Lab Manual Important

Highway Material Testing Manual
1 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Contents
I SOILS 5 - 65
1. Classification of Soils 15
2. Grain Size Analysis 22
3. Specific Gravity of Soil 29
4. Moisture content Test 30
5. Free Swell Index Test 32
6. Consistency Limits of Soils 33
7. Compaction Test 38
8. Field Density Test by Sand Replacement Method 41
9. California Bearing Ratio Test 45
10. Shear Test by Triaxial Method 50
11. Sand Equivalent Test 53
12. Bearing Capacity of Soil by Plate Bearing Test 55
13. Deleterious contents of Soil 57
II TESTS ON AGGREGATES ` 66 - 89
1. Aggregate Impact Value Test 67
2. Los Angles Abrasion Value Test 69
3. Aggregate Crushing Value Test 71
4. Flakiness & Elongation Index (Shape Test) 73
5. Soundness Test 75
6. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test 78
7. Ten Percent Fines Value Test 80
2 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

8. Bulkage & Silt content of Fine Aggregates 82
9. Deleterious content of Aggregates 83
III TESTS ON BITUMEN AND BITUMINOUS MATERIALS 90 - 112
1. Penetration Test 92
2. Specific Gravity Test 94
3. Softening Point Test (Ring & Ball Test) 95
4. Viscosity Test 97
5. Flash and Fire Point Test 99
6. Ductility Test 100
7. Loss on Heating of Bituminous Materials 101
8. Stripping Value of Aggregates 102
9. Binder content of Paving Mixtures 103
10. Test for Control Rate of Spread of Binder 104
11. Test for Rate of Spread of Grit in Surface Dressing 105
12. Marshall Stability Test 106
IV TESTS ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE 113 - 129
1. Determination of Normal Consistency 114
2. Determination of Initial and Final Setting Time
of Cement 115
3. Determination of Soundness of Cement by the
Le Chatelier Method 116
4. Determination of Fineness of Cement 117
5. Determination of Compressive Strength of Cement 118
3 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

6. Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete 120
7. Determination of Workability of Concrete (Slump Test) 122
8. Determination of Specific Gravity of Cement 123
9. Determination of Flexural Strength of Concrete 124
10. Determination of Permeability of Concrete 126
11. Determination of Entrained air content of Concrete 127
12. Determination of flow of Concrete 128
V OTHER TESTS 129 - 142
1. Determination of Surface Irregularities (Unevenness)
by Straight edge method 130
2. Determination of Surface Unevenness by Automatic
Road Unevenness Recorder 131
3. Determination of Strengthening of Flexible Road
Pavements using Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique 133
VI TEST FORMATS 143 - 209
1. APPENDIX – I (Soil Testing Formats) 144 - 162
2. APPENDIX – II (Aggregates Testing Formats) 162 - 173
3. APPENDIX – III (Bitumen & Bituminous material
Testing Formats) 174 - 191
4. APPENDIX – IV (Cement & Concrete Testing Formats) 192 - 199
5. APPENDIX – V (Other Gradation Testing Formats) 200 - 209
VII LIST OF ESSENTIAL LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS 210 - 215
VIII TEST REQUIREMENTS FREQUENCY & LIMITS 216 - 225
IX LAB PLAN 226 - 227
4 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

SOILS.
5 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

INTRODUCTION:
Soil is very essential material for highway constructions.
In view of the wide diversity in soil type, it is desirable to classify the sub grade soil into groups
possessing similar physical properties. Many methods have been in use for this purpose. Soils are
normally classified on the basis of simple laboratory tests such as grain size analysis and consistency
tests.
Soil compaction is important phenomenon in highway construction as compacted sub grade improves
the load supporting ability of pavement; in turn resulting in decreased pavement thickness requirement.
Compaction of earth embankments would result in decreased settlement. Thus the behavior of soil sub
grade material could be considerably improved by adequate compaction under controlled conditions.
The laboratory compaction test results are useful in specifying the optimum moisture content at which a
soil should be compacted and the dry density that should be aimed at the construction site. The in-situ
density of prepared sub grade as well as other pavement layers has to be determined by a field density
test for checking the compaction requirements and as a field control test for compaction.
There are a number of tests for measuring soil strength; some of them give the strength parameters of
the soil, other methods are empirical and give only arbitrary strength values. The types of the strength
tests may be classified as shear test, bearing tests and penetration tests. The triaxial test results are
useful to find the strength parameters, viz: cohesion and angle internal friction and modulus
deformation of soils. The California Bearing Ratio test is essentially a penetration test, which is carried
out either in the laboratory or in the field. This test is suitable for the evaluation of strength of soil and
aggregates. The method has an important place among highway material testing programme, as it has
been extensively correlated with flexible pavement design and performance. North Dakota Cone Test is
another penetration test, which may also be carried out either in the laboratory or on in-situ soil in the
field, but its use is restricted to fine grained soils free from coarse particles. Plate bearing test is carried
out either on subgrade to find the modulus of subgrade reaction or on a pavement component layer for
pavement evaluation.
There are several soils, which are unsuitable as highway materials, since they cannot be used as such in
the base course, sub-base or the subgrade. The strength and durability characteristics of these soils can
be improved to the desired extent by adopting a stabilization technique. One of the widely used
methods of stabilization is soil-cement and soil-lime, which are applicable to a fairly wide range of soil
types. The cement and lime stabilization soil can be used in sub-base and base course layers of
pavement.
6 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

AGGREGATES SAMPLING
( IS: 2430-1986 )
LOT:
The quantities of the Aggregate of the same class, Nominal size, source and offered for inspection at one
time. The lot may consist of the whole or a part of the quantity ordered for.
SUB-LOT:
The quantity of aggregates in each of the parts into which a lot is divided for the purpose of sampling.
The sub lots should be of equal size as for as possible.
UNIT SAMPLE:
The quantity of aggregates collected at one point in sectional sampling or at one time from the
conveyer.
GRASS SAMPLE:
Sample as collected from a sub lot, that is the quantity of aggregate consisting or one of several
increments or unit samples taken from a sub lot.
LABORATORY SAMPLE:
The quantity of aggregate obtained by reducing a gross sample following a specified procedure and
intended for laboratory testing.
COMPOSITE SAMPLE:
The quantity of aggregates obtained by mixing together equal quantities from each of the laboratory
samples.
SAMPLING OF MATERIAL ON THE SITE OF WORK & FOR INSPECTION OF MATERIAL:

Samples shall be selected and examined from each lot separately. For obtaining reliable conclusions the
samples be obtained while in motion as for as possible i.e. from convenes and during loading un-loading.
SAMPLING FROM STACKS OR STOCK PILES:
• For sampling material from stockpiles or stacks, it is very difficult to ensure unbiased samples, due
to the segregation, which often occurs when material is stacked, with coarser particles rolling to the
outside face of the pile. For coarse or all in aggregates every effort should be made to procure a
power equipment to develop a separate small sampling pile composed of materials drawn from
various levels and locations in the main pile after which several increments may be combined to
compose the gross sample. If it is necessary to indicate the degree of variability existing within the
main pile, separate samples should be drawn from separate areas of the pile.
• Where power equipment is not available, samples from stock piles should be made up of the
required number of increments taken equally from top, third, at the mid point and at the bottom
third of the volume of the pile. A board put vertically into the pile just above the sampling point
helps in preventing further segregation. In sampling stock pile of the aggregates the outer layer,
which may have become segregated, should be removed and the sample taken from the material
7 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

beneath.
• Sub-lots: For the purpose of sampling, the quantity of aggregates in a stack shall be divided into a
suitable number of sub-lots. A representative gross sample shall be drawn from each of the sub-lots
sampling of aggregates from stacks shall be carried out as for as possible during the making or
breaking of the stack.
• A minimum of ten increments shall be taken from a sub-lot for making up a gross sample. The
weight of increment shall not be less than 1 Kg. The number of increments shall be equally
distributed over the sub-lot. Increments shall be drawn with the help of a suitable scoop at regular
intervals in the course of making or unmaking of the stacks.
REDUCTION OF A GROSS SAMPLE:
Each gross sample shall be reduced a separately to the required size for each test by way of repeating
the methods given as under.
• Reduction by Riffle divider: The aggregates shall be well mixed and poured into the riffle divider
according to the size of the aggregates.
• Coning and Quartering Method: The aggregates shall be mixed and then scooped into a cone
shaped pile, care being taken to drop each scoop full exactly over the same spot to avoid the uneven
distribution of the particles. After the cone is formed it shall be flattened by pressing the top of the
cone with the smooth surface of the scoop and it is than cut into quarters by two lines which
intersect at right angles at the center of the cone. The two diagonally opposite quarters are rejected
and the process repeated till the required size of sample is obtained.
DETAILES OF TESTS AND TEST SAMPLES
Details of Quantity of Samples

S.No. Name of Test Min.weight of sample Min.weight or sample
despatched for testing. taken for sieving.
1 Particle Size
63mm 100 Kg. 50 Kg.
50mm 100 Kg. 35Kg.
40mm or 31.5mm 50 Kg. 15 Kg.
25mm 50 Kg. 5 Kg.
20mm 25 Kg. 2 Kg.
16mm 25 Kg. 2 Kg.
12.5mm 12 Kg. 1 Kg.
10mm 6 Kg. 0.5 Kg.
6.3mm 3 Kg. 0.2 Kg.
4.75mm - 0.2 Kg.
2.36mm - 0.1 Kg.
8 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

S.No. Name of Test Details of Quantity of Samples

Quantity of Agg. Sufficient to provide the min.of
2 Flakiness Index
200 pieces of each fraction
Quantity of Agg. Sufficient to provide the min.of
3 Elongation Index
200 pieces of each fraction
Deleterious materials &
4
Organic impurities
a For determination of clay links
Over 40mm 5000 gm.
40 - 20mm 3000 gm.
20 - 10mm 2000 gm.
10 - 4.75mm 1000 gm.
4.75 - 1.18mm 100 gm.
b For determination of clay, fine
silt & fine dust by
sedimentation method.
64 - 25mm 6000 gm.
20 - 12.5mm 1000 gm.
10 - 6.3mm 500 gm.
< 4.75mm 300 gm.
c Determination of light weight
pieces (coal & lignite)
80mm 10000 gm.
40mm 5000 gm.
20mm 3000 gm.
< 6.3mm 200 gm.
d Determination of soft particles.
50 - 40mm 12000 gm.
40 - 25mm 4500 gm.
25 - 20mm 1500 gm.
20 - 12.5mm 600 gm.
12.5 - 10mm 200 gm.
Estimation of organic
e 200 gm.
impurities.
5 Specific Gravity 2000 gm.
6 Bulk Density & Voids.
> 40mm 30 Litres
40 - 4.75mm 15 Litres.
< 4.75mm 2 Litres.
Determination of surface
7 200 gm.
moisture in fine Agg.
8 Agg. Crushing Value. 6500 gm.
9 Agg. Impact Value. 500 gm/ Test.
9 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

S.No. Name of Test Details of Quantity of Samples

10 Agg. Abrasion Value.
> 2.8mm 5500 gm.
2.8 - 2.4mm 5000 gm.
2.39 - 2.2mm 4500 gm.
< 2.2mm 4000 gm.
11 Agg. Soundness test.
For Coarse Agg. 3000 gm.
For Fine Agg. 1000 gm.
12 Alkli Aggregate Reactivity. 1000 gm.
10 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

PREPARATION OF DRY SAMPLES FOR VARIOUS TESTS

(IS: 2720 – PART – 1 – 1983)
OBJECT:
It covers the method of preparation of dry samples from the bulk soil samples received from the field for
various test.
APPARATUS:
1. Wooden-mallet – for breaking soil clods.

