The Chinese Domestic

Architectural Heating System

[Kang]: Origins, Applications
and Techniques
by QINGHUA GUO

INTRODUCTION
In northern China, heating is represented by kang. The kang is a living and sleeping
platform, a heated bed. It is constructed of brick, adobe or stone and consists of three
parts: a fireplace, a kang proper and a chimney. Beneath the flat surface of the kang are
flues, which conduct hot air from the fireplace through to the room. The kang allows
energy to be conserved; its surface temperature of about 40 degrees C can largely be
maintained overnight. It is used as a bed at night; bedding is laid out for sleeping but
is put away in the
morning. D U & ~the day
it provides a large warm
platform upon which
people undertake many
household activities. The
kang usually occupies
from one-third to one-
half of the area of a room;
but the entire floor of a
room can be constructed
and heated in this
manner, in which case it
is called dikang, literally a
heated floor (di meaning
floor). The heated bed
and the heated floor are
technically similar, but
each developed in
conjunction with a
distinctive wav of life,
Fig. I.Model stove (height: 10.5cm, length: 18.2 cm, width: 17.8cm), either sitting or; the floo;
Eastern Hun ( A . D . 25-220) (Author's collection) or sitting on furniture.
 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 33

This architectural phenomenon appeared in one particular part of the world, north-
east Asia, that is, northern China and northern Korea, and most typically in north-
eastern China, once known as Manchuria.' By and large, the heated bed is used in
northern China, the heated floor in northern Korea (where it is known as an ondol), and
both in Manchuria. Why did the Manchurians use two different heating systems? How
did the heated bed and heated floor emerge and develop? What were their origins and
inter-relationship? It seems unlikely that they could have all developed from a single
motive or origin. Many questions remain to be answered since they have never before
been the subjects of study.2The following essay, therefore, looks at those two different
but related innovations. This study aims to explore two major themes. First, it will
address the origin and history of the heated bed and the heated floor, and the
relationship between them; this research will draw on a wide range of historical
evidence, both archaeological and literary, with the aim of tracing the development of
both ideas and techniques. Second, it will turn to the forms, structures and applications
of the heated bed and the heated floor; these will be examined within the contexts both
of their location within a range of dwellings and of all archaeological excavations across
north-east Asia. The chief concern is to show how this heating system has performed a
dynamic role in architecture in this region since ancient times.

HYPOTHETICAL ORIGIN
This architectural heating system is a kind of innovation that must come from a
combination of ideas and techniques. From the Neolithic period (c. 10000-4000 B . c . ) the
Chinese have produced pottery. They invented roofing tiles, bricks and porcelain, and
developed complex glazing technique^.^ Through making ceramics and smelting
bronze and iron, knowledge and skills in applying heat were developed. All may well
have contributed to the invention of the kang. Its origin can perhaps be traced back to
earthenware stoves, but equally kilns for firing ceramics could have served as a
workable prototype. Models of stoves, incorporated together with kitchen utensils as
tomb furnishings [mingqi] for burial purposes, have been widely unearthed from
ancient tombs in China. Royalty, nobility and the rich had elaborate tombs, the dead
being served as well as they had been when alive. Mingqi are scaled models of actual
pieces in various styles dating from the Han dynasty (206 B .c .- A . D. 220) (Fig. 1).
It would be rash to leap to the conclusion that the kang was formed in China at so
early a date. The formation and development of the kang was a complex process, related
to ideas about lifestyle and beliefs about architecture. Hence a brief look at the daily
mode of living is necessary. From ancient times the Chinese ate, sat and slept on the
floor. To date, the oldest known wooden furniture - represented by low tables, big
beds and pingji [arm supportsI4 - were excavated in Henan, Hunan and Guangdong
provinces; it all dates from the Warring States period (453-221 B . C .). In the Northern-
and-Southern dynasties ( A . D . 317-589), furnishing as a concept and actual pieces of
'high furniture' (qaozu jiaju, literally meaning 'long-legged furniture') were becoming
widely prevalent through trade, migration and war. This led to changes in the manner
of sitting - moving from floor to chair - and a new lifestyle came to the fore. Evolved
in northern China, the kang inherited features from the bed and developed into a
34 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: 2002

