynthetic pigments in green plants.
 The action spectrum of photosynthesis is a graph showing the rate of photosynthesis for
each wavelength of light. The rate of photosynthesis will not be the same for every
wavelength of light. The rate of photosynthesis is the least with green-yellow light (525 nm-
625 nm). Red-orange light (625nm-700nm) shows a good rate of photosynthesis however
the best rate of photosynthesis is seen with violet-blue light (400nm-525nm). 
 An absorption spectrum is a graph showing the percentage of light absorbed by pigments
within the chloroplast, for each wavelength of light.  An example is the absorption spectrum
of chlorophyll a and b. The best absorption is seen with violet-blue light. There is also good
absorption with red-orange light. However most of the green-yellow light is reflected and
therefore not absorbed. This wavelength of light shows the least absorption. 
 As we can see, there is a close relationship between the action spectrum and absorption
spectrum of photosynthesis. There are many different types of photosynthetic pigments
which will absorb light best at different wavelengths. However the most abundant
photosynthetic pigment in plants is chlorophyll and therefore the rate of photosynthesis
will be the greatest at wavelengths of light best absorbed by chlorophyll (400nm-525nm
corresponding to violet-blue light). Very little light is absorbed by chlorophyll at
 wavelengths of light between 525nm and 625 (green-yellow light) so the rate of
photosynthesis will be the least within this range. However, there are other pigments that
are able to absorb green-yellow light such as carotene. Even though these are present in
small amounts they allow a low rate of photosynthesis to occur at wavelengths of light that
chlorophyll cannot absorb. 

Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity,
temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.
 A limiting factor is a factor that controls a process. Light intensity, temperature and carbon
dioxide concentration are all factors which can control the rate of photosynthesis. Usually,
only one of these factors will be the limiting factor in a plant at a certain time. This is the
factor which is the furthest from its optimum level at a particular point in time. If we change
the limiting factor the rate of photosynthesis will change but changes to the other factors
will have no effect on the rate. If the levels of the limiting factor increase so that this factor is
no longer the furthest from its optimum level, the limiting factor will change to the factor
which is at that point in time, the furthest from its optimum level.
 For example, at night the limiting factor is likely to be the light intensity as this will be the
furthest from its optimum level. During the day, the limiting factor is likely to switch to the
temperature or the carbon dioxide concentration as the light intensity increases. 
 When the light intensity is poor, there is a shortage of ATP and NADPH, as these are
products from the light dependent reactions. Without these products the light independent
reactions can't occur as glycerate 3-phosphate cannot be reduced. Therefore a shortage of
these products will limit the rate of photosynthesis. When the carbon dioxide concentration
is low, the amount of glycerate 3-phosphate produced is limited as carbon dioxide is needed
for its production and therefore the rate of photosynthesis is affected.
 Finally, many enzymes are involved during the process of photosynthesis. At low
temperatures these enzymes work slower. At high temperatures the enzymes no
longer work effectively. This affects the rate of the reactions in the Calvin cycle and
therefore the rate of photosynthesis will be affected.