wire and transformer spacing will be ade­
Importance of sound engineering to in­
quate for load densities up to about 50 kw per
1,000 feet. I t is only necessary to change
transformer sizes as the load requires. We
feel t h a t any possible saving in the use of
wire smaller t h a n number 2 in the early
development stages would not justify the
poorer quality of service which would result,
especially in view of the present trend to
more complete home electrification with the
increased use of appliances equipped with
electric motors as well as the larger heating
appliances which will ultimately result in
much greater load densities. On the other
hand, the use of conductors larger than
number 2 does not seem to be required in
residential areas, even with the increased
load densities to be expected, as a relocation
of transformers on number 2 secondaries
will permit going to much higher densities
when they develop before the system be­
comes uneconomical.
Incidentally, the banking of transformers
on a more or less continuous secondary main,
such as practiced in Detroit and now being
rapidly extended to other parts of our sys­
tem where conditions are at all favorable, is
very helpful in many ways to the economical
development of the system. Steady state
voltages are more easily maintained on the
secondaries and voltage dips due to motor
starting are much less troublesome, to say
nothing of decreased outages due to trans­
former failures and less transformer capacity
required.
I want to emphasize that the orderly de­
velopment of a distribution system requires
a trained personnel to supervise t h a t de­
velopment. T h e men who are responsible
for this development should be men of engi­
neering training, and should not be burdened
with so much detailed routine work t h a t
they do not have time to adequately study
the engineering problems involved in addi­
tions to or changes in the system. T h e use
of master plans, however, will be of much
aid to these men in helping them to make
rapid decisions and still not overlook some
important considerations which would not
escape one who had sufficient time to study
all of the conditions involved. The field
engineer need then only concern himself
with situations where new considerations
develop which make it desirable or neces­
sary to modify the original plans.
I want also to urge the importance of
making studies such as those reviewed by
Mr. Holben for each particular system. I
do not wish to minimize the value of the
presentation of such a review b u t there is
some danger, I think, that some of the gen­
eral conclusions may be misinterpreted by
those who have not carefully studied all as­
pects of the problem. A study which takes
account of all of the local field conditions
and operating practices will make certain
that development plans will be adopted
which are best suited to the particular sys­
tem.
W. P. Holben: Mr. Harold Cole, in his
discussion of the paper "A Review of Over­
head Secondary Distribution," has pre­
sented a number of points that are worthy
of serious consideration. I n fact, I am
heartily in accord with these items as well
as the results to be obtained b y using his
recommendations and will therefore repeat
them in outline form.
JULY 1937
1.
APPROXIMATE
clude studies for each particular system
a. T o account for all local conditions
b. To avoid misinterpretation of the general
conclusions
2. Need for a program of development
a. Intelligent and experienced supervision
b. Master plans with future steps indicated
c. Procedure in new developments
T h e summary and conclusions, included
in the paper, have stated some necessary
exceptions to the principles recommended
by the respective authors. There are other
natural differences of opinion and local oper­
ating practices t h a t will probably affect the
application of these principles of design on
various systems. Further study there­
fore along the following lines should provide
valuable information and knowledge on the
subject of overhead secondary distribution.
1. A classified list of necessary exceptions
with the best engineering solution for the
principal classifications
2. Flicker conditions and economical solu­
tions.
3. Transformer loading practice and a sum­
mary of experience records especially for the
higher per cent loadings
4. Banking transformers, single-phase, and
3-phase, for large appliance load to meet
capacity and flicker conditions
Mr. Cole has referred to the practice of
banking transformers in Detroit. H e re­
ports improved voltage conditions, de­
creased outages and less transformer capac­
ity required for areas served in this manner.
I t is apparent therefore that such advan­
tages warrant a thorough study of this type
of a secondary system. Mr. Sweetman and
Mr. Arnold have contributed the suggestion
t h a t the new development in transformer
design and use of a secondary breaker for
transformer protection warrants further
development of secondaries with banked
transformers at least on a trial basis. With
a probable increase of flicker complaints as
the appliance load increases, it follows t h a t
banking should be considered as a possible
solution since this method cuts sudden volt­
age variations to approximately half of that
experienced on radial secondaries under
similar conditions.
Negative-Sequence Reactance
of Synchronous Machines
Discussion and author's closure of a paper by
W . A . Thomas published in the December
1 9 3 6 issue, pages 1 3 7 8 - 8 5 , and presented for
oral discussion at the synchronous machinery
session of the winter convention, New York,
N . y . , January 2 7 , 1 9 3 7 .
S. B. Crary (General Electric Company,
Schenectady, N . Y . ) : This paper presents
a very complete theoretical and experi­
mental analysis of the A I E E method of
measuring the negative-phase-sequence re­
actance and should result in a more accu­
rate description of the method of testing by
the A I E E .