household object with a special technique to suit the climate. Thus the kang as 'high
furniture' was achieved by raising a platform above ground level; low tables, screens
and cabinets remained in their assigned positions. The design of the kang was not only
the source of direct influence on the lifestyle, but determined the whole process of
change in vernacular architecture.
The shift, however, was not necessarily an instant one everywhere. In the Tang
dynasty (A.D. 618-907) two modes of sitting were equally popular, as is proven by
various paintings, murals and relief^.^ In fact the ancient lifestyle - seated on the floor
with legs crossed or knees bent - is maintained today by Mongolians, Koreans and
Japanese. The complexity of this process can be observed in Korea. According to Korean
scholars,6 the ondol became popular from around the fifteenth century, when the
mainstream of Korean culture was deeply rooted in the Neo-Confucianism. Koreans
relapsed into their ancient lifestyles during the Chaoxian dynasty (or Ckoson in Korean,
1392-1910), although 'high furniture' had already been adopted by upper-class society
in the Gaoli era (or Koryo in Korean, 918-1~92).~ By adopting the ondol floor the Choson
conserved their traditional lifestyle. The change was ideologically motivated, an
important issue requiring a separate study. The heated floor can still be seen in a type
of permanent Mongolian tent used as a lamasery in present-day Inner Mongolia: while
the open hearth [irori] set between floor mats [tatami] is the rule throughout Japan
wherever there is severe cold in winter. It is worth noticing that Japanese architecture
with raised wooden floors has its roots in southern China, where the architecture is very
different from that in the north.9
For the Manchurians, fundamental changes in the daily mode of living occurred
from the twelfth century onwards. The big heated bed used by them suggests Chinese
influence. In mountainous areas traditional Manchu architecture was constructed out of
rough-hewn logs covered with sedge, the walls mud-plastered to resist the wind.
Houses always faced south to optimize sunlight and radiant heat. On moving away
from the mountains, the log houses gradually gave way to tile-and-platform timber
structures of Chinese form, first in state buildings, temples and halls of the gentry, and
later among common dwellings. Tiles are resistant to water penetration and platforms
lift people above excess damp. More importantly, both are fireproof. For Manchurians,
the new lifestyle emerged through compromise with the old. Both urban high society
and ordinary rural folk elevated themselves on a raised kang. 'High furniture' was
adopted as well; the kang heating system was thus maintained but modified. During the
Qing dynasty (1644-I~II),the kang was enlarged to become the heated floor. This did
not replace the kang itself, but coexisted with it and increased the variety inherent in
Manchu heating; in other words, when the kang developed into this new form, the older
one continued to coexist with it. This suggests that the Manchu heating system opened
the way for a new style of living, since the heated floor does not require people to take
off their boots, and is suitable for high furniture. These are the special characteristics of
Manchu architecture which distinguish it from that of the Chinese and the Koreans. For
Koreans, it is customary to remove shoes on entering houses, and the Japanese custom
is similar. In central Korea, houses having half-heated floors and half-timber floors
[maru] are the best solution to the different requirements of winter and summer.'O It
could be argued that the Manchu dikang might have been introduced from Korea,
 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 35

although this seems unlikely since the Manchu respected the culture of China, not of
Korea, and a connexion between the Manchu dikang and Korean ondol therefore seems
improbable. What is most important here is not simply to know which type is earlier
than another, but to identify which aspects of change were the factors motivating the
historical development.

LITERARY E V I D E N C E
The term kang, originally meaning 'to dry', appeared in a Chinese dictionary of A . D .
121." The dictionary summarized words used in earlier times: the Xia (twenty-first to
the sixteenth century B .c .), the Shang (sixteenth to the eleventh century B .c . ) and the
Zhou (eleventh century to 771 B . c . ) . So the term kang can be traced back at least as far
as the Zhou dynasty. The term dikang did not gain currency until the Qing dynasty,
when the Manchu took the throne of China. There is, however, a written source which
indicates the existence of the heated floor in ancient China. According to Li Daoyuan in
the Shui ling Zku:
In Guanji Temple [nearpresent Fengrun in Hebei province],there is a grand [lecture]hall.
It is very high and wide to accommodate a thousand monks. The platform of the hall was
constructed with stones arranged as a network of channels, and the floor was finished
with a coat of clay. Fires are set at outdoor openings at the four sides of the platform,
while the heat flows inwards warming the entire hall. This construction was established
by a benefactor (or benefactors) to enable the monks to study in cold winters."
This description of the heated floor in the Guanji temple is the earliest
written evidence of a Chinese heated floor, and demonstrates that the heated floor
was used in temple architecture in China in about A . D . 500. The lecture hall was
for monks to sit constantly studying the sutra [Buddhist scriptures]; hence the heated
floor might have been introduced initially into temple architecture from an existing
system of vernacular architecture. Monks were learned men, most of them from
the aristocratic classes, and temples were institutions of power and wealth. The
heating system might then have been improved and innovated by the monks, and
the secular world may in turn have learned of the 'new' heated floor through
religious pilgrimage.
Nevertheless it seems difficult to confirm whether this heated floor was the earliest
one in China. No name for it is included in the text, but it must originally have been
conceived as a kang. Unfortunately, temple sites with floor-heating systems are not
found in China, although they are in Korea. Their popularity in China might largely
have ended before the Tang dynasty. Buddhism was officially introduced to the
Gaogouli Kingdom (or Koguryo in Korean, 37 B .c .-A. D . 668) from China in A . D . 372,
and the Korean adopted Chinese temple architecture for this new religion. The heating
system was most likely introduced to Korea from China, together with the architecture.
There is plenty of evidence to prove Chinese influences on Korean architecture and
porcelain, including tiles and bricks, and although the heating system was not
mentioned anywhere, it is almost certain that they were all related. Even if we accept
the possibility that the Chinese heated floor was adopted and modified by the Koreans,
the question of the degree of modification remains unanswerable.
36 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: 2002

The Manchurian kang was recorded in historic Chinese books. In the Collected Records
of the Northern Alliance during Three Reigns, the record reads:
The custom is that people live on hillside [terraces].Surrounded by wooden fences, their
houses, several feet high, were made of wood and roofed with thatch or single or birch
bark. No roofing tiles are used. Doors face east. The bedroom has an earthen bed along the
walls. Fire is set underneath, and people eat and live on it to get warmth; it is called kang.13
Similar information can also be found in the History of the Great Jin.14 Qing books
referring to the kang and dikang are numerous, and include novels, such as Dream of the
Red Chamber [Honglou Meng].15
Historic Chinese books also recorded heating facilities in the late Gaogouli Kingdom.
The Old Historical Book of the Tang Dynasty reads:
The Gaogouli people live in mountains. They use straw to roof their houses, whereas only
temples, shrines and palaces are covered with tiles. The common people make long pits
[ckangkeng] in which fire is kept to warm themselves in winter months.16
The same account appears in the New Historical Book of the Tang Dynasty.17 As the
Chinese character for keng has the word representing earth for its radical, the long fire
pit must have been made by excavating the ground. In Korea, the earliest record of the
heating system dates from the fourteenth century.'' The term ondol did not appear to
replace various traditional names until the late Choson dynasty, and was then only
used by the literate. Borrowed from the Chinese writing system, it is composed of signs
representing earth and chimney. The term ondol thus literally means an earthen
chimney.19

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Archaeological excavations have taken place throughout the region, and provide us
with valuable information about the formation and development of the kang and the
dikang. Recent excavations have revealed that at the Neolithic building remains of Xinle
(c. 5300-4800 B . c . ) in Shenyang some floors were 'baked'." That is to say, the floor
surface was dried by repeated heating, thus turning it into baked clay which functioned
as an effective moisture barrier. This discovery confirmed another major archaeological
one, made earlier at the Neolithic settlement site of Banpo in Xi'an (c. 5000-4300 B . C .),
where it was found that the sleeping area, which was defined by raising the floor some
lo cm above ground level, had been treated by fire.21In the 1980s, the Beijing Building
Materials Institute conducted extensive tests on various building sites of ancient
civilizations in northern China and concluded that floors everywhere were prepared by
pounding clay, and some surfaces were treated by burning for heating purposes." This
process is traditionally called zhi or zhidi [baked/baked earth].23The sleeping floor was
probably heated before people went to sleep, for a Tang poet, Meng Jiao, wrote in his
poem, 'Handi Baixing Yin': 'No fuel to heat the floor to sleep, standing and crying in
cold at midnight.'24The zhidi possibly contributed to the emergence of the kang, or the
dikang, or both.
The earliest evidence of heated platforms was uncovered in four building remains
dating from the first century at Tuanjie county in Heilongjiang province. It has been
 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 37

