1

CHRISTOLOGY
The Doctrine of the Most Holy Trinity: Key Points
 There is but one, true God.
 There are three Persons in the one God and each of these Persons is fully
God.
 Nobody made God. He always was, is now, and always will be.
 The mystery of the Holy Trinity is the mystery of God in Himself.
 The doctrine of the Holy Trinity is the most fundamental and essential truth
of the Faith.
 The sacred mystery of the Holy Trinity is the source of all the other
mysteries of the Faith. Sacred mysteries are not things we can’t know
anything about, but holy realities that we cannot know everything about.
 The word Trinity is a contraction of two words: Tri – Unity. It was coined by
the Church to help us better understand the sacred mystery of the three
divine Persons in one God.
 The doctrine of the Holy Trinity is a revealed truth. Without God’s direct
revelation, we could not know that the one God is a Trinity of Persons, cf.
Matthew 28:19
 Nature answers the question what something is. What the divine Persons
are is God.
 Person gives us the answer who someone is. Who God is, is the Father, the
Son, and the
Holy Spirit. This is why when somebody is baptized, the formula that must
be used is:
I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Spirit.
 None of the three divine Persons is either of the others; each is wholly
Himself. Yet each is fully God.
The three divine Persons are distinct, but inseparable. In the one divine
nature there are three divine Persons.
 The Persons of the Trinity are distinct primarily in their relationship to each
other.
 The Father is eternally the Father of the Son.
 The Son is eternally Son to the Father.
 The Holy Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father and the Son.
 The Trinity is a communion of Persons, somewhat — but not exactly —
like a human family. Theirs is an eternal communion of divine love.

1|P a g e
 2

 God is Truth and God is Love. In fact, He has the fullness of all perfections,
e.g. He is omnipotent (all-powerful), omnipresent (everywhere present),
omniscient (all-knowing), all-merciful, all-just, all-pure, all-loving, etc.
 We must not take the Trinity for granted or be blasé about it. We should
think about the Trinity and contemplate it. We must not say, as some do,
that, because it is a mystery, we need think no more about it. The sacred
mysteries are not things we cannot know anything about, but deep
realities that we cannot know everything about. It is the Trinitarian life
that we are incorporated into in Baptism. It is participation in the
Trinitarian life that our Lord desires for us forever in heaven. The
contemplation of God’s Trinitarian life and love is the primary joy of
heaven. We do well to begin thinking of it now.
 God did not make us out of necessity, i.e. because He needed to, but
because of His immense love for us. He wants us to have access to the
fullness of the truth and He wants us to share in the fullness of His Love. This
is why He has revealed His truth to us, instituted the Catholic Church, and
given us the sacraments. We have access to His great love on this earth
especially in the Holy Eucharist, until we can share perfectly in His love in its
fullness in heaven, where all the saints will share in the Love that never ends
and “God will be all in all.”

The Central Mystery of the Christian Faith

The Holy Trinity is the central mystery of the Christian faith, the truth from which all
other truths proceed. The sending of the Son of God by the Father for the
redemption of mankind and the indwelling of the Spirit in individual Christians (and in
the Church corporately) are not understandable apart from the truth that God is One
Divine Being existing in Three Persons: the Father, the Son and Holy Spirit. This truth,
then, is the fundamental revelation of the New Covenant, the highest doctrine in the
hierarchy of revealed truth and the basic, distinctive characteristic of traditional,
historic Christianity.

Mystery

In theology, the Trinity is said to be a mystery. According to the First Vatican Council,
a mystery is a truth which we are not merely incapable of discovering apart from
Divine Revelation, but which, even when revealed, remains "hidden by the veil of
faith and enveloped, so to speak, by a kind of darkness" (Dogmatic Constitution on
the Catholic Faith, 4). It does not contradict reason, but goes beyond it. Thus, even
2|P a g e
 3

though the mystery of the Trinity may be rational and coherent, it cannot fully be
grasped by our understanding; part of it will always remain mysterious. The Trinity,
since it pertains to the very life of God Himself, is the central mystery of the Christian
faith (CCC 261).

Nevertheless, we can use analogies and figures to help us understand this mystery.
However, even if certain analogies help us to better understand what God is, we have
to remember the teaching of the Fourth Lateran Council, that “between creator and
creature there can be noted no similarity so great that a greater dissimilarity cannot
be seen between them” (Constitutions of Lateran IV, 2). Ultimately, because God is
utterly unique, any analogy we invent to describe Him will fall far short of His reality.

Thus, humility is always needed when speaking of the Trinity, for we speak of the
very life and being of God Himself.

In Scripture

The Trinity is not formally defined or explained in Scripture; however, Christians have
always seen the Trinity taught implicitly in several biblical passages. For example,
John 1:1, in which it states: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God.” This passage clearly states that the Word of God, while
being God Himself, is also “with God.” Many other passages have been brought
forward that support the Church’s traditional Trinitarian approach:
Gen. 1:26 Matt. 28:19
Gen. 16:7-13 Luke 3:22
Ex. 3:2-14 John 8:58
Ps. 2:7 John 10:33
Ps. 110 2 Cor. 13:14
Prov. 8 Eph, 4:4-6
Wis. 7-8 Php. 2:1-2
Isa. 11:2 Php. 2:9-11
Ezk. 11:5 1 John 5:7

Dogmatic Definitions

The Church has dogmatically defined the mystery of the Trinity many times. From the
most ancient days of Christianity, Trinitarian faith was expressed in the Apostles’
Creed; the Didache (c. 70 AD) says baptism was administered “in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.”
3|P a g e
 4

The most famous definition was at the Council of Nicaea (325), whose definition was
meant as explaining the equality of the Father with the Son. The Nicene Creed, which
we recite at Sunday Masses, states that the Son is “the only Son of God, eternally
begotten of the Father, God from God, light from light, true God from true God,
begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father.”

The Nicene definition was restated at the Council of Constantinople (381) and further
defined at the subsequent regional councils at Toledo in the 5 th-7th centuries, which
were aimed at defining the orthodox Faith against the Arians, who denied the
equality of the Father with the Son.

The Creed of St. Athanasius, also called to Quicumque Vult, was the most common
formulation of Trinitarian faith used in the Middle Ages. It stated:

“And the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and
Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons; nor dividing the Essence.
For there is one Person of the Father; another of the Son; and another of the
Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal. Such as the Father
is; such is the Son; and such is the Holy Ghost. The Father uncreated; the Son
uncreated; and the Holy Ghost uncreated. The Father unlimited; the Son
unlimited; and the Holy Ghost unlimited. The Father eternal; the Son eternal;
and the Holy Ghost eternal. And yet they are not three eternals; but one
eternal. As also there are not three uncreated; nor three infinites, but one
uncreated; and one infinite.”

So, we see that from the patristic era going into the Middle Ages, a standard
formulation of the Trinity as one God in Three Persons was common. This
formulation would be restated at subsequent Councils right up to the Second Vatican
Council. The Catechism of the Catholic Church’s teaching on the Trinity can be found
in paragraphs 232-267. It states that:

“The mystery of the Most Holy Trinity is the central mystery of Christian faith
and life. It is the mystery of God in himself. It is therefore the source of all
the other mysteries of faith, the light that enlightens them. It is the most
fundamental and essential teaching in the "hierarchy of the truths of faith".
The whole history of salvation is identical with the history of the way and the
means by which the one true God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, reveals
4|P a g e
 5

himself to men "and reconciles and unites with himself those who turn away
from sin" (234).
Nature and Person

A helpful distinction to make when evaluating the doctrine of the Trinity is to

understand the difference between nature and person. The nature of something
corresponds to the questions “What is it?” Person, on the other hand, answers the
question, “Who is it?” In the world, everything has a nature, that is, it is something,
though only rational creatures also have personhood. So, in the example of a human
person:

Nature: What Are You? I am a human being.

Person: Who Are You? I am Bob Smith.

We can see that the terms “human being” and “Bob Smith” have a close relation;
without doubt, Bob Smith is a human being, and he could not be otherwise. But to be
a human being is not the same thing as to be Bob Smith.

If we relate this to the Trinity, we see that the nature of God (what He is) is Divinity,
or the Divine Nature.; i.e., God. God’s nature is God, or as He said to Moses, “I am
that I am.” But who God is corresponds to the question of personhood. And in the
case of God, He is three divine Persons: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. So, in
the Trinity:
God is God; He possesses a single Divine
Nature: What is God? Nature

Person: Who is God? God is Father, Son and Holy Spirit

This brings us back to the classical example of the Trinity, which defines God as Three
Persons who share one Divine Nature. The question is really not how one can be
three and three can be one, but how one Being can consist of Three Persons and
each Person be God whole and entire.
In the case of humans, three persons can certainly share one nature (Peter, Paul and
Mary are three persons, and they all share a common human nature); the difference
between humans and God is that, in the first case, the three humans who share the
one nature are also three distinct beings, and no one person possesses the entirety

5|P a g e
 6

of human nature in himself; yet in the case of God, the Three Divine Persons possess
one common nature but nevertheless remain one Being and each Person themselves
possesses the fullness of the Divine Nature.

This is the true mystery of the Trinitarian life, for unlike human beings, the Persons of
the Trinity do not “share” the divine nature, but each Person is God, whole and
entire. The Catechism teaches:

“The Trinity is One. We do not confess three Gods, but one God in three
persons, the “consubstantial Trinity.” The divine persons do not share the
one divinity among themselves but each of them is God whole and entire:
“The Father is that which the Son is, the Son is that which the Father is, the
Father and the Son that which the Holy Spirit is, i.e., but nature one God.” In
the words of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215): “Each of the persons is that
supreme reality, viz. the divine substance, essence or nature.” (CCC 253)

The Nature of God

Nature is what something is. Thus, when we come to speak of the nature of God, we
are attempting to say just what, exactly, God is.

It is very difficult to say with precision what the nature or essence of God consists of,
since He is absolutely unique and by definition beyond our ability to fully
comprehend by reason alone. Nevertheless, Christian Tradition has affirmed several
things about God’s nature:

Simplicity/Unity: God is not made up of any composite parts; His nature is

utterly and completely simple. God has no Body. This also refers to
understanding His attributes, which are all one in His essence; thus, His
justice is not different than His mercy, etc. The Three Persons of the Trinity
do not constitute different “parts” that added together make God as a sum.

Goodness: God is pre-eminently good, and is Himself the source of all

goodness and is everything that is desirable. Are other things are good and
desirable only insofar as they partake in His goodness.

Perfection: God Himself is the perfection of all virtue and every desirable
attribute and is at the same time the source of perfection in creatures as
6|P a g e
 7

well. A creature is perfect to the degree that it is like God. There is no

imperfection in God.

Infinity: God is not bounded by anything, neither in His ability to act

(omnipotence), nor His ability to be present at each and every place and
time in His creation (omnipresence) nor His ability to have perfect
knowledge of all things (omniscience). God is not bounded by anything. It
should be noted that the fact that God “cannot” lie or commit evil does not
bound God. To lie or commit sin is to reduce oneself, to fall away from Being
and Goodness towards non-being and imperfection. It is precisely because
God is infinite and perfect that He cannot sin, for to do so would be to bind
Him by introducing a negation into His being. We thus recall the
fundamental truth that sin and evil are negations to being and add nothing
to it ontologically.

Immutability: Because God is perfect and is utterly simple, He needs no

movement of change to improve His happiness or obtain anything He
lacks. Therefore His essence is changeless and immutable. Note this does
not mean that God cannot feel or experience emotion, but it does mean
that He is not moved or changed in His nature or affected by anything
external to Himself.

Eternity: God has no beginning and no end. He is not bound by time, which
is related to His infinitude. God Himself is the source of time; God has
always existed and will always exist.

Existence: Finally, the Scholastic theologians (most notably St. Thomas

Aquinas) identified God’s nature with the act of existence itself. In all other
things, essence and existence are distinct; my essence (what I am) is distinct
from my act of existing; to be human is not the same thing as to exist. I am a
human who exists. Yet in God, posited St. Thomas, the very act of existing is
His essence; God is a being whose very nature is to exist. This gives a rich,
philosophical meaning to God’s reference of Himself as “I am that I am” in
Exodus 3:14. Thus, in God, there is no real distinction between essence and
existence.

Distinction and Relativity

7|P a g e
 8

Despite the absolute oneness of the Godhead, the Persons of the Trinity are
nevertheless truly distinct. Father, Son and Holy Spirit are not just three ways of
talking about the same thing, nor are they three different manifestations of God –
they are truly distinct from one another. God is one, but He is not solitary. The true
distinctions between the Persons reside in their relations to one another, their
relativity. The eleventh Council of Toledo (c. 675) formulated the teaching this way:

“In the relational names of the Persons the Father is related to the Son, the
Son to the Father, and the Holy Spirit to both. While they are called three
persons in view of their relations, we believe in one nature or substance.”

The Father is the foundational principle of the Trinity. From the Father the Son is
begotten, and the Son stands in relation to the Father as generated to generator. The
Spirit is not begotten but proceeds (or is “spirated”) from both the Father and the
Son. The distinction between the Son being begotten and the procession of the Spirit
is to preserve the truth that the Son and the Spirit come from the Father in different
ways; the Son alone in said to be “begotten” while the Spirit’s procession is called
spiration.

Mutual Indwelling

The unity and distinction of the Three Persons is resolved in their mutual indwelling.
The three Persons of the Trinity mutually indwell each other in such a way that they
are each with and in the other in the fullest possible sense. In John 1, the Word is
“with God” and at the same time “is God.” The persons of the Trinity "reciprocally
contain one another, so that one permanently envelopes and is permanently
enveloped by, the other whom he yet envelops". (Hilary of Poitiers, Concerning the
Trinity 3:1)

Ontological and Economic

Theologians distinguish two different modes of speaking about the Trinity; thus the
distinction between the ontological or theological Trinity and the economic Trinity.
The term “ontological Trinity” refers to the interior life of the Trinity—the reciprocal
relationships of Father, Son, and Spirit to each other without reference to God's
relationship with creation. It is God as He exists in Himself.

8|P a g e
 9

The “economic Trinity”, on the other hand, refers to the acts of the Persons of the
Trinity in their relationship to the economy of Creation. The creation of the world,
sending of the prophets, coming of the Messiah with His atoning death, the sending
of the Spirit and establishment of the historical Church are all predicated of the
economic Trinity, as is the acts of God in the lives of the individual members of the
Church.

Appropriation and Trinitarian Works

In theology, the term appropriation is used in speaking of the different Persons of the
Trinity. It consists in attributing certain names, qualities, or operations to one of the
Persons, not, however, to the exclusion of the others, but in preference to the
others. The qualities and names thus appropriated belong essentially to all the
Persons; yet, according to our understanding of the data of revelation and our
theological concepts, we consider some of these characteristics or names as
belonging to one Person rather than to another, or as determining more clearly this
particular Person.

For example, causality is typically attributed to the Father, the organization of

secondary causes to the Son, and the preservation and final consummation of things
to the Spirit; yet, in an absolute sense, each Person of the Trinity is responsible for
each. This is true of the Names for the Three Persons as well; “God” typically refers
to the Father, “Lord” to the Son, and “Spirit” to the Holy Spirit, even though each
Person of the Trinity if God, Lord and Spirit. 1 The term “the Almighty” is usually
spoken with reference to the Father, but in fact each of the Persons is rightfully said
to be Almighty.

The terms we use in appropriating certain traits to the Persons are not arbitrary; they
are taken from the data of Scripture and are fitting to use because of the analogical
nature of man’s understanding of the Trinity. For example, Scripture itself associates
the Holy Spirit with the preservation of Creation: “when you take away their breath,
they die and return to the dust.
When you send your Spirit, they are created” (Ps. 104:29-30); yet we know that the
preservation of Creation is a work of all Three Persons of the Holy Trinity. Therefore,
the various ways we speak of the Persons are informed by Divine Revelation.

While we can use the language of appropriation to speak of the attributes of God, we
can also use it to discuss His works. For example, God the Father is often associated

9|P a g e
 10

with the creation of the world, God the Son with its redemption, and God the Spirit
with the sanctification of God’s people, and the Three Persons are sometimes
referred to respectively as the Creator, Redeemer and Sanctifier. Nevertheless, even
though it is proper to speak of the Persons by these titles, the work of each Person is
common
to the Trinity; each of the Three Persons was involved in the creation of the world,

each Person was integral in its Redemption, and each Person can be said to sanctify
God’s people. But, again, by way of analogy grounded in the words of Scripture, we
appropriate certain actions to certain Persons even though these works of the Trinity
are done in common.

Trinitarian Missions

That being said, there are certain special acts of God that are proper to each of the
Three Persons in a unique sense. These are not done in common by the Trinity but
can be said only of one Person in particular. These special acts are referred to as the
Trinitarian missions and are distinguished by their uniqueness and their central role
in the economy of salvation.

The mission of the Father in the economy of salvation is the sending of the Son. The
Spirit did not send the Son, nor does the Son send Himself. This mission is only
properly spoken of with reference to the Father alone.

The Son’s mission is to be begotten of the Father and Incarnate as a true Man on this
earth. Only the Son was Incarnate; the Father was not Incarnate, nor the Spirit, but
the Son alone.

The Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son and is sent to the Church, in such a
way that He is the soul of the Church, as popes Leo XIII and Pius XII taught. Only the
Spirit was sent to the Church in such as to be its soul of the Church; neither the
Father nor the Son was sent to the Church or is the soul of the Church.

These special missions of the Trinitarian Persons all pertain to the economy of
salvation, the plan of God for the redemption of mankind.

Generation and Procession

10 | P a g e
 11

The Trinitarian missions are related to the processions of the Persons within the
Godhead. There are two processions within the Trinity (by procession is meant the
origin of one from another). These two processions are the begetting of the Son by
the Father and the procession or “spiration” of the Holy Spirit from the Father and
the Son. Because we are referring to processions within the Trinity, we are referring
to the theological or ontological Trinity, whose processions are internal and eternal –
that is, though the Son is begotten of the Father and the Spirit proceeds from the
Father and the Son, these movements are eternal and do not suggest that the Father
is prior to the Son or the Spirit in time, although it does suggest that the Father is the
foundational or generating principle within the Trinity. This is why the Father is never
said to be begotten.

The appropriate theological vocabulary to express this reality is that the Son alone is
generated while the Spirit proceeds. This generation and procession within the
theological Trinity are mirrored in the external processions of the Divine Persons
through their missions in the world.

Expressing the Trinity by Analogy

As mentioned above, the doctrine of the Trinity is a mystery, which in theological

vocabulary means a teaching that, while truly logical and coherent, nevertheless is
beyond the pale of our reason to comprehend fully. The doctrine of the Trinity does
not contradict reason, but it does go far beyond it. No matter how much we have
studied it, prayed about it, or spoke of it, there is still a veil of darkness over it that
can only be penetrated by faith.

Because of this fact, Christian saints and theologians have frequently resorted to
analogy to describe the Trinity. The most famous analogy was that attributed to St.
Patrick, who likened the three leaves of a shamrock to the Three Persons of the
Trinity; as the leaves of the shamrock, are distinct while remaining one, so are the
Persons three while remaining one Being. More precise was the attempt of St.
Augustine, who in the work De Trinitate attempted to understand the Trinity by
looking at the operations of the human soul, which is made in God’s image.
Augustine liked the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit to the faculties of Will,
Memory and Understanding in a human being – while each faculty is logically
distinct, they act as one and are united to one another in such a substantial way that
they each depend upon the other. More recently, Anglican author Dorothy Sayers in
her book Mind of the Maker (1941) took a novel but intriguing approach to the

11 | P a g e
 12

problem by explaining the relation between the Trinitarian Persons in light of the
creative faculties of an author.

Following upon the biblical teaching that “God is love” (1 John 4:8), some have
posited the experience of human love as the best analogy. Love requires a lover
(Father) a beloved (Son) and the love shared between the two (Holy Spirit). Others
have used the example of fire, which consists of a flame, which generates both heat
and light; yet though the heat and light proceed from the flame, the three occur
together as one phenomenon.

Ultimately, though the analogies are helpful, we must remember that they are only
approximations, and no analogy of the Trinity is completely perfect. In the words of
Lateran IV, “between creator and creature there can be noted no similarity so great
that a greater dissimilarity cannot be seen between them.”

Humility before the Mystery

Ultimately, because the doctrine of the Trinity concerns itself with the very internal
life of God, it is incomprehensible to the human intellect. We will spend eternity
immersed in the life of the Trinity and in contemplation of God’s majesty and still not
come close to exhausting the richness of this mystery.

Nevertheless, the fact that we can never fully comprehend the mystery does not
mean that we cannot understand it or say anything positively certain about it. Christ
and the Scriptures do give us certain teachings that the Church has always affirmed,
understanding that though we can never fully penetrate the depths of this mystery,
God nevertheless wills us to know Who He is and that He is Triune. Before this
mystery we bow in humility, accepting humbly what God has passed on to us without
arrogantly claiming to be able to exhaust its content. Like other mysteries of faith,
the Trinity is a truth that goes beyond our reason but does not contradict it. It is
incomprehensible, but not illogical. The only proper disposition for reflecting on this
truth is humility.

A Brief Explanation of the Trinity

By
James M. Arlandson

12 | P a g e
 13

What is the doctrine of the Trinity all about, anyway? Why do Christians hold to
it?
Where does it come from? What does it teach?

This article addresses these questions and more. It is written for the laity.

To clarify the doctrine of the Trinity, we follow the format of asking

common questions and answering them. It is written for the laity.

1. Where does this doctrine come from?

This doctrine comes from the New Testament with hints from the Old
Testament. Four passages represent others.

First, at the baptism of Jesus, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were
present. As soon as Jesus came up out of the water, "he saw the Spirit of
God descending like a dove and lighting on him. And a voice from heaven
said, ‘This is my Son, whom I love and with him I am well pleased’" (Matt.
3:16-17). The Father’s voice sounded from above and affirmed the Sonship
of Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descended on him and empowered him.

Second, at the end of the same Gospel, Jesus is resurrected, and he

commissions the disciples to go into all the world and preach the gospel.
These two verses are part of the Great Commission, which Evangelicals
take seriously. "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me.
Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name
of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit" ... (Matt 28:18-19).

This passage affirms that Jesus was granted all authority in heaven and
on earth. This passage also demonstrates Jesus’ early declaration of the
Trinity.

Third, Christians believe that the entire New Testament is inspired. The
Apostle Paul also affirms the doctrine of the Trinity. In his second letter to the
Corinthians, he bids farewell to them: "May the grace of the Lord Jesus, and
13 | P a g e
 14

the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all" (2
Corinthians 13:14). Thus, Jesus and the Holy Spirit exist with the Father, and
from their heavenly vantage point they are able to communicate grace, love,
and fellowship to the believers (cf. Ephesians 4:4-6).

Fourth, Peter the Apostle, the humble fisherman from Galilee, stood in Jesus’
presence when he spoke the Great Commission. Peter may not have fully
understood Christ’s words then, but now he begins his epistle, under the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, restating the Trinitarian formula in his own words.
He says that the people of God "have been chosen according to the
foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying
work of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood" (1
Peter 1:2). It is clear from this verse that each person of the Trinity has a function
or role in the world. The Father chooses, the Spirit sanctifies, and Jesus redeems
people with his blood that he shed on the cross.

To sum up, the doctrine of the Trinity was first stated in the Gospel of
Matthew, both at the baptism of Jesus and in his Great Commission, in his
own words. It is only natural, therefore, that the apostles would repeat his
doctrine.

The readers should go Bible Gateway and look up these verses: John 1:1-4, 14:26,
15:26,16:13-14, 20:25-27; Acts 10:38 in connection with Romans 9:5, 15:13; 1
Corinthians 12:4-6; Colossians 2:9; Hebrews 1:3, 1:8, 1:10; Titus 2:13; 2 Peter 1:1;
Jude 20-21.

Each passage affirms the function and person of the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Spirit, and sometimes just the Father and the Son.

2. Doesn’t this doctrine really come from later Church fathers?

This doctrine is developed by great theologians like Athanasius (c. AD 296-

373) and Augustine (AD 354-430), but it was not invented by them. The New
Testament was written to clarify pressing doctrinal and pastoral problems
and issues that arose in the church. Here are four examples: what did Jesus
teach or do about sickness or dietary laws or the Sabbath? What was his
resurrection like (cf. the four Gospels)? How are people saved (or get into

14 | P a g e
 15

heaven) and are sanctified by the Holy Spirit (Epistle to the Romans)? Why
should Christians not subject themselves to an old-new law (Epistle to the
Galatians)? And how should Christians live in the church and withstand
persecution (Peter’s Epistle)?

Therefore, the New Testament authors, under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit, were not directed to develop the doctrine of the Trinity. Instead, they
seemed to have assumed it, as we saw under point no. 1, and the four
passages. They affirmed the full deity of Christ and the full deity and
personhood of the Holy Spirit.

To repeat, Church fathers developed the doctrine of the Trinity from their
reading of the New Testament, but they did not invent the doctrine out of
thin air. For more information on the doctrine in the church fathers (post-
apostolic church),

3. Is the word "Trinity" found in the Bible?

It is not found in the Bible, probably for the reason stated in no. 2. The
New Testament authors were engaged in other issues, and they assumed
the reality of the Trinity, which is greater than a label.

4. What does this doctrine teach?

This doctrine teaches that God exists in three persons who share the same
essence or being. What this means is that God exists in the distinct and co-
equal persons of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, but they share a
fully divine essence or being, such as uncreatedness, eternality, simplicity
(non-composite or indivisible), immutability (unchangeableness),
omniscience (all wise and knowing), omnipotence (all powerful), goodness,
mercy, holiness, will and freedom, and so on.

Thus, in God, the attributes of his essence are fully shared by three persons,
making each person fully God.

15 | P a g e
 16

Yet, the three persons are distinct. The Father is neither the Son nor the
Holy Spirit; the Son is neither the Father nor the Holy Spirit; and the Holy
Spirit is neither the Father nor the Son.

However, to repeat, the three persons share the same essence. That is, the
Father and Son and Holy Spirit duplicate the same attributes. The Father, the
Son, and the Holy Spirit are equally wise and merciful and holy; one is not
more wise or merciful or holy than the other. Augustine says: "These three
have the same eternal nature, the same unchangeableness, the same
majesty, the same power" (On Christian Teaching I.12).

5. How are the three persons distinct?

They are distinct in their relationship with each other and in their
function or role in creation and in the plan of redemption and
salvation.

In the work of creation, the three persons of the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit had different functions. God the Father spoke the world into
existence (Genesis 1 -3), but God the Son carried out the divine decree. The
Gospel of John says of Jesus: "All things were made through him [Jesus], and
without him was not anything made that was made" (John 1:3). God the
Holy Spirit was active in creation, "brooding over the face of the waters"
(Genesis 1:2; see also Psalm 33:6 and 139:7).

In the work of redemption and salvation, the three persons have different
roles or functions. God the Father planned the redemption and sent God the
Son into the world to carry out the plan of redemption. He obeyed the
Father and died on the cross for our sins. Neither the Father nor the God the
Holy Spirit carried out this part of redemption. The Holy Spirit was sent by
the Father and the Son (John 14:26 and 16:7) to apply the plan of
redemption to the heart of each person who receives it. The Holy Spirit also
purifies and sanctifies us or makes us holy in our daily lives.

In relation to each other, we see that in the creation and redemption, the
Father sends and directs the Son (Ephesians 3:14-15), who obeys and goes

16 | P a g e
 17

where he is directed, revealing the full nature of God the Father to us (John
1:1-5, 14, 18; 17:4; Philippians 2:5-11).

These roles fit perfectly with Fatherhood and Sonship. Both the Father and
the Son send the Holy Spirit, so the Spirit obeys both the first and second
persons of the Trinity. Thus, while the three persons of the Trinity have and
share the same attributes (holiness, mercy, omniscience, and so on), they
have distinct roles or functions as they relate to each other, to creation,
and in the plan of redemption and salvation. They are equal to each other
in their divine attributes, but the Son and the Spirit are subordinate in their
roles.

6. If there are three persons, why are there not three Gods?

The co-equal and distinct persons of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit
are not three Gods because they share the same essence in complete unity.
This is difficult to grasp because we have no comparison that we can
experience empirically (with our five senses).

For example, the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are three distinct
persons and beings. They do not share the same essence or being or divine
attributes. However, the doctrine of the Trinity says that the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Spirit share the same being or essence, and this is where
the human example of the three patriarchs and the divine nature must part
company. So the human analogy fails to describe the Trinity and would in
fact confuse this doctrine if we took the example seriously.

Augustine comes up with an analogy that is deep: the lover, the beloved, and
love (The Trinity, Books VIII.14; IX.2, and XV.10). As we saw at the baptism of
Jesus, the Father says that he loves the Son, and at that very moment, the Spirit
descends and rests on Jesus (see no. 1, above, and Matt. 3:16-17). Augustine
seems to say that the Father loves the Son, who receives his love and returns it,
for example, in his willingness to obey the Father and die on the cross, while the
Spirit communicates the love between them. This image of a triad of love
expresses how Christians believe the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit existed
before the creation of time and the universe, and how the three persons will
forever exist. It is into this love that the Trinity welcomes all believers and all who
have received the love of God, through Christ and by the power of the Holy Spirit
17 | P a g e
 18

Augustine’s analogy is profound, because we have all experienced love from

a lover, and we have returned the same love. But it still does not adequately
explain how the one God shares this divine attribute of love and all the other
divine attributes in three persons. Our human love is but a poor reflection of
divine love. We cannot observe this with our eyes, so all analogies from
nature and humanity ultimately fail in illustrating the Trinity. Analogies from
nature cannot reach up to heaven so that we can connect them to the
Trinity. Our finite and limited mind cannot grasp this mystery, even after our
minds have studied the doctrine for years.
The strict unity of God does not make sense in terms of the love of God,
because divine love amounts to self-love.

To clarify further why there are three persons, but not three Gods, God’s
essence is not divided equally into three parts; it is not one-third, plus one-
third, plus one-third. Also, the three persons are not added on to God’s
essence or being, as if they are tacked on to the outside of God. Rather, all
three persons share the same essence, fully God in one being, in total and
perfect unity.

Thus, basic Christian doctrine teaches that one God exists in three persons:
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, not in three Gods, which is called
tritheism. Christians reject this doctrine.

7. However, doesn’t 1 + 1 + 1 = 3? So isn’t belief in the Trinity irrational?

All natural analogies fail, and so do mathematical ones. However,

let’s use some nonetheless, to clarify the simplistic addition model.

First, multiplication works better with integers:

18 | P a g e
 19

1 x 1 x 1 = 1.

Second, the exponent comes out the same:

13=1

Third, how about an infinite number of sets of things? This works better:

Infinity + infinity + infinity = infinity.

Let’s say that we add an infinite number of red books to an infinite number
of white books, and still add an infinite number of blue books to the red and
white books. Despite adding these three sets of infinite numbers of books
together, we have not augmented or increased infinity by even one book.
Such is the mystery of infinity; we cannot figure it out.

However, these three mathematical analogies of the Trinity ultimately fail

because, among other reasons, the three infinite sets of books have
different properties, because they do not exist in perfect unity in one
essence, and because we do not “add up” or even “multiply” the three
persons of the Trinity.

But the infinity analogy does reveal the utter mystery of things that
we have never experienced with our five senses. And we have never
experienced an actual infinite

number of things. Even time is finite, since the so-called Big Bang,
which states scientifically that the universe has a beginning.

Thus, infinity is a mystery, and so is the Trinity. Belief in the Trinity is not
irrational, but transrational—above our puny minds to figure out, ultimately.

8. Doesn’t the doctrine of the Trinity entail contradictions?

Mysteries are not contradictions. Here are two examples of contradictions:

there is one God and there is not one God; or God is three persons and

19 | P a g e
 20

God is not three persons. But the claim that the one God exists in three
persons who share the same divine essence in perfect unity does not entail
a contradiction (Grudem, p. 256).

The Trinity ultimately is a mystery, but it is revealed in scripture, so all Bible-

educated and Bible-believing Christians believe in it, even though they may
not understand it fully.

9. Still, though, would the true God exist in a complicated way like the Trinity?

We Christians believe that God is knowable as far as he has revealed

himself through Jesus Christ, the Scriptures, and the Holy Spirit who lives in
us, and other avenues like the creation. However, we also believe that God
in his pure essence is unknowable. No one has seen God in all of his
splendor and glory. We humans down here on earth are limited by our five
senses and our finite minds, which process the data taken in by our five
senses and somehow reformulate them into ideas. For centuries
philosophers have been debating each other over how the mind works. So
how can the human mind figure out and calculate the pure nature of God?
Given God’s infinite greatness and ultimate unknowability, and given the
finiteness of our five senses and the limits of our minds, it stands to reason,
therefore, that some ideas about God are perplexing and unsolvable.

C. S. Lewis alludes to this in his book Mere Christianity , in the chapter

“The Invasion” which discusses the Incarnation (God the Son becoming
man). Here he does not accept the natural human wish that religion
should be simple.

It is no good asking for a simple religion. After all, real things are not
simple. They look simple, but they are not. The table I am sitting at
looks simple: but ask a scientist to tell you what it is really made of
—all about atoms and how the light waves rebound from them and
hit my eye and what they do to the optic nerve and what it does to
my brain—and, of course, you find that what we call “seeing a
table” lands in mysteries and complications which you can hardly
get to the end of.

20 | P a g e
 21

Lewis uses the example of looking at a table, and if we let our vision go no
further, then the table remains simple. But if we go down the path of
knowledge any farther, then the table gets complicated really quickly. The
same is true of our knowledge of God. If we keep our knowledge of him
simple, then we are not bothered by the deeper doctrines. But once we
probe more deeply, we discover that God is ultimately a mystery in his pure
essence and glory.

Personally, one reason (among many) that I believe in the Trinity is precisely
because this doctrine is ultimately beyond my puny brain to figure out. I
could never have invented it. God in his pure essence cannot be known by
me. He is beyond my five senses and my brain power, so it is logical that
some ideas about him are difficult to understand.

10. Doesn’t the doctrine of the Trinity ultimately come from pagan myths?

The doctrine of the Trinity, if properly understood, is found nowhere in

mythology—not even close. Zeus, Poseidon, and Apollo and any other trio of
gods from around the world do not share all of the same attributes in
perfect unity as one God. In fact, Greek myths go out of their way to keep
these gods distinct as three gods and beings with their own special
attributes. The Trinity has nothing to do with a family or pantheon of
squabbling gods or separate divine beings. This is polytheism, and Christians
reject it.

11. Is the doctrine of the Trinity really that important?

For Christians, the doctrine is indispensable for many reasons, but we focus
on two. First, the doctrine of the Trinity cannot be given up without
irreparable damage to Christ’s atonement; and second salvation or how we
get into heaven becomes unclear, which is life’s ultimate question.

First, the doctrine of the atonement is jeopardized. This doctrine says that
Christ died on the cross for our sins and propitiated divine wrath that was
directed at us because our sins. The inspired Apostle Paul says in Romans
8:18-21 that creation itself waits for ultimate redemption. If Christ were a
mere creature like us and part of this creation as we are, then he could not

21 | P a g e
 22

have redeemed all of creation. A creature cannot redeem all of creation, of

which he is a part. He himself would need redemption. Hence, the eternal
Son of God must not be a created being.

Second, justification by grace through faith in Christ is jeopardized, and our

salvation goes down the drain. If Christ is not fully God, then how can we
trust him to save us in his redemptive act on the cross? We may as well do
all kinds of good work, hoping against hope that we may get invited into
heaven when we die, but not knowing for sure that God will let us in.
Rather, since Jesus Christ was fully divine in human flesh, his salvation is
divinely secure for us.

We Christians trust in the Son of God’s good work on the cross and receive
his sanctifying Holy Spirit; therefore, our place in heaven is secure. We do
not mix up the sequence, doing good works first, and then hoping that we
might get into heaven. No, Christ comes first and our trust in him comes
second, so now heaven has been promised to us. Only after this sequence
do we perform good works, but not to re-earn our place in heaven; rather
we do good works out of gratitude to him, in obedience to the Holy Spirit,
and out of God’s call on our life. This passage from the Epistle to the
Ephesians is one of the clearest on responding to him with good works, after
he has saved us:

2:8 For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this
not from yourselves, it is the gift of God— 9 not by works, so that no
one can boast. 10 For we are God’s workmanship, created in Christ
Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.

We have been saved by grace through faith, and even this faith is a gift of
God so that we do not boast in ourselves. After we are saved, we do good
works, which God has prepared in advance for us to do.

Without the full deity of Jesus Christ, God the Son, our salvation or
guarantee to get into heaven becomes shaky. Therefore, the doctrine of the
Trinity is a matter of eternal life and death.

22 | P a g e
 23

We Christians must hold on to the Trinity, as we experience the Father, the

Son, and the Holy Spirit in our daily life and in our creeds.

What is Church?
 pilgrim
 Christ’s vineyard
 God’s family
 God’s building and farm
 Our mother
 A visible society and spiritual community
 Organized hierarchically and the mystical boy of Christ
 An earthly community blessed with heavenly riches
 The flock of Christ
 The bride of Christ

OLD TESTAMENT

The Church and Israel in the Old Testament by Iain Duguid

In the beginning, God created Adam and Eve to be a worshipping community: He

would be their God and they would be His people. The fall, however, shattered their
fellowship with one another as well as with God, a division that was deepened even
further in the next generation when Cain murdered his brother. The trajectory away
from God begun by Cain’s line ended with a counterfeit worshipping community in
Babel (Gen. 11). At the same time, a line of true worshippers ran through Seth to
Abraham whom God promised to make a great nation and through whom He
promised to bless all nations of the earth (Gen. 12:1–3).

God promised Abraham’s grandson Jacob that He would make his twelve sons into a
harmonious worshipping “community of nations” (Gen. 28:3) that would be known
by his new name, “Israel.” Significantly, the Hebrew word used here for “community”
is qāhāl, which the Greek translation of the Old Testament often renders as ekklēsia,
“church.” This goal of a worshipping community was reached after the exodus from
Egypt when the people came to Mount Sinai. There God declared the Israelites to be
His treasured possession, a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Ex. 19:5–6). The
Lord promised to dwell among them as their God (Ex. 29:45)
23 | P a g e
 24

NEW TESTAMENT

“Church” is the translation of the Greek term ekklesia, and is used in the New
Testament to identify the community of believers in Jesus Christ.

It literally means “assembly,” “congregation,” or “meeting.” A similar term was used

in the Old Testament referring to experiences such as “the day of the assembly,” “the
Lord’s congregation,” or “meeting before the Lord.”

Our Catholic Church traces its origin back to the Old Testament qahal and the New
Testament ekklesia (CCC 751f). Both terms mean “the people of God called
together,” or an “assembly convoked by God.”

Thus, they stress the action of God in calling the people together. The Church thus
claims to be a faith-assembly whose root cause is God’s free call to all to share His
divine goodness and love in Christ. The Church therefore is not just a social grouping
of people drawn together by cultural values and attitudes. This faith-conviction that
God is the ever-present source and ground for the Church is the reason for explaining
the Church as “mystery” and
“sacrament.”

TWO NATURES OF THE CHURCH

The Church as Mystery

- In the Christian Faith there are mysteries or divine truths proposed to our
belief “that are hidden in God and which can never be known unless they are
revealed by God himself” and which we will never be able to understand fully
because of the limitation of our intelligence.
- Such is the case of the mystery of the Blessed Trinity . There are also created
salvific realities which can partly be known by our human intelligence, but
which have also a transcendent dimension which can be perceived only
through faith. These salvific realities are also called “mysteries” because of
their inexhaustible richness.

- It is in this sense that we speak of the Church as “mystery.” By this term, then,
we mean not something we cannot know nor understand, but rather a reality
we can never fully grasp because there is always more to learn (cf. NCDP 200).

24 | P a g e
 25

- As mystery, the Church is a God-given reality we believe in and love like a

friend or a loved one not only something we observe and critically analyze (cf.
NCDP 230; CCC 770-73).

To affirm the Church is a mystery simply means:

 first, that it is “a reality imbued with the hidden presence of God . . . always
open to new and greater exploration” (Paul VI at the Opening of the Second
Session of Vatican II).
 second, it has a unique relation to God Himself, and therefore also with all
of us who are called to salvation precisely as a people. But what precisely is
this “unique relationship with God?”

The Church is mystery by reason of:

 its origin in the Father’s plan of salvation,
 its ongoing life in the Risen Christ and the Spirit, and
 its ultimate goal in the fully achieved Kingdom of God.

THE SACRAMENTS
The sacraments are “efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to
the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us” (CCC 1131). In other words, a
sacrament is a sacred and visible sign that is instituted by Jesus to give us grace, an
undeserved gift from God. (See also CCC 1084). Christ was present at the inception of
all of the sacraments, which He instituted 2,000 years ago. Christ is also present
every
time each sacrament is celebrated. The Catholic Church has all of the seven
sacraments
instituted by Christ, which include Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation,
Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Matrimony. The Catechism of the Catholic
Church explains that “the seven sacraments touch all the stages and all
Important moments of the Christian life” (CCC 1210).

The Church as Sacrament

The Church as mystery is further clarified and developed by the notion of sacrament.
“By her relationship with Christ, the Church is both a sacramental sign and an
instrument of intimate union with God, and of the unity of all mankind” (GS 42; cf. LG

25 | P a g e
 26

Christ then has made the Church the effective sign and symbol of:
1. our union with God;
2. the unity among men; and
3. of salvation.
For the Risen Christ, continually active in the world, “sent his life-giving Spirit to
establish his Body, the Church as the universal sacrament of salvation” (LG 48; cf. CCC
774-76).

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHURCH’S LIFE

• To distinguish itself from all other religious sects, the early Church used four
criteria proclaimed in the Creed: One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic (cf. LG 8;
CCC 811).
• These are really dynamic endowments with which the Church is graced by
the Holy Spirit, and perceived only in Faith. Besides being gifts they
constitute tasks that challenge the Church as part of its Mission.

The Church is One

The Catechism notes that the Church is one for three reasons:

 First, because of its source, which is the Holy Trinity, a perfect unity of three
divine persons Father, Son, and Holy Spirit;

 Second, because of its founder, Jesus Christ, who came to reconcile all
mankind through the blood of the cross; and third, because of its "soul," the
Holy Spirit, who dwells in the souls of the faithful, who unites all of the
faithful into one communion of believers, and who guides the Church

 As Catholics, we are united in our Creed and our other teachings, the
celebration of the sacraments, and the hierarchical structure based on the
apostolic succession preserved and handed on through the Sacrament of
Holy Orders. For example, whether one attends Mass in Manila, Cebu, ,
Puerto Princesa, Davao City, or wherever, the Mass is the same the same
readings, structure, prayers, and the like except for a difference in language
celebrated by the faithful who share the same Catholic beliefs, and offered
26 | P a g e
 27

by a priest who is united to his bishop who is united to the Holy Father, the
pope, the successor of St. Peter.

The Church as Holy

• Primarily, the church is holy because of her founder Jesus Christ. To sanctify
the church, Jesus Christ, gave himself to her and sent His Spirit to her.
Holiness is the commitment to justice. It is transforming of the world
according to God’s plan through compassion, service and unconditional
love. It is seen through God’s love. Charity /Love is the center of holiness.
• Ang pagiging Banal ay di nababatay sa pagiging laman ng simbahan ngunit
nasa pang-araw-araw mong ugnayan sa Diyos. All of us are called by Christ
to holiness. The Church is the Bride of Christ. Ang pagmamahal ng Diyos ang
nagpapabanal sa simbahan, sa halip na likas syang banal sa ganang sariling
kakayahan.

Church as Catholic
• From the Greek word Kath’olou- “referring to the whole”, universal, related
to all, embracing, Universal mission (Good news/kingdom of God) All are
called to belong to the people of God the Good news is for everyone and the
Kingdom of God is for the whole world.
• Day of Pentecost, this event shows that the assembly had experienced God
in all cultures and languages. Church is endowed with the fullness of the
means for Salvation- that is complete confession of faith, full sacramental
life, and ordained ministry in apostolic succession
• Catholicism is not based on a single theological tradition but includes a wide
variety of theologies, spiritualities, liturgies and expressions of the Christian
life. Universality of the Christian faith should be manifested in the openness
of the Christian churches. Global good of all- able to live demands of justice,
peace, equality, sharing of goods and integrity of creation

The Church as Apostolic

• The Church is Apostolic both in her origins in Christ and His Apostles:
mission to spread Christ’s word and message, ministry and service.
• The Church is Apostolic in several basic ways: Christ grounded her (the
Church) permanently on the foundation of the Apostles (Eph 2:20).
27 | P a g e
 28

Apostolic in terms of succession in apostolic teaching and tradition. The

Church continues to be instructed, sanctified and guided by the apostolic
tradition until Christ’s return through their successors in the pastoral
ministry, the bishops, assisted by presbyters, in union with the successor of
Peter, the Pope (CCC 857-60). The Church remains, through the successors
of Peter and the other apostles in communion of faith and life with her
origin.
• Christ had formed the Apostles in a form of college or permanent assembly,
over which He place Peter chosen from among them, as its head! (CFC,
1409) “Feed my lambs” – Jn 21:15-17) As “Apostolic,” the Church is a
hierarchical community, whose unity in faith and communion are grounded
in the successors of the apostles (CFC, 1490).

Mission of the Church

THE GOSPEL IN A NUTSHELL

God created the world out of love but people distanced themselves from God’s love
and one another. God sent Jesus to our world to show us who we are and how we
are to live. Jesus taught us God’s love which embraces all people, including the
“impure”. Jesus Christ was God’s love, forgiveness, salvation, healing, justice, and
compassion in the flesh. Jesus reestablished the right relationship with God through
his life, death, and resurrection. Jesus was on a mission from God, and we Christians
need to continue the mission in the flesh.
MISSION BEFORE VATICAN II

Carried out for the benefit of the pagans abroad. Accomplished by clergy, mostly
European and American. Supported financially by laity back home. Church’s work for
the salvation of souls. With the purpose to plant the church in these mission fields.

UNDERSTANDING OF MISSION: POST-VATICAN II

The Church is missionary by its very nature. God was and is present in
other religions and society in general.
Mission is proclaiming, serving, and witnessing to God’s reign of love, salvation, and
justice. The work of mission is not to save and help
other people, but to develop a reciprocal relationship with others. The
call of mission is not restricted to certain peoples or geographical areas; it includes
peoples of all races, nations, and generations.
28 | P a g e
 29

Mission is not just out there but also in here.

MISSION AND TABLE FELLOWSHIP

One image of mission is a table since all cultures recognize the

importance of sharing food to maintain, strengthen, and reestablish
relationships. Around the eucharistic table we are nourished, as
individuals and as a community, by God’s word and by sharing the Body
and Blood of Christ. Mission is concerned with responding to the physical and
spiritual hungers of the whole person and of entire communities. The image of table
fellowship encompasses all aspects of
proclaiming, serving, and witnessing to God’s reign of love, salvation, and
justice. It links Jesus as the bread of life with our daily life, our
Christian faith, and our relationship with people both near and far.
ONE
- The profession of one faith which goes back to the time of the Apostles
- Divine worship celebrated in common, especially in the Seven Sacraments
- The succession of Bishops from the time of the Apostles today

HOLY
- Christ is the model for her holiness.
- The Holy Spirit lives in her.
- God uses her to bring his life and light to the world, to sanctify her.
- She has “the fullness of the means of salvation

CATHOLIC
- Christ’s presence gives her the fullness of the means of salvation
- She follows Jesus’ command to go out to all people
- She teaches everything that Christ thought
- Each local diocese is in union with the Holy Father
APOSTOLIC
- She is the Church Christ founded on the Apostles
- She continues to hand on the teachings of the Apostles
- She is taught, made holy, sanctified, and led by the College of Bishop whom
Christ appointed as successors of the Apostles.

29 | P a g e
 30

21st Century Literature

What is literature?

 Is a body of written works.

 Originated from oral traditions.
 Are imaginative works.
 Deals with stories and poetry.
 The content depends on the author.

Three Points of Literature

- Literature portrays human experience.

- Authors interpret these human experiences.
- It is an art form and a style of expression.
-
The 3 Literary Periods

BC-1564 The Pre-Colonial Period

- This existed before the Spanish occupation in the 1500s.

- It is oral in nature and is full of lessons and ideas about life, its blessings, and
its consequences.
- It contains ideas from birth to the grave.
- The oral characteristic of pre-colonial literature gives the possibility for
many alterations.
- In the Philippine context, no matter how it may be considered as altered,
pre-colonial literature is still revered to
- by many Filipinos.
- The sources are usually the local native town folk.

FORMS
1. Oral Literature
a. Riddles (Mga Bugtong)
- These are statements that contain superficial words, but they function
figuratively and as metaphors, and they are in the form of questions.
- There are questions that demand deeper answers.
- Deals with everyday life.
- It usually has mundane things as answers.
- This is used in the past as a form of game in small or large gatherings.

30 | P a g e
 31

Example
- Baboy sa lasang, (A wild pig of the forest,)
Ang tunok puro lansang. (Is covered with spikes.)
Answer: Nangka (Jackfruit)
b. Proverbs (Mga Salawikain)
- These are statements that are considered as wise.
- These are usually given by parents or elders of the community.
- There is belief that experience is the best teacher
Example
Mandaya on Viriginity
Yang ataog aw madugdug, (An egg once broken,)
Di da mamauli. (Will never be the same.)

2. Folk Songs
- These are folk lyrics that are usually chanted.
- There usually contains ideas on aspirations, hopes, everyday life and
expressions of love for loved ones.
- It is bounded by the learning of good morals.
- It is easy to understand because it is straightforward and not figurative in
nature.
a. Lullabies
- these is locally known as the Hele. These are sung to put to sleep babies.
The content varies, but usually, parents sing these with ideas on how hard life is and
how they hope that their child will not experience the hardships of life.
b. Drinking Songs
- these are locally known as Tagay and are sung during drinking sessions.
c. Love Songs
- to many Filipinos, these are known as the Harana. It can also be called
Courtship Songs and are used by young men to capture the heart of the
girl that they love.

d. Songs of Death
- are lamentations that contain the roll of good deeds that the dead has
usually done to immortalize his or her good image.
e. Religious Songs
- are songs or chants that are usually given during exorcisms and
thanksgiving during good harvest.

3. Folk Tales
31 | P a g e
 32

- These are stories of native Filipinos.

- These deal with the power of nature-personified, their submission to a
deity- usually Bathala- and how this deity is responsible for the blessings and
calamities
- These also tackle about irresponsibility, lust, stupidity, deception, and
fallibility that eventually leads to the instilling of good morals
Usual Themes
- Cermonies needed to appease the deities
- Pre and Post Apocalypse
- Life and Death
- Gods and Goddesses
- Heroes and Heroines
- Supernatural Beings
- Animals

a. Myths
- these tackle the natural to strange occurences of the earth and how things
were created with an aim to give an explanation to things.
- There is Bathala for the Tagalogs and the Gueurang for the Bikolanos
- Paradise is known as Maca, while Hell is Kasanaaan.
- The Story of Bathala

b. Legends
- through legends, the natives uderstood mysteries around them. These
stories usually come with a moral lesson that give credit to supernatural powers,
supernatural occurences, and other out-of-this-world native imagination.
- The Legend of Maria Makiling
c. Fables
- are short or brief stories that cater the children of the native Filipinos and
are usually bounded by good manners and right conduct. These stories use animals
as characters that represent a particular value or characteristic.
- Ang Kuneho at and Pagong

d. Epics
- are very lengthy narratives that are based on oral traditions. These contain
encounters of fighters, stereotypical princes or heroes that save a damsel in distress.
- Hinilawod

1521-1898 The SPANISH Period

32 | P a g e
 33

- The start of the Philippine’s more colorful history took place in March 6,
1521 when Ferdinand Magellan docked on the shores of Homonhon
- The Filipinos were then called “Ladinos”, meaning they were latinized.
- Filipinos were called two things. One is the “Taga-Bayan”, while the other is
“Taga-Bukid” or “Taga-Bundok”
- A person who is taga-bayan is considred urbane and civilized and were in
east range of the church and state
- A person who is taga-bundok or taga-bukid is called a Bruto Slavage (Savage
Brute) or Indio and were the ones who lived far from the center of the Spanish power

FORMS
1. Religious Literature
- Revolves around the life and death of Jesus Christ.
a. Pasyon – it is about the passion (joy and suffering) and death of
Jesus Christ
b. Senakulo – it is the re-enactment of the Pasyon
c. Komedya – it depicts the European society through love and fame,
but can also be a narrative about a journey, just like Dante
Alighieri’s Divine Comedy. It is also considered religious, because it
usually depicts the battle between the Christians and the Saracens
or the Moros
2. Secular or Non-Religious Literature
- Revolves around tales of valiance and adventure
a. Awit – these are tales of chivalry where a night saves a princess.
Florante and Laura is a good example.
b. Korido – is a metrical tale or a tale that follows that structure of a
poem.
c. Prose Narratives – are easy to understand instructional materials
that in a literary light that teaches Filipinos on proper decorum.
Pagsusulatan ng Dalawang Binibini na si Urbana at Feliza (1834) is a
good example
3. Propaganda Literature
- These were in the forms of satires, editorials, and news articles that aimed
to attack the Spanish Rule
- The propaganda trinity is composed of Dr. Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. Del Pilar,
and Graciano Lopez Jaena
Example:

33 | P a g e
 34

Graciano Lopez-Jaena

- Ang Fray Botod - One of his works written in Jaro, Iloilo in 1876, six years
after the Cavite Revolt attacking the friars in the Philippines. He exposed how some
of the friars were greedy, ambitious and immoral.

- LA HIJA DEL FRAILE (The Child of the Friar) and EVERYTHING IS HAMBUG
(Everything is a mere show) – here Jaena explains the tragedy of marrying a Spaniard.

Marcelo H. Del Pilar

- KAIINGAT KAYO (Be Careful) - a humorous and sarcastic dig in answer to Fr.
Jose Rodriquez in the novel NOLI of Rizal, published in Barcelona in 1888. He used
Dolores Manapat as pen-name here.

- DASALAN AT TOCSOHAN (Prayers and Jokes)- similar to a cathecism but

sarcastically done agains the parish priests, published in Barcelona in 1888. Because
of this, del Pilar was called “filibuster.” Done in admirable tone of supplication and
excellent use of Tagalog.

- ANG CADAQUILAAN NG DIOS (God’s Goodness) – published in Barcelona, it

was also like a catechism sarcastically aimed against the parish priest but also
contains a philosophy of the power and intelligence of God and an appreciation for
and love for nature.

Dr. Jose Rizal

- NOLI ME TANGERE- his was the novel that gave spirit to the propaganda
movement and paved the way to the revolution against Spain. In this book, he
courageously exposed the evils in the Spanish-run government in the Philippines.

-
4. Revolutionary Literature

34 | P a g e
 35

- Exposes that sparked revolution and resistance in the hears of Filipinos

Examples:
Andres Bonifacio

- Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Obligations of our

Countrymen) - an outline of obligations just like the Ten Commandments, hence, it is
likewise called Ang Dekalogo.

- Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog (What the Tagalogs should Know) – an
essay outlining the basic tenets of Bonifacio’s ideas on nationalism.

Emilio Jacinto

- Liwanag at Dilim (Light and Darkness) – a collection of essays on different

subjects like freedom, work, faith, government and love of country.

Apolinario Mabini

- El Desarollo y Caida de la Republica Filipina (The Rise and Fall of the

Philippine Republic) – this essay highlights the establishment of the Philippine
republic and its subsequent doom due to disunity among the Filipinos

Dr. Jose Rizal

- El Filibusterismo – This is a sequel to the NOLI. While the NOLI exposed the
evils in society, the FILI exposed those in the government and in the church.
However, the NOLI has been dubbed the novel of society while that of FILI is that of
politics.

PUBLICATIONS

35 | P a g e
 36

- El Heraldo de la Revolucion (Herald of the Revolution) - printed the decrees

of the Revolutionary Government, news and works in Tagalog that aroused
nationalism. This is the Official Newspaper of the Revolutionary Government of
Aguinaldo.

- La Independencia (Independence) – an independent newspaper founded

and edited by General Antonio Luna.

- La Republica Filipina (The Philippine Republic) – a private newspaper edited

by Pedro Paterno.

- La Libertad (Liberty) – another private newspaper edited by Clemente

Zulueta.

1900-1942 The AMERICAN Period

- The Philippines had a great leap in Education and Culture.

- The use of English alongside Filipino was practiced.

- The Philippines Public School system was introduced.

- Free public instruction was given to the Filipinos.

- The literature during the American period was considered as

imitative of American model. Instead of asking the students to write
originals, students ended up following the form of American poets.

36 | P a g e
 37

FORMS
1. Poetry- poetry under the American rule still followed the style of
the old, but had contents that ranged from free writing to societal concerns
under the Americans.
- Jose Corazon de Jesus (1832-1896) popularly known as “Batute,” created
his own generation with his first book of poems.
- Mga Gintong Dahon (1920)- were poems pre-occupied with such non-
traditional themes as passion-slaying, grief-induced, insanity, and lover’s
suicide.
- Sa Dakong Silangan (1928)- returned to the awit form, retelling the history
of Philippines under Spain, the coming of the U.S under the guise of
friendship to take over from Spain
2. Drama- was usually used in the American period to degrade the
Spanish rule and to immortalize the heroism of the men who fought under
the Katipunan.
- Severino Reyes (1861-1942) – spearheaded a movement to supplant the
komedya with a new type of
drama, the sarsuwela, a Filipino adaptation of the Spanish zarzuela.
Examples:
Walang Sugat (1902)- is a sarsuwela (drama in the form singing) drawn from
the period of Revolution, depicting the cruelty and corruption of friars and
the heroism of the soldiers of the Katipunan.
Other successful sarsuwelas.

- Hindi Aco Patay (1903) by Juan Matapang Cruz

- Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (1903) by Aurelio Tolentino- is an

allegorical presentation of the history of the nationalist struggle and how
the U,S. frustrated the Philippine revolution.

- Tanikalang Guinto (1902) by Juan Abad (1872-1932)- is about

Liwanag and K’Ulayaw, lovers who stand for freedom and the Filipino.

37 | P a g e
 38

4. Remake Novels- took up Dr. Jose Rizal's portrayal of social conditions by

colonial repression. Gabriel Beato Francisco (1850-1935)- is best known for
his trilogy of Fulgencia Galbillo (1907), Capitan

- Bensio (1907), Alfaro (1909), depicting the 30 years of colonial

repression by the Spanish rule.

- Inigo Ed. Regalado (1888-1976)- Madaling Araw (1909) was his first
novel showing the complex interrelations of issues and people in
contemporary Philippine society.

- Juan Lauro Arsciwals (1889-1928)- Lalaking Uliran o Tulisan (1914),

allusion to the colonial law that branded Filipino patriots as bandits.

1941-1945 The JAPANESE Period

1946-1985 The REPUBLIC

- The Philippine literature came into a halt.

- The use of the English language was forbidden, and the use of the
Filipino language was mandated under the Japanese rule.

- For some this was a problem, but to most writers, it was a blessing
in disguise.

- Almost all newspapers were stopped except for some.

- Filipino literature was given a break during this period. Many wrote
plays, poems, short stories, etc. Topics and themes were often about life in
the provinces.

38 | P a g e
 39

FORMS
1. Poetry - The common theme of most poems during the Japanese occupation
was nationalism, country, love, and life in the barrios, faith, religion and the
arts.
2. Fiction - The field of the short story widened during the Japanese
Occupation. Many wrote short stories.
3. Drama - The drama experienced a lull during the Japanese period because
movie houses showing American films were closed. The big movie houses
were just made to show stage shows. Many of the plays were reproductions
of English plays to Tagalog.
4. Newspapers - Writings that came out during this period were journalistic in
nature. Writers felt suppressed but slowly, the spirit of nationalism started
to seep into their consciousness. While some continued to write, the
majority waited for a better climate to publish their works.
5. Essays - Essays were composed to glorify the Filipinos and at the same time
to figuratively attack the Japanese.

THE LITERATURE OF PHILIPPINES TODAY

- In the 21st century Philippines, there are a lot of literary innovations that
are adapted and created by Filipinos. Nowadays, even those who do not have any
significant literary background makes their own way using the freedom that they
have to write and to express.

- There are a lot of new form from the basic genres of literature; thus, proving
how far the literature in the Philippines has gone and how far it will go on from here.

INTRODUCTION TO PHILIPPINE LITERATURE

The diversity and richness of Philippine literature evolved side by side with
the country's history. This can best be appreciated in the context of the country's
pre-colonial cultural traditions and the socio-political histories of its colonial and
contemporary traditions.

39 | P a g e
 40

The average Filipino's unfamiliarity with his indigenous literature was largely
due to what has been impressed upon him: that his country was "discovered" and,
hence, Philippine "history" started only in 1521.

So successful were the efforts of colonialists to blot out the memory of the
country's largely oral past that present-day Filipino writers, artists and journalists are
trying to correct this inequity by recognizing the country's wealth of ethnic traditions
and disseminating them in schools and in the mass media.

The rousing of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring
about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the
"Filipino identity."

A. Pre-Colonial Period

Owing to the works of our own archaeologists, ethnologists and

anthropologists, we are able to know more and better judge information
about our pre-colonial times set against a bulk of material about early
Filipinos as recorded by Spanish, Chinese, Arabic and other chroniclers of
the past.

Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase a rich past through

their folk speeches, folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and
mimetic dances that affirm our ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors.

The most seminal of these folk speeches is the riddle which is

tigmo in Cebuano, bugtong in Tagalog, paktakon in Ilongo and patototdon in
Bicol. Central to the riddle is the talinghaga or metaphor because it "reveals
subtle resemblances between two unlike objects" and one's power of
observation and wit are put to the test. While some riddles are ingenious,
others verge on the obscene or are sex-related:
The proverbs or aphorisms express norms or codes of behavior, community
beliefs or they instill values by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse.

The extended form, tanaga, a mono-riming heptasyllabic quatrain

expressing insights and lessons on life is "more emotionally charged than the terse
proverb and thus has affinities with the folk lyric." Some examples are the

40 | P a g e
 41

basahanon or extended didactic sayings from Bukidnon and the daraida and
daragilon from Panay.

The folk song, a form of folk lyric which expresses the hopes and aspirations,
the people's lifestyles as well as their loves. These are often repetitive and sonorous,
didactic and naive as in the children's songs or Ida-ida (Maguindanao), tulang
pambata (Tagalog) or cansiones para abbing (Ibanag).

A few examples are the lullabies or Ili-ili (Ilongo); love songs like the
panawagon and balitao (Ilongo); harana or serenade (Cebuano); the bayok
(Maranao); the seven-syllable per line poem, ambahan of the Mangyans that are
about human relationships, social entertainment and also serve as a tool for teaching
the young; work songs that depict the livelihood of the people often sung to go with
the movement of workers such as the kalusan (Ivatan), soliranin (Tagalog rowing
song) or the mambayu, a Kalinga rice-pounding song; the verbal jousts/games like
the duplo popular during wakes.

Other folk songs are the drinking songs sung during carousals like the tagay
(Cebuano and Waray); dirges and lamentations extolling the deeds of the dead like
the kanogon (Cebuano) or the Annako (Bontoc).

A type of narrative song or kissa among the Tausug of Mindanao, the

parang sabil, uses for its subject matter the exploits of historical and legendary
heroes. It tells of a Muslim hero who seeks death at the hands of non-Muslims.

The folk narratives, i.e. epics and folk tales are varied, exotic and magical.
They explain how the world was created, how certain animals possess certain
characteristics, why some places have waterfalls, volcanoes, mountains, flora or
fauna and, in the case of legends, an explanation of the origins of things. Fables are
about animals and these teach moral lessons.

Our country's epics are considered ethno-epics because unlike, say,

Germany's Niebelunginlied, our epics are not national for they are "histories" of
varied groups that consider themselves "nations."

The epics come in various names: Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao);

Hudhud (Ifugao); and Ulahingan (Manobo). These epics revolve around supernatural
events or heroic deeds and they embody or validate the beliefs and customs and

41 | P a g e
 42

ideals of a community. These are sung or chanted to the accompaniment of

indigenous musical instruments and dancing performed during harvests, weddings or
funerals by chanters. The chanters who were taught by their ancestors are
considered "treasures" and/or repositories of wisdom in their communities.

Examples of these epics are the Lam-ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod);

Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen (Maranao); Ulahingan (Livunganen-Arumanen
Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the Buhong Sky from
Tuwaang--Manobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon); and Tudbulol (T'boli).

B. The Spanish Colonial Period

While it is true that Spain subjugated the Philippines for more mundane
reasons, this former European power contributed much in the shaping and
recording of our literature. Religion and institutions that represented European
civilization enriched the languages in the lowlands, introduced theater which we
would come to know as komedya, the sinakulo, the sarswela, the playlets and
the drama. Spain also brought to the country, though at a much later time,
liberal ideas and an internationalism that influenced our own Filipino
intellectuals and writers for them to understand the meanings of "liberty and
freedom."

Literature in this period may be classified as religious prose and poetry

and secular prose and poetry.

Religious lyrics written by ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish

and Tagalog were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos
the Spanish language. Fernando Bagonbanta's "Salamat nang walang
hanga/gracias de sin sempiternas" (Unending thanks) is a fine example that is
found in the Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala (Guidelines for the
Christian life in the Tagalog language) published in 1605.

Another form of religious lyrics are the meditative verses like the dalit
appended to novenas and catechisms. It has no fixed meter nor rime scheme
although a number are written in octosyllabic quatrains and have a solemn tone
and spiritual subject matter.

42 | P a g e
 43

But among the religious poetry of the day, it is the pasyon in

octosyllabic quintillas that became entrenched in the Filipino's commemoration
of Christ's agony and resurrection at Calvary. Gaspar Aquino de Belen's "Ang
Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tola" (Holy Passion of
Our Lord Jesus Christ in Verse) put out in 1704 is the country's earliest known
pasyon.

Other known pasyons chanted during the Lenten season are in Ilocano,
Pangasinan, Ibanag, Cebuano, Bicol, Ilongo and Waray. Aside from religious
poetry, there were various kinds of prose narratives written to prescribe proper
decorum. Like the pasyon, these prose narratives were also used for
proselytization. Some forms are: dialogo (dialogue), Manual de Urbanidad
(conduct book); ejemplo (exemplum) and tratado (tratado). The most well-
known are Modesto de Castro's "Pagsusulatan ng Dalawang Binibini na si
Urbana at si Feliza" (Correspondence between the Two Maidens Urbana and
Feliza) in 1864 and Joaquin Tuason's "Ang Bagong Robinson" (The New
Robinson) in 1879, an adaptation of Daniel Defoe's novel.

Secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the

emergence of an opulent class and the middle class who could avail of a European
education. This Filipino elite could now read printed works that used to be the
exclusive domain of the missionaries.
The most notable of the secular lyrics followed the conventions of a
romantic tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless
beloved, the rival. The leading poets were Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Sisiw) and
Francisco Balagtas. Some secular poets who wrote in this same tradition were Leona
Florentino, Jacinto Kawili, Isabelo de los Reyes and Rafael Gandioco.

Another popular secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido
in Tagalog. The awit is set in dodecasyllabic quatrains while the korido is in
octosyllabic quatrains. These are colorful tales of chivalry from European sources
made for singing and chanting such as Gonzalo de Cordoba (Gonzalo of Cordoba) and
Ibong Adarna (Adarna Bird). There are numerous metrical romances in Tagalog, Bicol,
Ilongo, Pampango, Ilocano and in Pangasinan. The awit as a popular poetic genre
reached new heights in Balagtas' "Florante at Laura" (ca. 1838-1861), the most
famous of the country's metrical romances.

43 | P a g e
 44

Again, the winds of change began to blow in 19th century Philippines.

Filipino intellectuals educated in Europe called illustrados began to write about the
downside of colonization. This, coupled with the simmering calls for reforms by the
masses gathered a formidable force of writers like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar,
Mariano Ponce, Emilio Jacinto and Andres Bonifacio.

This led to the formation of the Propaganda Movement where prose works
such as the political essays and Rizal's two political novels, Noli Me Tangere and the
El Filibusterismo helped usher in the Philippine revolution resulting in the downfall of
the Spanish regime, and, at the same time planted the seeds of a national
consciousness among Filipinos.
But if Rizal's novels are political, the novel Ninay (1885) by Pedro Paterno is
largely cultural and is considered the first Filipino novel. Although Paterno's Ninay
gave impetus to other novelists like Jesus Balmori and Antonio M. Abad to continue
writing in Spanish, this did not flourish.

Other Filipino writers published the essay and short fiction in Spanish in La
Vanguardia, El Debate, Renacimiento Filipino, and Nueva Era. The more notable
essayists and fictionists were Claro M. Recto, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de
los Reyes, Vicente Sotto, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Rafael Palma, Enrique Laygo
(Caretas or Masks, 1925) and Balmori who mastered the prosa romantica or
romantic prose.
But the introduction of English as medium of instruction in the Philippines
hastened the demise of Spanish so that by the 1930s, English writing had overtaken
Spanish writing. During the language's death throes, however, writing in the romantic
tradition, from the awit and korido, would continue in the novels of Magdalena
Jalandoni. But patriotic writing continued under the new colonialists. These appeared
in the vernacular poems and modern adaptations of works during the Spanish period
and which further maintained the Spanish tradition.
C. The American Colonial Period

A new set of colonizers brought about new changes in Philippine

literature. New literary forms such as free verse [in poetry], the modern short
story and the critical essay were introduced. American influence was deeply
entrenched with the firm establishment of English as the medium of instruction
in all schools and with literary modernism that highlighted the writer's
individuality and cultivated consciousness of craft, sometimes at the expense of
social consciousness.

44 | P a g e
 45

The poet, and later, National Artist for Literature, Jose Garcia Villa used
free verse and espoused the dictum, "Art for art's sake" to the chagrin of other
writers more concerned with the utilitarian aspect of literature. Another
maverick in poetry who used free verse and talked about illicit love in her poetry
was Angela Manalang Gloria, a woman poet described as ahead of her time.
Despite the threat of censorship by the new dispensation, more writers turned
up "seditious works" and popular writing in the native languages bloomed
through the weekly outlets like Liwayway and Bisaya.

The Balagtas tradition persisted until the poet Alejandro G. Abadilla

advocated modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets who
wrote modern verses in the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and
Rolando S. Tinio.

While the early Filipino poets grappled with the verities of the new
language, Filipinos seemed to have taken easily to the modern short story as
published in the Philippines Free Press, the College Folio and Philippines Herald.
Paz Marquez Benitez's "Dead Stars" published in 1925 was the first successful
short story in English written by a Filipino. Later on, Arturo B. Rotor and Manuel
E. Arguilla showed exceptional skills with the short story.

Alongside this development, writers in the vernaculars continued to

write in the provinces. Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Peña and
Patricio Mariano were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog
short fiction called dali or pasingaw (sketch).

The romantic tradition was fused with American pop culture or

European influences in the adaptations of Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan by F. P.
Boquecosa who also penned Ang Palad ni Pepe after Charles Dicken's David
Copperfield even as the realist tradition was kept alive in the novels by Lope K.
Santos and Faustino Aguilar, among others.

It should be noted that if there was a dearth of the Filipino novel in

English, the novel in the vernaculars continued to be written and serialized in
weekly magazines like Liwayway, Bisaya, Hiligaynon and Bannawag.
The essay in English became a potent medium from the 1920's to the
present. Some leading essayists were journalists like Carlos P.

45 | P a g e
 46

Romulo, Jorge Bocobo, Pura Santillan Castrence, etc. who wrote formal to
humorous to informal essays for the delectation by Filipinos.

Among those who wrote criticism developed during the American

period were Ignacio Manlapaz, Leopoldo Yabes and I.V. Mallari. But it was
Salvador P. Lopez's criticism that grabbed attention when he won the
Commonwealth Literay Award for the essay in 1940 with his "Literature and
Society." This essay posited that art must have substance and that Villa's
adherence to "Art for Art's Sake" is decadent.
The last throes of American colonialism saw the flourishing of Philippine
literature in English at the same time, with the introduction of the New Critical
aesthetics, made writers pay close attention to craft and "indirectly engendered a
disparaging attitude" towards vernacular writings -- a tension that would recur in the
contemporary period.

D. The Contemporary Period

The flowering of Philippine literature in the various languages continue

especially with the appearance of new publications after the Martial Law years and
the resurgence of committed literature in the 1960s and the 1970s.

Filipino writers continue to write poetry, short stories, novellas, novels and
essays whether these are socially committed, gender/ethnic related or are personal
in intention or not.

Of course, the Filipino writer has become more conscious of his art with the
proliferation of writer workshops here and abroad and the bulk of literature available
to him via the mass media including the internet. The various literary awards such as
the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, the Philippines Free Press,
Philippine Graphic, Home Life and Panorama literary awards encourage him to
compete with his peers and hope that his creative efforts will be rewarded in the
long run.
With the new requirement by the Commission on Higher Education of
teaching of Philippine Literature in all tertiary schools in the country emphasizing the
teaching of the vernacular literature or literatures of the regions, the audience for
Filipino writers is virtually assured. And, perhaps, a national literature finding its
niche among the literatures of the world will not be far behind.

46 | P a g e
 47

Dr. Jose Rizal

- JOSE PROTACIO RIZAL MERCADO Y ALONSO REALONDA

- BORN IN CALAMBA, PHILIPPINES

- BORN ON JUNE 19, 1861

- DIED ON DECEMBER 30, 1896

- In 1887 Rizal published his first novel, Noli me tangere (The Social Cancer), a

passionate exposure of the evils of Spanish rule in the Philippines. A sequel, El

filibusterismo (1891; The Reign of Greed), established his reputation as the leading
spokesman of the Philippine reform movement.

- He published an annotated edition (1890; reprinted 1958) of Antonio

Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, hoping to show that the native people of the
Philippines had a long history before the coming of the Spaniards. He became the
leader of the Propaganda Movement, contributing numerous articles to its
newspaper, La Solidaridad, published in Barcelona

47 | P a g e
 48

- Most of his writing was done in Europe, where he resided between 1882

and 1892.

- Rizal returned to the Philippines in1892. He founded a nonviolent reform

society, the Liga Filipina, in Manila and was deported to Dapitan in northwest
Mindanao.

- The death of Rizal came right afterthe kangaroo trial convicted him on all

three charges of rebellion, sedition, and conspiracy.

- He was guided to his cell in Fort Santiago where he spent his last 24 hours

right after conviction.

- At 6:00 am of December 29, 1896, Captain Rafael Dominguez read Jose

Rizal’s death sentence and declared that he will be shot at 7:00 am of the next day in
Bagumbayan.

- At 8:00 pm of the same day, Jose Rizal Had his last supper and informed

Captain Dominguez that he had forgiven his enemies including the military judges
that condemned him to die.

- Rizal heard mass at 3:00 am in the morning of December 30, 1896

48 | P a g e
 49

- Had confession before taking the Holy Communion.

- He took his last breakfast at 5:30am of December 30, 1896.

- He wrote two letters for his family while other letter was for his brother

Paciano.

- There was also the time when his wife, Josephine Bracken and his sister

Josefa arrived and bade farewell to Rzal.

The Revolution According to Raymundo Mata

(Excerpt)
By Gina Apostol

It was a bolt – a thunder bolt. A rain of bricks, a lightning zap. A pummeling

of mountains, a heaving violent storm at sea – a whiplash. A typhoon. An
earthquake. The end of the world. And I was in ruins. It struck me dumb. It
changed my life and the world was new when I was done. And when I raised
myself from bed two days later, I thought: It’s only a novel. If I ever met
him, what would my life be? I lay back in bed. But what a novel! And I
cursed him, the writer – what was his name – for doing what I hadn’t done,
for putting my worlds into words before I even had the sense to know what
the world was. That was his triumph – he’d laid out a trail, and all we had to
do is follow his wake. Even then, I already felt the bitter envy, the acid retch
of a latecomer artist, the one who will always be under the influence, by
mere chronology always slightly suspect, a borrower, never lender be. After
him, all Filipinos are tardy ingrates. What is the definition of art? Art is
reproach to those who receive it. That was his curse upon all of us. I was

49 | P a g e
 50

weak, as if drugged. I realized: I hadn’t eaten in two days. Then I got out of
bed and boiled barako for me.

-
- Later it was all the rage in the coffee shops, in the bazaars of
Binondo. People did not even hide it – crowds of men, and not just
students, not just boys, some women even, with their violent fans –
gesticulating in public, throwing up their hands, putting up fists in debate.
Put your knuckle where your mouth is. We were loud, obstreperous,
heedless. We were literary critics. We were cantankerous: rude raving. And
no matter which side you were, with the crown or with the infidels, Spain or
Spolarium, all of us, each one, seemed revitalized by spleen, hatched by the
woods of long, venomous silence. And yes, suddenly the world opened up
to me, after the novel, to which before I had been blind.

-
- Still I rushed into other debates, for instance with Benigno and
Agapito, who had now moved into my rooms. Remembering Father
Gaspar’s cryptic injunction - “throw it away to someone else,” so that in this
manner the book traveled rapidly in those dark days of its printing, now so
nostalgically glorious, though then I had no clue that these were historic
acts, the act of reading, or that the book would be such a collector’s item, or
otherwise I would have wrapped it in parchment and sealed it for the
highest bidder, what the hell, I only knew holding the book could very likely
constitute a glorious crime – in short, I lent it to Benigno.

All the Girls Rizal Loved Before

 Segunda Katigbak

First love never dies they say—unless your first love is already engaged to be married
when you meet. Then you have to let it go really fast. Such was the case of Jose Rizal

50 | P a g e
 51

and Segunda Katigbak, a Batangueña, whom Rizal met when he was only a 16-year-
old boy.

They met when the young hero visited his grandmother with his friend, Mariano
Katigbak, Segunda’s brother. The Katigbaks were close to Rizal’s grandmother, and
coincidentally, Segunda was at the grandma’s house when Rizal and Mariano arrived.
It was attraction at first sight. Segunda was also a close friend of Rizal’s sister,
Olympia, whom he visited every week at the La Concordia College. The two became
very close. However, Segunda was already engaged to be married to a man who lived
in her town, and Rizal had to stop pursuing her.

Rizal wrote about the incident years later, “Ended, at an early house, my first love!
My virgin heart will always mourn the reckless step it took on the flower-decked
abyss. My illusions will return, yes, but indifferent, uncertain, ready for the first
betrayal on the path of love.”

Our heartache-filled, hugot-induced breakup films would be put to shame.

 Leonor Valenzuela

Leonor “Orang” Valenzuela, Rizal’s second object of affection, is literally the girl-
next-door. They met when Rizal was a sophomore medical student at the University of
Santo Tomas, during which time he also lived at Doña Concha Leyva’s boarding
house in Intramuros, Manila. Orang, who was then 14 years old, was his neighbor.

During the courtship, Rizal was said to have sent Leo

nor private and secret love letters, which he wrote using invisible ink made with water
and salt—he was adept in chemistry, too. To read the letters, Orang had to heat the
letter over a candle or a lamp. (How did we get from this intricate, labored way of
courting someone to pressing that heart icon on Instagram? Just wondering.) Rizal
also frequented the Valenzuelas’ home, which was a hang out place of the students in
the area.

There are, however, documents that may serve as proof that Rizal’s efforts were not
effective. Some accounts say he was courting Leonor Valenzuela and and his second
cousin Leonor Rivera at the same time—thus the need for invisible letters. (Still, we
need to appreciate the effort that went with it.) Rivera apparently knew of this and
gave way to Rivera’s attraction for Rizal. When Rizal left for Spain in 1882, it was

51 | P a g e
 52

said that he did say goodbye to Orang, but kept in touch with the help of Rizal’s close
friend, Jose “Chenggoy” Cecilio.

Chenggoy was the ultimate teaser—and maybe wingman?—who was amused with the
“rivalry” of the namesakes. On one of Chenggoy’s letters to Rizal, he wrote, “…
nagpipilit ang munting kasera (Leonor Rivera) na makita si Orang, pero dahil
natatakpan ng isang belong puti, hindi naming nakilala nang dumaan ang prusisyon
sa tapat ng bahay. Sinabi sa akin ni O(rang) na sabihin ko raw sa munting kasera na
hindi siya kumakaribal sa pag-iibigan ninyo. Que gulay, tukayo, anong gulo itong
idinudulot natin sa mga dalagang ito!” (Manebog 2013)

Lest it be forgotten, while he was pursuing the two Leonors, Rizal was in Europe
taking courses in medicine at Universidad Central de Madrid and painting at Real
Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Calle Alcala. Maybe he still had time
on his hands?

 Leonor Rivera

Leanor Rivera and Jose Rizal lived the tragedies of Shakespeare’s poems.

They met when Rizal was 18 and Leonor was 13, at the boarding house of Rizal’s
uncle in Intramuros, Manila. Leonor was Rizal’s second cousin.

It was a perfect love story in the beginning: he, the intelligent charmer, and she, the
beautiful student who had a beautiful singing voice and was a talented piano player.
Soon, they fell in love. But as tragic love stories go, they were besieged by obstacles.
Leonor’s parents highly disapproved of their relationship as they were wary of Rizal
being a “filibuster.” In his letters, Rizal called Leonor “Taimis” to hide her identity.

Before leaving for Europe in 1882, Rizal said that he had found the woman he wanted
to marry. But even his brother, Paciano Rizal, disagreed with the idea, saying that it
would be unfair to Leonor if he were to leave her behind after getting married.

But their love—as young loves are—wanted to go against all that stood in the way.
Although they did not get married, they tried to continue sending each other love
letters, a lot of which were intercepted and kept hidden by Leonor’s mother. In 1890,
Leonor wrote a letter to Rizal saying that she was engaged to be married to a British
engineer named Henry Kipping. That same year, the wedding pushed through.

52 | P a g e
 53

Upon the coercion of her mother, Leonor burned Rizal’s letters to her—but it was said
she kept the ashes of those letters. A story goes that she hid some of these ashes in the
hem of her wedding gown.

But their dark romance didn’t end there.

In 1893, Leonor died during second childbirth. Documents show that when Rizal
heard of the news through his sister, Narcisa, he didn’t speak for a few days. It is
believed that Rizal immortalized Leonor through the character Maria Clara in Noli Me
Tangere. Like we said, it’s a Shakespearean kind of dark—and no love story is more
intense than the one that lost the battle with circumstances.

 Consuelo Ortega Y Rey

Consuelo Ortega Y Rey was the daughter of Don Pablo Ortiga Y Rey, who was
Mayor of Manila when Maria dela Torre was the governor. While Rizal was in
Madrid, he would hang out at Don Pablo’s house, which became a place where
Filipino students would often get together. Through one of these gatherings, Rizal met
Consuelo.

He showed affection towards Consuelo but was not serious in his pursuit as he was
still engaged to Leonor Rivera at the time. Yes, he loved the company of women, but
during that brief period, he too was lonely and yearning for the physical void left by
Leonor.

Although most accounts say the dalliance didn’t turn serious, Rizal wrote a poem for
her, entitled, “A La Señorita C.O.y.P.” Of course, these days, when you write a poem
for someone, that’s like a marriage proposal. In the end, Consuelo got engaged to
Rizal’s friend, Eduardo de Lete. It is said that Eduardo’s love for Consuelo was also
the reason Rizal didn’t pursue the mestiza. Or maybe, in modern parlance, theirs was
a classic case of a rebound fling.

 Seiko Usui

In many of his diary entries, Rizal wrote about how he was charmed by Japan’s
beauty, cleanliness, and peace and order. But if there was one thing that almost kept

53 | P a g e
 54

him in the country where cherry blossoms bloom most beautiful, it was a woman
named Seiko Usui, affectionately called O-Sei-San.

It was in 1888. Rizal had just arrived in Japan from Hongkong upon an invitation to
take a job offer at the Spanish Legation. One day, while he was in the office grounds,
he saw O-Sei-San walk past the legation’s gate and was immediately enthralled by her
beauty. With the help of a Japanese gardener, he asked to be introduced to the woman
who captured his eyes—and the gardener acquiesced. Rizal spoke little Japanese at
the time, so the gardener had to serve as a translator. However, a few minutes into the
conversation, they both found O-Sei-San spoke English and French, which was a
relief as Rizal spoke both languages. When the language barrier broke, they started to
build a relationship.

As days went by, O-Sei-San taught Rizal the ways of the Japanese. They went
gallivanting, visiting museums, galleries, and universities. They talked about the arts
and culture, switching their language from French to English and back as they
pleased. Their love was childlike and spirited. According to many accounts, Rizal
was ready to move to Japan, stay with O-Sei-San, and live a peaceful life with his
love.

Unfortunately for this relationship, country-saving duties would call and he had to
leave Japan for San Francisco. He never saw O-Sei-San again. Their affair lasted for
around two months. It’s shorter than an average season of a Netflix series, but you
know Rizal and his intensity.

 Gertrude Beckett

In the same year he began and ended his relations with O-Sei-San, our JR, then 27,
went to London and met a woman named Gertrude Beckett, the eldest daughter of
his landlord. Gertrude showered Rizal with all the love and attention of a girl who
is hopelessly in love. She even assisted Rizal as he finished some of his popular
sculptures, “Prometheus Bound,” “The Triumph of Death over Life,” and “The
Triumph of Science over Death.” He called her Gettie, she called him Pettie. But
all documents lead to say one thing: the feelings weren’t mutually shared.

In 1889, Rizal left London, and left Gettie a composite carving of the heads of the
Beckett sisters. Marcelo del Pilar, Rizal’s friend, said Rizal left London to move
away from Gertrude, whose idea of their relationship was more than what it really
was—the most tormenting kind: an unrequited love.

 Suzanne Jacoby
54 | P a g e
 55

Maybe Rizal was repulsed with the idea of having an idle mind. With all the
loneliness and anxiety from the turmoil of his country and family, he was even able to
fill his resting moments learning new things—like flirting with women. When he
arrived in Belgium in 1890, he lived at a boarding house that was run by two sisters
whose last name was Jacoby. The sisters had a niece named Suzanne. You probably
can guess now what happens with Rizal and his caretaker’s kin. If it’s not a neighbor,
it’s a caretaker’s kin. Are we seeing a trend here? Obviously the guy is too busy to
explore beyond a one-kilometer radius

The relationship was probably a fling, too, as Rizal made no mention of Suzanne
when he wrote letters to his friends about his stay in Belgium. Rizal left the country in
August that year. Suzanne was heartbroken. Rizal continued writing El
Filibusterismo, writing for La Solidaridad, and worrying about his family back home.
It was said that Suzanne wrote Rizal letters. Rizal may have replied once. In 1891,
Rizal went back to Belgium— not for Suzanne—but to finish writing El
Filibusterismo. He stayed for a few months, left, and never returned. Maybe she got
the point after that.

 Nellie Boustead

Remember that famous time when Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal almost got into a duel
because of a girl? The girl in the middle of that madness was Nellie Boustead. Rizal
and Nellie met in Biarritz, where Nellie’s wealthy family hosted Rizal’s stay at their
residence on the French Riviera. Before Biarritz, Rizal already made friends with the
Boustead family a few years back, and even played fencing with Nellie and her sister.

During his stay at the beautiful Biarritz vacation home, Rizal learned of Leonor
Rivera’s engagement and thought of pursuing a romantic relationship with Nellie,
who was classy, educated, cheerful, and athletic. After strengthening their
relationship, Rizal wrote letters to his friends, telling them about his intention to
marry her. They were all supportive, including Antonio Luna.

Although they seemed like the ideal couple, marriage for Rizal was still not meant to
be. First, Nellie’s mother did not think Rizal had the resources to be a good provider
for her daughter. Second, Nellie wanted Rizal to convert to Protestantism. Rizal
refused. But their friendship must have been strong enough because they ended up
being friends after all the drama.

Before Rizal left Paris in 1891, Nellie wrote him a letter: “Now that you are leaving I
wish you a happy trip and may you triumph in your undertakings, and above all, may
55 | P a g e
 56

the Lord look down on you with favor and guide your way giving you much
blessings, and may your learn to enjoy! My remembrance will accompany you as also
my prayers.”

And that, ladies and gentlemen, is how you become friends with your ex.

 Josephine Bracken

Josephine Bracken was the woman who stayed with Rizal until his execution in
1896. She was also, allegedly, the woman whom Rizal married. However,
accounts of their marriage have been much-debated over the years.

Josephine was the adopted daughter of one George Taufer, whom she lived with in
Hongkong for years before she needed to seek help from an ophthalmologist due to
George’s blindness. They then sought the help of Jose Rizal, who was already exiled
in Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte at the time. Rizal and Josephine fell in love and in
a month made the announcement that they wanted to get married. But just like the
other Rizal great loves, this one was once again complicated. No priest would marry
the two, for reasons that are still unclear—but perhaps it was because of Rizal’s
status in politics. Without a legal paper, Rizal and Josephine lived together, and had a
son, who died a few hours after birth. Rizal named his son after his father, Francisco.

Up to this day, there is no legal proof that Josephine and Rizal ever got married.

In retrospect, maybe Rizal was not meant for a long commitment, like marriage—with
all his travels and freedom-fighting obligations. Maybe heroes can only be alone with
their thoughts. Left alone, they will naturally think too much, and thinking for an
entire country, we assume, can be exhausting. Maybe Rizal just always needed a
companion.

But if there’s one thing his dalliances and longings and pursuits remind us, it is that
heroes are humans, too. Humans have needs. And he did die for our country. He gets
a pass—even when he was a master in ghosting.

Padre Faura Witnesses The Execution of Rizal Author: Danton Remoto(Poetry)

I stand on the roof of the Ateneo municipal, shivering. On this December morning.
Months ago, Pepe came to me in the observatory. I thought we would talk about the

56 | P a g e
 57

stars that do not collide in the sky: instead, he asked me about purgatory (His cheeks
still ruddy from the sudden sun after the bitter winter in Europe) And on this day
with the years beginning to turn, salt things my eyes. I see Pepe, a blur between the
soldiers with their Mausers raised and the early morning’s star: still shimmering
even if millions of miles away, the star itself is already dead.

My Final Farewell

Farewell, dear Fatherland, clime of

the sun caress'd And if color is lacking my blood thou
Pearl of the Orient seas, our Eden shalt take,
lost!, Pour'd out at need for thy dear sake
Gladly now I go to give thee this faded To dye with its crimson the waking
life's best, ray.
And were it brighter, fresher, or more
blest My dreams, when life first opened to
Still would I give it thee, nor count the me,
cost. My dreams, when the hopes of youth
beat high,
On the field of battle, 'mid the frenzy Were to see thy lov'd face, O gem of
of fight, the Orient sea
Others have given their lives, without From gloom and grief, from care and
doubt or heed; sorrow free;
The place matters not-cypress or No blush on thy brow, no tear in thine
laurel or lily white, eye.
Scaffold or open plain, combat or
martyrdom's plight, Dream of my life, my living and
T is ever the same, to serve our home burning desire,
and country's need. All hail ! cries the soul that is now to
take flight;
I die just when I see the dawn break, All hail ! And sweet it is for thee to
Through the gloom of night, to herald expire ;
the day;
57 | P a g e
 58
To die for thy sake, that thou mayst
aspire;
And sleep in thy bosom eternity's long
night.
If over my grave some day thou seest
grow,
In the grassy sod, a humble flower,
Draw it to thy lips and kiss my soul so,
While I may feel on my brow in the
cold tomb below
The touch of thy tenderness, thy
breath's warm power.
Let the moon beam over me soft and
serene,
Let the dawn shed over me its radiant
flashes,
Let the wind with sad lament over me
keen ;
And if on my cross a bird should be
seen,
Let it trill there its hymn of peace to
my ashes.
Let the sun draw the vapors up to the
sky,
And heavenward in purity bear my
tardy protest
Let some kind soul o 'er my untimely
fate sigh,
And in the still evening a prayer be
lifted on high
From thee, 0 my country, that in God I
may rest.
Pray for all those that hapless have
died,
For all who have suffered the
unmeasur'd pain;
For our mothers that bitterly their
woes have cried,
For widows and orphans, for captives
by torture tried
And then for thyself that redemption
thou mayst gain.
And when the dark night wraps the
graveyard around
With only the dead in their vigil to see
Break not my repose or the mystery
profound
And perchance thou mayst hear a sad
hymn resound
'T is I, O my country, raising a song
unto thee.
And even my grave is remembered no
more.
Unmark'd by never a cross nor a stone
Let the plow sweep through it, the
spade turn it o'er
That my ashes may carpet earthly
floor,
Before into nothingness at last they
are blown.
Then will oblivion bring to me no care
As over thy vales and plains I sweep;
Throbbing and cleansed in thy space
and air
With color and light, with song and
lament I fare,
Ever repeating the faith that I keep
58 | P a g e
 59

My Fatherland ador'd, that sadness to
my sorrow lends
Beloved Filipinas, hear now my last
good-by!
I give thee all: parents and kindred
and friends
For I go where no slave before the
oppressor bends,
Where faith can never kill, and God
reigns e'er on high!
Farewell to you all, from my soul torn
away,
Friends of my childhood in the home
dispossessed !
Give thanks that I rest from the
wearisome day !
Farewell to thee, too, sweet friend
that lightened my way;
Beloved creatures all, farewell! In
death there is rest

AUTHORS
JOSE P. RIZAL (June 19, 1861- Dec. 30 1896)

- The Philippines’ national hero was also a prolific writer, poet, and essayist.

Jose Rizal’s two novels, Noli me Tangere and El Filibusterismo were social
commentaries that sharply revealed the injustices of Spanish colonization while
praising the Filipino in his most natural state.

- The novels, which are surprisingly wry and romantic, crystallized the

growing anti-Spanish sentiment and were banned within the Philippines.

- The execution of Jose Rizal at 35 years old set off the Philippine Revolution

and paved the way for the country’s independence. Even without these dramatic
events, Rizal’s books and his final poem, “Mi Ultimo Adios,” stand on their own
literary merit, and have influenced scores of Filipino writers since.

59 | P a g e
 60

- Noli me Tangere (Latin for Touch me not) Is a novel written by José Rizal,

one of the national heroes of the Philippines, during the colonization of the country
by Spain to describe perceived inequities of the Spanish Catholic priests and the
ruling government. Originally written in Spanish, the book is more commonly
published and read in the Philippines in either Tagalog or English

- El Filibusterismo (Spanish for "filibustering") Also known by its English

alternative title The Reign of Greed, is the second novel Dr. José Rizal wrote. It is the
sequel to Noli me Tangere and, like the first book, was written in Spanish. It was first
published in 1891 in Ghent.

- Mi Ultimo Adios (“My Last Farewell”) Is a poem written also by Dr. José

Rizal, on the eve of his execution by firing squad on December 30, 1896. The piece
was one of the last notes he wrote before his death. Another that he had written was
found in his shoe, but because the text was illegible, its contents remain a mystery.
MERLINDA BOBIS (Nov. 25, 1959)

- Award-winning writer Merlinda Bobis started off as a painter, but grew into

a writer as “painting with words was cheaper.” Bobis’ books, short stories, and
poems tell of lesser-known aspects of Filipino life, often from a strong feminist
stance.

60 | P a g e
 61

- One of her most well-known novels, Fish-Hair Woman, describes a romance

between a young village woman and an Australian soldier in the middle of a

harrowing conflict that threatens the entire province. The Australian called it a
“superb novel” that “maintains its tragic intensity throughout.”

- Bobis has also won the international Prix Italia award for her play Rita’s

Lullaby and the Steele Rudd Award for her short story “White
Turtle.”
Nick Joaquin (May 4, 1917- April 29, 2004)

- Winning the National Artist award for Literature, Nick Joaquín is probably

the most esteemed writer the Philippines has produced. Joaquin came from a well-
educated family and was published at the early age of 17.

- After winning a scholarship in a nationwide essay contest, he left the

Philippines to study in Hong Kong. On his return to Manila he worked for many years
as a journalist, and his highly intellectual writing raised the standards of journalism in
the country.

- Joaquin’s book, The Woman With Two Navels is essential

reading in Philippine literature. However many of his short stories, such as “May Day
Eve” are extremely accessible and enjoyable for those new to the Philippines.
Carlos P. Rómulo (Feb. 14, 1899- Dec. 15,1985)

61 | P a g e
 62

- Carlos P. Romulo, in full Carlos Peña Romulo, (born January 14, 1899,

Camiling, Philippines—died December 15, 1985, Manila), Philippine general,

diplomat, and journalist known for his activities on behalf of the Allies during World
War II and his later work with the United Nations.

- Romulo, in all, wrote and published 22 books, which includes The United

(novel), I Walked with Heroes (autobiography), I Saw the Fall of the Philippines,
Mother America and I See the Philippines Rise (war-time memoirs).

- One of Carlos P. Romulo's numerous contributions was co-founding the Boy

Scouts of the Philippines. He also served as President of the UN General Assembly.

He passed away in 1985.

- He was also a soldier who aided General Douglas McArthur in World War 2.

- He died, at 87, in Manila on 15 December 1985 and was buried in the

Heroes' Cemetery (Libingan ng mga Bayani). He was honored as "one of the truly
great statesmen of the 20th century."[8] In 1980, he was extolled by United Nations
Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim as "Mr. United Nations" for his valuable services to
the United Nations and his dedication to freedom and world peace.

62 | P a g e
 63

- Romulo served eight Philippine presidents, from Manuel L. Quezon to

Ferdinand Marcos, as the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines and as the
country's representative to the United States and to the United Nations.Romulo
served as Resident Commissioner of the Philippines to the United States Congress
from 1944 to 1946.

- In his career in the United Nations, Romulo was a strong advocate of human

rights, freedom and decolonization

Carlo Magno "Carlo" Jose Caparas (Dec. 15, 1958)

- Widely known as Carlo J. Caparas, is a Filipino comic strip creator/writer-

turned director and producer, who is best known for creating such Filipino
superheroes and comic book characters as Panday, Bakekang, Totoy Bato, Joaquin
Bordado, Kamagong, Kamandag, Elias Paniki, Tasya Fantasya, Gagambino, Pieta and
Ang Babaeng Hinugot Sa Aking Tadyang, among others.

- He is also known as a director of numerous massacre movies such as

Kuratong Baleleng and The Cory Quirino Kidnap: NBI Files.

- In July 2009, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo named Caparas as one of

seven National Artist of the Philippines proclaimed for that year, under the new
category of "Visual Arts and Film.”
Mars Ravelo (Oct. 9, 1916 – Sept. 12, 1988)

63 | P a g e
 64

- Was a Filipino comic book cartoonist and graphic novelist who created

characters of Darna the super heroine, Dyesebel the love-lorn mermaid, and Captain
Barbel the super hero,, Lastikman, Bondying, Varga, Wanted: Perfect Mother,
Hiwaga, Maruja, Mariposa, Roberta, Rita, Buhay Pilipino, the duo Jack and Jill, Flash
Bomba, Tiny Tony, and Dragonna among others.

- Mars Ravelo started out as a cartoonist, then as a writer, and later on as

editor-in-chief for two publications houses and for several film companies. He later
established his own company, RAR.

- Ravelo is known to be the "King of Philippine Komiks."

ARTS OF KRISTIAN SENDON CORDERO (April 23, 1983)

- Kristian is a poet, translator and filmmaker from Bikol. He wrote and

directed the first film of Nora Aunor in her mother tongue, Hinulid. His recent
collections of poetry Labi, Canticos and Apat na Boses received the National Book
Awards and Gintong Aklat Awards for Best Book in Philippine Literature.

- As a translator, he has translated the works of Rainer Maria Rilke, Jorge Luis

Borges and Oscar Wilde. His first film Angustia was recognized as one of the Best First
Films by the Young Critics Circle of the Philippines.

ARTS OF DARYLL DELGADO

64 | P a g e
 65

- Daryll Delgado's first novel, Remains, is forthcoming (2018) from Ateneo de

Naga University Press. Her book, After the Body Displaces Water (USTPH, 2012), won
the 32nd Philippine National Book Award/Manila Critics Circle award for best book of
short fiction in English, and was a finalist in the 2013 Madrigal-Gonzales First Book
Award.

- She spends half her time around Southeast Asia, officially resides in Quezon

City with her husband, but was born and raised in Tacloban City, which she continues
to call home.
Region 1
1. Pedro Bukaneg (March 1592 – circa 1630)

- Pedro was a Filipino poet. Blind since birth, he is the acknowledged author

of the Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang (Life of Lam-ang). He is considered the "Father of
Ilocano literature."
Region 2
2. Fernando Mamuri Maramág (Jan. 21, 1893- Oct. 24, 1936)

- He was writer and editor at several magazines, including

Rising Philippines, Citizen, Philippine National Weekly, Philippines Herald,

and The Tribune.

65 | P a g e
 66

- A poet and essayist, Maramág translated Ibanag folk songs into English, such

as the “Cagayanon Labor Song,” “A Translation of an Orphan’s Song,” and “Cagayano

Peasant Song”. His poems include “To a Youth,” “The Aetheist,” and “Moonlight on
Manila Bay”.
Region 3
3. Francisco Balagtas (April 2, 1788 – Feb. 20, 1862)

- He also known as Francisco Baltazar, was a prominent Filipino poet, and is

widely considered one of the greatest Filipino literary laureates for his impact on
Filipino literature. The famous epic Florante at Laura is regarded as his defining work.
The surname "Baltazar", sometimes misconstrued as a pen name, was a legal
surname Balagtas adopted after the 1849 edict of Governor-General Narciso Claveria
y Zaldua, which mandated that the native population adopt standard Spanish
surnames instead of native ones.

- His mentor was José de la Cruz, otherwise known as Joseng Sisiw. Balagtas is

greatly idolized in the Philippines that the term for Filipino debate in
extemporaneous verse is named after him: Balagtasan.
Region 4:
4. Bienvenido Lumbera (April 11, 1932)

- He is a Filipino poet, critic and dramatist. At the height of Martial Law,

Lumbera had taken on other creative projects. He began writing librettos for musical
theater. Initially, the Philippine Educational Theater Association (PETA) requested

66 | P a g e
 67

him to create a musical based on Carlos Bulosan’s America Is In the Heart. Eventually,
Lumbera created several highly acclaimed musical dramas such as Tales of the
Manuvu; Rama, Hari; Nasa Puso ang Amerika; Bayani; Noli me Tangere: The Musical;
and Hibik at Himagsik Nina Victoria Laktaw. Sa Sariling Bayan: Apat na Dulang May
Musika
Region 5
5. Potenciano Gregorio (May 19, 1880- Feb.12, 1939)

- He was a Bicolano musician. He was the composer of "Sarung Banggi" (One

Evening), the most famous song in the Bikol language.

- At an early age he learned to play the violin and was soon recognized for his

talent. He subsequently learned to play other instruments such as the bandurria, the
guitar, and piano. Later he started writing music for the local church by himself or in
collaboration with his older brother Bernardo who organized the local band Banda de
Lib-og. Potenciano later became the bandmaster of the same band until he joined
the Philippine Constabulary Band in 1919.
Region 6
6. Felipe Landa Jocano (Feb. 5, 1930 – Oct. 27, 2013)
He was a Filipino anthropologist, educator, and author known for his
significant body of work within the field of Philippine Anthropology, and in
particular for documenting and translating the Hinilawod, a Western Visayan
folk epic. His eminence within the field of Philippine anthropology was
widely recognized during his lifetime, with National Artist F. Sionil Jose
dubbing him "the country’s first and foremost cultural anthropologist “.

67 | P a g e
 68

Region 7
7. Antonio M. Abad (10 May 1894- April 20,1970)

- He was a prominent poet, fictionist, playwright and essayist from Cebu,

Philippines.
Abad frequently wrote in both, his native language, Cebuano, and Spanish.
He was a strong advocate of the Spanish language and Hispano-Filipino
culture when its use was discouraged during the American colonial period in
the Philippines. Abad was one of the leading contributors of Hispano-Filipino
literature during his time, producing novels and plays criticizing the
occupation of the islands by the Americans. His works would later be known
as part of the Golden Age of Fil-Hispanic Literature (1898-1941). Two of his
novels went on to win the Premio Zóbel, the oldest literary award in the
Philippines, El Último Romántico in 1928, La Oveja de Nathán in 1929.
Region 8
8. Iluminado Lucente (May 14, 1883 – Feb. 14, 1960) w

- He as a Philippine writer, primarily writing poetry and drama in the Waray

language. He is considered to be one of the finest writers in the Waray language.

- His most famous work is the poem An Iroy nga Tuna (The Motherland). He

wrote about 30 plays, and was known for both satire using character stereotypes and
linguistic humour, which often took the form of plays on language, combining the
sounds of Spanish, English and Waray.
Region 9

68 | P a g e
 69

9. Ibrahim Jubaira (1962-2003)

- He is perhaps the best known of the older generation of English language-

educated Muslim Filipino writers and one of the most prolific, with three volumes of
short stories published and two more collections of unpublished material. ”Blue
Blood of the Big Astana” was published in 1941. Region 10
10. Damiana Eugenio (Sept. 27, 1921 – Oct. 10, 2014)

- She was a Filipino female author and professor who was known as the

Mother of Philippine Folklore, a title she received in 1986. She has several
publications in the field of Philippine folklore, among them a series of seven books
which she compiled and edited.

- Written in the English-language, her Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths

(1993) served as a compendium that promotes "national and international access to

Filipino folklore," were gathered from written sources rather than collected oral
variants, and was intended to foster interest in the subject matter. In this work,
Eugenio also presented the collected narratives in a proper scholarly context that
also justified the inclusion of the legends of saints, as opposed to being a pure
collection of myths.

69 | P a g e
 70

Region 11
11. Emmanuel Agapito Flores Lacaba (Dec. 10, 1948- March 18, 1976)

- He was a Filipino writer, poet, essayist, playwright, fictionist, scriptwriter,

songwriter and activist and he is considered as the only poet warrior of the
Philippines.

- Lacaba wrote the lyrics of "Awit ni Kuala", the song sung by Lolita Rodriguez

in the classic Lino Brocka masterpiece 'Tinimbang Ka Ngunit Kulang’'. He also

composed new revolutionary lyrics in Cebuano for some well-known folk songs.
Region 12
12. Jaime An Lim (Jan. 7, 1946)

- He has added yet another prize to his growing list of literary achievements.

Lim’s poem, The Small Bright Things, was awarded second prize for poetry written for
children during the 66th Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature at the Cultural
Center of the Philippines (CCP) in Manila Monday, September 5.

- His renowned masterpiece and most famous work, the "Axiolotl Colony",

was also awarded a first place award for short story in the Palanca awards of 1993.
Region 13
13. Joey Ayala (June 1, 1956)

70 | P a g e
 71

- Is a Filipino singer, songwriter and former chairman of the music committee

of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts. He is well known for his style of
music that combines the sounds of Filipino ethnic instruments with modern pop
music.

- The name of his band "Bagong Lumad" literally means "New Native" - a

name and philosophy that has been carried over into Bagong Lumad Artists
Foundation, Inc.

- In 2013, Ayala entered the second Philippine Popular Music Festival as a

composer and interpreter for the song called "Papel" where it was named as one the
twelve finalists
Region 14 ( NCR )
14. Liwayway A. Arceo (1924–1999)

- She was a multi-awarded Tagalog fictionist, journalist, radio scriptwriter and

editor from the Philippines.

Arceo authored a number of well-received novels, such as Canal de la Reina
(1973) and Titser (1995). She also published collections of short stories such
as Ina, Maybahay, Anak at iba pa, Mga Maria, Mga Eva, Ang Mag-anak na
Cruz (1990), and Mga Kuwento ng Pag-ibig (1997).

71 | P a g e
 72

- Arceo's story, Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa was placed second in the Japanese

Imperial Government-sanctioned Pinakamabuting Maikling Katha ng 1943 (The Best

Short Stories of 1943).
Region 15 ( CAR )
15. LUISA A. IGLORIA

- Is poet and Associate Professor in the MFA Creative Writing Program and

Department of English, Old Dominion University. Her work has appeared or will
be forthcoming in numerous anthologies and journals including Poetry, Crab
Orchard Review, The Missouri Review, Indiana Review, Poetry East, Smartish Pace,
Rattle, The North American Review, Bellingham Review, Shearsman (UK), PRISM
International (Canada), The Asian Pacific American
Journal, and TriQuarterly.
Region 16 (ARMM)
16. Leonor Orosa – Goquingco (July 24, 1917 – July 15, 2005)

- She was a 1976 Filipino National Artist in creative dance. She could play the

piano, draw, design scenery and costumes, sculpt, act, direct, dance and
choreograph. Her pen name was Cristina Luna and she was known as Trailblazer,
Mother of Philippine Theater Dance and Dean of Filipino Performing Acts Critics.

- She produced Circling the Globe (1939) and Dance Panorama in the same

year. She created The Elements in 1940, the first ballet choreographed by a Filipino
to commissioned music. She also created Sports during the same year, featuring

72 | P a g e
 73

cheerleaders, a tennis match and a basketball game. The first Philippine folkloric
ballet, Trend: Return to the Native, was choreographed by Goquingco in 1941.
Region 17 ( MIMAROPA )
17. Malou Leviste Jacob

- Is a Filipino playwright. She was a recipient of the S.E.A. Write Award.

- She has written and directed a lot of dramas for television and documentary
films. Her works include Pagod na Ako, Irog, and a TV special about the National
Artist Amado V. Hernandez. She has been a teacher in playwriting workshops of
PETA-CITASA and has also been creative consultant of Communication Foundation
for Asia.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

The particulate nature of matter

- Chemistry deals with the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Therefore, matter is the heart and soul of chemistry

- Everything around us is an example of matter. It includes all that can and

cannot be seen, like air. It also includes all that can be touched like water. Thus,
everything we see, and touch are forms of matter.

- Energy is not matter. Heat, light and sound are not matter. Energy enables
us to do work. It drives us to perform our jobs. However, Energy like heat and light is
not an example of MATTER.

73 | P a g e
 74

- Sound is not matter. We enjoy listening to radios. We are able to hear

sounds. But, we cannot see and carry them. But, we can carry things that produce
sound like radio and cassette. All those things are matter, but sound is not.

State of Matter

- Solid

- Liquid

- Gas

- All substances can exist in three states: Solid, Liquid, and Gas. Those are
made up of microscopic particles, but the behaviors of these particles differ in three
states.

General Characteristics of Solid State

Solid state is determined by following characteristics.
• Definite mass, volume, and shape
• Strong Intermolecular Forces

- In solids, the intermolecular forces are very strong, and the constituent
particles are closely packed. That is why; solids are incompressible and have high
density.

Incompressible

74 | P a g e
 75

- The constituent particles of a solid are very closely packed. The inter-particle
distances are so small that if we try to bring them closer, repulsions start between
their electron clouds.
High Density

- The mass of solid is greater than that of liquids and gases. Also, since solids
have fixed volume, solids show high density

General characteristics of Liquid:

- Liquids are almost incompressible. In liquids molecules are close to each

other. The molecules does not have lot of space between them. The molecules can
not squeezed closer to one another.

- Liquids have fixed volume but no fixed shape. They have fixed volume but
they do not have fixed or definite shape.

- Liquids have their boiling points above room temperature, under normal
conditions.

General characteristics of Gas

Low Density

- Gases contain scattered molecules that are dispersed across a

given volume and are therefore less dense than in their solid or liquid states.
Indefinite Shape or Volume

- Gases have no definite shape or volume. The random movement of gas

molecules allows them to expand or contract to assume the volume of the container
holding them.

75 | P a g e
 76

Compressibility and Expandability

- The low density of gases makes them compressible since their molecules
can be positioned far apart from one another. This allows them to move freely to fit
into the gaps of space between them

Physical and chemical property of matter

1. PHYSICAL PROPERTY - can be measured and observed without changing the
composition or identity of a substance.

- The physical properties of matter are further classified into:

- INTENSIVE PROPERTY is those that are not dependent on the amount of

matter. ✘ Texture ✘ Color ✘ Odor ✘ Hardness ✘ Density

- EXTENSIVE PROPERTY is those that depend so much on the amount or

quantity of matter. ✘ Volume ✘ Mass ✘ Length ✘ area

- No new chemical species forms in a physical change. Changing the state of a

pure substance between solid, liquid, and gas phases of matter are all physical
changes since the identity of the matter does not change.

- ✘ Crumpling a sheet of aluminum foil ✘ Melting an ice cube ✘ Casting silver

in a mold ✘ Breaking a bottle ✘ Boiling water ✘ Evaporating alcohol ✘ Sublimation
of dry ice into carbon dioxide vapor

2. CHEMICAL PROPERTY - are those that result when a new substance is

produced. Thus, there is a change in the composition of matter.

76 | P a g e
 77

- A new compound (product) results from a chemical change as the atoms

rearrange themselves to form new chemical bonds. ✘Burning wood ✘Souring milk
✘Mixing acid and base ✘Digesting food

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Protons
• Discovered by Ernest Rutherford
• The atomic number is the equal to the number of protons in an atom.
• Atomic mass 1.0073 in Amu
Electron
• Discovered by JJ Thompson
• Atomic mass 0.00054858 Amu

Neutron
• Discovered by James Chadwick
• Atomic mass 1.0078

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER AND ISOTOPES

ATOMIC NUMBER = PROTON AND ELECTRON
MASS NUMBER = NUMBER OF PROTONS + NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
= ATOMIC NUMBER + NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
NEUTRON = MASS NUMBER - ATOMIC NUMBER
Naming of Compounds

- Since we use different methods in naming binary covalent (molecular)

compounds and ionic compounds, the first step in naming or writing the formula of a
compound is to determine which of the 2 compound classes it belongs. This can be
done as follows:

Ionic compound

77 | P a g e
 78

• A compound of positive (Cation) and negative ion (Anion) held together by

ionic compound.
•To find the compound name of an anion, replace the end of the element’s
name with “ide”.
• Name of cation+ name of Anion, suffix “ide”

Ionic compound without transition metal

•Aluminum oxide
Step 1: Al +3 O-2
Step 2: Balance charges Al +6 2 O-6 3
final answer: Al2O3
• Sodium oxide
Step 1: Na +1 O-2
Step 2: Balance charges Na2 O1
final answer: Na2O
Ionic compound with transition metals
•Iron (III) oxide
Step 1: Fe +3 O-2
Step 2: Balance charges Fe +6 2 O-6 3
Final Answer: Fe2O3
• Nickel (II) Bromide
Step 1: Ni +2 Br-1
Step 2: Balance charges Ni Br2
Final Answer: NiBr2

Polyatomic ions- a group of covalently bonded non-metal atom that has an overall
electric charge

78 | P a g e
 79

Ionic compound with polyatomic atoms

• Calcium phosphate
Step 1: Ca+2 PO4 -3
Step 2: Balance charges Ca3 (PO4) 2
Final Answer: Ca3 (PO4) 2
• Sodium Perchlorate
Step 1: Na+1 ClO4 -1
Step 2: Balance charges Na (ClO4)
Final Answer: Na (ClO4)
• Calcium Carbonate
Step 1: Ca+2 CO -2
Step 2: Balance charges Ca2 (CO3) 2
Final Answer: Ca2 (CO3) 2
Ionic compound with a transition metal and polyatomic atom
• Copper (II) Nitrate
Step 1: Cu+2 NO3 -1
Step 2: Balance charges Cu (NO3) 2
Final Answer: Cu (NO3) 2
• Fe Br2
Fe- Transition Metal
Br- Halogen
Fe+2 Br-1
• Iron (II) Bromide
• Cu3 (PO4) 2 - Calcium phosphate
• Cu+2 PO4 -3
•Copper (II) Phosphate

Classification of Matter

79 | P a g e
 80

Elements - is a pure substance which cannot be broken down by chemical means

Elements are categorized as:
A.Metals. Metals are good conductors of heat, have properties of ductility,
malleability, have high melting point and high densities. Example of metals are
Aluminum, Iron, and Gold. Metals are further categorized as:
• Alkali Metals- these are found in Group 1A of the periodic table. They are very
reactive and do not occur freely in nature. They readily lose one electron to form
ionic bonds with other elements.
• Alkaline Earth Metals- these belongs to the Group IIA of the periodic table. Alkaline
earth metals are naturally occurring in nature.
• Transition Metals- they have a lot of electrons that are distributed in different
ways. This allows them to have more than one oxidation state and bond with other
elements.
B. Non-Metals are dull and poor conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are
categorized as:
•Halogens- are non-metallic elements that drive its name from the term halogen
which means salt-former. Compounds containing halogens are called salts. The
halogens are Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine and Astatine.
•Noble Gases - are elements that have the maximum number of electrons in their
outer shell thus making them stable and not readily combining with other elements
to form compounds. Noble gases are: Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and
Radon.
Metalloids - behave like metals and nonmetals. They have the same physical
appearance as metals. They behave chemically like non-metals. The metalloids are:
Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony and Tellurium.
Compound - are pure substance that are made from two or more elements that have
reacted chemically with each other. Compounds may be broken down or
decomposed by chemical change into two or more simpler pure substance.
•Organic- compounds made up of the carbon element in combination with other
elements.
•Inorganic- compounds made up of other elements other than carbon. Salts, Acid
Bases
Mixture- are formed when two or more substances are mixed together. Since there
are no chemical bonds that are formed between the two substances, they can be
separable by physical means.

80 | P a g e
 81

Solution, in chemistry a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in relative

amounts that can be varied continuously up to what is called the limit of solubility. •
The term solution is commonly applied to the liquid state of matter, but solutions of
gases and solids are possible. Air for example, is a solution consisting chiefly of
oxygen and nitrogen with trace amounts of several other gases. Seperation
Colloid is a mixture is two or more substances mixed together but not chemically
combined (they can be separated). They are a special type of mixture where tiny
particles of one substance are scattered through another substance. Cream is a
colloid as it’s made up of tiny particles of fat dispersed in water.
Suspension is defined as a heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles are
spread throughout the liquid without dissolving in it.
Example

- If you go to a beach and mix sand and water in a bucket you will form a
suspension. Given time, the sand will settle on the bottom of the bucket to leave
clear water.

81 | P a g e
 82

Naming of compounds (Covalent compound)

Covalent compound
•Covalent, or molecular, compounds generally result from two nonmetals
reacting with each other. The elements form a compound by sharing
electrons, resulting in an electrically neutral molecule.

Prefixes and Molecular Compound Names

•Nonmetals may combine in a variety of ratios, so it is important that the
name of a molecular compound indicates how many atoms of each type of
element are present in the compound. This is accomplished using prefixes. If
there is only one atom of the first element, no prefix is used. It is customary
to prefix the name of one atom of the second element with mono-.
Certain rules apply to the way names of covalent compounds are written:

- The second element is given an -ide ending.

- Prefixes are used to denote how many atoms of each element are present in
the compound.

- PREFIX + NAME OF NON-METAL

- PREFIX + NON-METAL ENDING IDE

N3O6 - Trinitrogen Hexaoxide

Diphophorus pentoxide - P2O5
Nitrogen triiodide - NI3

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

82 | P a g e
 83

The Nature of Philosophy

I. Meaningful Meaning of Philosophy

- The word ‘Philosophy’ (φιλοσοφία), etymologically speaking, came from

the two Greek words: philo (φιλο) which means ‘love’ and sophia (σοφία) which
means ‘knowledge’ or ‘wisdom’ - meaning, ‘love of wisdom’ or more precisely ‘lover
of wisdom.’Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning
matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. In other
words, philosophy is an attempt to fulfill this very reasonable desire of man as a
rational animal. Philosophy is a science that deals with the ultimate cause and
principles of things by the light of reason alone. It implies a natural and essential
need in human-beings to know themselves and the world in which they live in, act
and have their being. Hence, it is difficult for man to live, i.e. to be “being-inthe-
world,” without philosophy.

SCIENCE - the investigation is systematic. It is an organized body of

knowledge.
REASON ALONE - uses natural capacity to think.
STUDIES ALL THINGS - all other sciences concern themselves with particular
object of investigation.
FIRST CAUSE/HIGHEST PRINCIPLE
1. PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY Whatever is is and whatever is not is not;
everything is whatever is. Everything is its own being and not being, and not
being is not being.
2. PRINCIPLE OF NONCONTRADICTION It is impossible for a thing to be and
not to be at the same time, and at the same respect.
3. PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE A thing is either is or is not; everything
must be either be or not be; between being and not being, there is no
middle ground possible.
4. PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON Nothing exists without a sufficient
reason for its being and existence

II. The Origin of Philosophy

83 | P a g e
 84

- According to Aristotle, philosophy humbly starts from wonder – the capacity

of man to consciously question the realities happening around him, out of curiosity.
Man encounters these phenomena through sense-experience, i.e., by way of the
sense of touch, sight, hearing, etc. – echoing a Scholastic maxim derived from
Aristotle “Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius in sensu” (nothing is in the intellect
that was not first in the senses). Thus, having a collective experience of a particular
what’s happening around him, man begins to reflect over these events. The sun,
moon and the stars, for instance, appear to him wonderful and beautiful. As a result
of his reflection, he thinks that these events can be explained by powers akin to man
– the ability to grasp the meaning of these things. He then proposes to explain the
essential purpose of these things, of course aware of the limitations innate in him.

-
• The term “PHILOSOPHY” was first used by Pythagoras and his followers around 531
B.C.
• PHILOSOPHY (LOVE OF WISDOM) Desires for INTELLECTUAL INQUIRY
• The core of philosophical inquiry is QUESTIONING.
• Question is a conscious search for knowledge
• PHILOSOPHY IS AN ART OF THINKING.
• PHILOSOPHY IS THE ORIGIN OF ALL KNOWLEDGE.

III. The Subject Matter of Philosophy

- Philosophy is the rational attempt to explain things. It desires to present an

idea of the whole universe with all its elements and aspects, and their
interconnectedness to one another. It is not satisfied with just a partial view of the
world. It seeks to have an integral interpretation of the entire reality: it attempts to
see the whole and be able to decipher its part. The different sciences deal with
diverse constituent parts of the world. -

- Mathematical sciences are concerned with numbers and figures. –

84 | P a g e
 85

- Physics discusses heat, light, motion, sound, electricity and magnetism.

- Chemistry concerns with chemical phenomena.

- Psychology studies with the phenomena of intellectual and emotional life.

- Sociology talks about the different structures and the growth of society and
its institutions.

- Economics presents the welfare and wealth of man.

- Politics deals with the organizational structure and purpose of the State and
its numerous organs. Thus sciences provide us a panoramic view of the world.
Moreover, philosophy also harmonizes the utmost conclusions of the diverse
disciplines, brings them together, and offers a coherent notion of the entire world. It
examines the nature of the essential concepts of matter, time and space, life, mind,
etc. and interconnects them to one-another. It makes inquiries into the nature of the
universe, its material things, its Maker or Author, its telos, and its connection to man
and his soul. It is an art of understanding all things rationally, scientifically, and
insistently. It is an art of thinking, in the sense, that it logically and methodically
studies the reality as a whole

The Value of Philosophy

1. Philosophy is the rational attempt to explain things
✓ Aims to provide food for the mind and nourishment for the spirit.
✓ Learn how to systematize all important knowledge in the domain of
reason.
✓ Is able to suggest many possibilities which could deepen one’s
thoughts, broaden one’s perspectives and widen one’s view.
2. Philosophy guides people in the pursuit of truth and in distinguishing truth from
what is false or from mere opinion.

85 | P a g e
 86

3. Philosophy helps people understand their capacities and potentials and give them
a better appreciation of themselves.
4. Philosophy desires to present an idea of the whole universe with all its elements
and aspects and their interconnectedness to one another.

PHILOSOPHY: A DISCIPLINE OF QUESTIONING

✓ Philosophy (love of wisdom) desires for Intellectual Inquiry. It is an art of
thinking. The core of philosophical inquiry is questioning. Question is a
conscious search for knowledge. Anyone who asks questions is then
philosophizing. Philosophy is a discipline where the questions are more
important than the answers and every answer becomes a new question.
✓Philosophy is both dynamic and personal. It is dynamic because it is an
unending series of questions and answers. It is personal because it is a “one
man’s answer to a question may be valid for him but not for the next man”.

THREE FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS OF AN AUTHENTIC QUESTION

1. It is for the knowledge of something.
2. It is an awareness of ignorance.
3. It is an awareness that there is more to be known.
THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHILOSOPHIC QUESTION/ PROBLEM
1. Often very broad or general
2. No single methodology for answering the question/s
3. Have no practical utility. e.g. What is the purpose of man’s life? Am I
existing or is this just a dream?

IV. Some Philosophical Problems

- The basic philosophical problems of philosophy in the East and in the West
have been similar. The common characteristic of these problems was that they were
regarding about the universal and general inquiries, not with the questions of
individual nature. In this sense the philosophical problems are dissimilar from
scientific problems which have their starting point from particular questions. Here
are some examples of philosophical problems: What is being? What is knowledge?
What is reality? What is world? Who has created this world? Is there a God? Who am
I? What is the aim of my life? Why should I live? What is the purpose of the world?
What is love? These questions are greatly grounded on human existence.

86 | P a g e
 87

V. Branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics – Metaphysics is the main branch of philosophy which was

introduced by Andronicus of Rhodes and which has a literal meaning,
beyond physical. It is the philosophical study of reality. It is the science that
is concerned with being qua being – the study of being itself. It asks he most
fundamental question of all: “what is being?”, or “what is to be?” Moreover,
it discusses the three aspects of reality, viz., the world, the self, and the God.
Cosmology – Cosmology is the branch of philosophy that concerns about
the material world. National Aeronautics and Space Administration or NASA
beautifully defines cosmology as “the scientific study of the large scale
properties of the universe as a whole.”
Social and Political Philosophy – Social and Political philosophy are equally
related fields in philosophy commonly dealing with the role of each
individual in the society, as well as the role of government. Social philosophy
is the philosophical investigation about social behavior of humans in the
society

Theodicy – Alvin Plantinga, an American analytic philosopher, describes theodicy to

be the answer to the question of why God permits evil. It is defined to be a
theological concept that tries to prove God in reply to the existential problem of evil
that influences contrary to the existence of an all-powerful and omnibenevolent God.
Rational Psychology – Rational psychology is a philosophical attempt to address the
question on the soul of man.
Epistemology – Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that concerns on the
certainty of knowledge, i.e. a search for truth. It is the study of the nature, limits and
validity of knowledge, knower and known, etc.
Axiology – A branch of philosophy philosophically that studies value.It has been
divided into the following three branches:
i) Ethics: It discusses the criteria of right and good. Aristotle’s approach to
ethics is teleological, meaning, “in terms of the end, or telos”. In
Aristotle’s thinking, everything tends towards a purpose or an end, and
our actions as well seek a purpose or an end.
ii) Aesthetics: Aesthetics, or better said the philosophy of art, discusses
the nature and criteria of beauty.
iii) Logic: It is a tool for philosophizing. It studies the truth and holds to
consist the systematic study of inferences. The subject matter of logic

87 | P a g e
 88

consists of the methods of judgment, types of propositions, hypothesis,

definition, etc

VI. Approaches in Studying Philosophy

- Studying Philosophy can be approached in two senses: Historical and

Thematic. It is historical because of the light it sheds on the people and societies of
the past; and, thematic in order to seek illumination on the themes of current
philosophical inquiry. Thus, a combination of the two allows the historical to refer to
the thematic for amplification; and likewise, a combination of both allows the
thematic to refer to the historical to place particular issues in context. The historical
survey studies philosophy via historical development as presented by the ancient,
medieval, modern, contemporary, etc. while the thematic survey deals with the
cosmocentric, theocentric anthropocentric, existential philosophical inquiry

VII. Basic Features of Western and Eastern Philosophy

88 | P a g e
 89

- To really see the essential features of the Western and Eastern philosophy,
it
is

but

necessary to trace its individual

worldview. Western society endeavors to seek
and demonstrate the truth while Eastern
society accepts the truth as given and
becomes more interested in discovering the
equilibrium. Westerners give more emphasis
on individual rights; Easterners is concerned on social responsibly – the common
good of the community.

89 | P a g e
 90

ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

IONIAN
It was one of the four major tribes that Greeks considered themselves to be divided
during the Ancient period. Ionia was the place where western philosophy began and
was the homeland of Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Heraclitus.
1. Thales

- born in Miletus He believed that the originating principle of nature and the
nature of matter was a single material substance: water. Everything comes from
water and everything leads back to it
2. Anaximander

- born in Miletus He claimed that the fundamental substance of reality is the

infinite or the apeiron. The apeiron has no precise characteristics or attributes
3. Anaximenes

- Claimed that the fundamental substance must be air. Air holds our soul
together, it encompasses the whole world and it is in constant movement. Living
being needs air for respiration
4. Heraclitus

- Came from Miletus and was the last of the Ionian philosophers who
remained in his country. He is known for the mystical nature of his philosophy about
change, He believes that the only thing permanent in this world is change (known as
flux or becoming) He was known who have said that “You cannot step twice into the
same river”. He viewed the world as always changing which he likened to an ever-
living fire. The process of becoming finds it origin in Fire, the origin of all matters. Fire
itself is the symbol of permanent change because it transforms a substance into
another substance without being a substance at all.
PYTHAGOREANS

- The organization Pythagoras founded at Croton was called a "school", but, in

many ways, resembled a monastery.

90 | P a g e
 91

1. Pythagoras

- He was the leader of Pythagoreans who treated philosophy as a way of life.

He believed that the primary constituent of reality would be numbers. Anything
could be explained through numbers.
ELEATICS

- A pre-Socratic school of philosophy founded by Parmenides in the early fifth

century BC in the ancient town of Elea. rejected the epistemological validity of sense
experience, and instead took logical standards of clarity and necessity to be the
criteria of truth. Senses cannot cognize unity, because their reports are inconsistent;
it is by thought alone that we can pass beyond the false appearances of sense and
arrive at the knowledge of being, at the fundamental truth that the "All is One".
There can be no creation, for being cannot come from non-being, because a thing
cannot arise from that which is different from it
1. Parmenides

- Known as the leader of the Eleatic school. His philosophical idea is a

contradiction of the idea of change from Heraclitus. He proposed that the only thing
that is permanent in this world is being. Change is merely an illusion. He explained
how reality (coined as "what-is") is one, change is impossible, and existence is
timeless, uniform, necessary, and unchanging. In "the way of opinion", he explains
the world of appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which
are false and deceitful. Being is and non-Being is not. Only being is; non-being is
unthinkable
PLURALIST

- Pluralism it is the theory that there is more than one basic substance or
principle. Their doctrine is that the multiplicity of the first principle and the action of
a cause that gives rise to movement.t.
1. Empedocles

91 | P a g e
 92

- He believed in himself to be immortal and that he had magical powers. He

was known to have cured somebody who was comatose for 24 months. To proved
that he was immortal he leaped into the mouth of Mt. Etna, an active volcano in
Sicily that led to his untimely death. He was the proponent of the notion that reality
is made up of the four elements, namely, earth, air, fire and water.
2. Anaxagoras

- He believed that there is not just one element that reality is made of but
are Homogeneous seeds or element. For him, matter becomes infinitely divisible that
whenever you divide matter, each separated part will contain elements of everything
else.

- Aristotle called them Homeomeries or the things that will remain

qualitatively the same even if they are divided into smaller and smaller parts. All
beings are composed of a mixture of homeomeries.

ATOMIST

- Represent another effort to reconcile the unity of being with the multiplicity
of the physical world. Atomist claim that non-being exists: they are the voids or the
space. Atom is being, a purely physical unit consisting every reality. It is through the
motions of atoms that becoming is made possible. The unity and plurality for the
Atomist can be explained though the unity of these multiple atoms through pressure
and contract.
1. Leucippus

- is reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was the
earliest Greek to develop the theory of atomism—the idea that everything is
composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms. He
often appears as the master to his pupil Democritus, a philosopher also touted as the
originator of the atomic theory
2. Democritus

92 | P a g e
 93

- was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today

for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe.

- His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from those of his mentor
Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts.

SOPHIST

- was a specific kind of teacher in ancient Greece, in the fifth and fourth
centuries BC. The term originated from Greek sophisma, from sophizo "I am wise";
and, sophós means "wise man". It was synonym for a wise man and designated
anyone who excelled in a particular science or art. There was a shift because
philosophers were not so concerned about providing the rational basis of their ethics
since these normally were the offshoot of religious beliefs. Many different solutions
given to the problem of the origin and nature of the world, solutions which often
contradicted one another, created an attitude of skepticism, and led men to
concentrate on other questions.
1. Gorgias

- has been labelled "The Nihilist“ because some scholars have interpreted
his thesis on "the nonexistent" to be an argument against the existence
of anything that is straightforwardly endorsed by Gorgias himself.
Nihilism is the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be
known or communicated. It is associated with pessimism and a radical
skepticism that condemns existence. The work developed a skeptical
argument, which has been extracted from the sources and translated as
below: Nothing exists; Even if something exists, nothing can be known
about it; and Even if something can be known about it, knowledge
about it can't be communicated to others. Even if it can be
communicated, it cannot be understood.
2. Protagoras

93 | P a g e
 94

- Is the most famous sophist. He was born in Abdera circa 484 B.C. Knowledge
for him is based exclusively on the senses which are constantly subject to change like
everything else.

- For him, "Man is the measure of all things", interpreted by Plato to mean
that there is no absolute truth, but that which individuals deem to be the truth

The Three Great Greek Triumvirate

1. S O C R A T E S - was a classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher credited as one

of the founders of Western philosophy, and as being the first moral
philosopher, of the Western ethical tradition of thought. He did not write
down any of his teachings, information about him and his philosophies
depends upon secondary sources. The statement "I know that I know
nothing" is often attributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Plato's
Apology. (Knowledge) Socrates stressed that “the unexamined life is not
worth living… and ethical virtue is the only thing that matters.” (Virtue)
2. P L A T O - Aristocles was nicknamed Plato on account of his broad
shoulders. He was born in Athens in 427 B.C. He was a philosopher in
Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first
institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered
the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially the
Western tradition. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous
student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy and
science.
3. A R I S T O T L E - was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the
city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece. At seventeen or
eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained
there until the age of thirty-seven. He established a school closed to the
temple dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, named Lyceum. The school was also
known as “Peripatos” and its members as “Peripatetics”, because Aristotle
had a custom of giving his lessons while walking up and down the garden of
the place. The Lyceum came to rival the Academy and for some time even

94 | P a g e
 95

eclipsed it completely. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato

contributed to his former views of Platonism, but, following Plato's death,
Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism
to empiricism. He believed all concepts and knowledge were ultimately
based on perception. Aristotle's views on natural sciences represent the
groundwork underlying many of his works

TRUTH AND PHILOSOPHY

- Doing philosophy is not just pure reasoning. It includes reflection combined

with and confirmed by experience, observation, and introspection. Philosophy seeks
the “truth” not just “opinions”. Most of people’s opinion are constructed as if they
are factual, so it is misleading. Truth is an accepted statement. It agrees with facts
and reality. Truth needs to be supported by factual evidence. If there is no evidence,
or there is insufficient evidence, then the statement is an opinion. This is the goal of
the process of doing Philosophy; to distinguish the facts from opinions.
Fact: is a statement of actuality or occurrences. It is based on direct
evidence, actual experience, or observation. It is a statement that can be
proven true. (e.g. Broccoli is good for you. You can look this up in books
about healthy diets.)
Opinion: statement of belief or feeling, view, idea or judgment about
something or someone. It shows one’s feelings about a subject. It does not
have to be based upon logical reasoning. (e.g. Broccoli tastes good.)

DOMAINS OF TRUTH

1. Objective Domain – truth that is related to science because it is the field that
delivers knowledge about the natural world. (e.g. Typhoon Season, water’s boiling
point remains 100 ˚C)
2. Social Domain – truth is analogous with of a general agreement or consensus on
what is right as opposed to what is wrong. (e.g. In a chapel for prayer and
meditation, we say that maintaining silence is good. But in a basketball game, we say
that we should cheer for our team as loudly as we can to keep them motivated.) We
understand that some things are true or good in a particular context, while they are
false or wrong in another context.

95 | P a g e
 96

3. Personal Domain – truth is analogous with sincerity. When you say to another
person, “I am telling the truth,” what you usually mean by that statement is that our
statements are consistent with our inner thought and intentions.

TRUTH AND JUSTIFICATION

- According to Richard Rorty, truth can be understood as what passed

“procedures of justification”. Justification means the process of proving truth or
validity of a statement. Each domain of truth has a corresponding justification or has
different criteria for truth.
1. Scientific/Objective Domain – Truths are tested against empirical
evidence. It is justified by data gathered from careful observation and
analysis. (e.g. Pharmaceutical companies convince doctors and patients
on the effectiveness of their medicine by publishing research findings
examined and critically analyzed by experts.)
2. Social Domain – Truths are tested against their acceptability to a
particular group in a particular time in history. The justification of social
norms takes longer than scientific truths especially if the people are
coming from varying background and history. Because of their
differences in their perspectives, it is not easy to get a consensus or
agreement. (e.g. Men with good manners, will always let the woman go
first.)
3. Personal Domain – are tested against the consistency and authenticity
of the person who claims it. This is probably the longest to complete
because it takes a whole lifetime of consistency in the actions and
decisions of a person who makes a claim about himself. (e.g. When
someone says, “I love you” to his girlfriend, how would one know that
this is true? One action, four gifs, or a year of dating her would not be
enough. True love, as the adage goes, is tested by time.)

96 | P a g e
 97

PRACTICAL RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: AN INTRODUCTION (Guido, B. (2016),

Introduction to Quantitative Research) What is quantitative research?

Burns & Grove (1987) “... a formal, objective, systematic process in which
numerical data are utilized to obtain information about the world" and "a
research method which is used to describe and test relationships and to
examine cause-and-effect relationships" .

Quantitative Research

- Typically involves counting or measuring

- Often statistical tests are applied to detect or confirm trends

- Purpose is to get clear-cut, precise and accurate results, factually reflecting

the situation under study

- Questionnaire is one of the popular tools for the quantitative research

Elements of quantitative research

- Gathering numerical data objectively

- Results lend themselves to statistical analyses

- Evaluation of results confirm or refute the original hypothesis

- Tests and experiments under controlled conditions

97 | P a g e
 98

- Cause and effect relationships

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

- Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the

relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent
or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative research designs are either
descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured
before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations
between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

- Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance.

Quantitative research focuses on numberic and unchanging data and detailed,
convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a
variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].
Its main characteristics are:
 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the
population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high
reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective
answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables,
charts, figures, or other nontextual forms.
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future
results, or investigate causal relationships.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to
collect numerical data. The overarching aim of a quantitative research study
is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an
attempt to explain what is observed.
Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantiative
methods:

98 | P a g e
 99

1. Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant
results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of
results is not appropriate in this section.
2. Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain
how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of
missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your
analysis.
3. Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
4. Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use
and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
5. Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure
that they were not violated.
6. When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence
intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic,
its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p
value].
7. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further
experimentation.
8. Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep
figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals
whenever possible.
9. Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Strengths of Qualitative Research
 Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
 Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/redirected by
the researcher in real time.
 The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new information
emerges.
 The data based on human experience that is obtained is powerful and sometimes
more compelling than quantitative data.
 Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects and/or topic are discovered
that are often missed by more positivistic enquiries.
 Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot be
generalized to a larger population. Findings can however be transferable to another
setting.
Limitations of Qualitative Research

99 | P a g e
 100

 Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher and
more easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies.
 Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.
 The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time consuming.
 It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research
within the scientific community
 The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in
qualitative research, can affect the subjects' responses.
 Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting
findings
 Findings can be more difficult and time consuming to characterize in a visual way.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
List of the Advantages of Quantitative Research
1. The quantitative approach allows you to reach a higher sample size.
2. You can collect information quickly when using quantitative research
3. Quantitative research uses randomized samples.
4. Results duplication is possible when using quantitative research.
5. Quantitative research can focus on facts or a series of information.
6. The research performed with the quantitative approach is anonymous.
7. Quantitative research doesn’t require direct observation to be useful.
List of the Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
1. This method doesn’t consider the meaning behind social phenomena.
2. Every answer provided in this research method must stand on its own.
3. Quantitative research sometimes creates unnatural environments.
4. Some efforts at randomization will not create usable information.
5. There is no access to specific feedback.
6. Quantitative research studies can be very expensive.
7. Answer validity always creates a cloud of doubt on the final results.
8. Individual characteristics don’t always apply to the general population

Nature of Variables

Independent (Experimental, Manipulated, Treatment, Grouping) Variable-That

factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the experimenter to
determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. “In a research study,
independent variables are antecedent conditions that are presumed to affect a
dependent variable. They are either manipulated by the researcher or are observed
by the researcher so that their values can be related to that of the dependent

100 | P a g e
 101

variable. For example, in a research study on the relationship between mosquitoes

and mosquito bites, the number of mosquitoes per acre of ground would be an
independent variable” (Jaeger, 1990, p. 373)
While the independent variable is often manipulated by the researcher, it can also be
a classification where subjects are assigned to groups. In a study where one variable
causes the other, the independent variable is the cause. In a study where groups are
being compared, the independent variable is the group classification
Dependent (Outcome) Variable-That factor which is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable, i.e., that factor that appears,
disappears, or varies as the experimenter introduces, removes, or varies the
independent variable. “In a research study, the independent variable defines a
principal focus of research interest. It is the consequent variable that is presumably
affected by one or more independent variables that are either manipulated by the
researcher or observed by the researcher and regarded as antecedent conditions
that determine the value of the dependent variable. For example, in a study of the
relationship between mosquitoes and mosquito bites, the number of mosquito bites
per hour would be the dependent variable” (Jaeger, 1990, p. 370).
The dependent variable is the participant’s response. The dependent variable is the
outcome. In an experiment, it may be what was caused or what changed as a result
of the study. In a comparison of groups, it is what they differ on
Moderator Variable- That factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the
experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of the independent
variable to an observed phenomenon. It is a special type of independent variable.
The independent variable’s relationship with the dependent variable may change
under different conditions. That condition is the moderator variable. In a study of
two methods of teaching reading, one of the methods of teaching reading may work
better with boys than girls. Method of teaching reading is the independent variable
and reading achievement is the dependent variable. Gender is the moderator
variable because it moderates or changes the relationship between the independent
variable (teaching method) and the dependent variable (reading achievement).
Extraneous Variable- Those factors which cannot be controlled. Extraneous variables
are independent variables that have not been controlled. They may or may not
influence the results. One way to control an extraneous variable which might
influence the results is to make it a constant (keep everyone in the study alike on
that characteristic). If SES were thought to influence achievement, then restricting
the study to one SES level would eliminate SES as an extraneous variable.
Types of Quantitative Studies

101 | P a g e
 102

1. Survey Research: Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all
quantitative outcome research methodologies and studies. Surveys used to
ask questions to a sample of respondents, using various types such as online
polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept surveys, etc.
Every small and big organization intends to understand what their
customers think about their products and services, how well are new
features faring in the market and other such details.
Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys
conducted in situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a
sample of the target population at a given point in time. Researchers can
evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data gathered using this type
of survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except the
variables which are considered for research. Throughout the survey, this
one variable will stay constant.
Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys
but, unlike crosssectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across
various time durations to observe a change in respondent behavior and
thought-processes. This time can be days, months, years, or even decades.
For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the change in buying habits of
teenagers over 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys
2. Correlational research: A comparison between two entities is invariable.
Correlation research is conducted to establish a relationship between two
closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the
changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried out to
give value to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two
different groups are required to conduct this quantitative research method
successfully. Without assuming various aspects, a relationship between two
groups or entities must be established.
3. Causal-comparative research: This research method mainly depends on the
factor of comparison. Also called quasiexperimental research, this
quantitative research method is used by researchers to conclude the cause-
effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is
dependent on the other independent variable. The independent variable is
established but not manipulated, and its impact on the dependent variable
is observed. These variables or groups must be formed as they exist in the
natural set up. As the dependent and independent variables will always exist
in a group, it is advised that the conclusions are carefully established by
keeping all the factors in mind.

102 | P a g e
 103

4. Experimental research: Also known as true experimentation, this research

method is reliant on a theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests,
is usually based on one or more theories. This theory has not been proven in
the past and is merely a supposition. In experimental research, an analysis is
done around proving or disproving the statement. This research method is
used in natural sciences.Traditional research methods are more effective
than modern techniques.

CHAPTER 1
Background of the Study

- Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a

well-defined research problem with reference to the existing literature. The
background information should indicate the root of the problem being studied,
appropriate context of the problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice,
its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated the
problem, noting, in particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to address.
Background information does not replace the literature review section of a research
paper; it is intended to place the research problem in a proper context.
Statement of the Problem

- A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an

area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing
practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague
or broad proposition, or present a value question
Objectives Research

- objectives are simply the descriptions of what is to be achieved by the study.

The research objective is a clear, concise declarative statement which provides
direction to investigate the variables. The research objectives are the
accomplishments what the researcher hopes to achieve by study.

103 | P a g e
 104

- The research objectives enlighten the way in which researcher has to

proceed. The research objectives will help to focus the study. It facilitates in
development of methodology. It guides the information to be collected. The research
objectives help to identify and describes the variable of study
Hypothesis

- A research hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or

predictive statement about the possible outcome of a scientific research study based
on a particular property of a population, such as presumed differences between
groups on a particular variable or relationships between variables. Specifying the
research hypotheses is one of the most important steps in planning a scientific
quantitative research study. A quantitative researcher usually states a priori
expectation about the results of the study in one or more research hypotheses
before conducting the study, because the design of the research study and the
planned research design often is determined by the stated hypotheses.

-
Significance of the Study

- Significance of the study is written as part of the introduction section of a

thesis. It provides details to the reader on how the study will contribute such as what
the study will contribute and who will benefit from it. It also includes an explanation
of the work’s importance as well as its potential benefits.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study

- The Scope of study in the thesis or research paper is contains the

explanation of what information or subject is being analyzed. It is followed by an
explanation of the limitation of the research. Research usually limited in scope by
sample size, time and geographic area. While the delimitation of study is the
description of the scope of study. It will explain why definite aspects of a subject
were chosen and why others were excluded. It also mentions the research method
used as well as the certain theories that applied to the data.

104 | P a g e
 105

Definition of Terms

- An alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms that you define,

particularly ambiguous terms or those used in a special way. These terms include
particular and operational definitions that differ from colloquial definitions, schools
of thought and discipline-specific acronyms.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
DANCE AND ITS NATURE
DANCE

- Is a performing art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of

human movements.

- This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as

dance by performers and observers within a particular culture.

- Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its

repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin.

-
-
BRIEF HISTORY OF DANCE
John Kealinohomoko - also defined dance as a transient mode of expression
performed in a given form and style by the human body moving in space.
Archaeologists - found evidences of early dance in a 9,000 years old painting in India
at Rock Sheltera of Bhimbetka, and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing
figures, dated c. 3300 BC.
Natyashastra - is one of the earlier texts.

105 | P a g e
 106

- It mainly deals with drama in which dance plays an important part in Indian
culture.

- It categorizes dance into four typessecular, ritual, abstract and interpretive

and into four regional varieties.

Elements of Dance
1. Body

- In dance it is also to consider the body systems like muscle, bones, organs,
breath, balance and reflexes.

- The body is the mobile figure or shape, felt by the dancers and seen by
others.

- The body is maybe seen still or moving as the dancers travels through the
dance area.
2. Action

- Action refers to any human movement included in the act of dancing; dance
steps, facial movement, partner lifts, gestures and even everyday movements such as
walking.

- It is made up of streams of movement and pauses.

- Movement maybe improvised which means that the dancer can make it up “
on the spot” as they spontaneously dance.

3. Space

106 | P a g e
 107

- Dancers can interact with the space in a lot of ways.

- The pathway, direction, relationship, focus, size, level and place are dancer
interaction in space and can be altered in different ways.

- The dancers may stay in one place or travel from one place to another.

- It can also be the basis for design concepts.

4. Energy

- Energy refers to tension, attack, flow, force, qualities and weight.

- Energy is how movement happens.

- It’s the variation of movement flow and the use of force, tension and
weight.
5. Time

- Time pertains to rhythmic patterns, speed, duration, beat, tempo, timing

relationship and accent.

- Time sometimes brief or long duration, fast or slow speed in accents.

-
VARIETIES OF DANCES
1. Cheer dance

107 | P a g e
 108

- Cheer dance is an organized sport activity involving short routines that

combine dance, gymnastics and stunt elements to cheer on teams.

- November 2, 1898, Johnny Campbell the first actual “cheer leader” , he led
an organized cheer at a football game between Minnesota and Princeton University.

- Cheering the team, it might improve the “morale” and “performance” of the
players.

- 1903 Gamma Sigma- the first cheer fraternity in University of Minnesota-

used megaphone to project their voices, it became popular accessory in cheerleading

- 1920 women became involve in cheerleading; Female cheer squad in

Minnesota began to include gymnastics, dance and other showy stunt into routines.

- 1930cheer were aid use of paper pom-pons.

- 1940 women mainly leading the cheers. And routines took a voice their
own.

- 1948 National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) founded by Lawrence

Herkimer, he hold cheer workshop

- 1960 Professional cheerleading was introducing his time.

- 1978 World Cheerleading Association (WCA) broadcasted the first

cheerleading competition of this caliber.

108 | P a g e
 109

- Lawrence Herkimer -Grandfather of Cheerleading -He founded the National

Cheerleaders Association at Southern Methodist University
2. Festival Dance

- are cultural dances performed to the strong beats of percussion instruments

by a community of people sharing the same culture usually done in honor of a Patron
Saint or in thanksgiving of a bountiful harvest. Two natures of festival Dances:

- Religious - are done to honor the Patron Saint of the town or city

- Secular or Non-religious- are for thanksgiving for the crops or products

produces in every town.
3. Traditional Dance

- Traditional dance can be another term for Folk Dance, or sometimes even
for ceremonial dance. This type of dance arisen from people’s cultural traditions.
However, not all Ethnic Dances are traditional dance for they are called Religious
Dance.
4. Hip-hop

- Hip-hop dance refers to street dance styles primarily performed to hiphop

music or that have evolved as part of hip-hop culture.
5. Modern Dance

- Is a broad genre of western concert or theatrical dance, primarily arising out

of Germany and the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Four Types of Modern Dance
1. Broadway Dance – this dance is the type where is commonly seen in
Broadway musicals and shows on television. It is composed of simple,
yet energetic movements based on what is being by artists.

109 | P a g e
 110

2. Jazz - This dance is composed of movements like gymnastics, jumps and

other extraneous movements.
3. Contemporary Dance - this dance requires great physical strength
because the core muscles are being used to sustain the movements.  It
is slower compared to jazz and the swing quality is different. It does not
only focus on strength but also flexibility.
4. Interpretative Dance - this dance comes with dramatic movements
which are based on lyrics and emotion of a song. It requires flexibility
and usually those who master this dance undergo drama classes to
make the dance more appealing.
 Interpretative Dance is more free than Contemporary Dance.
 Contemporary Dance is more on the formal side of dancing while
Interpretative is on the informal side.
 Interpretative Dance is more free and dancers can make use of freestyle
dance moves while Contemporary follows certain steps or choreographs.

DANCE AND DIET

Healthy Diet for Dancers

- Thought.com published the article “ Healthy diets for dancers” written by

Treva Bedinghaus.

- It is implied in the article that dancing requires a lot of energy.

- A dancers diet should consist of a balance of carbohydrates,

proteinsvitamins and mineral, fats,

Below is its elaboration of how dancers should look into their diet.
Carbohydrates- should compose about 50-65% of a dancer’s diet. Carbs are found in
foods such as cereal, pasta, bagels, breads and baked potatoes. Examples of whole
carbs include vegetables, whole fruit, legumes, potatoes and whole grains. On the
other hand, refined carbs include sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juices, pastries,
white bread, white pasta, white rice and others.

110 | P a g e
 111

Proteins are important for building and repairing muscles. Proteins should comprise
about 12-15% of a dancer’s diet. Good sources of proteins include lean meats,
poultry, beans, legumes and tofu.
Fats: many dancers worry about gaining weight, and therefore strictly limit their fat
intake. A dancer diet should be composed of about 20-30% fat. Aim to eat foods low
in saturated fats, such as avocadoes, nuts and sea foods.
Vitamins and Minerals play important roles in the body, such as energy production
and cell formation. To obtain all important vitamins and minerals dancers should eat
at least 5 servings of fresh fruits and vegetables per day and choose whole grain
breads and cereals. A multivitamins is suggested for those who do not consume an
adequate variety of nutritious foods.
Fluids; water is required to regulate body temperature, maintain circulation,
maintain salt and electrolyte balance, and remove wastes. Fluids are lost through
sweat created by the body’s unique cooling system. Dancers should remember to
drink small amounts of fluids before, during and after workouts.

DANCE AND STRESS

- There are many accounts that link physical activity to relieving stress.

- It was clearly emphasized that dance is also a physical activity releases

neurotransmitters and endorphins which alleviate stress.

- Dancing improves physical health, weight loss, flexibility, stronger bones and
toned muscles are great things for your physical and mental health.

Scientific findings on Dance as stress reliever

- In India, a school was reported starting the class with 10 minutes meditation
after which they break into song and dance. They conduct stress free activities that
benefit the students, and dance is one of them. Besides, evidence is swarming to
prove that dance with relaxation modalities is effective and enjoyable participants of
all ages.

111 | P a g e
 112

- Elizabeth Larkam, spokesperson for the American Council on exercise said,

“What sets dancing apart is how body respond to music”. Dancing to a fast, upbeat
rhythm can be a great way to release stress actively. Equally dancing to a slower,
lyrical piece of music can help you to feel calm and relaxed, helping with anxiety.

EATING HABITS

- involves eating the right kind of food in the right amounts in accordance
with experts. Proper diet and nutrients provides GO, GROW, and GLOW as well as the
fuel for physical activity
TYPES OF EATING
1. Social Eating - meeting either at someone’s place or restaurant to enjoy
meal together. A philosophy of using meal specifically as means to
connect with others or socialize.
2. Emotional Eating - defined as overeating in order to relieve negative
emotions. It is considered as “maladaptive coping” strategy. Frequently
engages emotional eating can increase the risk of developing other
eating disorders like “Bulimia” and “Anorexia Nervosa”.
3. Fueling for Performance - it refers to proper timing of meals that
affects both sports and academic performance. A diet that is adequate
in Carbohydrates, Protein, Healthy Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, and fluids
that is the foundation of day-to-day eating for overall health

Healthy Lifestyle Tips for Adults

1. Eat a variety of foods.
2.Base your diet on plenty of foods rich in carbohydrates.
3. Replace saturated with unsaturated fat.
4. Enjoy plenty of fruits and vegetables.
5. Reduce salt and sugar intake.
6. Eat regularly, control the portion size.
7. Drink plenty of fluids.
8. Maintain a healthy body weight.

112 | P a g e
 113

How does food impact Health?

- The food we eat gives our bodies the "information" and materials they need
to function properly. If we don't get the right information, our metabolic processes
suffer and our health declines.

- If we get too much food, or food that gives our bodies the wrong
instructions, we can become overweight, undernourished, and at risk for the
development of diseases.

Preventive Measures on Communicable Diseases

Three Levels of Prevention and Control
Prevention refers to both active and passive ways of protecting the individual,
family, and community from any harmful conditions. There three levels:
Primary Prevention - avoids the development of the diseases.it includes
immunization, health education, and health promotion.
Secondary Prevention - involves screening for disease and conditions before the
onset of disease. For example, screening for cholesterol to prevent heart attack
Tertiary Prevention - focuses on minimizing the outcome of an already existing
disease, condition, or injury. A stroke patient undergoing therapy is an example.
Immunization - Most communicable diseases can be prevented through
immunizations.
Examples: Polio DPT (Disease,
Pertussis, Tetanus) Measles
Vaccine Hepatitis Vaccine
Isolation - this pertains to the
host or patients. Isolating him/her
will prevent spread of such contagious disease.
Quarantine - it is compulsory isolation, typically to contain the spread of something
considered as dangerous, often but not always a disease.
Health Education - this is simply being educated for your health and your loved ones.
Disinfection - this is the removal of some or the majority of organic pathogens.
Sterilization - this is the complete killing of organic pathogens and microbes.
Fumigation - a method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous
pesticides.

113 | P a g e
 114

GENERAL BIOLOGY

1.Cell - the basic structural and functional unit of life.

2 Plasma Membrane: a semi-permeable membrane that selectively permits materials
to get into and out of the cell.
3. Nucleus: a major component of a cell which contains the genetic material.
4. Cytoplasm: is the living matrix of a cell.

Levels of Organization

- Cells are the basic

structural and functional unit of
life.

Facts about Cell

- The word cell comes from Latin cella, meaning "small room“.

- The average animal cell size is approximately 10–20μm in diameter. Such

small size results in a large surface area-to-volume ratio that allows for efficient
transport of materials in and out of cells.

- All cells in human body have the same size but differ in shape and function.

-
History of the Cell and Development of the Cell Theory

114 | P a g e
 115

- The original cell theory states that the cell is the basic structural and
functional unit of living organisms and all cells come from other cells. The scientists
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann are credited with establishing the cell
theory in 1839. However, there was a lot of work done over the previous centuries
which paved the way.

1600s

- The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei is credited with building the first
microscope in 1625. It was a logical step for him to take from his groundbreaking
work with telescopes and astronomy in 1609.

- In 1665, Robert Hooke, a British scientist, looked at a thin slice of cork under
the microscope and saw a honeycomb structure made up of small compartments he
called cells.

- The first person to see living cells under a microscope was Anton van
Leeuwenhoek. In 1670, Leeuwenhoek significantly improved the quality of
microscope lenses to the point that he could see the single-celled organisms that
lived in a drop of pond water. He called these organisms “animalcules,” which means
“miniature animals.”
1800s

- Microscopes and science in general advanced throughout the 1700s, leading

to several landmark discoveries by scientists at the beginning of the 1800s.

- In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were the first to prove that cells were
independent of each other and had their own cell walls. Prior to this work, it was
thought that cells shared their walls and that was how fluids were transported
between them.

115 | P a g e
 116

- The next significant discovery occurred in 1833 when the British botanist
Robert Brown first discovered the nucleus in plant cells.

- From the years 1838-1839, the German scientist Matthias Schleiden

proposed the first foundational belief about cells, that all plant tissues are composed
of cells.

- His fellow scientist and countryman Theodor Schwann concluded that all
animal tissues were made of cells as well. Schwann blended both statements into
one theory which said 1) All living organisms consist of one or more cells and 2) The
cell is the basic unit of structure for all living organisms.

- In 1845, the scientist Carl Heinrich Braun revised the cell theory with his
interpretation that cells are the basic unit of life.

- The third part of the original cell theory was put forth in 1855 by Rudolf
Virchow who concluded that Omnis cellula e cellula which translates roughly from
Latin to “cells only arise from other cells.”

Cell Theory
1. The cell is the basic unit of structure for all living organisms.
2. All living organisms consist of one or more cells.
3. Cells only arise from other cells

- The modern version of the cell theory includes several new ideas that
reflect the knowledge that has been gained since the mid-1800s. These
include the knowledge that energy flows within the cells, hereditary
information is passed from cell to cell, and cells are made of the same basic
chemical components.

CELL STRUCTURE AND IT’S FUNCTION

116 | P a g e
 117

Major Cell Parts

1. Cell Membrane - It is also known as the plasma membrane (PM) or cytoplasmic
membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma. It is a biological
membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the
extracellular space) which protects the cell from its environment.
2. Cytoplasm - Cytoplasm is the fluid that fills cells and serves several important
functions. Cytoplasm holds the internal components of cells in place and protects
them from damage. Cytoplasm stores molecules used for cellular processes, as well
as hosts many of these processes within the cell itself.
3. Nucleus - The nucleus is a membrane bound organelle that contains genetic
material (DNA) of eukaryotic organisms. As such, it serves to maintain the integrity of
the cell by facilitating transcription and replication processes. It's the largest
organelle inside the cell taking up about a tenth of the entire cell volume.

Cell Organelles
What are organelles?
- They are internal
compartments that
carry out specific cell
functions.
How are organelles beneficial
to a cell?
-They allow the cell to grow
larger and become more
specialized.

1. Mitochondria ■ Powerhouse of the

cell ■ Energy
production for cells
(ATP) ■ Sites of
aerobic respiration ■
“mitochondria make
me mighty”
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ■ Transports substances ■ Regulates
calcium levels for muscle contraction
3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum ■ Transports proteins

117 | P a g e
 118

4. Ribosomes ■ Site of protein synthesis.(KAGID-KAGID)

5. Golgi Apparatus ■ membrane-bound structure ■ organelle modifies
molecules and packages them into small membrane bound sacs called
vesicles
6. Lysosome - is a membranebound cell organelle that contains digestive
enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with various cell processes. They break
down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy invading
viruses and bacteria.
7. Centriole - when two centrioles are found next to each other, they are
usually at right angles. The centrioles are found in pairs and move towards
the poles (opposite ends) of the nucleus when it is time for cell division.

What is the difference between plant and animal cell?

1. Cell wall - A difference between plant cells and animal cells is that most
animal cells are round whereas most plant cells are rectangular. Plant cells
have a rigid cell wall that surrounds the cell membrane. Animal cells do not
have a cell wall. When looking under a microscope, the cell wall is an easy
way to distinguish plant cells.

118 | P a g e
 119

2. Chloroplasts Plants are autotrophs; they produce energy from sunlight

through the process of photosynthesis, for which they use cell organelles
called chloroplasts. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts. In animal cells,
energy is produced from food (glucose) via the process of cellular
respiration. Cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria on animal cells,
which are structurally somewhat analogous to chloroplasts, and also
perform the function of producing energy. However, plant cells also contain
mitochondria.
3. Vacuoles Animal cells have one or more small vacuoles whereas plant cells
have one large central vacuole that can take up to 90% of cell volume. In
plant cells, the function of vacuoles is to store water and maintain turgidity
of the cell. Vacuoles in animal cells store water, ions and waste.

PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC CELSS

1. Prokaryotes- unicellular organisms that do not possess true nucleus and
membranebound organelles (e.g. bacteria).
2. Eukaryotes - multicellular organisms whose cells have organelles which are
separated by membranes (e.g. plants and animals).

- Cells are not exactly alike. Some cells are in simplest form such as
prokaryotic cells (which are also believed that came to existence first- explained by
endosymbiotic theory on evolution of cells) and other cells are complex such as the
eukaryotic cells.

- Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The
single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as
prokaryotes (pro =
before; karyon– =
nucleus).

119 | P a g e
 120

Plant/ Animal Cell Types and their Functio

Plant Cell Types

- Plant cells are multicellular eukaryotic cells that make up a plant (a group of
eukaryotes belonging to the Plantae kingdom, with the ability to synthesis their own
food using water, Sunlight and CO2).

- Being eukaryotic cells, they have a defined nucleus with specialized

structural organelles that enable it to function in an orderly manner.

- The plant cell has a well-defined cell wall made up of cellulose components,
plastids that perform photosynthesis and storage of carbohydrate in form of starch,
central vacuoles for regulating the cell’s turgor pressure and a nucleus which controls
the cells’ general mechanisms including reproduction of the plant cells.

General Features of Plant Cell

120 | P a g e
 121

- Plants are made up two structural systems. The shoot system and the root
system, whereby the shoot system is made up of structures that are above the
ground including leaves, stems, fruits, flowers while the root system is made up of
roots, tubers and rhizobial structure that lie below the ground and its the origin of
growth of plants.

- These systems are structured differently, defined by sets of specialized

mature cells that perform a wide range of functions ranging from protection,
support, metabolism, reproduction enabling plant growth, and development.

- For example, plant cells are formed at the meristem which multiple and
grows to for plant tissues. These tissues are:
1. Dermal tissue – this tissue lies on the surface of plants and its made up
of epidermal cells that protect the plants from losing water.
2. Ground tissue – This makes up the root vascular and epidermal system
majorly made up of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells
responsible for plant photosynthesis, storage of water and food and the
plant support system.
3. Vascular Tissue – this tissue is made up of xylem, phloem, parenchyma
and cambium cells, with its functions including transportation of water
(xylem), transportation of food (phloem), minerals, hormones in the
plants.s of the plant cells

- Plant cells multiply by cell division, a mechanism known as Mitosis, which

takes place within its nucleus. This begins at the meristem, that is found at the tip of
the root and/or the shoot of vascular plants. Meristems at the tips are known as
apical and lateral meristems. Apical meristems are responsible for producing the
roots while the lateral meristems produce secondary growth of the stem wood and
cork.

-
PLANT CELL TYPES

121 | P a g e
 122

1. Parenchyma cell
• These are live undifferentiated cells found in a variety of places of the
plants’ bodies.
• They participate in several mechanisms of the plan including
photosynthesis, food storage, secretion of waste materials.
• The experimental observation indicated that they appear green.
2. Collenchyma cell
• They are elongated cells found below the epidermis and/or in young
plants on the outer layers of their stems and leaves.
• They become alive after maturing up and are derivatives of the
meristems and they are found in the vascular and/or on the plant stem
corners.
• They occur in the peripheral region of the plant and they are not
found in the plant roots.
• Experimental observation they appear red.
3. Sclerenchyma cell definition
• These are collenchyma cells that have an agent of the cell wall that
plays a major role in hardening its cell wall.
• Therefore, these are mature Collenchyma cells with a secondary cell
wall, over the primary cell wall.
• They are found in all plant roots and they are important in anchoring
and giving support to the plants.
4. Xylem cell definition
• Xylem cells are complex cells found in the vascular tissues of plants,
mostly in woody plants.
5. Phloem Cells
• These cells are located outside the xylem layer of cells. They become
alive at maturity because they need the energy to move materials.
• They function to transport food from the plant leaves to other parts of
the plant.
• They also have a flaccid cell wall hence they lack tensile strength that
allows them to move materials at high pressure.

6. Meristematic cell definition

• They are also known as the meristems.
• These are the cells in a plant that divide continuously throughout the
life of a plant.

122 | P a g e
 123

• They have a self-renewal ability and high metabolisms to control the

cell.
7. Epidermal cell definition
• These are the external cells of the plants offering protection from
water loss, pathogenic invaders such as fungi.
• They are placed closely together with no intracellular spaces.
• They are covered with a waxy cuticle layer to reduce water loss.
• These cells cover the plant stems, leaves, roots and plant seeds.
ANIMAL CELL TYPES
1. Nephron Cell - smaller units in kidneys aid in filtering of blood and
extraction of wastes.
2. Nerve Cells - send electrical signals among the brain, spinal cord and other
organs of the body.
3. Red blood cell - carries oxygen to the tissues in the body.
4. Fat cell - Stored fat for energy. Produce hormones that influence
metabolism.
5. Epithelial cell - Protects underlying structures such as the lining in your
mouth.
6. Skin cell - Protection of the body against damage. Acts as 1st line of defense
against bacteria , prevent dehydration, and can store fats
7. Sex cells - Unite during fertilization for reproduction.
8. Stem cells - have the ability to develop into specialized cells for organs/
tissues. can be generated for the treatment of diseases and tissue repair.
9. Endothelial cells - creation of new blood vessels. gases, macromolecules and
fluid regulation, blood pressure regulation

123 | P a g e
124

124 | P a g e
 125

PAGSULAT

KAHULUGAN, KATANGIAN AT KAHALAGAHAN NG SULATING AKADEMIKO

SULATING AKADEMIKO

- Isang pagsulat na isinasagawa ng mga mag-aaral upang maipahayag ang

kanilang kaalamang nabatid mula sa iba’t ibang asignatura. Mapatutunayan dito ang
paghahasa ng kritikal na pag-iisipng bawat mag-aaral. Iba ang akademikong pagsulat
sa ibang sulatin. Mayroon itong nakatakdang istandard na dapat malaman ng mga
mag-aaral. Kinakailangan din
dito na intindihin ng mga
manunulat kung bakit sila
nagsusulat, para saan at para
kanino

- Ayon sa Massey

University (2012), mahalagang makita ang

kahalagahan ng pagsulat at hindi dahil
kinakailanagan lamang ng manunulat na
maibigay ang kung ano ang hinihingi ng guro sa
bawat asignatura. Mayroon itong natatakdang
tuntunin na dapat sundin.

- Ayon kay Jones (halaw:2017), mula sa

kanyang paghihimay sa kung ano ang
kahulugan nito, nakabatay ang akademikong
pagsulat sa pagsusuri ng anumang nahahalaw
na ideya mula sa natutunang aralin.

125 | P a g e
 126

- Ito rin ay may kailangang estilo na kinakailangang sundin ng mga manunulat

upang maitakda ang kanilang limitasyon sa pagsulat. Nakabatay dapat ito sa pormal
na tono. Tatlong panauhan lamang ng panghalip ang pwedeng gamitin.

- Inilahad ni Gocsik (2012), ang ilan sa mga katangian at ang mga pakinabang
ng sulating akademiko.

MGA KATANGIAN NG SULATING AKADEMIKO

1. PORMAL - Ang antas ng wikang gagamitin ay may mataas na kaantasan.

Ang paggamit ng balbal at kolokyal na mga salita ay iniiwasan.
2. OBHETIBO - Ang impormasyong gustong ilahad ay binibigyang-diin.
3. MALINAW - Ang mga ideya ay malinaw, sunod-sunod at magkakaugnay.
4. MAY PANININDIGAN - May sariling pagpapasya.
5. MAY PANANAGUTAN - Ihayag ang mga katibayan at pangangatwiran
sabunga ng pananaliksik at pag-aaral.

KAHALAGAHAN NG SULATING AKADEMIKO

- Naglalayon ang sulating akademiko na linangin ang kaalaman ng bawat mag-

aaral kaya tinatawag itong intelektwal na pagsulat. Ilalahad sa bahaging ito ang mga
kahalagahan ng akademikong sulatin.
1. PAGBUO NG ARGUMENTO

- Ang pagsulat sa iba’t ibang disiplina ay magbibigay ng kaalaman at

kasanayan sa mga mag-aaral sa proseso ng pagsulat na magagamit niya sa iba’t ibang
sulatin. Dito mapapatunayan ang kanilang lohikal na pag-iisip upang makabuo ng
isang makahulugan at mabisang pagsulat. Ang mga natutunan ng mga mag-aaral
mula sa aklat at talahanayan ay nagagamit niya at nailalagay ang wikang natutunan
sa kanyang sariling pahayag sa pagsulat.
2. PANGUNAHING KASANAYAN SA PAGSULAT SANGKOT ANG KARANASAN

126 | P a g e
 127

- Magbibigay ito ng pagkakataon sa mga mag-aaral na maiugnay ang dating

kaalaman at karanasan sa kasalukuyang pinag-aralan. Dito mailalapat ang kanilang
kaalaman sa kung ano ang kanilang naranasan na hahantong sa isang makabuluhang
paglalahat. Dito rin mahahasa ang pagiging matalino at propesyunal na tao.
Magkaroon ng realisasyon ang mga mag-aaral sa kabuluhan ng pagsulat sa buhay ng
tao.
3. PAGBUO NG SANGGUNIAN

- - Matutunan ng mga
mag-aaral ang wastong paglilista ng
mga sanggunian na magsilbing matatag
na patunay ng kanilang paninindigan ng kanilang ginagawang sulatin.

4. LOHIKAL NA PAG-IISIP

- Lumilinang ito ng kakayahan ng mga magaaral na mag-isip, mag-analisa,

sumuring magbasa at makikipagtalakayan. Nalalaman at nasasanay siya sa mga
mekanismo at proseso ng pagsulat.

MGA PAKINABANG NG SULATING AKADEMIKO

Paghahanda - pangongolekta ng mga impormasyon

Aktwal - pagsasalin ng ideya sa pangungusap o talata

Pagrerebisa – nasasangkot ng maraming pagbabago

1. Hindi kailangan daanan lang ang kaalaman

2. Ang pagiging puno ng kaalaman ay magiging kaw
3.
4. ili-wili para sa mundo
5. Pagpresenta ng ideya
6. Paghahasa ng kasanayan sap ag-iisip
127 | P a g e
 128

PROSESO NG PAGSULAT NG SULATING AKADEMIKO

1. Paghahanda ng Pagsulat

- sumasaklaw ang hakbang sa pangongolekta ng mga impormasyon at ideya

para sa sulatin.

2. Aktwal na Pagsulat

- Isinasalin na ng manunulat ang kanyang mga ideya sa mga pangungusap at

talata.

3. Pagrerebisa o Edit

- Nasasangkot sa maraming pagbabago sa nilalaman, sa organisasyon ng mga

ideya at istruktura ng mga pangungusap at talata.

- Paksa

- Magdagdag ng mga detalye

- Muling isaayos ang sulatin

MGA URI NG PAGSULAT
1. Akademiko
128 | P a g e
 129

- ito ay isang intelektwal na pagsulat dahil layunin nitong pataasin ang antas
at kalidad ng kaalaman ng mga estudyante sa paaralan

- Kritikal na sanaysay

- Lab report

- Eksperimento

- Term paper o pamanahong papel

2. Teknikal

- Isang uri ng tekstong ekspositori na nagbibigay ng impormasyon para sa

teknikal o komersyal na layunin.

- Ulat panlaboratoryo

- Kompyuter
3. Malikhain

- Masining na uri ng pagsulat sa larangan ng panitikan o literature.

- Ang pokus ay ang imahinasyon ng manunulat

129 | P a g e
 130

- Layunin nitong paganahin ang imahinasyon ng manunulat at pukawin ang

ang damdamin ng mga mambabasa

- Mihahanay sa uring ito ang pagsulat ng tula, nobela, maikling katha, dula, at
sanaysay.
4. Propesyonal

- Uri ng pagsulat na nakatuon o eksklusib sa isang tiyak na propesyon.

- Pulis report, investigate report, medical report.

5. Referensyal

- Naglalayong magrekomenda ng iba pang sanggunian o source hinggil sa

isang paksa.

130 | P a g e
 131

- Madalas, binubuod ng isang manunulat ang ideya ng ibang manunulat at

tinutukoy ang pinaghanguan niyon na maaaring sa paraang parentetikal, footnotes, o
end notes.
6. Journalistic

- Pampapahayag ang uring ito ng pagsulat na kadalasang ginagawa ng mga

mamamahayag o journalist.

- Saklaw nito ang pagsulat ng balita, editorial, kolum, lathalain, at iba pang
akdang mababasa sa mga pahayagan at magazine

IBA’T IBANG URI NG SULATING AKADEMIKO

•Abstrak • Posisyong Papel

•Buod •Replektibong Sanaysay

•Bionote •Agenda

•Talumpati • Pictorial Essay

•Panukalang Proyekto • Lakbay-sanaysay

•Katitikan ng Pulong

ABSTRAK

- Isang maikling buod ng artikulo, ulat at pag-aaral na inilalagay bago ang

introduksyon. Ito ang siksik na bersiyon ng mismong papel.
MGA KATANGIAN NG MAHUSAY NA ABSTRAK
1. Binubuo ng 200-250 na salita
2. Gumagamit ng mga simpleng salita.
3. Walang impormasyong hindi nabanggit sa papel.
4. Nauunawaan ng target na mambabasa
131 | P a g e
 132

URI NG ABSTRAK

GENERAL PHYSICS

1. VOLUME - the amount of space occupied the an object.

2. PRECISION - refers to how close the measurements from each other.
3. UNITS - are standards for expressing and comparing the measurement of
physical quantities.
4. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES - are characteristic or property of an object that can
be measured or calculated from other measurements.
5. METRIC SYSTEM - a system of measurement that uses the power of 10 to
relate quantities over the vast ranges encountered in nature.
6. What System of measurement is used in the Philippines? – METRIC SYSTEM
AND ENGLISH SYSTEM
There are two major systems of units used in the world:
1. SI units (acronym for the French Le Syste ̀ me International d’Unite ́ s, also
known as the Metric System)
2. English units (also known as the imperial system).

- English units were historically used in nations once ruled by the British Empire.
Today, the United States is the only country that still uses English units extensively.

- Virtually every other country in the world now uses the metric system, which is the
standard system agreed upon by scientists and mathematicians.

132 | P a g e
 133

- The metric system provides a universal language for measurement that can be
understood regardless of where you are from or what language you speak.

- The United States, however, has not completely embraced the metric system, and
so many items in the U.S. are still measured in English units. Other items, however,
are sold in metric units, such as bottled sodas. The mixture of systems can be
confusing.

Converting between Metric and English units is, in fact, easily done. first need to
learn the symbols used in both the metric and English systems for properties such as
mass, length, volume, and temperature

7 Physical Quantities

133 | P a g e
 134

- In physics, there are seven fundamental physical quantities that are

measured in base or physical fundamental units: length, mass, time, electric current,

temperature, amount of substance, and

luminous intensity.

THREE STEPS for conversion:

1. Identify the type of measurement: Mass? Length? Volume? Temperature?
2. Use Conversion Table.
3. Use Unity Fraction(s).

134 | P a g e
 135

SCIENIFIC
NOTATION
250, 000, 000, 000, 000 = 2.5 x 1014

- Scientific notation is a way to write numbers in an abbreviated way, making

it easier to work with numbers.

- It is developed in order to easily

represent numbers that are either very large
or very small.

135 | P a g e
 136

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

- Measurements work best when they are accurate and precise.

- Accuracy is a measure of how close a measurement to the actual or true

value.

- To evaluate the accuracy of a measurement, it must be compared to the

correct value.

- Precision is a measure of how close the series of measurements to one

another.

- The precision of a measurement depends on more than one measurement.

Repeatability

136 | P a g e
 137

QUESTIONS
1. .A brand of fruit snacks claims that each bag of fruit snacks has a mass
of 20.1g. After weighing three bags, Roger observes the masses to be
20.3 g, 20.1 g, and 20.2 g. –
2. A student performed an analysis of a sample for its calcium content and
got the following results: 14.89%, 14.90%, and 14.91%. The actual
amount of calcium in the sample is 14.90%. What conclusions can you
draw from these results?
3. Each of five students used the same ruler to measure the length of the
same pencil. These data resulted: 15.33 cm, 15.34 cm, 15.33 cm, 15.33
cm, 15.34 cm. The actual length of the pencil was 15.85 cm.
SCALARS AND VECTORS
1. Scalar Quantities - can be expressed completely by a number with
appropriate units.
2. Vector Quantities - express both magnitude and direction.
3. Resultant - sum of the component of vectors.
4. Magnitude - a numerical value with corresponding unit

- Vector quantities can be identified by bold type with an arrow

above the symbol.
V = 23 m/s NE

- Vectors are represented by drawing arrows

137 | P a g e
 138

- The length and direction of a vector should be drawn to a reasonable scale size
and show its

magnitude
VECTOR APPLICATION

- ADDITION: When two (2) vectors point in the SAME direction, simply add
them together.
EXAMPLE:
A man walks 46.5 m east, then another 20 m east. Calculate his
displacement relative to where he started.

- SUBTRACTION: When two (2) vectors point in the OPPOSITE direction,

simply subtract them
EXAMPLE:
A man walks 46.5 m east, then another 20 m west. Calculate his
displacement relative to where he started.

NON CO-LINEAR VECTORS

138 | P a g e