Figure 1 of this discussion presents in a
little different way than in the paper, the
Discussions
«-MAXIMUM RANGE"* Λ
OBTAINED IN 1 **
, PRACTICE Jr
^ 1
\
0 I 2 3 4 6
Xq./Xd
Figure 1 . Ratio of the 2 expressions for x2
as a function of the ratio of the subtransient
reactances. Full line indicates approximately
the maximum range obtained in practice
variation between the 2 limiting values of
negative-phase-sequence reactance as a func­
tion of the ratio between xq" and x/'. I n this
figure the approximate maximum range to
be expected in practice is indicated by a
solid line. As seen from this curve the
maximum variation to be expected is about
20 per cent for a ratio of xq" to x/ of 3.5.
This variation, of course, would decrease
quite rapidly with increase in the amount
of external reactance. Accordingly, the
value (χ/ + Xq")/2 can be used for most
practical purposes in system calculations
involving this reactance.
J. C. Balsbaugh (Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge): Reference is
made to the application of the negative-
sequence reactance of synchronous machines
to the study of power system fault currents.
I should like to add several significant fac­
tors in the application of this reactance.
For a line-to-line fault in a power system
as viewed from a generator, the negative-
sequence reactance is given in general b y
the equation
X2 = v V ' V
in which x2 is the equivalent negative-se­
quence impedance from and including the
generator to the fault, x/ and xq" are the sum
of the generator subtransient reactances Xag"
and XgQ", respectively, and the equivalent ex­
ternal reactance xe. T h e negative sequence
reactance x2g of the generator, is equal to
x2 — xe and is equal to the geometric mean
of the generator subtransient reactance with
xe — 0, and approaches the arithmetic mean
of the generator subtransient reactances
with xe large relative to Xag" and xqg". The
equivalent external reactance xe is not in
general the reactance from the machine to
the point of fault, but in a power system with
a group of machines feeding into a fault
through a network, it is the equivalent re­
actance as viewed from the generator ter­
minals.
I t is further important that the foregoing
negative-sequence reactance does not apply
in general to all line-to-line faults in a power
system, but only those faults that are line-
to-line faults as viewed from the generator
terminals. Thus consider an individual gen­
erator tied to a line through a Δ-Υ grounded
transformer and a ground fault on the line.
I n this case a line-to-ground fault on the line
becomes an equivalent line-to-line fault on
the generator and x^ is determined as given
in the foregoing, and xe must be determined
as an equivalent impedance as viewed from
the generator terminals.
I t can also be shown t h a t the negative-
sequence reactance in general for a line-to-
903
 Table I. Definitions of Negative-Sequence Reactance Xd! = 0.35
xq = 0.70
Method Analytical Expressions Numerical Value
Xd = 0.35 xq = 0.70 Xd = 1.0 xd = 1.0
Fundamental Root-Mean-Square [Fundamental Root-Mean-Square
and the numerical values corresponding t o
(1) Application of sinu­
soidal negative-sequence
2xd' Xq VI.Xd Xq the different analytical expressions were
voltage Xq + Xd' VXq* + Xd'2 0.47 0.44 tabulated on the right-hand side of the table.
(2) Application of sinu­ Let us now analyze these results in view
soidal negative-sequence X
-?-±J^ | y/{Xq + Xdf)2 + 9(XQ _ Xj)t of the utility of the quantity and the applic­
current 0.53 0.74
(3) Initial symmetrical ability of the method as a testing means.
component of sudden sin­ Vxd'xq Xd'(Vl - 62-1) + Vxd'xqX T h e greatest use of x2 is in connection with
gle-phase short-circuit cur­ short-circuit and stability studies. It would
rent Vl - &2
0.50 0.48 appear then that the results obtained by the
(4) Sustained single-phase Vx <i(Vi &2 1) + Vxd'xqX root-mean-square values for the single-
short-circuit current phase short-circuit tests, would be the most
V i -b* 0.50 0.47
(5) Same as (4) with 0.35
important, preference being given to t h e
p.u. external reactance Xq+ Xd' 0.50 sustained value because it results in a some­
2 what smaller value of reactance and also,
(6) AIEE 0.53 because it does not require an oscillograph,
is an easier method to apply. The A I E E
method gives a value of x2 somewhat greater
than the value obtained by the single-phase
ground fault (as viewed from the generator b u t if x2 be defined in terms of the root- short-circuit test. With regard to the ease
terminals) in a power system is mean-square yalues the reactance is equal to in making the test it will be noted that the
+ + only difference between the single-phase

ν(*«- ΐ·)("·· !Η
X2
in which x2 is the equivalent negative-se­
quence reactance from and including the
generator to the fault, x/ and xq" are the sum
of the generator sub transient reactances Xdg"
andr%", respectively, and the equivalent ex­
ternal reactance xe and Xo is the equivalent
zero-sequence impedance from and including
the generator to the fault and is equal to sum
of the generator zero-sequence impedance
xog plus the equivalent zero-sequence ex­
ternal impedance xEo to the fault. The
negative-sequence reactance of the genera­
tor x2g for the condition is equal to x2 - xe-
Thus it is seen that accurate determina­
tions of negative-sequence impedances of
generators for use in connection with fault
studies in power systems involves the circuit
connections and other system impedances.