identified as an L-shaped low bench, about one metre in width, with a single flue on the
west and north sides of each rectangular dwelling. The bench was made of adobe and
cobblestones, covered with stone slabs. From the fireplace, the flue gradually rose
toward a chimney.25A similar discovery was made in the Hekou-Culture remains in
Sandaohe county, Hailin, in Heilongjiang pr~vince.'~ The Hekou Culture was the early
stage of the Bohai Culture.
Unlike the first-century remains, heated benches of the fourth century had double
flues. This suggests that the structure represented not just a bench but a masonry
platform. An example has been found in a palace building dated A .D. 392 in Ji'an, Jilin
pr~vince.'~ The palace has an L-shaped adobe platform with a pair of parallel flues. It
was structurally more complex than that with a single flue, and functionally closer to
the kang. While the surface was made of stone slabs, the flues were of terracotta. In the
middle of the building is a stone table instead of a fire pit, and its function is unknown
(Fig. 2). Perhaps the open fire pit, which appeared in all early architectural remains, was
abandoned when the kang was established in the north. The fireplaces, surrounded by
stones to keep the fire in place, are still in use in many places, such as in southern China
and south-east Asia.
A dated kang of considerable interest has been discovered further north at
Longquanfu Palace of the Bohai Kingdom (A.D . 699-926, today Ning'an, Heilongjiang
province)." The building is 30 m east-west and 17.3 m north-south. It has three rooms,
with a veranda on all sides. Each room has an L-shaped kang, with two parallel flues
connected to a huge stone chimney at the back, about 5 m away from the building (Fig.
3).29In the Korean peninsula, similar flue arrangements have also been found in early
remains from the Gaoli era, such as at Dong-po-gun, Pyung-an-buk-do, Shinuiju-si and
Man-~al-dae.~' Near Xi'an, a group of kang has been very well preserved in the remains
. ~ ~ kang
of a Tang-Song pottery factory (Song Dynasty, A . D. 960-1126) in Y a o ~ h o uThese
were found in the dormitories for pottery makers and in workshops where they used
to dry glazed earthenware prior to firing. The remain of a kang in Building No. 1 (from
the Tang dynasty) is 2 m by 1.45-1.75 m in plan and 0.28 m in height. It was built of
stone, with three parallel flues. There are several Song remains, for example, in Building
No. 22, a kang constructed of heat-resistant masonry, 2.7 m by 1.68-1.82 m in plan and
0.38 m in height with an indoor cooking range and an outdoor chimney (Fig. 4). These
buildings were of cave-like type called yaodong (literally 'heated cave-like dwelling', yao
literally meaning kiln). Since ancient times, the yaodong has dominated the rural area in
the lias reaches of the Yellow River.32The yaodong and the kang are inseparably linked.
Both were deeply rooted in the Yellow River Valley civilization. Without the kang, this
oldest form of dwelling might not have been habitable by countless thousands of
people in the region, including in Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, Shannxi, Gansu, Ningxia
provinces and Inner Mongolia. It represents the culmination of a single historical
development pursued over several centuries. About two hundred yaodong remains
have been found in settlement remains of Yangshao Culture of mid-Neolithic period.
All yaodong, both sunken courtyard yaodong and hillside yaodong, were equipped with
open hearths and/or fireplace^.^^
Several fireplaces recessed in walls have been excavated in bedrooms of the Qin
palace remains (350-206 B .c .) in Xianyang, Shaanxi province.34These rooms might be
 apuanan .Q .!liautuly~.3 -?U

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1a3upo~dB u a l f 8 u o ~ a' u~a , 8 u r ~
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 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 39

Fig. 4. Kang, Yaozhou pottery workshop, Song dynasty (960-1127). A. general view; B. detailed view

called wenshi ['heated room'], the term appearing in many ancient books, such as Hun
Shu and Sun& H u ~ n g t uSo
. ~far,
~ however, kang have not been found in any Tang palace
remains in Xi'an, because everytlung above platform level there has disappeared. This
does not mean that the kang had not existed there.

FORMS, STRUCTURES A N D T E C H N I Q U E S
The kang can be classified into two categories according to form and type: I-shaped and
U-shaped. The I-shaped kang is the most commonly used type in the north and the
north east. The U-shaped kang was developed in relation to specifically Manchurian
activities, and is found only in Manchurian architecture. Both forms were used in
Manchurian palaces in Shenyang and Beijing. Between 1625 and 1643, Shenyang was
the capital of the Manchu state, before the Manchu assumed the throne of China as the
Qing dynasty in Beijing in 164.4.~~ The latitude of Shenyang is 41.48 north and that of
Beijing is 39.55 north. This is a region of harsh climate, where the kang made habitation
possible.
In the emperor's retiring chamber [Qingning Gong, 'Fresh-peace Hall'] in the
Shenyang palace two types of kang can be seen. The hall is five bays in width with a
veranda along both front and rear elevations. The building is 22.5 m by 16.5 m in plan.
40 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: 2002

The off-centre entrance axis

divides the building into two
~
I
a r t s :a one-bav bedroom in
the east and a four-bay living
room in the west. The east bay
is further divided longi-
tudinally into two bedrooms,
each with an I-shaped kang,
the south room for winter and
the north for summer; the
living room has a kang built
along the south, west and
north walls, forming a U-
shape in plan (Fig. 5). The I-
shaped kang has a fireplace
located outside, on the
building platform under the
veranda eaves. It is fuelled
with charcoal, hence there is
no chimney. For ventilation
purposes, small passages let to
an external wall of the
platform, often ornamented.
The hot air which flowed
through them was aptly called
'dragon's breath'. This type of
kang is usually placed longi-
Fig. 5 . Fresh-peace hall, Shenyang palace. tudinally below windows or
A. I-shaped kang; B. U-shaped kang transversely along a gable
wall. The dimensions of the
kang are based on the human body - 0.6-0.7 m in height and 1.8-2.0 m deep - and are
usually full-room in width. The U-shaped kang in the Fresh-peace Hall has two indoor
fireplaces, with a tall external chimney to enable them to draw. The fuel used here was
coal. For the Manchu the west part of the main building was sacred, being used for
religious rites. The Manchu drew spiritual support from Shamanism, a religion
involving the worship of natural phenomena and spirits of ancestors.37Shamanist
practices included dance, which was regularly performed by shaman (or shamans) in
this building especially at the end of the year. The U-shaped kang defined a central
space for the dance and provided the emperor, his family and guests with a large, warm
place to sit watching and eating. Cooking ranges attached to the kang at each end were
used to cook meat as part of the ritual. Between the south and north kang, the west kang,
designed to lead away smoke, is narrower than the others, upon which an ancestral
shrine is displayed. The chimney is set about 2 m from the rear of the building. This is
a traditional design derived from sedge-thatched houses. To avoid fire sparks, the
chimney had to be located away from the building.
 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 41

T H E STRUCTURE OF T H E K A N G

Most kang are built in one of two ways. In the first, bricks or adobe are laid to form the
vertical part of the kang, within which earth is filled and compacted with a rammer to
a height of about 20 cm. Short posts are stood at regular intervals on the earth infill, and
rise to a total of up to 50 cm in height; a flat surface is then made by laying adobe bricks
(60 by 60 by 10cm) on top of the posts and the vertical wall (or walls). This creates an
enlarged stove, and the hollow space holds fuel to heat the kang. It requires baking for
two days to dry before it can be used. The edge of the kang is normally finished with a
long timber trim to stop objects from sliding off, as well as to strengthen the edge from
wear. This type of kang is still in use in yaodong architecture.
The second manner of kang construction is found in many places in northern China.
It consists of a solid earthen platform, upon which is an adobe flue, with an upward
slope of 2 per cent to draw the air from the fireplace to the chimney. The flue consists
of several channels, 150-250 mm high and each 20-280 mm wide. It is paved with
bricks, coated and levelled with plaster. The plaster is thicker close to the fireplace and
thinner further away from it, so as to help even out the surface temperature. A mixture

grid flue

Linear flue

cooking range

Fig. 6. Flue patterns (redrawn from National

Standardised Design Data: Heating and
I ash pit

Fig. 7. Ashpits. A. pit between the

fireplace and the kang proper; B. pit
Ventilation (Beijing, 1966)) between the kang and the chimney
42 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: 2002

of clay and straw is commonly used for the first coat applied directly to the kang, clay
with sand for the second coat, then lime with hemp fibre for the next, and finally oiled
papers, or bed-covers made of mat or felt for the last layer. Designed to allow the flow
of heated air along the whole length of the flue and to retain more heat inside, the flue
has two basic arrangements in plan, linear and grid. Each has many varieties, some
examples being shown in Figure 6. Two ashpits, one between the fireplace and the kang
proper and another between the kang and the chimney, are designed for the collection
of ashes, in order to prevent the flue from blocking up. A slab of stone provides access
to the pit for ash removal. Regular removal of ashes and periodic repair of the adobe
flue is essential, the frequency depending on the type of fuel used; according to the
materials available in the region, this may include firewood, straw and coal. When
dismantling the kang, the old earthen bricks impregnated with carbon blacks are
replaced by new ones. The old bricks are crushed into powder, which is then used as a
rich fertilizer. The first pit is built with an adjacent sloping channel to direct the hot air
from the fireplace over this pit to the flue, and to prevent back flow. The second pit is
designed to hold the hot air before it flows out from the chimney. The bottom level of
the chimney is lower than that of the flue, so that cold air from outside is trapped within
it and so as to prevent back flow to the kang (Fig. 7). A damper is set close to the ground
level of the chimney to moderate the circulation of air. In ordinary dwellings, a kitchen
range is connected to the kang, and a bellows (fengxiang) is used for supplying the
kitchen range with air. Thus heating is combined with cooking, resulting in good
energy efficiency. The cooking ranges vary from one locality to another.

T H E STRUCTURE OF T H E DIKANG
In Manchurian palaces, the kang and the dikang were both means of heating. The dikang
is a full-floor kang consisting of a fireplace with or without chimney, depending on the
fuels used. Our knowledge of the inner structure of the Manchurian dikang is largely
obtained from the Forbidden City in Beijing,38since no substructures of the Shenyang
palace have come to light. The Manchurian dikang in the Forbidden City is a double-flue
system, with one flue on top of the other. The lower layer of the flues is linear whilst the
upper is a grid. Between the two are holes to convey the flame; the holes are smaller
close to the fireplace and wider further away. The upper layer is made by regularly
arranging circular covered with floor bricks. The hot air travels through the
lower flue, and then through the upper one, to heat the floor (Fig. 8). The dikang was
heated from an underfloor fireplace, which was approached by a man (or men) through
a semi-subterranean entrance at the top of the building platform, or along its rear or
sidewall. Due to heavy fuel consumption, it required adequate space for storing fuels
(Fig. 9).
The Manchurian dikang seems to be similar to the Korean ondol, but clearly diverges
from it. Two ways of making heated floors can be seen in the Yanbian Korean
Autonomous Region in Jilin province, which is part of Manchuria. These two ways
could be called as 'subtraction' and 'addition'. The heated floor is called gudul ['heated
stone'] and is still used by about 820,000 Korean-Chinese in the region.40In the first
method of constructing the gudul, the ground is excavated to make channels. The
 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM

Section IzZZT

Plan

Fig. 8. Double-flue heatedfloor, Beijing palace (after Zkang Yukuan, 1986)

 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: 2002

1-1 section

Fig. 9. Semi-subterranean underfloorfireplace, Beijing palace (after Bai Lijuan, 1993)

 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 45

channels, between 30 cm and 40 cm apart as determined by the sizes of the cover stones,
run gradually upwards from the fireplace to the chimney. There are usually six to eight
such channels, depending on room sizes. The floor was plastered with sandy mud and
finished with oiled paper. Alternatively the ground was levelled, and then bricks were
regularly placed on the ground to make a grid pattern or liner channels, on which floor
stones were laid. The first type implies a relatively early date compared with the
second, and reveals a very clear relationship with the long fire pit (chang keng). It might
have been invented to reserve the heat overnight by simply covering the long pit with
slabs of stone on which people slept. In this connexion, the chang keng may be the
precursor of the gudul. Although this hypothesis requires further verification, it seems
the most probable assumption one can reach from the facts available.

SUMMARY
The following information found in the Shenyang palace deserves attention. First,
cooking was separated from heating. Outdoor fireplaces, situated below ground level,
were employed, for improving circulation and hygiene as compared with indoor ones,
and also for segregating servants who tended the fire, so that they did not need to come
inside (see Fig. 5). Second, charcoal was used to reduce air pollution in the bedrooms,
so that no chimney was needed. Evidence for the use of charcoal and coal has been
found in all fireplaces and in storehouses located within the palace compound, together
with kitchens and granaries. Third, the buildings with kang and/or dikang were all
residential. In office buildings braziers were used, and hand-warmers [shoulu] were
very common. The houses with kang of either the first or the second type were all
constructed between 1625 and 1632, whilst those with dikang were built in the 1740s and
the 1780s." Heating techniques developed extensively during the Qing dynasty. The
double-flue dikang, with one flue over the other, see in the Forbidden City, was a later
technique, which cannot be taken as a typical example of Manchu heating system. The
imperial palaces were nationally representative of Qing China, and thus have many
unique designs.
Although the history of Manchu heating was shorter than those of its Chinese and
Korean counterparts, the degree of its development seems to have surpassed that of the
other two. As time went on many variations were developed. In the north, heated
masonry was either high, in the form of partition walls (huoqiang, literally 'heated wall')
within buildings, or low, as long blocks (dilong, literally 'floor dragon') under wooden
beds. Stove, or oven, beds [huochuang] of triangular section, containing burned
charcoals inside, also appeared. In the south, 'water kang' used in public baths
represented another variation (Fig. lo). Surprisingly, all kang share many of the same
features, but each shows a remarkable degree of refinement, creating a form of its own.
Since ancient times, the kang has been widely used over a vast geographical area in
northern China. This traditional practice continues in remote rural areas of the country
today. The kang has played an important role in architectural history in the region. Its
origin is assumed to be in northern China, and the Manchu kang is viewed as one
offshoot of the Chinese version. This conclusion seems valid enough, and no other
explanation has been suggested. Nevertheless, the development of the kang remains
46 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: zoo2

Fig. lo. Water kang (reduu7~1nfi.0171

Shinzoku kibun, 1799; thls is a Jnpancse book ~ecordingaccollnts
of Qing Ctlsforns)

hypothetical, and the relationship between the kang and the dikang is still open to
debate. One thing is clear, namely that such heating systems are important innovations
deserving special attention.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to Hugh O'Neill and Angela Hass who read and commented on this paper. I
express my gratitude to Andor Gomme and Judi Loach for their encouragement. This research
was supported by a research grant from the 2001 Melbourne Research Development Grant
Scheme.

NOTES
1 These heating practices have persisted over large parts of northern Eurasia. Manchuria was a vast area.
Through four Sino-Russia Treaties, made between 1689 and 1860, the north-east part of the territory became
Russian domain.
2 In the whole world, there are two highly developed heating systems, the Chinese in the East and the Roman
in the West. The former is still in use today, and the latter disappeared long time ago. It is unknown whether
there was any connexion between the two systems, since the Silk Road between China and Rome has received
only cursory study.
3 Qlnghua Guo, 'Tile and Brick Making in China: a Study of the Yingzao Fashi', Construction History, 16
 CHINESE DOMESTIC HEATING SYSTEM 47

4 Pingji refers to a wooden frame used to support the arm when one is sitting on the floor. A related piece of
furniture, quji, roughly semicircular in plan, serves as a backrest.
5 Evidence in relief form includes stamped bricks and engraved stones of the Han dynasty [Shandong
Hanxiang Shi Xuanji] (Jinan, 1982).Evidence in the form of paintings includes 'Kanshu Tu' (by Huang Quan,
903-965), 'Tangren Gongle Tu (painter unknown, late Fong) and 'Jinwengong Fuguo Tu (Li Tang, 1085-1165)
and also mural (See Temple murals in Shanxi Province [Shanxi Signan Bihua] (Beijing, 1997)).
6 (a) Chang Kyong-cho, Traditional Korean architecture [Hanguk ui chontong konchuk] (Seoul, 1993), pp.
524-31. (b) Choi Young-taek, Floor heating system [Gudul Kwang Ondol] (Seoul, 1989),pp. 6c-63.
7 Xu Ke, Illustrated Record of Gaoli [Gaoli Tujing], Vol. [juan]28: Beds, 1123 (reprinted Seoul i972), p. 156.
8 Liu Dunzhen, Chinese vernacular architecture [Zhongguo Zhuzhai Gaishuo] (~eijing,1957),p. 73.
9 Pile dwellings and granaries were introduced to Japan from China together with wet-rice cultivation in the
Yayoi period (300 B.c.-A.D. 300).
l o Traditionally, the heated floor has been used in northern Korea, and the timber floor in southern Korea.
Following the Japanese invasion (1592-98), large numbers of people fled from the south. After the war, the
northern and southern architectural styles converged in the middle of the country In heating terms, the ondol
and the maru were merged in a single building.
11 Xu Shen, Interpretations of characters and words [Shuowen Jiezi], Vol. lo, A.D. 121 (13th reprinting Beijing,

1994),p. 210.
1 2 Li Daoyuan, Commentary on the classic writings on waterways [Shui Jing Zhu], Vol. 14 [Baoqiu Shui], late fifth
or early sixth century (reprinted Taipei, 1965), Vol. 2, p. 13.
13 Xu Mengshen, Collected Records of the Northern Alliance during three reigns [Sanchao Beimeng Huibian], Vol.
3, 1196 (reprinted Taipei, 1962),Vo1.1, p. 33 (also reprinted Shanghai, 1987).
14 Yuwen Maozhao, The Histoy of the Great Jin [Da Jin Guo Zhi], Vol. 39, Song Dynasty (reprinted Taipei,
1968),Vol. 2, p. 463 (also reprinted Beijing, 1986).
15 Cao Xueqin, Dream of the Red Chamber [Honglou Meng], 1763 (reprinted Beijing, 1982),Chapter (hui)49, p.
680.
16 Liu Xun, Old Historical Book of the Tang Dynasty [Jiu Tangshu], Vol. 199 [Gaogouli], A.D. 945 (reprinted
Beijing, 1975)~Vol. 16, p. 5319.
17 Ou'yang Xiu, New Historical Book of the Tang Dynasty [Xin Tangshu], Vol. 220,1061 (reprinted Beijing, 1975),
Vol. 20, p. 6186.
18 (a) Veritable records of the Jungjong [Jungjongsilrok], Vol. 29, Choson Dynasty. (b) Lee Dahu, Danlun Ji,
Subheading (tiao):Customs, 1653.
19 Seo Yugu, Home management and economics [Sanlim Gyengjie Ji], Vol. i [Construction principles of service
buildings and facilities], ;823 (reprinted Seoul, 1983),pp. 38&81.
20 (a) Shenyang Office for Preservation of Antiquities, 'Excavation of Neolithic Village at Xinle, Shengang',
Journal of Archaeology [Kaogu Xuebao], 2 (1985), pp. 209--22. (b) Shenyang Office for Preservation of
Antiquities, 'Excavation of Neolithic Village at Xinle, Shengang', Journal of Archaeology, 4 (1978),pp. 449-66.
21 Institute of Archaeology of Academia Sinica, The neolithic village at Banpo, Xi'an (Beijing, 1963),pp. 16-17,
27.
22 Mia0 Jisheng et al., 'Preliminary Investigation of Cementing Material Used in Ancient China', Journal of the
Chznese Silicate Society [Guisuanyan Xuebao], 2, (1981),pp. 234-40.
23 XU,Analytical dictionay ofcharacters, Vol. lo.
24 Institute of Literature of Academia Sinica (ed.), Selected poems ofthe Tang Dynasty, 2 (Beijing, 1978), p. 4.
Author's translation, as for other translations in the paper.
25 (a) Heilongjiang Antiquities Investigation Team and Archaeological School of Jilin University, 'Excavation
Report on Cultural Antiquities at Tuanjie, Dongning', in Proceedings of the 1st conference of the Archaeologists
Society of Jilin (1979). (b) Zhang Taixiang, 'Architectural Remains at Tuanjie, Dongrung', Guangming Daily
[Guangming Ribao], 23 July 1978.
26 Exhibition of Recent Archaeological Excavations in Heilongjiang, Provincial Museum, Harbin, 2000.
27 Jilin Museum, 'Architectural Remains of the Gaogoli period renovated at Ji'an, Jilin', Archaeology [Kaoku],
1 (19611, PP. 5c-55.
28 The Japanese archaeologists and historians were curious to know about ancient Chinese architecture and
its heating systems, and carried out several excavations in Manchuria during the period of Japanese Wartime
Empire (1895-1945) Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931, and colonized Korea in 1895. (a) Tung-ching-cheng:
48 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY 45: 2002