2. Trays – for air drying of soil of suitable size and of non-rusting material.
3. Pulverizing Apparatus – Either mortar and rubber covered pestle or a mechanical device consisting
of mortar and a power-driven rubber covered pestle suitable for breaking up the aggregation of soil
particles without reducing the size of the individual grains. Pestle and mortar made of softwood way
also be used.
4. Sample – A suitable riffle sampler or sample splitter for quartering the samples.
5. Sieves – of sizes 75mm, 63mm, 37.5mm, 19mm, 13.2mm, 9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2mm and 425micron.
6. Drying Apparatus – (a) Drying over thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding
material to maintain the temperature between 1050C and 1100C. (b) Other suitable drying
apparatus.
7. Balances – (a) Capacity 10 kg.and minimum sensitivity 100g. (b) Capacity 1kg.and minimum
sensitivity 1g. (c) Capacity 250g.and minimum sensitivity 0.01g.
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE FOR TESTS:
• General – Soil sample as received from the field shall be dried in the air or in sun. In wet weather a
drying apparatus may be used in which case the temperature of the sample should not exceed 600C.
The clods may be broken with a wooden-mallet to hasten drying. The organic matter like, tree roots
and pieces of bark should be removed from the sample. Similarly matter other than soil like shells
should also be separated from the main soil mass. A nothing shall be made of such removals and
their percentage of the total soil sample. When samples are to be taken for estimation of organic
content, lime content etc., total sample should be taken for estimation without removing shell,
roots and barks etc.
• Drying of the sample – The amount of drying depends upon the proposed test to be conducted on
the particular sample. The type, temperature and duration of during of soil samples for different
tests are given in Table-1. When oven is used for drying, the temperature in the oven shall not
exceed 1100C. Chemical drying of samples should not be adopted for any tests.
• Soil containing organic or calcareous matter should not be dried at temperature above 600C.
• Degree of Pulverization – The big clods may be broken with the help of wooden-mallet. Further
pulverization may be done in pestle and mortar. The pulverized soil shall be passed through the
specified sieve for the particular test and the soil retained on that sieve shall be again pulverized for
sieving. This procedure should be repeated until on further attempts at pulverizing very little soil
passes through the specified sieve. Care should be taken not to break up the individual soil particles.
11 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

QUANTITY OF SAMPLE:
The quantities of soil sample required for conducting various laboratory tests are given in Table-1 for
guidance.
When a smaller quantity has to be taken out of a bigger soil mass the representative sampling shall be
done by quartering or riffling.
In the case of coarse gravel or gravelly soils quartering by forming a cone shall not be done. The entire
sample shall be thoroughly mixed and spread on a flat surface. The sample so spread shall be divided
into four quadrants and diagonally opposites quadrants mixed. This process shall be repeated till the
desired quantity of sample is obtained.
TABLE - 1
QUANTITY OF SOIL SAMPLE REQUIRED FOR CONDUCTING THE TEST
Degree of
Amount of soil Ref.to
Type, Temp. and pulverization
S.No. Test sample required Part of
Duration of Drying (Passing IS sieve
for test. IS:2720
size)
1 Water content Oven, 24h As given in Table-2 - Part - 2
50g.for fine grained

0 soils, 400g.for medium
2 Specific gravity Oven 105-110 C,24h 2 mm Part - 3
and coarse grained
soils.
3 Grain size analysis Air drying As given in Table-3 - Part - 4
4 Liquid Limit Air drying 270 g 425 micron Part - 5
5 Plastic Limit Air drying 60 g 425 micron Part - 5
6 Shrinkage factor Air drying 100 g 425 micron Part - 6
Compaction
6 kg.(15kg if soil is
Part - 7
a) Light compaction Air drying susceptible to 19 mm
7 crushing)
b) Heavy compaction Part - 8
c) Constant mass Air drying 2 kg 4.75 mm Part - 9
12 V.K.L. Rao, SQME


for test. IS:2720
size)
Unconfined 0 0
8 Oven 110 C +/- 5 C 1 kg - Part - 10
Comp.Strength
Triaxical Compression 0 0
9 Oven 110 C +/- 5 C 1 kg, 5 kg - Part - 11
(Un - Consolidated)
Triaxical Compression 0 0
10 Oven 110 C +/- 5 C 1 kg, 5 kg - Part - 12
(Consolidated)
0
Air drying / oven 110 C
11 Direct Shear 0 1 kg 4.75 mm Part - 13
+/- 5 C
Density index
(Relative density)
75 mm 0 0 45 kg
Oven 105 C - 110 C,
12 37.5 mm 12 kg - Part - 14
24 h
19 mm 12 kg
9.5 mm 12 kg
4.75 mm 12 kg
0
Consolidation Air drying / oven 110 C
13 0 500 g - Part - 15
Properties +/- 5 C
14 CBR Air drying 6 kg 19 mm Part - 16
0 0
Oven, 105 C -110 C, 2.5kg(100mm dia), 5
15 Permeability 9.5 mm Part - 17
24h kg(200mm dia)
Field moisture
16 Air drying 15 g 425 micron Part - 18
Equivalent
Centrifuge moisture
17 Air drying 10 g 425 micron Part - 19
Equivalent
18 Linear Shrinkage Air drying 450 g 425 micron Part - 20
Chemical Test
0 0
Oven, 105 C -110 C,
a)Total soluble solids 10 g 2 mm Part - 21
24h
b)Organic matter Air drying 100 g 2 mm Part - 22
0 0
Oven, 105 C -110 C,
c)Calcium Carbonate 5g 2 mm Part - 23
24h
19 0 0
d)Cation Exchange Oven, 105 C -110 C,
80 - 130 g 2 mm Part - 24
capacity 24h
0 0
e)Silica-sesquioxide Oven, 105 C -110 C,
15 g - Part - 25
ratio 24h
f)PH Value do 30 g 425 micron Part - 26
g)Total soluble
do 30 g 425 micron Part - 27
Sulphates
13 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Degree of
for test. IS:2720
size)
0
Air drying / oven 110 C
20 Vane - Shear 0 250 g - Part - 30
+/- 5 C
0
Negative Pore Water Air drying / oven 110 C
21 0 1 kg, 5 kg - Part - 35
Pressure +/- 5 C
0
Permeability of Air drying / oven 110 C
22 0 1 kg, 5 kg - Part - 36
granular soils +/- 5 C
23 Direct Shear Air drying Upto 120 kg Above 4.75 mm Part - 39
24 Free swell index Oven dry 20 g 425 micron Part - 40
25 Swelling Pressure Air dry / Oven dry 2 kg 2 mm Part - 41
TABLE – 2
QUANTITY OF SAMPLE REQUIRED FOR DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT
Size of Particles more than 90 percent Minimum Quantity of soil Specimen to be

passing taken for the test Mass in gm.
425 micron IS.Sieve 25 g
2 mm IS.Sieve 50 g
4.75 mm IS.Sieve 200 g
19 mm IS.Sieve 500 g
TABLE – 3
QUANTITY OF SOIL REQUIRED FOR GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
Maximum size of material present in

Mass to be taken for test (kg)
substantial quantities (mm)
75 mm 60 kg
37.5 mm 25 kg
19 mm 6.5 kg
13.2 mm 3.5 kg
9.5 mm 1.5 kg
6.7 mm 0.75 kg
4.75 mm 0.4 kg
14 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

1.CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
( IS : 1498 – 1970 )
INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of soil classification is to arrange various types of soils into groups according to their
engineering properties and various other characteristics. From engineering point of view, the
classification may be done with the objective of finding the suitability of the soil for construction of
highway foundations.
For general engineering purposes, soils may be classified by the following systems.
i) Particle size classification.
ii) Textural classification.
iii) Highway Research Board (HRB) classification.
iv) Unified soil classification and IS classification system.
i) Particle size classification: In this system, soils are arranged to the grain size. Terms such as gravel,
sand, silt and clay are used to indicate grain sizes. There are various grain size classifications in use, but
the more commonly used systems are (i) U.S.Bureau of soil and Public Road Administration (PRA) system
of United States.(ii) International soil classification, proposed at the International Soil Congress at
Washington,D.C (iii) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) classification and (iv) Indian Standard
classification.
Indian standard classification:
> 300mm - Boulders

300 – 80mm - Cobble
80 – 20mm - Coarse Gravel
20 – 4.75mm - Fine Gravel
4.75 – 2mm - Coarse Sand
2mm – 425micron - Medium Sand
425mic. – 75mic. - Fine Sand
75mic – 2micron - Silt
< 2 micron - Clay.
ii) Textural classification: Soils occurring in nature are composed of different percentage of sand, silt
and clay size particles. Soil classification of composite soils exclusively based on the particle size
distribution is known as textural classification. The classification is based on the percentages sand, silt
and clay sizes making up the soil.
To use the chart, for the given percentages of the three constituents forming a soil, lines are drawn
parallel to the three sides of the equilateral triangle; the three lines intersect at one point. That point in
the sector designated as the classification of that soil.
15 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Textural classification chart:
0 100
10 90
20 80
30 70
Sand ( 2 - 0.05mm) 40 60 Clay ( < 0.005 mm)

Clay
50 50
60 40
Sandy Silty
70 Clay Clay 30
Sandy Clay
Clay Loam Silty Clay Loam
80 Loam 20
Loamy Sand
90 Sandy Loam Loam Silty Loam 10
Sand Silty
100 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt ( 0.05 - 0.005 mm )
iii) Highway Research Board (HRB) classification: This system is based on both the particle-size
composition as well as the plasticity characteristics. This system is mostly used for pavement
construction. Soils are divided into 7 primary groups, designated as A-1, A-2…A-7. Group A-1 is divided
into two sub-groups and group A-2 into four sub-groups. A characteristic ‘group index’ is used to
describe the performance of the soils when used for pavement construction. The group index of a soil
depends upon (i) the amount of material passing the 75 micron IS sieve, (ii) the liquid limit, and (iii) the
plastic limit, and is given by the following equation:
Group index = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
Where, a= that portion of percentage passing 75 micron sieve greater than 35 and
not exceeding 75 expressed as a whole number (0 to 40).

b= that portion of percentage passing 75 micron sieve greater than 15 and
not exceeding 75 expressed as a whole number (0 to 40).
c= that portion of the numerical liquid limit greater than 40 and not
exceeding 60 expressed as positive whole number (0 to 20).
d= that portion of the numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not
exceeding 30 expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 20).
16 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

HRB – Classification of soils :
Granular material Silt clay materials ( > 35%

General Description
( 35% or less passing 75 micron IS sieve ) passing 75 mic.sieve)
A -1 A-3 A-2 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7
Group classifiation A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
% passing
2.0mm IS sieve > 50
425 micron sieve > 30 < 50 < 51
75 micron sieve > 15 > 25 > 10 > 35 > 35 > 35 > 35 < 36 < 36 < 36 < 36
Characteristics of
fractions
>6 NP
Liquid Limit > 40 < 41 > 40 < 41 > 40 < 41 > 40 < 41
Plasticity Index > 10 > 10 < 11 > 11 > 10 > 10 < 21 < 11
Group Index Zero >4 >8 > 12 > 16 > 20

Fine sand
Stone
Usual type of
fragments
significant constituent Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soil Clayey soil
gravel and
materials
sand
General rating as
Excellent to good Fair to poor
subgrade
G roup classification A-7 A - 7a A - 7b A - 7c
% p assin g
u pto 75 55 - 95 80 - 95 84-100
75 m icron sieve
C haracteristcs of
fraction
Liquid L im it < 55 < 65 < 65 > 65
P lasticity Ind ex < 25 < 42 < 42 > 42
Grou p index > 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50
Usual type of
sign ificant co nstat Clayey so ils
con stitu ent
Fair to
poor
Gen eral rating as

P oor
subgrad e
17 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

iv) Unified soil classification and Indian standard classification: The system is based on both grain size
and plasticity properties of the soil.
Soils are broadly divided into three divisions
i) Coarse grained soils: In these soils, more than half the total material by weight is larger than 75
micron IS sievs size.
Coarse-grained soils are further divided into two sub-divisions:
a) Gravels (G): In these soils, more than half the coarse fraction is larger than 4.75mm IS sieve size. This
sub-division includes gravels and gravelly soils, and is designated by symbol ‘G’.
b) Sands (S): In these soils, more than half the coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75mm IS sieve size. This
sub-division includes sands and sandy soils, and is designated by symbol ‘S’.
Each of the above sub-divisions are further sub-divided into four groups depending upon grading and
inclusion of other materials:
W : Well graded, clean.
C : Well graded with excellent clay binder.
P : Poorly graded, fairly clean.
M : Containing fine materials not covered in other groups.
These symbols used in combination designate the type of coarse-grained soils. For example, GC means
clayey gravels.
ii) Fine grained soils: In these soils, more than half the material by weight is smaller than 75 micron IS
sieve size.
Fine-grained soils further divided into three sub-divisions:
a) Inorganic silt and very fine sands – designated by ‘M’.
b) Inorganic clays – designated by ‘C’.
c) Organic silts and clays, and organic matter – designated by ‘O’.
The fine-grained soils are further divided into the following groups on the basis of the liquid limit.
i) Silts and clays of low compressibility, having a liquid limit less than 35, and represented by symbol ‘L’.
ii) Silts and clays of medium compressibility, having a liquid limit greater than 35 and less than 50, and
represented by symbol ‘I’.
18 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

iii) Silts and clays of high compressibility, having a liquid limit greater than 50, and represented by a
symbol ‘H’.
Combination of these symbols indicates the type of fine-grained soil. For example, ML means inorganic
silt with low to medium compressibility.
Laboratory classification of fine-grained soil is done with the help of plasticity chart. The A-line, dividing
inorganic clay from silt and organic soil has the following equation:
Ip = 0.73 (wL – 20)
Where, Ip = Plasticity Index.
WL = Liquid Limit.
Plasticity chart:
60
WL = 50 CH
50
40
IP
30 WL=35
MH & OH
20 Cl
CL
10
CL-ML ML&OL MI & OI
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
WL
19 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

iii) Highly organic soils and other miscellaneous soil materials: These soils contain large percentages of
fibrous organic matter, such as peat, and the particles of decomposed vegetation.
IS Soil classification: Laboratory classification criteria for Coarse-grained soils

Symbols
Groups
Laboratory Classification Criteria
Cu Greater than 4
GW
Cc Between 1 and 3
Determine percentages of gravel and sand from
grain size curve depending on percetage of fines
GP Not metting all gradation requirements for GW ( fraction smaller than 75 micron sieve size );
coarse-grained soils are classified as follows:
Less than 5% = GW,GP,SW,SP.
Atterberg limits below "A" line above "A" line with Ip More than 12% = GM,GC,SM,SC.
GM
or Ip less than 4 etween 4 and 7 are 5% to 12% = borderline cases requiring use of
border line cases dua symbols.
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
GC symbols.
line with Ip greater than 7
Cu Greater than 6
SW
Cc Between 1 and 3
SP Not metting all gradation requirements for SW

Cu (uniformity coefficient) = D60 / D10 Cc
(coefficient of curvature) =
Atterberg limits below "A" line
SM Limits plotting above (D30)2 / (D10 x D60)
or Ip less than 4
"A" line with Ip between
4 and 7 are border line
Atterberg limits above "A" cases reqiring use of
SC dual symbols.
line with Ip greater than 7
20 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Soil suitability for Roads in different layers.
base when not

to frost action
Value as base
Value as sub-
Value as sub-
not subjected
subjected to
subjected to
grade when
frost action
frost action
Soil Group
when not
Unit Dry
Drainage Compressibility
weight
characteristics and Expansion 3
g/cm
GW Excellent Excellent Good Excellent Almost none 2.00 - 2.24

Good to
GP Good Fair to good Excellent Almost none 1.76 - 2.24
Excellent
Good to
GM Good Fair to good Fair to poor Very slight 1.84 - 2.32
Excellent
Poor to not Poor to
GC Good Fair Slight 2.08 - 2.32
suitable impervious
Fair to
SW Good Poor Excellent Almost none 1.76 - 2.08
good
Poor to not
SP Fair to good Fair Excellent Almost none 1.68- 2.16
suitable
Fair to
SM Fair to good Poor Fair to poor Very slight 1.60- 2.16
good
Poor to Slight to
SC Poor to fair Poor Not suitable 1.60 - 2.16
impervious medium
ML, Not Slight to
Poor to fair Not suitable Fair to poor 1.44 - 2.08
MI suitable medium
Not
CL, CI Poor to fair Not suitable Impervious Medium to high 1.44 - 2.08
suitable
OL, Not
Poor Not suitable Poor Medium to high 1.44 - 1.68
OI suitable
Not
MH Poor Not suitable Fair to poor High 1.28 - 1.68
suitable
Poor to very Not
CH Not suitable Impervious High 1.44 - 1.84
poor suitable
Poor to very Not
OH Not suitable Impervious High 1.28 - 1.76
poor suitable
Not
Pt Not suitable Not suitable Very poor Very high -
suitable
21 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

2.GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 4 )
INTRODUCTION:
Most of the methods for soil identification and classification are based on certain physical properties of
the soils. The commonly used properties for the classification are the grain size distribution, liquid limit
and plasticity index. These properties have also been used in empirical design methods for flexible
pavements, and in deciding the suitability of sub grade soils.
Grain size analysis also known as mechanical analysis of soils is the determination of the percent of
individual grain sizes present in the sample.
The mechanical analysis consists of two parts:
(i) the determination of the amount and proportion of coarse material by the use of sieves.
(ii) the analysis for the fine grained fraction by sedimentation method.
The sieve analysis is a simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material through
successively smaller sieves. The weight retained on each sieve is expressed as a percentage of the total
sample. The sedimentation principle has been used for finding the grain size distribution of fine soil
fraction; two methods are commonly used (i) Pipette method and (ii) Hydrometer method.
The grain size distribution of soil particles of size greater than 75 micron is determined by sieving the soil
on a set of sieves of decreasing sieve opening placed one below the other and separating out the
different size ranges. Two methods of sieve analysis are as follows:
(i) wet sieving applicable to all soils and
(ii) dry sieving applicable only to soils, which have negligible proportion of clay and silt.
The soils received from the field is divided into two parts: one, the fraction retained on 2mm sieve and
the other passing 2mm sieve. The sieve analysis also may be carried out separately for these two
fractions. The fraction retained on 2mm sieve may be subjected to dry sieving using bigger sieves and
that passing 2mm sieve may be subjected to wet sieving; however if this fraction consists of single
grained soil with negligible fines passing 0.075mm size, dry sieving may be carried out.
Apparatus:
Various apparatus include set of standard sieves of different sieve sizes, balance, rubber covered pestle
and mortar, oven, riffle and sieves shaker.
22 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Procedure:
(a) For the fraction retained on 2.0mm sieve: Sufficient quantity of the dry soil retained on 2.0mm sieve
is weighed out. The quantity of sample taken may be increased when the maximum size of particles is
higher. The sample is separated into various fractions by sieving through the set of sieves of sizes 100,
63, 20, 6, 4.75 and 2 mm IS sieves. Additional sieve size may also be introduced if necessary. After initial
sieving, the material retained on each sieve is collected, the lumps broken down using mortar and
rubber covered pestle and is re-sieved thus the soil fraction retained on each sieve is carefully collected
and weighed.
(b) For the fraction passing 2.0mm sieve and retained on 0.075mm sieve: Dry sieving may be done in
the case of soils which are cohesion less, single grained and without lumps. Rifling or quartering method
takes the required quantity of soil sample, dried in oven at 1050 to 1100C and is subjected to dry sieve
analysis using a set of sieves with sieve openings 2.0, 0.6, 0.425, 0.15 and 0.075 mm, pan and lid,
additional sieves may be used or any of the sieves removed, depending upon the requirement of the
test. The material retained on each sieve and on the pan are separately collected and weighed.
Wet sieving may be adopted in the case of clayey or cohesive soils. Required quantity of sample taken
by riffling is weighed. The sample is spread in a tray or bucket and covered with water. In case of soils
having fractions that are likely to flocculate a dispersing agent like sodium hexametaphosphate (2.0g) or
sodium hydroxide (1.0g) and sodium carbonate (1.0g) per liter of water may be added to the water. The
mix is stirred and left for soaking. The soaked soil specimen is placed over the set of sieves of sizes with
the finest sieve and pan at the bottom and washed thoroughly. Washing is continued till the water
passing each sieve is substantially clean. The fraction of each sieve is emptied carefully without loss of
material in separate trays, oven dried at 1050 to 1100C and each fraction weighed separately.
Calculations:
The weight of dry soil fractions retained on each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the total dry
weight of the sample taken.
Results:
The results are plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph with the grain size or sieve size on the X-axis in log.
scale and the percentage finer of each sieve on the Y-axis in ordinary scale. The smooth curve joining the
points thus obtained is known as the particle size distribution curve or diagram.
Uniformity coefficient of soil, Cu = D60 / D10

Coefficient of curvature, Cc = (D30)2 / (D10 X D60)
Where, D60, D30 and D10 are particle sizes corresponding to 60, 30 and 10 percent finer.
23 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

(c) For the fraction passing 0.075mm sieve: Two methods are in use based on sedimentation principle
that the larger grains settle more rapidly than the smaller ones. The Stoke’s law is made use of according
to which the velocity of settlement of spherical particles is proportional to the square of their diameters.
Thus if the depth and the duration of settlement are known, the velocity and hence the diameter of
particles at that depth can be estimated. The percentage of particles finer than this diameter should be
found using any one of the two methods viz; (i) Pipette method and (ii) Hydrometer method.
Hydrometer method.
Apparatus:
a) Density hydrometer confirming to IS: 3104-1965 –(Range 0.995 – 1.030).
b) Two glass-measuring cylinders of 1000ml capacity with ground glass or rubber stoppers about 7cm
diameter and 33cm high marked at 1000ml volume.
c) Thermometer to cover the range 0 to 500C, accurate to 0.500C.
d) Water bath or constant temperature room
e) Stirring apparatus
f) 75 micron sieve.
g) Balance accurate to 0.01g
h) Stop watch
i) Wash bottles containing distilled water
j) Glass rod, about 15 to 20 cm long and 4 to 5 mm in diameter
k) Reagents: Hydrogen peroxide, Hydrochloric acid N solution and Sodium hexametaphosphate.
l) Conical flask of 1000ml capacity
m) Funnel, filter paper, measuring cylinder of 100ml capacity and blue litmus papers.
Procedure:
(A) Calibration of Hydrometer:
1.Determination of volume of the hydrometer bulb (Vh): Pour about 800ml of distilled water in the
1000ml-measuring cylinder and note the reading at the water level. Immerse the hydrometer in water
and note the water reading. The difference between the two readings is recorded as the volume of the
hydrometer bulb plus the volume of that part of the stem, which is submerged. For practical purposes,
the error due to the inclusion of this stem volume may be neglected. Alternatively, weigh the
hydrometer to the nearest 0.2g. This weight in grams is recorded as the volume of the hydrometer in ml.
24 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

This includes the volume of the bulb plus the volume of the stem. For practical purposes the error due
to the inclusion of the stem may be neglected.
2. In order to find the area of cross-section (A) of the measuring cylinder in which the hydrometer is to
be used, measure the distance, in cm, between two graduations of the cylinder. The cross-section area
(A) is then equal to the volume included between the two graduations divided by the distance between
them.
3. Measure the distance (h) from the neck to the bottom of the bulb, and record it as the height of the
bulb.
4. With the help of an accurate scale, measure the height (H) between the necks of the hydrometer to
each of the other major calibration marks (Rh).
5. Calculate the effective depth (He) corresponding to each of the major calibration marks (or
hydrometer readings, Rh) by the following expression:
He = H + ½ ( h – Vh/A)
6. Draw a calibration curve between He and Rh, which may be used for finding the effective depth (He)
corresponding to hydrometer readings (Rh) obtained during the test.
7. Meniscus correction (Cm) : Insert the hydrometer in the measuring cylinder containing about 700ml of
water. Take the readings of the hydrometer at the top and bottom of the meniscus. The difference
between two readings is taken as the meniscus correction (Cm), which is a constant for hydrometer.
During the actual sedimentation test, the readings should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus but
since the soil suspension is opaque, readings are taken at the top of meniscus. The meniscus correction
is always positive.
(B) Pre- treatment of soil:
1. Weigh accurately (to 0.01g) 50 to 100 g of oven dried soil sample (Wd) passing the 0.075mm IS sieve.
If the percentage of soluble salts is more than one percent, the soil should be washed with water before
further treatment, taking care to see that the soil particles are not lost.
2. Add 150ml of hydrogen peroxide to the soil sample placed in a wide mouth conical flask and stir it
gently for few minutes with a glass rod. Cover the flask with glass and leave it to stand overnight.
3. Next morning, the mixture in the conical flask is gently heated in an evaporating dish, stirring the
contents periodically. Reduce the volume to about 50ml by boiling. With very organic soils additional
peroxide may be required to complete the oxidation.
4. If the soil contains insoluble calcium compounds, add about 50ml of hydrochloric acid to the cooled
mixture of soil obtained in step 3. The solution is stirred with a glass rod for a few minutes and allowed
25 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

to stand for one hour or for longer periods, if necessary. The solution will have an acid reaction to
litmus.
5. Filter the mixture and wash it with warm water until the filtrate shows no acid reaction to litmus.
Transfer the damp soil on the filter paper and funnel to the evaporating dish using a jet of distilled
water. Place the dish and its contents to the oven. Take the weight (Wb) of the oven-dried soil remaining
after pre-treatment and find the loss of weight due to pre-treatment.
(C) Dispersion of soil:
1. To the oven-dried soil, add 100ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution and warm the mixture
gently for about 10 minutes. Transfer the mixture to the cup of the mechanical mixer using a jet of
distilled water, and stir it well for about 15 minutes. The sodium hexametaphosphate solution is
prepared by dissolving 33 g of sodium hexametaphosphate and 7 grams of sodium carbonate in distilled
water to make one liter of solution. This solution is unsuitable and should be freshly prepared
approximately once in a month.
2. Transfer the soil suspension to the 75 micron IS sieve placed on a receiver and washes the soil on this
sieve using jet of distilled water from a wash bottle. The amount of distilled water used during this
operation may be about 500ml.
3. Transfer the soil suspension passing the 75-micron IS sieve to the 1000ml-measuring cylinder, and
adds more water to make the volume to exactly 1000ml in the cylinder.
4. Collect he material retained on 75-micron sieve and put it in the oven for drying. Determination the
dry weight of soil retained on 75-micron sieve.
(D) Sedimentation test with hydrometer:
1. Insert a rubber bung or any other suitable cover on the top of the 1000ml-measuring cylinder
containing the soil suspension and shake it vigorously end over end. Stop shaking and allow it to stand.
Immediately, start the stopwatch, and remove the top cover from the cylinder.
2. Immerse the hydrometer gently to a depth slightly below its floating position and then allow it to float
freely. Take the hydrometer readings after periods of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 minutes. Take out the hydrometer,
rinse it with distilled water and allow it to stand in a jar containing distilled water at the same
temperature as that of the test cylinder.
3. The hydrometer is re-inserted in the suspension and readings are taken after periods of 8, 15 and 30
minutes; 1, 2 and 4 hours after shaking. The hydrometer should be removed, rinsed and placed in the
distilled water after each reading. After the end of 4 hours, readings should be taken once or twice
within 24 hours.
4. Composite correction (C): In order to determine the composite correction, put 100ml of dispersing
agent solution in another 1000ml measuring cylinder and make it to 1000ml by adding distilled water.
26 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The cylinder should be maintained at the same temperature as that of the test cylinder containing soil
specimen. Insert the hydrometer in this comparison cylinder containing distilled water and the
dispersing agent and take the reading corresponding to the top of the meniscus. The negative of the
hydrometer reading so obtained gives the composite correction (C). The composite correction is found
before the start of the test, and also at every time intervals of 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours and 4 hours
after the beginning of the test, and afterwards, just after each hydrometer reading is taken in test
cylinder.
5. The temperature of the suspension should be observed and recorded once during the first 15 minutes
and then after every subsequent reading.
Calculations:
(1) The loss in weight in pre-treatment of the soil in percentage is calculated from the following
expression:
P = (1 – Wb /Wd)x100
Where, P = loss in weight in percentage

Wd = weight of dry soil sample taken from the soil passing 2mm sieve
Wb = weight of the soil after pre-treatment
(2) The diameter of the particle in suspension at any sampling time t is calculated from:
D = 10-5 M ( He / t ) 0.5
Where, M = poise constant factor

He = effective depth of the hydrometer
t = elapsed time, minutes
(3) The percentage finer N/ based on the weight Wd is calculated from:
N’ = [100G/Wd(G – 1)]xR
Where, N/ = percentage finer, based on the weight of dry soil sample Wd

Wd = weight of dry soil sample taken from the soil sample passing 2mm sieve
G = specific gravity of the soil passing 75 micron sieve.
R = corrected hydrometer reading
R = Rh/ + C
R h = Rh / + C m
Where, Rh/ = observed hydrometer reading
Rh = hydrometer reading, corrected for meniscus correction
(4) The percentage finer (N) based on the total weight of dry soil sample (W) is obtained from the
relation:
N = N/ X (W/ / W)
Where, W/ = cumulative weight passing 2mm sieve.
27 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Values of Factor ‘M’

0 µ FACTOR "M"
Temp. C
(Poise) G = 2.50 G = 2.60 G = 2.65 G = 2.70 G = 2.75 G = 2.80
15 0.01145 1528 1479 1458 1435 1414 1395
16 0.01116 1508 1460 1438 1417 1396 1377
17 0.01088 1490 1442 1420 1399 1379 1360
18 0.01060 1470 1423 1402 1381 1361 1342
19 0.01034 1452 1406 1384 1364 1344 1325
20 0.01009 1434 1389 1367 1347 1328 1309
21 0.00984 1417 1372 1351 1331 1311 1294
22 0.00961 1400 1355 1335 1315 1296 1278
23 0.00938 1383 1339 1318 1291 1280 1262
24 0.00916 1367 1323 1305 1284 1265 1248
25 0.00896 1351 1308 1288 1269 1251 1233
26 0.00875 1335 1293 1273 1254 1236 1219
27 0.00855 1321 1279 1259 1241 1224 1206
28 0.00836 1305 1264 1244 1226 1208 1191
29 0.00818 1291 1250 1231 1213 1195 1178
30 0.00800 1277 1236 1217 1199 1182 1165
31 0.00783 1264 1224 1205 1187 1170 1154
32 0.00767 1251 1211 1193 1175 1158 1142
33 0.00751 1238 1199 1180 1163 1146 1130
34 0.00736 1225 1186 1168 1151 1134 1118
35 0.00721 1212 1174 1156 1139 1120 1107
36 0.00706 1199 1161 1144 1127 1110 1095
37 0.00792 1188 1150 1133 1116 1100 1084
38 0.00679 1176 1139 1122 1105 1089 1074
39 0.00666 1165 1128 1110 1094 1079 1064
40 0.00654 1155 1118 1101 1084 1069 1055
28 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST FOR SOILS.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 3 )
Object:
To determine the specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm sieve by density bottle.
Apparatus:
1) Density bottle of 50ml / 100ml capacity.
2) Balance sensitive to 0.01g.
3) Wash bottle with deaired distilled water
4) Vacuum source
Procedure:
To clean and dry the density bottle, wash it thoroughly with distilled water and allow it to drain. Weigh
the empty cleaned bottle (W1) accurate to 0.01g with its stopper. Take about 10 to 20 grams of oven
dried soil sample; find the weight (W2) of the bottle and the soil, with the stopper. Put about 10ml of
deaired distilled water in the bottle, so that the soil is fully soaked. Leave it for a period of 2 to 10 hours.
Add more distilled water so that the bottle is about half full. Remove the entrapped air by subjecting the
contents to a partial vacuum, then find out the weight (W3). Clean the bottle thoroughly and fill it with
distilled water and weighed (W4). Temperature should be maintained 270C through out the test.
Calculations:
Specific gravity of the soil = G = [(W2 – W1)] /[(W2 – W1) – (W3 – W4)]
Where, W1 = weight of the empty bottle with stopper.
W2 = weight of the bottle + Soil sample with stopper.
W3 = weight of the bottle + sample + water with stopper.
W4 = weight of the bottle + water with stopper.
29 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

4. MOISTURE CONTENT TEST.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 2 )
Object:
To determine the water content of a soil sample by oven drying method / sand bath method / Rapid
moisture meter method.
Apparatus:
1) Non-corrodible airtight containers.
2) Heat resistant tray – 5 to 7 cm deep.
3) Rapid moisture meter and absorbent (calcium carbide).
4) Oven, balance and heater / stove etc.
Procedure:
(A) Oven drying method: Take about 30 to 50 gms of soil sample if it is fine grained and about 250 to
300 gms if it is coarse grained soil in to the container and weigh it (W1). Place the container in the oven
and dry for 24 hours at temperature of 1050 to 1100C. Remove the container from the oven replace the
lid and cool it, after cooling weigh the container along with lid (W2). Clean and dry the container and
weigh it (W3).
Calculations:
Water content, w % = [(W1 – W2) / (W2 – W3)]x100
(B) Sand bath method: Clean the container with lid or the tray, as the case may be dry and weigh (W1).
Take the required quantity of the soil specimen in the container crumbled and placed loosely and weigh
(W2). Add a few pieces of white paper if necessary. Place the container with the lid removed or the tray
on the sand bath and heat the sand bath. Care shall be taken not to get the sand bath too hot. During
heating, the specimen shall be turned frequently and thoroughly with the palette knife to assist the
evaporation of water, care being taken to see that no soil is lost in the process. When drying is
complete, remove the container from the sand bath, cool and weigh (W3).
Calculations:
Water content, w % = [(W2 – W3) / (W3 – W1)]x100
Note: Avoid over heating, A convenient method of detecting overheating of the soil is by the use of
small pieces of white paper mixed the soil. Overheating is indicated if the paper turns brown.
30 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

(C) Rapid Moisture Meter: Set up the balance, place sample in pan till the mark on the balance arm
mass lines up with the index mark (taken approximately 6 grams of soil). Unclamp the clamping screw of
the instrument sufficiently to move the U-clamp off the cup. Lift off the cup, check that cup and body
are clean; otherwise clean it by using a brush. Hold the body horizontal and gently deposit one level
scoopful of absorbent (calcium carbide) halfway inside the chamber. Then lay the chamber down
without disturbing the absorbent charge. Transfer the soil weighed out as above from the pan to the
cup. Holding cup and chamber approximately horizontal bring them together without disturbing sample
or absorbent, bring the U-clamp round and clamp the cup tightly into place.
With gauge downwards (except when the steel balls are used) shake the moisture meter up and down
vigorously for 5 seconds, then quickly turn it so that the gauge is upwards, give a tap to the body of the
moisture meter to ensure that all the contents fall into the cup. Hold the rapid moisture meter
downwards, again shake for 5 seconds then turn it with gauge upwards and tap. Hold for one minute
and repeat this, when the needle comes to rest on the reading. The reading on the meter is the
percentage of water content of the wet mass.
Calculations: From the water content (m) obtained on the wet mass basis as the reading on the rapid
moisture meter, the water content (w) on the dry mass basis shall be calculated as follows:
w, % = [(m) / (100 –m)]x100
where, m = moisture content on the wet mass basis, obtained from rapid moisture meter.
w = moisture content on the dry mass basis
31 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

5. FREE SWELL INDEX TEST.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 40 )
Object:
To determine the free swell index of soils.
Apparatus:
1) 425 micron IS sieve
2) Glass graduated cylinders – 2 nos 100ml capacity
3) Distilled water and kerosene.
Procedure:
Take two 10 grams soil specimens of oven dry soil passing through 425-micron IS sieve. Each soil
specimen shall be poured in each of the two glass graduated cylinders of 100ml capacity. One cylinder
shall then be filled with kerosene oil and the other with distilled water up to the 100ml mark. After
removal of entrapped air the soils in both the cylinders shall be allowed to settle. Sufficient time (not
less than 24 hours) shall be allowed for the soil sample to attain equilibrium state of volume without any
further change in the volume of the soils. The final volume of soils in each of the cylinders shall be read
out.
Calculations:
The level of the soil in the kerosene-graduated cylinder shall be read as the original volume. The soil
samples, kerosene being a non-polar liquid does not cause swelling of the soil. The level of the soil in the
distilled water cylinder shall be read as the free swell level. The free swell index of the soil shall be
calculated as follows:
Free swell index, percent = [(Vd – Vk)/Vk]x100
Where, Vd = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder
containing distilled water.
Vk = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder
containing kerosene.
32 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

6.CONSISTENCY LIMITS OF SOILS.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 5 )
INTRODUCTION:
The physical properties of fine-grained soils, especially of clay differ much at different water contents.
Clay may be almost in liquid state, or it may show plastic behavior or may be very stiff depending on the
moisture content. Plasticity is a property of outstanding importance for clayey soils, which may be
explained as the ability to undergo changes in shape without rupture.
Atterberg in 1911 proposed a series of tests, mostly empirical, for the determination of the consistency
and plastic properties of fine soils. These are known as Atterberg limits and indices.
Liquid limit: defined as the minimum water content at which the soil will flow under the application of a
very small shearing force.
Plastic limit: defined as the minimum moisture content at which the soil remains in a plastic state.
Plasticity Index (PI): is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid limit and plastic limits. PI
thus indicates the range of moisture content over which the soil is in a plastic condition.
Shrinkage limit: is the maximum moisture content at which further reduction in water content does not
cause reduction in volume. It is the minimum water content that can occur in a clayey soil sample, which
is completely saturated.
Consistency limits and the plasticity index vary for different soil types. Hence these properties are
generally used in the identification and classification of soils.
Liquid limit test:(Mechanical liquid limit device)
Object:
Determination of the liquid limit of soil by mechanical liquid limit device.
Apparatus:
i) Mechanical liquid limit device consists of a cup and arrangement for raising and dropping through a
specified height and standard grooving tools.
ii) Balance of 200 g capacity and sensitive to 0.01 g.
iii) Oven to maintain 1050 to 1100C.
33 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Procedure:
About 120 g of dry pulverized soil sample passing 425 micron IS sieve is weighed, and mixed thoroughly
with distilled water in the evaporating dish to form a uniform thick paste. The liquid limit device is
adjusted to have a free fall of cup through 10 mm. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup above the
lowest spot, and squeezed down with the spatula to have a horizontal surface. The specimen is trimmed
by firm strokes of spatula in such a way that the maximum depth of soil sample in the cup is 10 mm. The
soil in the cup is divided along the diameter through the center line of the cam followed by firm strokes
of the grooving tool so as to get a clean sharp groove. Grooving tool (b) may be used for all soils, where
as grooving tool (a) may be used only in clayey soils free from sand particles or fibrous materials.
The crank is rotated at the rate of two revolutions per second (either by hand or electrically operation)
so that the cup is lifted and dropped. This is continued till the two halves of the soil cake come into
contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of about 10 mm, and the number of blows given is
recorded. A representative soil is taken, placed in the moisture container, lid placed over it and weighed.
The container is dried in oven and the dry weight determined the next day for finding the moisture
content of the soil. The operations are repeated for at least three more trials with slightly increased
moisture contents each time, noting the number of blows so that there are at least four uniformly
distributed readings of number of blows between 10 and 40 blows.
Calculations:
Taking the number of blows in the log scale on the X-axis, and the water content in arithmetic scale on
the Y-axis plots the flow curve. The flow curve is straight line drawn on this semi-logarithmic plot, as
nearly as possible through three or more plotted points. The moisture content corresponding to 25
blows is read from this curve, rounding off to the nearest whole number and is reported as the liquid
limit (LL or wl) of the soil.
The slope of the straight-line flow curve is the flow index. It may be calculated from the following
formula:
Flow Index (If) = (w1 – w2) / (log n2 – log n1) = (w10 – w100) / (log 100 – log 10)
Where, w10 = water content at 10 blows.

w100 = water content at 100 blows.
34 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Liquid limit test: (Cone penetration)
Object:
To determine the liquid limit of the soil by cone penetration apparatus.
Apparatus:
i) Cone penetration apparatus confirming to IS: 11196-1985 (cone angle 300+/-0.50) and weight of
assemble is 80 +/- 0.5 g including all).
ii) Balance of 200 g capacity and sensitive to 0.01 g.
iii) Oven to maintain 1050 to 1100C.
Procedure:
About 150 g of dry pulverized soil sample passing 425 micron IS sieve is weighed, and mixed thoroughly
with distilled water in the evaporating dish to form a uniform thick paste. The soil paste shall then be
transferred to the cylindrical mould of the cone penetrometer apparatus and leveled up to the top of
the cup. The penetrometer shall be so adjusted that the cone point just touches the surface of the soil
paste in the trough. The scale of the penetrometer shall then be adjusted to zero and the vertical rod
released so that the cone is allowed to penetrate into the soil paste under its weight. The weight should
be 80 +/- 0.5 g and the penetration shall be noted after 5 seconds from the release of the cone.
If the difference in penetration lies between 14 and 28 mm the test is repeated with suitable
adjustments to moisture either by addition of more water or exposure of the spread paste on a glass
plate for reduction in moisture content. The test shall be repeated at least to have four sets of values of
penetration in the range 14 and 28 mm. The exact moisture content of each trial shall be determined.
Calculations:
A graph representing water content on the Y-axis and the cone penetration value on the X-axis shall be
prepared. The best fitting straight line is then drawn. The moisture content corresponding to cone
penetration of 20 mm shall be taken as the liquid limit of the soil and shall be expressed to the nearest
first decimal place.
35 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Liquid Limit Graph (Mechanical Device Method):
26
25 WL
WATER CONTENT
24
23
22
21
20
10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
NO OF BLOWS
Liquid Limit Graph (Cone Penetration Method):
26
25
WATER CONTENT
24
23
22 WL
21
20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DEPTH F PENETRAION (mm)
36 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Plastic limit test:
Object:
Determination of the plastic limit of the soils.
Apparatus:
Evaporating dish, spatula, glass plate, moisture containers, rod of 3 mm diameter, balance sensitive to
0.01 g and oven controlled at temperature 1050 to 1100C.
Procedure:
About 20 g of dry pulverized soil passing 425 micron IS sieve is weighed. The soil is mixed thoroughly
with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil paste is plastic enough to be easily moulded with
fingers. A small ball is formed with the fingers and this is rolled between the fingers and the glass plate
to a thread. The pressure just sufficient to roll into a thread of uniform diameter should be used. The
rate of rolling should be between 80 to 90 strokes per minute counting a stroke as one complete motion
of hand forward and back to the starting position again. The rolling is done till the diameter of the
thread is 3 mm. Then the soil is kneaded together to a ball and rolled again to form thread. This process
of alternate rolling and kneading is continued until the thread crumbles under pressure required for
rolling and the soil can no longer be rolled into a thread.
If the crumbling starts at diameter less than 3 mm, then moisture content is more than plastic limit and
if the diameter is greater while crumbling starts, the moisture content is lower. By trial, the thread that
starts crumbling at 3 mm diameter under normal rolling should be obtained and this should be
immediately transferred to the moisture container, lid placed over it and weighed. The container is kept
in the oven for about a day and dry weight found to determine the moisture content of the thread. The
above process is repeated to get at least three consistent values of the plastic limit (PL or wp).
Calculations:
Plasticity Index (PI or Ip) = Liquid limit – Plastic limit.

= LL - PL
= wl - wp
Toughness Index (TI or IT) = Ip / If
Liquidity Index ( LI or Il) = (w – wp) / Ip where, ‘w’ is the natural moisture
content of the soil.
Consistency Index (CI or Io) = (wp – w) / Ip
37 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

7. COMPACTION TEST.
( IS : 2720 – PART – 7 & 8 )
INTRODUCTION:
Compaction of soil is mechanical processes by which the soils particles are constrain to be packed more
closely together by reducing the air voids. Soil compaction causes decrease in air voids and consequently
an increase in dry density. This may result in increase in shearing strength. The possibility of future
settlement or compressibility decreases and also the tendency for subsequent changes in moisture
content decreases. Degree of compaction is usually measured quantitatively by dry density.
Increase in dry density of soil due to compaction mainly depends on two factors – (i) the compacting
moisture content and (ii) the amount of compaction. For practically all soils it is found that with increase
in the compaction moisture content, the dry density first increases and then decreases if compacted by
any method. This indicates that under a given compactive effort every soil has optimum moisture
content (OMC) at which the soil attains maximum dry density (MDD). R.R.Proctor first recorded this fact
in 1933.
The compaction test is divided into two parts (i) light compaction (IS: 2720 – Part - 7) and (ii) heavy
compaction (IS: 2720 – Part – 8).
Object:
To determine the compaction test by light / heavy compaction test method.
Apparatus:
a) Cylindrical mould of capacity 1000 cc, with an internal diameter of 10cm and height 12.73 cm or a
mould of capacity 2250 cc, with an internal diameter of 15 cm and height of 12.73 cm. The mould is
fitted with a detachable base plate and removable collar or extension of about 6 cm high.
b) For light compaction, a metal rammer having 5 cm diameter circular face, and weight 2.6 kg is used
which has a free drop of 31 cm.
For heavy compaction, the rammer has 5 cm diameter circular face, but having weight 4.89 kg and free
drop of 45 cm.
c) Steel straight edge having be leveled edge for trimming the top of the specimen.
d) Other accessories include moisture containers, balances of capacity 10 kg and 200 g , oven, sieves and
mixing tools.
38 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Procedure:
Preparation of samples:
For light compaction, about 20 kg of the representative soil is air-dried, mixed pulverized and sieved
through 19 mm IS sieve. The fraction retained on 19 mm sieve is not used in this test. If there is note
worthy proportion of materials retained on 19 mm sieve, allowance for larger size materials is made by
replacing it by an equal weight of material passing 19 mm sieve and retained on 4.75 mm sieve.
For heavy compaction, about 45 kg of the representative soil is air-dried, mixed pulverized and sieved
through 37.5 mm IS sieve. The fraction retained on 37.5 mm is not used in this test. If there is note
worthy proportion of materials retained on 37.5 mm sieve, allowance for large size materials is made by
replacing it by an equal weight of material passing 37.5 mm and retained on 4.75 mm sieve.
For compacting the soil in the mould every time the required quantity will depend on the soil type, size
of the mould, moisture content and amount of compaction. As a rough guidance, for each test 2.5 kg of
soil may be taken for light compaction and 5.8 kg for heavy compaction. The estimated weight of water
to be added to the soil every time may be measured with a graduated jar in cc.
Enough water is added to the specimen to bring the moisture content to about 7% less than the
estimated OMC for sandy soils and 10% less for clayey soils. The processed soil is stored in an airtight
container for about 18 to 20 hours to enable moisture to spread uniformly in the soil mass.
The mould with base plate fitted in is weighed. The process soil-water mixture is mixed thoroughly and
divided into eight equal parts.
(i) For light compaction the wet soils is compacted into the mould in three equal layers, each layer being
given 25 blows of the 2.6 kg hammer, if 10 cm diameter mould is used. When the 15 cm diameter mould
is used, 56 blows are given to each of the three layers by the 2.6 kg hammer.
(ii) For heavy compaction, the wet soil mix is compacted in the mould in five layers each layer being
given 25 blows of 4.89 kg hammer when the 10 cm diameter of mould is used. When the 15 cm
diameter mould is used, 56 blows are given to each of the five layers by 4.89 kg hammer.
The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer. Each layer of the compacted
soil is scored with a spatula before placing the soil for the succeeding layer. The amount of soil used
should be just sufficient to fill the mould leaving about 5mm to be struck off on the top after compacting
the final layer.
The collar is removed and the compacted soil is leveled off to the top of the mould by means of the
straight edge. The mould and the soil is then weighed. The soil is then ejected out of the mould and cut
in the middle and a representative sample is taken in airtight container from the cut surface. The
moisture content of this representative specimen is determined by finding the wet weight, keeping in
the oven at 1050 to 1100C and finding the dry weight the next day.
39 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

This procedure is repeated five to six times using fresh part of the soil specimen and after adding a
higher water content than the preceding specimen every time so that the last compaction is carried out
at moisture 7 to 10 percent higher than estimated optimum moisture content.
Calculations:
Let the weight of mould with moist compacted soil = Wg
Weight of empty mould = Wm , g
Volume of the mould = Vm , cc
Moisture content = w,%
Specific gravity of the soil = G
Wet density, γm = (W – Wm) / Vm , g/cc
Then dry density, γd = γm / (1 + w/100) = (W – Wm) / [Vm (1+w/100)], g/cc
Porosity, n = 100 ( Vv/V) % = (1 - γd/ G γw)x100, %
Voids ratio, e = (G γw / γd) - 1
Results:
Points are plotted with moisture content on the X-axis and dry density on the Y-axis and a smooth curve
is drawn connecting the points. From this curve, the maximum dry density (MDD) is noted and the
corresponding value of moisture content taken as optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil.
MDD & OMC Graph.

1.93
1.91
1.87
MDD
1.85
1.83
DRY DENSITY
1.81
1.79
1.77
1.75
1.73
OMC
5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
W ATER CONTENT
40 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

8. FIELD DENSITY TEST BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 28 )
INTRODUCTION:
The dry density of the compacted soil or pavement material is a common measure of the amount of the
compaction achieved during the construction. Knowing the field density and field moisture content, the
dry density is calculated. Therefore field density test is importance as a field control test for the
compaction of soil or any other pavement layer.
There are several methods for the determination of field density of soils such as core cutter method,
sand replacement method, rubber balloon method, heavy oil method etc. One of the common methods
of determining field density of fine-grained soils is core cutter method; but this method has a major
limitation in the case of soils containing coarse-grained particles such as gravel, stones and aggregates.
Under such circumstances, field density test by sand replacement method is advantageous, as the
presence of coarse-grained particles will adversely affect the test results.
The basic principle of sand replacement method is to measure the in-situ volume of hole from which the
material was excavated from the weight of sand with known density filling in the hole. The in-situ
density of material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-situ volume.
Object:
To determination of field density by sand replacement method.
Apparatus:
a) Sand pouring cylinder equipment:
(i) Small pouring cylinder: suitable for fine and medium grained soils. This consists of a metal cylinder of
capacity 3 liters, 100mm in diameter and 380 mm length with an inverted funnel or cone at one end and
a shutter to open and close the entry of sand and a cap on the other end. Metal tray to excavate the
hole with suitable shape and size. Calibration container of the small pouring cylinder (size 100X150mm)
(ii) Large pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This consists a metal
cylinder of capacity 16.5 liters, 200mm in diameter and 610mm length with all arrangements mentioned
above. Calibration container size 200X250mm
(iii) Medium pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This cylinder with
150mm diameter and length 450mm. The calibration container size is 150X200mm.
b) Tools for leveling and excavating: Hand tools such as scraper with handle for leveling the surface; a
dibber or an elongated trowel for digging and excavating the material.
41 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

c) Containers: Metal containers of any convenient size (about 150mm diameter and 200mm depth) with
removable lid for collecting the excavated material.
d) Sand: Dry and clean test sand of uniform gradation, passing 1.0mm and retained 600-micron sieve.
e) Balance: A suitable balance of capacity 15 or 30 kg accuracy 1.0 g and necessary set of weights.
Procedure:
The test may be conducted in two stages: (i) calibration of apparatus and (ii) measurement of field
density.
(i) Calibration of apparatus:
The determination of volume of the excavated hole is based on the weight of sand filling the hole and
the cone and the density of the sand. Calibration of apparatus includes (a) determination of density of
test sand used in the experiment under identical height and pouring conditions of the sand into the test
hole and (b) determination of the weight of the sand occupying the cone of the sand-pouring cylinder.
Clean and dry test sand passing 1.0mm sieve and retained 600-micron sieve is collected in sufficient
quantity required for at least three to four sets of tests. The top cap of the sand-pouring cylinder is
removed, the shutter is closed, the cylinder is filled with dry test sand up to about 10mm from the top
and the cap is replaced. The weight of the cylinder with the sand is determined accurate to one gram
and is recorded = W1. In all the subsequent tests for calibration as well as for the field density tests,
every time the sand is filled into the cylinder such that the initial weight of the cylinder with sand is
exactly W1. The sand pouring cylinder is placed over the calibration cylinder or one of the test holes
already excavated, the shutter is opened and the sand equal to the volume of the calibration cylinder or
the excavated test hole is allowed to flow out and the shutter is closed.
The sand pouring cylinder is now placed on a clean plane surface (glass or Perspex plate), the shutter is
kept open till the sand fills up the cone fully and there is no visible movement of sand as seen from the
top of the cylinder by removing the cap. The shutter is closed, the cylinder is removed and the sand
which occupied the cone is carefully collected from the plate and weighed = W2.
The sand pouring cylinder is refilled with sand such that the initial weight is again W1. Now the cylinder
is placed centrally on the top of the calibration container and the shutter is opened. When the sand fills
up the calibration container and the cone completely and there is no movement of sand, the shutter is
closed and the sand pouring cylinder and the remaining sand is weighed = W3.
The above steps are repeated three times and the mean values of W2 and W3 are determined such that
the mean value of the weight of sand required to fill the calibration container up to the level top can be
determined.
42 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The volume of the calibrating container, V is determined either by measuring the internal dimensions or
by filling with water and weighing. From the weight of sand Wa and its volume V in the calibrating
container, the density of sand, is determined.
(ii) Measurement of field density:
The site where the field density test is to be conducted is cleaned and leveled using a scraper for an area
of about 450 mm square. The metal tray central hole is placed on the prepared surface. Using this
central hole as pattern, the soil/material is excavated using a dibber or a trowel up to a required depth
and the loose material removed is carefully collected in the metal container and is weighed = W. The
sand-pouring cylinder is refilled with sand such that its weight is again W1. The metal tray with central
hole is removed and the sand-pouring cylinder is placed centrally over the excavated hole. The shutter is
opened till the sand fills the excavated hole and the cone completely and there is no further movement
of sand in the cylinder. The shutter is closed and the cylinder is weighed again = W4, so that the weight
of sand filling the excavated hole alone = Wb can be found.
The moisture content of the excavated soil, w% is determined by taking a sample of soil from it in a
moisture content dish, weighing, drying in oven at 1100C and re-weighing. Alternatively, the moisture
content (w%) is determined by placing the entire excavated soil collected from the hole (of weight W) in
the oven and finding its dry weight = Wd.
The above steps for the determination of the weights of excavated soil, the weight of the sand filling the
hole and the weights of samples for the moisture content determination are repeated at least three
times and the average values taken for the determination of field density (wet and dry) values.
Calculations and Results:
W1 = weight of sand pouring cylinder and sand filled up to 10mm from top edge, g
W2 = weight of sand in the cone, mean value, g
W3 = weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container and cone, g
W4 = weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole and cone, g
Va = volume of the excavating container, cm3
W = weight of the soil from the excavated hole, g
Wd = oven dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole, g
w = moisture content of the soil, %
The weight of sand filling the calibrating container only = Wa = (W1 – W3 – W2), g
43 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

(i) Bulk density of sand, γs = Wa / Va , g/cm3
Weight of sand filling the excavated hole alone = Wb = (W1 – W4 – W2), g
Volume of sand filling the excavated hole alone = V = Wb / γs , cm3
(ii) In-situ bilk density of the wet excavated soil, γ = W / V , g/cm3
(iii) Moisture content of soil, w% = [100x(W – Wd)]/Wd , %
(iv) In-situ dry bulk density of the excavated soil, γd = (γ x Wd) /W
= 100γ / (100+W) , g/cm3
The results are reported as the average value of at least three sets of tests in the following:
(i) In-place wet density of soil in g/cm3, correct to second decimal place or in kg/m3, correct to nearest
whole number.
(ii) In-place dry density of soil in g/cm3 or in kg/m3 (as above).
(iii) Moisture content of the soil in percent, correct to first decimal place.
44 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

9. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 16 )
INTRODUCTION:
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a method
of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible pavements.
The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under controlled
density and moisture conditions. The test procedure should be strictly adhered if high degree of
reproducibility is desired. The CBR test may be conducted in re-moulded or undisturbed specimens in
the laboratory. The test has been extensively investigated for field correlation of flexible pavement
thickness requirement.
Briefly, the test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter to penetrate a pavement
component material at 1.25mm/minute. The loads, for 2.5mm and 5mm are recorded. This load is
expressed as a percentage of standard load value at a respective deformation level to obtain CBR value.
The standard load values were obtained from the average of a large number of tests on different
crushed stones and are given.
2
Penetration, mm Standard Load, kg. Unit standard load, kg/cm
2.5 1370 70
5.0 2055 105
7.5 2630 134
10.0 3180 162
12.5 3600 183
Laboratory CBR test:
Apparatus:
a) Loading Machine: Any compression machine, which can operate at a constant rate of
1.25mm/minute, can be used. A metal penetration piston or plunger of diameter 50mm is attached to
the loading machine.
b) Cylindrical moulds: Moulds of 150mm diameter and 175mm height provided with a collar of about
50mm length and detachable perforated base are used for this purpose. A spacer disc of 148mm
diameter and 47.7mm thickness is used to obtain a specimen of exactly 127.3mm height.
c) Compaction Rammer: The material is usually compacted as specified for the work, either by dynamic
compaction or by static compaction. The details for dynamic compaction suggested by the ISI are given.
Type of compaction No.of layers Hammer Wt. Kg Fall, cm No.of blows

Light compaction 3 2.6 31 56
Heavy compaction 5 4.89 45 56
45 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

d) Adjustable stem, perforated plate, tripod and dial gauge: The standard procedure requires that the
soil sample before testing should be soaked in water to measure swelling. For this purpose the above
listed accessories are required.
e) Annular weight: In order to simulate the effect of the overlaying pavement weight, annular weights
each of 2.5 kg weight and 147mm diameter are placed on the top of the specimen, both at the time of
soaking and testing the samples, as surcharge.
Procedure:
The CBR test may be performed either on undisturbed soil specimens obtained by fitting a cutting edge
to the mould or on remoulded specimens. Remoulded soil specimens may be compacted either by static
compaction or by dynamic compaction. When static compaction is adopted, the batch of soil is mixed
with water to give the required moisture content; the correct weight of moist soil to obtain the desired
density is placed in the mould and compaction is attained by pressing in the spacer disc using a
compaction machine or jack. The preparation of soil specimens by dynamic compaction or ramming is
more commonly adopted and is explained below.
About 45 kg of material is dried and sieved through 19mm sieve. If there is note worthy proportion of
materials retained on 19mm sieve, allowance for larger size materials is made by replacing it by an equal
weight of material passing 19mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm sieve. The optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density of the soil are determined by adopting either light compaction or heavy
compaction as per the requirement.
Each batch of soil (of at least 5.5 kg weight for granular soil and 4.5 to 5.0 kg weight for fine grained
soils) is mixed with water up to the optimum moisture content or the field moisture content if specified
so. The spacer disc is placed at the bottom of the mould over the base plate and a coarse filter paper is
placed over the spacer disc. The moist soil sample is to be compacted over this in the mould by adopting
either the light compaction or heavy compaction.
(i) For IS light compaction or Proctor compaction the soil to be compacted is divided into three equal
parts; the soil is compacted in three equal layers, each of compacted thickness about 44mm by applying
56 evenly distributed blows of the 2.6 kg rammer.
(ii) For IS heavy compaction or the modified Proctor compaction, the soil is divided into five equal parts;
the soil is compacted in five equal layers, each of compacted thickness about 26.5mm by applying 56
evenly distributed blows of the 4.89 kg rammer. After compacting the last layer, the collar is removed
and the excess soil above the top of the mould is evenly trimmed off by means of the straight edge. It is
important to see if the excess soil to be trimmed off while preparing each specimen is of thickness about
5.0mm; if not the weight of soil taken for compacting each specimen is suitably adjusted for the repeat
tests so that the thickness of the excess layer to be trimmed off is about 5.0mm. Any hole that develops
on the surface due to the removal of coarse particles during trimming may be patched with smaller size
material. Three such compacted
46 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

