Soil is the thin layer on the surface of the Earth on which the living beings of the earth

survive since it is the layer of materials in which plants have their roots. Soil is made up of many
things like weathered rock particles and decayed plant and animal matter. It takes a long time for
soil formation and more than thousand years for the formation of a thin layer of soil. Since soil is
made up of such diverse materials like broken down rock particles and organic material, it can be
classified into various types, though based on the size of the particles it contains.

Soil Types
Therefore depending on the size of the particles in the soil, it can be classified into these following
types:

• Sandy soil
• Silty soil
• Clay soil
• Loamy Soil
• Peaty Soil
• Chalky Soil
Sandy Soil- This type has the biggest particles and the size of the particles does
determine the degree of aeration and drainage that the soil allows. It is granular and
consists of rock and mineral particles that are very small. Therefore the texture is
gritty and sandy soil is formed by the disintegration and weathering of rocks such as
limestone, granite, quartz and shale. Sandy soil is easier to cultivate if it is rich in
organic material but then it allows drainage more than is needed, thus resulting in
over-drainage and dehydration of the plants in summer. It warms very fast in the
spring season. So if you want to grow your plant in sandy soil it is imperative that you
water it regularly in the summers and give a break in the winters and rainy season,
sandy soil retains moisture and nutrients. In a way sandy soil is good for plants since
it lets the water go off so that it does not remain near the roots and lead them to
decay.

Silty Soil-Silty soil is considered to be one of the most fertile of soils. It can occur
in nature as soil or as suspended sediment in water column of a water body on the
surface of the earth. It is composed of minerals like Quartz and fine organic particles.
It is granular like sandy soil but it has more nutrients than sandy soil and it also offers
better drainage. In case silty soil is dry it has a smoother texture and looks like dark
sand. This type of soil can hold more moisture and at times becomes compact. It
offers better drainage and is much easier to work with when it has moisture.

Clay Soil-Clay is a kind of material that occurs naturally and consists of very fine
grained material with very less air spaces, that is the reason it is difficult to work with
since the drainage in this soil is low, most of the time there is a chance of water
logging and harm to the roots of the plant. Clay soil becomes very heavy when wet
and if cultivation has to be done, organic fertilizers have to be added. Clay soil is
formed after years of rock disintegration and weathering. It is also formed as
sedimentary deposits after the rock is weathered, eroded and transported.

Loamy Soil- This soil consists of sand, silt and clay to some extent. It is
considered to be the perfect soil. The texture is gritty and retains water very easily, yet
the drainage is well. There are various kinds of loamy soil ranging from fertile to very
muddy and thick sod. Yet out of all the different kinds of soil loamy soil is the ideal for
cultivation.

Peaty Soil- This kind of soil is basically formed by the accumulation of dead and
decayed organic matter, it naturally contains much more organic matter than most of
the soils. It is generally found in marshy areas. Now the decomposition of the organic
matter in Peaty soil is blocked by the acidity of the soil. This kind of soil is formed in
wet climate. Though the soil is rich in organic matter, nutrients present are fewer in
this soil type than any other type. Peaty soil is prone to water logging but if the soil is
fertilized well and the drainage of the soil is looked after, it can be the ideal for
growing plants.

Chalky Soil-Unlike Peaty soil, Chalky soil is very alkaline in nature and consists
of a large number of stones. The fertility of this kind of soil depends on the depth of
the soil that is on the bed of chalk. This kind of soil is prone to dryness and in
summers it is a poor choice for plantation, as the plants would need much more
watering and fertilizing than on any other type of soil. Chalky Soil, apart from being
dry also blocks the nutritional elements for the plants like Iron and Magnesium.
Soil Profiles

Figure 3: Typical layers found in a soil profile. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net)

Most soils have a distinct profile or sequence of horizontal layers. Generally, these
horizons result from the processes of chemical weathering, eluviation, illuviation, and
organic decomposition. Up to five layers can be present in a typical soil: O, A, B, C, and
R horizons (Figure 3).

The O horizon is the topmost layer of most soils. It is composed mainly of plant litter at
various levels of decomposition and humus.

A horizon is found below the O layer. This layer is composed primarily of mineral
particles and has two characteristics: it is the layer in which humus and other organic
materials are mixed with mineral particles, and it is a zone of translocation from which
eluviation has removed finer particles and soluble substances, both of which may be
deposited at a lower layer. Thus the A horizon is dark in color and usually light in texture
and porous. The A horizon is commonly differentiated into a darker upper horizon or
organic accumulation, and a lower horizon showing loss of material by eluviation.

The B horizon is a mineral soil layer which is strongly influenced by illuviation.

Consequently, this layer receives material eluviated from the A horizon. The B horizon
also has a higher bulk density than the A horizon due to its enrichment of clay particles.
The B horizon may be colored by oxides of iron and aluminum or by calcium carbonate
illuviated from the A horizon.
 The C horizon is composed of weathered
parent material. The texture of this material
can be quite variable with particles ranging
in size from clay to boulders. The C horizon
has also not been significantly influenced by
the pedogenic processes, translocation,
and/or organic modification.

The final layer in a typical soil profile is

called the R horizon. This soil layer simply
consists of unweathered bedrock.