These and other considerations should be
taken into account in the measurement of
negative-sequence impedances of synchro­
nous machines and in their application.
C. F. Wagner (Westinghouse Electric &
Manufacturing Company, East Pittsburgh,
Pa.): Mr. Thomas is to be congratulated
in raising the general question of the na­
ture of the negative-sequence reactance of
synchronous machines. A particularly valu­
able contribution is his analytical proof
t h a t the A I E E method of measuring the
negative-sequence reactance gives a quan­
tity equal to the arithmetic mean of the
reactances in the 2 axes.
In reading this paper I have been
prompted to make a table to show some of
the methods t h a t might be suggested to meas­
ure the negative-sequence reactance. In
preparing this table a salient-pole machine
without amortisseurs has been considered
because the effects in question should be
pronounced in such a machine. Resistances
will be neglected. The first method con­
sists in applying a sinusoidal set of negative-
sequence voltages to the machine. Using
the fundamental component of current in
defining the reactance results in the expres­
sion 5
2xd' xq
Xq + Xd
λ / 2 Xd' Xn
V* + xd'2
However, if a sinusoidal set of negative-
sequence currents be made to flow through
the machine a fundamental and third har­
monic voltage are set up across the armature.
In terms of the fundamental component x25
is equal to xq -f- % ' / 2 and in terms of the
root-mean-square values is equal to
2 V(xq+ Xd')2'+ 9(* e
Xd'Y
If x2 be defined as such a quantity which
with Xd' will give, upon applying symmetrical
components, the proper fundamental com­
ponent of current for the initial a-c com­
ponent of a suddenly applied single-phase
short-circuit current, then x2 is
V Xd Xq
and to give the proper root-mean-square
value of current x2 is
Xd ' ( λ / ΐ - δ2 - 1) + VxVx~q
This is the method described in paragraph
184 of the Preliminary Report on a Pro­
posed Test Code for Synchronous Machines
(January 1937).
If x2 be defined as that quantity which
will give the proper fundamental component
of sustained single-phase short-circuit cur­
rent when the method of symmetrical com­
ponents is used, then x2 is again
VI Xd Xq
and to give the proper root-mean-square
value of current, x2 should be
xd(Vl - δ2 - 1) + V V Xq Vl
The A I E E method which is also based upon
the sustained single-phase short-circuit test
but with different metering connections
gives, as Mr. Thomas has shown, the value
of X2 as (xq + Xd)ß.
I t is difficult to draw conclusions of the
relative merits of the different expressions
until numerical values are inserted. T o this
end a typical machine was chosen having
the constants
short-circuit method and the A I E E method
is t h a t the latter requires an extra watt­
meter whereas the former requires a previ­
ous knowledge of the synchronous react­
ance. T h e difficulty of obtaining either a
sinusoidal negative-sequence voltage or cur­
rent would eliminate the first 2 methods as
test methods.
I am therefore submitting this discussion
for your consideration. I t would appear
that the sustained single-phase short-circuit
test for root-mean-square values is a better
test for salient-pole machines than the pres­
ent A I E E method. In terms of the test
values this quantity is expressed by t h e
equation
V§ Ë
x2 - Xd
where
/ — root-mean-square value of armature
current in the short-circuited phase
E — open-circuit voltage before the short
circuit is applied or the no-load volt­
Vl -b* age corresponding to the field current
at which I is read
For turbogenerators saturation introduces
variables of such greater magnitude that the
appropriate method of measuring the un-
saturated value becomes inconsequential.
Perhaps the best solution for turbogenera­
tors is to simply use the subtransient react­
ance.
W. A. Thomas: I wish to emphasize the
need of agreement on the use or abandon­
ment of the per-unit system of notation.
I have deliberately avoided throughout my
paper such short-hand systems as per-unit
- b* or per-cent notation.
To a large group of engineers and especi­
ally to students who are reading the litera­
ture for applications of fundamental princi­
ples, such special systems are not easily un­
derstood. Some equations when written in
a per-unit system lose their dimensional
check and thus invite confusion.
M a y I suggest a return, in all synchro­
nous-machine papers, to the use of funda­
mental units of voltage, current, and reac­
tance?

904 Discussions ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING