Animal Diversity

Zarah Alaska-Villalon
Lecture outline
o Organization of Animal
Complexity
Nutritional mode
Cell Structure
Reproduction
DEVELOPMENT
o Animal Body Plans
o Components of Animal Bodies
o Complexity and Body Size
Organization of animal
complexity
What are
Animals?
 Animals are multicellular,
heterotrophic eukaryotes with
tissues that develop from
embryonic layers
01. Nutritional Mode 03. Reproduction

Cell Structure and

02. Specialization 04. Development
 01. You can enter a subtitle here if

Nutritional
you need it

Mode
Plants
• Autotrophic:
capable of
generating organic
molecules through
photosynthesis.
FUNGI
• Heterotrophs: grow
on or near their food
and that feed by
absorption (often
after they have
released enzymes
that digest the food
outside their bodies)
Animals
• animals cannot construct all of their
own organic molecules and so, in
most cases, they ingest them—
either by eating other living
organisms or by eating nonliving
organic material.
• HETEROTROPHS, but unlike
FUNGI, most animals do not feed
by absorption; instead, animals
ingest their food and then use
enzymes to digest it within their
bodies.
 02.
Cell Structure and
You can enter a subtitle here if
you need it

Specialization
Eukaryotes
Unlike plant and fungi, animal cells
are eukaryotes with NO Cell Wall.

Multicellular
Cells are organized into
tissues, groups of cells that
have a common structure,
function, or both.
Muscle and Nerve Cell
The ability to move and conduct nerve impulses
underlies many of the adaptations that differentiate
animals from plants and fungi.

For this reason, muscle and nerve cells

are central to the animal lifestyle.
 03. You can enter a subtitle here if
you need it

Reproduction
Most animals reproduce
sexually, and the diploid
stage usually dominates the
life cycle. In the haploid
stage, sperm and egg cells
are produced directly by
meiotic division
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis
the origin and development
of the sperm cells within the
male reproductive organs,
the testes. The testes are
composed of numerous thin
tightly coiled tubules known
as the seminiferous tubules;
the sperm cells are
produced within the walls of
the tubules.
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Oogenesis Oogenesis
growth process in which the primary egg
cell becomes a mature ovum.
The nucleus splits so that half of its
chromosomes go to one cell and half to
another.
One of these two new cells is usually
larger than the other and is known as
the secondary ovum; the smaller cell is
known as a polar body.
The secondary ovum grows in the ovary
until it reaches maturation; it then breaks
loose and is carried into the fallopian
tubes.
Once in the fallopian tubes, the
secondary egg cell is suitable for
fertilization by the male sperm.
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 04. You can enter a subtitle here if
you need it

Development
Developmental
events in the life
cycle of a frog
 1. Sperm dissolve or penetrate any
protective layer surrounding the
egg to reach the plasma
membrane.
2. Molecules on the sperm surface

Fertilization
formation of a diploid zygote from a
haploid egg and sperm.
3. Changes at the surface of the egg
bind to receptors on the egg
surface, helping ensure that
fertilization involves a sperm and
egg of the same species.
prevent polyspermy, a condition in
which multiple sperm nuclei enter
the egg, fatally disrupting
development.
FERTILIZATION
 During cleavage, the cell cycle

CLEAVAGE
consists primarily of the S (DNA
synthesis) and M (mitosis) phases.
The G1 and G2 (gap) phases are
Rapid cell division following essentially skipped, and little or no
fertilization
protein synthesis occurs.
As a result, there is no increase in
mass.
At the end of cleavage, a BLASTULA
is formed.
 The pattern of
cleavage divisions
differs among species.
Pattern of embryonic cleavage is determined both by the
position of the mitotic spindles and by the amount and
distribution of yolk. Yolk tends to inhibit cleavage. It
slows it down or actually prevents complete cleavage.
Yolk is an adaptation of those animals that go through
more or less of embryogenesis isolated from any food
supply
Yolk is often concentrated
toward one pole, called
the vegetal pole, and
away from the opposite or
animal pole.

The yolk greatly affects

the pattern of cleavage.
 types of eggs based on yolk characteristics
very little amount of yolk present is uniformly
Isolecithal distributed throughout the ooplasm (eg.
echinoderms, Amphioxus, mammals).

Mesolecithal the amount of yolk present is moderate and is

not high. (Amphibian—frog)

eggs containing moderate or large quantity of

Telolecithal yolk, the distribution of yolk is not uniform. lt is
concentrated more towards the vegetal pole.
(fish, reptile, birds)

Centrolecithalrelatively large and elongate and have a very

great amount of yolk (Arthropods)
 Patterns of embryonic cleavage
HOLOBLASTIC
Division of the whole egg. The whole egg
undergoes cleavage.
The cleavage furrow extends all the way
through the egg.
 Patterns of embryonic cleavage
MEROBLASTIC
incomplete cleavage of
a yolk-rich egg
 The first five to seven
cleavage divisions produce
a hollow ball of cells, the
blastula, surrounding a
fluid-filled cavity called the
blastocoel
CLEAVAGE
With each
division
the cells
get
smaller
 After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows
considerably as the normal cell cycle is restored. The
last two stages of embryonic development are
responsible for morphogenesis, the cellular and tissue-
based processes by which the animal body takes shape.

GASTRULATION
From a hollow blastula into a two-
layered or three-layered embryo
called a gastrula.
a set of cells at or near the surface of the
blastula moves to an interior location, cell
layers are established, and a primitive
digestive tube is formed.
The cell layers produced are collectively
called the embryonic germ layers
• ectoderm forms the outer layer
• endoderm lines the embryonic
digestive compartment or tract.
In cnidarians and a few other radially
symmetrical animals, only these two germ
layers form during gastrulation. Such animals
are called diploblasts
In vertebrates and other animals with bilateral
symmetry are triploblasts—third germ layer
• Mesoderm forms between the
ectoderm and endoderm.
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Although adult animals vary widely in morphology,
the genes that control animal development are
similar across a broad range of taxa. All animals
have developmental genes that regulate the
expression of other genes
 Hox genes
Hox genes play important roles in the
development of animal embryos,
controlling the expression of dozens
or even hundreds of other genes that
influence animal morphology.
 History of
Animals
The history of animals spans more than half a billion years
Cenozoic Era
65.5 Million years ago to present

Mesozoic Era
251-65.5 Million years ago

Paleozoic Era
542-251 Million years ago

Neoproterozoic Era
1 Billion – 542 Million years ago
 • Ediacaran biota: soft bodied
multicellular eukaryotes
• Still others of these fossil organisms
have proved difficult to classify, as

NEOPROTEROZOIC ERA
they do not seem to be closely related
to any living animal or algal groups.

1 billion – 542 mya • Though older fossils of animals may be

discovered in the future, the fossil
record as it is known today shows that
the late Neoproterozoic era was a time
of increasing animal diversity
 • Cambrian period—CAMBRIAN
EXPLOSION

• paleontologists have found the oldest

fossils of about half of all extant animal
phyla, including the first arthropods,

PALEOZOIC ERA
chordate
• Increased diversity of animal phyla was
accompanied by a decline in the diversity
542-251 mya of Ediacaran life-forms
• What caused these trends?
• Adaptations: locomotion,
defenses—shells
• Increased atmospheric oxygen
• Origin of Hox genes
● paleontologists have
established that these
Cambrian fossils are members
of extant animal phyla, or at
least are close relatives.

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 ● Animals from paleozoic era spread to
new habitats
● Ocean—coral reefs, some reptiles

MESOZOIC ERA returned to water

● Terrestrial—tetrapods led to the
originof wings and other flight
251-65.5 mya
equipment in pterosaurs and birds
● Dinosaurs emerged
● First mammal—tiny nocturnal
insect-eaters-
cenOZOIC ERA
● Mass extinction of terrestrial and
marine
● Disappearance: large, nonflying
65.5 mya to present dinosaurs and the marine reptiles.
● large mammalian herbivores and
predators as mammals began to
Occupy lands
 Body symmetry
Many animals with a bilaterally
symmetrical body plan (such as
arthropods and mammals)
have sensory equipment
concentrated at their anterior
end, including a central nervous
system (“brain”) in the head—
an evolutionary trend called
cephalization (from the Greek
kephale, head).

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 Body symmetry
The symmetry of an animal
generally fits its lifestyle. Many
radial animals are sessile (living
attached to a substrate) or
planktonic (drifting or weakly
swimming, such as jellies,
commonly called jellyfishes).
Their symmetry equips them to
meet the environment equally
well from all sides.

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 Body symmetry
In contrast, bilateral animals
typically move actively from
place to place. Most bilateral
animals have a central nervous
system that en ables them to
coordinate the complex
movements involved in
crawling, burrowing, flying, or
swimming.

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 TISSUES
Animal body plans also vary with
regard to tissue organization. In
animals, true tissues are
collections of specialized cells
isolated from other tissues by
membranous layers. While
sponges and a few other
groups lack true tissues, in all
other animals, the embryo
becomes layered through the
process of gastrulation
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 TISSUES
As development progresses, these
concentric layers, called germ
layers, form the various tissues
and organs of the body.
Endoderm—lining of the digestive tract (or
cavity) and organs such as the liver and
lungs of vertebrates
Ectoderm--covering of the animal and, in
some phyla, to the central nervous
system
Mesoderm--muscles and most other
organs between the digestive tract and
the outer covering of the animal

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Body cavities

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Most triploblastic animals have a
body cavity, a fluid- or air-filled
space located between the
digestive tract and the outer
body wall. This body cavity is
also called a coelom (from the
Greek koilos, hollow).
A so-called “true” coelom forms
from tissue derived from
mesoderm. The inner and outer
layers of tissue that surround the
cavity connect and form
structures that suspend the
internal organs. Animals with a
true coelom are known as 67
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