Physical Properties of Soil

Permeability (the rate at which water moves through the soil) and Water-Holding
Capacity(WHC; the ability of a soils micropores to hold water for plant use) are affected by

• The amount, size and arrangement of pores

• Macropores control a soil’s permeability and aeration.
• Micropores are responsible for a soil’s WHC

Porosity is in turn affected by

• Soil texture
• Soil structure
• Compaction
• Organic matter

Soil texture (the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay) is important in determining the
water-holding capacity of soil:

1. Fine-textured soils hold more water than coarse-textured soils but may not be ideal
2. Medium-textured soils (loam family) are most suitable for plant growth

- Sands are the largest particles and feel gritty

- Silts are medium-sized and feel soft, silky, or floury
- Clays are the smallest sized particles and feel sticky and are hard to squeeze.
- Relative size perspective: Sand (house) > Silt > Clay (penny)

Four main types of soil structure (the arrangement of aggregates in a soil):

 • Platy - common with puddling or ponding of soils
• Prismatic (columnar) – common in subsoils in arid and semi-arid regions
• Blocky – common in subsoils especially in humid regions
• Granular (crumb) – common in surface soils with high organic matter content

Properties of soil particle size

Sand Silt Clay

mostly
small pores small pores
Porosity large
predominate predominate
pores
Permeability rapid low to moderate slow
Water holding
limited medium very large
capacity
Soil particle
small medium very large
surface

Soil Compaction destoys the quality of the soil because it restricts rooting depth and
decreases pore size. The effects are more water-filled pores less able to absorb water,
increasing runoff and erosion, and lower soil temperatures. To reduce compaction:

• Add organic matter

• Make fewer trips across area
• Practice reduced-till or no-till systems
• Harvest when soils are not wet

Soils, Water and Plant Growth

Goal of Irrigation: to recharge the available water in the top foot of soil

Amount to irrigate depends on:

1. Soil water-holding capacity

2. Weather
3. Site aspect
4. Plants grown and their growth stage
Chemical Properties of Soil
1. pH
2. Salinity (EC)
3. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
4. Organic matter
5. C:N ratio (Carbon to Nitrogen)

Soil pH

• A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil.

• Neutral = 7.0
• Acidic < 7.0
• Alkaline > 7.0
• Logarithmic scale which means that a 1-unit drop in pH is a 10-fold increase in
acidity.

Soil pH and plant growth

• Affects availability of plant nutrients (in general, optimal pH is between 5.5-7.5)

• Low pH soils (<6.0) results in an increase in Al. Aluminum is toxic to plants
• Affects availability of toxic metals (in general, more available in acidic soils)
• Affects the activity of soil microorganisms, thus affecting nutrient cycling and
disease risk

Nutrient Availability
Increasing soil pH: Liming materials (pure calcium carbonate or dolomitic lime) will increase
soil pH.

1. Lime is a certified organic product

2. Slow-release product. Do not add every year.
3. 15-25 lbs lime per 1000 sq ft is recommended

Wood ashes are another product to raise soil pH. They also are a source of K, Ca, and Mg.
Some composts also can increase soil pH.

Gypsum is calcium sulfate. It is not a substitute for lime, and has little effect on soil pH.
Gypsum only improves structure in soils that have extremely high sodium contents (rare in
the NW).

Decreasing soil pH: Some plants thrive under acidic conditions (ex. rhododendrons,
blueberries, and azaleas). Elemental sulfur is often recommended (50 lb S per 1000 sq. ft).
Ammonium and ammonium-forming N fertilizers will also result in a decrease in soil pH.

Soil salinity

• Potential problem in irrigated soils due to high evaporation rates and low annual
rainfall leaving salts to accumulate.
• Salts can come from irrigation water, fertilizers, composts, and manure.
• Salts can be leached by slowly applying excess water.
o Three inches removes about 50% of the soluble salts.
o Five inches removes about 90%.
Soil Salinity and Interpretation

Conductivity(mmho/cm) Interpretation
Severe accumulation of salts. May
4 or above restrict growth of many vegetables
and ornamentals.
Moderatre accumulation of salts.
2 to 4 Will not restrict plant growth, but
may require more frequent irrigation.
Low salt accumulation. Will not
less than 2
affect plants.

Cation-Exchange Capacity

A cation is a positively charged ion. Most nutrients are cations: Ca2+, Mg2+, K +, NH4 +,
Zn2+, Cu2+, and Mn2+. These cations are in the soil solution and are in dynamic equilibrium
with the cations adsorbed on the surface of clay and organic matter. CEC is a measure of
the quantity of cations that can be adsorbed and held by a soil.

CEC is dependent upon the amount of organic matter and clay in soils and on the types of
clay. In general, the higher OM and clay content, the higher the CEC.

Soil Organic Matter

Beneficial impacts of SOM on soil properties:

1. Physical - stabilizes soil structure, improves water holding characteristics, lowers

bulk density, dark color may alter thermal properties
2. Chemical - higher CEC, acts as a pH buffer, ties up metals, interacts with
xenobiotics
3. Biological - supplies energy and body-building constituents for soil organisms,
increases microbial populations and their activities, source and sink for nutrients,
ecosystem resilience, affects soil enzymes

Each year, about 1 to 4% of nutrients in the soil organic matter are released through
microbial transformations to become available to plants. Release is highest under warm,
moist conditions and slowest in cool dry climates. Microorganisms are the driving force for
nutrient release to plants.