Report on the excavation of the site of the capital of Bohai [Tonkinjo: Bokkaikoku jokei ryosenfu ato no hakkutsu
chosa] (Tokyo, 1939). (b) Murata Jiro, 'The Origins of the Ondol and the Kang (Part I)', Architectural Studies
[Kenchikugaku kenkyu], 9 (1929),pp. 1-16; (Part 11) [Kenchikugaku kenkyu], 10 (1929), pp. 1-16.
29 Wei Cuncheng, 'Bohai Architecture', Heilongjiang antiquities [Heilongjiang Wenwu Congkan], 4 (1984),pp.
36-43t72.
30 (a) Chang Kyong-cho, 'A Study of the formation and development of Korean heating System', Art and
Archaeology [Kogo Misul], 12 (1984),pp. 9-25. (b) Li Dianfu, Archaeological research in northeast China [Dongbei
Kaogu Yanjiu], 2 (Zhenzhou, 1994),p. 134.
31 (a) Institute of Archaeology, Shaanxi Province, Excavation of Tang Kiln-sites at Huangpu in Tongchuan,
Shaanxi [Tangdai Huangpu Yaozhi], 2 vols (Beijing, r g p ) , p. 12. (b) Institute of Archaeology, Shaanxi Province
and Yaozhou Kiln Museum, The Yaozhou kiln site of the Song Period [Songdai Yaozhou Yaozhi] (Beijing, 1998),
PP. 29-3r
32 Qinghua Guo, 'The Formation and Early Development of Architecture in Northern China', Construction
History, 18 (2002),pp. 1-15.
33 (a) Hu Qianying, Hu Qianying selected works on archaeological research of Zhou culture (Chengdu, ~ O O Opp. ),
299-324 (b) Liang Xingpeng and Li Miao, 'Reconstruction of Building Remains at Wugong, Shaanxi
Province', Archaeology [Kaogu], 3 ( ~ g g r )pp., 245-51.
34 Xianyang Archaeological Division, 'Brief excavation report on Number One Palace remains in the Qin
capital Xianyang', ~ n t i ~ u i t i e[Wenwu],
s 11 (1976), pp. 12-2;.
35 History of the Han Dynasty [Han Shu], and the Illustration of the Imperial District [Sanfu Huangtu] (c. third
century). References are to Zhou Zongxiang, A n edited and annotated version of the Illustration of the Imperial
District [Jiaozheng Sanfu Huangtu] (Beijing, 1958).
36 Qinghua Guo, 'Shenyang: the Manchurian Ideal Capital City and Imperial Palace, 1625-43', Urban History,
27,3 ( ~ o o o PP.
) , 344-59.
37 Fu Yuguang and Meng Huiying, Manchurian Shamanism [Manzu Samanjiao Yanjiu] (Beijing, 1991).
38 (I) Bai Lijuan, 'Techniques of Floor-heating Systems', Traditional Chinese architecture and gardens [Gujian
Yuanlin Jishu], 4 (1996), pp. 14-15. (2) Zhang Yuhuan (ed.), History and development of ancient Chinese
architectural techniques [Zhongguo Gidai Jianzhu Kishu Shi] (Beijing, 1986),p. 326.
39 The circular brick was made from a square one by cutting off its corners diagonally
40 Gudul is an old word, lacking any written form in Chinese characters.
41 When the Qing ruler moved the government to Beijing in 1644, Shenyang retained a special status as an
auxiliary capital, and its palace received eleven visits from the emperors.