specimens are prepared for the CBR test. About 100g of soil samples are collected from the each mould
for moisture content determination, from the trimmed off portion.
The clamps are removed and the mould with the compacted soil is lifted leaving below the perforated
base plate and the spacer disc, which is removed. The mould with the compacted soil is weighed. A filter
paper is placed on the perforated base plate, the mould with compacted soil is inverted and placed in
position over the base plate (such that the top of the soil sample is now placed over the base plate) and
the clamps of the base plate are tightened. Another filter paper is placed on the top surface of the
sample and the perforated plate with adjustable stem is placed over it. Surcharge weights of 2.5 or 5.0
kg weight are placed over the perforated plate and the whole mould with the weights is placed in a
water tank for soaking such that water can enter the specimen both from the top and bottom. The swell
measuring device consisting of the tripod and the dial gauge are placed on the top edge of the mould
and the spindle of the dial gauge is placed touching the top of the adjustable stem of the perforated
plate. The initial dial gauge reading is recorded and the test set up is kept undisturbed in the water tank
to allow soaking of the soil specimen for four full days or 96 hours. The final dial gauge reading is noted
to measure the expansion or swelling of the soil specimen due to soaking.
The swell measuring assembly is removed, the mould is taken out of the water tank and the sample is
allowed to drain in a vertical position for 15 minutes. The surcharge weights, the perforated plate with
stem and the filter paper are removed. The mould with the soil sample is removed from the base plate
and is weighed again to determine the weight of water absorption.
The mould with the specimen is clamped over the base plate and the same surcharge weights are placed
on the specimen centrally such that the penetration test could be conducted. The mould with base plate
is placed under the penetration plunger of the loading machine. The penetration plunger is seated at the
center of the specimen and is brought in contact with the top surface of the soil sample by applying a
seating load of 4.0 kg. The dial gauge for measuring the penetration values of the plunger is fitted in
position. The dial gauge of the proving ring (for load readings) and the penetration dial gauge are set to
zero. The load is applied through the penetration plunger at a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. The load
readings are recorded at penetration readings of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and
12.5 mm. In case the load readings start decreasing before 12.5mm penetration, the maximum load
value and the corresponding penetration value are recorded. After the final reading, the load is released
and the mould is removed from the loading machine. The proving ring calibration factor is noted so that
the load dial values can be converted into load in kg. About 50g of soil is collected from the top three cm
depth of the soil sample for the determination of moisture content.
Calculations:
The swelling or expansion ratio is calculated from the observations during the swelling test using the
formula:
Expansion ratio or swelling = 100 (df – di) / h
Where, df = final dial gauge reading after soaking, mm
di = initial dial gauge reading before soaking, mm
h = initial height of the specimen (127.3 mm), mm
47 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The load values noted for each penetration level are divided by the area of the loading plunger
(19.635cm2) to obtain the pressure or unit load values on the loading plunger. The load-penetration
curve is then plotted in natural scale for each specimen. If the curve is uniformly convex upwards, no
correction is needed. In case there is a reverse curve or the initial portion of the curve is concave
upwards, necessity of a correction is indicated. A tangent is drawn from the steepest point on the curve
to intersect the base at point, which is the corrected origin corresponding to zero penetration. The unit
load values corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration values are found from the graph. The CBR
value is calculated from the formula:
CBR, % = ( Unit load carried by soil sample at defined penetration level /Unit load carried by standard
crushed stones at above penetration level)x100
Results:
The CBR values at 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetrations are calculated for each specimen from the
corresponding graphs. Generally the CBR value at 2.5mm penetration is higher and this value is adopted.
However if higher CBR value is obtained at 5.0mm penetration, the test is to be repeated to verify the
results; if the value at 5.0mm is again higher, this is adopted as the CBR value of the soil sample. The
average CBR values of three specimens are reported to the first decimal place.
48 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Field CBR Test.
Apparatus:
A reaction load like a truck, tractor or truss is required for applying the load by means of a mechanical
screw jack. The other equipment needed are 5 cm diameter loading plunger, extension rods, jacks,
proving ring assembly, dial gauge, datum frame, annular surcharge plate 25 cm in diameter and 5 kg in
weight, with a central hole and slot width 5.3 cm and two circular slotted weights of 10 kg and diameter
about 25 cm with central hole and slot width of 5.3 cm.
Procedure:
A circular area of about 30 cm in diameter is trimmed and leveled. Particular care should be taken at the
center where the plunger is to be seated. The surcharge load of 15 kg is placed on this surface and the
plunger is seated properly. The dial gauge to measure the penetration is attached to the plunger from
an independent datum frame. A seating load of 4 kg is applied and the load and penetration dials are set
to zero.
The load is applied to the plunger by means of the jack such that the rate of penetration is
approximately 1.25 mm/minute. The load readings are noted for at penetrations 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0,
2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm. The load is released and moisture content specimen is taken
from underneath the plunger.
Calculations:
The load – penetration curve is plotted, and the CBR value is calculated as in the case of laboratory CBR.
CBR Graph:
300
280 Spe.1(No Correction)
260
240
220
LOAD (Kg/cm )
2
200
180 Spe.2(Correction Required)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
PENETRATION (mm)
49 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

10. SHEAR TEST BY TRIAXIAL METHOD.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 12 )
INTRODUCTION:
Shear tests are generally carried out on small soil samples in the laboratory to evaluate the strength
properties of the element in the soil mass. The strength parameters, namely the cohesion and angle of
shearing resistance are usually found from these tests. The two methods of shear tests commonly used
are the direct shear test and the triaxial test.
Apparatus:
The triaxial machine consists of a pressure cell assembly and equipment for loading and measuring the
load and deformation.
Triaxial pressure cell: Cylindrical soil specimen inserted in a thin rubber membrane and kept sealed to
prevent the entry of lateral fluid, can be placed in position in the cell. There is provision to apply radial
fluid pressure and vertical stress through a piston. There is also facility to allow or prevent drainage of
specimen during the application stresses. A pressure gauge may be used to measure the fluid pressure
in the cell.
Loading equipment: Usually strain controlled equipment is used; stress controlled equipment is also
used in some tests. A proving ring assembly may measure the vertical load applied on the piston. A dial
gauge attached to the piston measures the deformation of specimen.
Procedure:
Preparation of specimen: Either undisturbed or remoulded specimens may be prepared as desired.

Larger size of undisturbed soil sample may be taken and trimmed to desired size. But undisturbed soil
sample can be prepared only from soils having sufficient cohesion. Remoulded samples of cohesive soils
may be prepared either by compacting first in large mould and by pressing hollow cutters or in constant
volume moulds. Special care is needed while preparing specimens of cohesion less soil, in special mould
after placing the membrane in proper position. The cylindrical specimens usually have height to
diameter ratio equal to two; this ratio does not however exceed 2.5.
Test type: Three types of triaxial tests may be performed in partially or fully saturated specimens. These
are (i) undrained or quick test, (ii) consolidated – undrained test and (iii) drained or slow test.
In the undrained or quick test the out let valve is closed and no drainage is allowed from the specimen
during the test, from the time of application of lateral pressure σ3 till the specimen fails under gradually
increasing vertical load. In the consolidated undrained test, the drainage valve is kept open and the
specimen is allowed to fully consolidate under the applied lateral pressure σ3; but no further drainage is
allowed during the application of the vertical load, till failure.
50 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

In the drained or slow test the drainage is allowed during all stages of testing. First the specimen is
allowed to fully consolidate under the applied lateral pressure σ3 and later the vertical load is also
applied in such a way that there is enough time for the drainage of pore water pressure developed from
time to time.
There are two methods of applying the lateral or confining pressure. Usually the lateral pressure σ3 is
maintained constant throughout the test. But in some studies the volume of the specimen is maintained
constant by adjusting the lateral pressure.
Procedure:
The specimen enveloped properly in the membrane is kept in the triaxial cell and a desired lateral
pressure σ3 is applied. Then the vertical load is increased till the specimen fails noting the vertical
deformation and load readings at desired intervals. The experiment is repeated for various other values
of lateral pressure. To find the values of cohesion and angle of internal friction, tests should be carried
out with at least two or three different lateral pressure values. Soils may be tested with lateral pressures
of 0, 0.75 and 1.5 kg/cm2.
Calculations:
The triaxial test specimen is subjected to the all round pressure equal to the lateral pressure σ3 and the
applied vertical stress or deviator stress σd such that the total vertical stress σ1 = σd+σ3. Mohr stress
circles are plotted at normal stress intercepts σ3 and σ1 or with diameters equal to deviator stresses.
Mohr rupture envelope is then obtained by drawing a tangent to the circles. The intercept of this line
with Y-axis represents the cohesion (C) and the inclination with X-axis represents the angle of internal
friction (φ) of the soil.
Correction for area of cross section: It is necessary to correct the deviator stress values for the
increased area of cross section due to loading. Assuming that the volume of specimen remains constant
and the area of cross section of the specimen increases uniformly, the corrected value of deviator stress
σd is calculated from the relation:
σd = (P1 / A0) x(1 - ∆/ l0)
Where, P1 = applied load.

A0 = original area of cross section.
∆ = deformation of specimen.
l0 = original length of specimen.
The shearing resistance is found the following equation:
S = C + σ tanφ
Mohr’s Envelope from Triaxial Test.
51 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

SHEAR STRESS
σ3 σd
σ1 NORMAL STRESS
11. SAND EQUIVALENT TEST.

( IS : 2720 – PART – 37 )
52 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

INTRODUCTION:
This test is intended to serve as a rapid field test to show the relative proportions of fine dust or clay like
material in soils or graded aggregates.
Apparatus:
1) A graduated plastic cylinder, rubber stopper, irrigator tube, weighted foot assembly, and siphon
assembly, all confirming to their respective specifications and dimensions. Fit the siphon assembly to a 4
liters bottle of working calcium chloride solution placed on a shelf 915 +/- 25mm above the work
surface. In lieu of the specified 4liter bottle, a glass or plastic vat having a larger capacity may be used
providing the liquid level of the working solution is maintained between 915 to 1175mm above the work
surface.
2) A 85 ml tinned box approximately 57mm in diameter, with gill style cover and having a capacity of 85
+/- 5ml.
3) A wide mouth funnel approximately 100mm in diameter at the mouth.
4) A clock or watch reading in minutes and seconds.
5) A mechanical shaker having a throw of 203.2 +/- 1.02mm and operating at 175 +/- 2 cycles per
minute.
6) Stock calcium chloride solution
7) Working calcium chloride solution
Preparation of Stock/Working Calcium Chloride Solution:
a) Stock Calcium Chloride Solution: Dissolve the 480.4 g of calcium chloride in 2 liters of distilled water.
Cool and filter through ready pleated rapid filtering filter paper. Add 2179 g of glycerin and the 49.7 g of
formaldehyde to the filtered solution mix well and dilute to 4 liters.
b) Working Calcium Chloride Solution: Prepare the working calcium chloride solution by diluting 90 ml
of the stock calcium chloride solution to 4 liters with water.
Sample preparation:
The sand equivalent test shall be performed on soils or graded aggregate materials passing the 4.75mm
sieve. All aggregates of fine-grained soil material shall be pulverized to pass the 4.75mm sieve, and all
fines shall be cleaned from the particles retained on the 4.75mm sieve and included with the material
passing the 4.75mm sieve. Split enough of the original sample to yield slightly more than 85 ml tin
measures of material passing the 4.75mm sieve. Use extreme care to obtain a truly representative
portion of the original sample.
53 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Procedure:
Siphon 101.6 +/- 2.5ml of working calcium chloride solution into the paste cylinder. Pour the prepared
test sample from the measuring tin into the plastic cylinder using the funnel to avoid spillage. Tap the
bottom of the cylinder sharply on the heel of the hand several times to release air bubbles and to
promote thorough wetting of the sample. Allow the wetted sample to stand undisturbed for 10 minutes.
At the end of the 10-minute soaking period, stopper the cylinder, then loosen the material from the
bottom by partially inverting the cylinder and shaking it simultaneously. Hold the cylinder in a horizontal
position and shake it vigorously in a horizontal linear motion from end to end. Shake the cylinder 90
cycles in approximately 30 seconds using a throw of 229 +/- 25mm. A cycle is defined as a complete back
and front motion. To properly shake the cylinder at this speed, it will be necessary for the operator to
shake with the forearms only, relaxing the body and shoulders.
Allow the cylinder and contents to stand undisturbed to 20 minutes, read the level of the top of the clay
suspension. This is referred to as the ‘clay reading’. After the clay reading has been taken, the ‘sand
reading’ shall be obtained by the following method:
When using the weighted foot assembly having the sand indicator on the rod of the assembly, place the
assembly over the cylinder and gently lower the assembly towards the sand. Do not allow the indicator
to hit the mouth of the cylinder as the assembly is being lowered. As the weighted foot comes to rest on
the sand, tip the assembly toward the graduations on the cylinder until the indicator touches the inside
of the cylinder. Subtract 254mm from the level indicated by the extreme top edge of the indicator and
record this value as the ‘sand reading’.
Calculations:
Sand equivalent (SE) to the nearest 0.1 using the following formula:
SE = (Sand Reading / Clay Reading) X 100
12. BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL BY PLATE LOAD BEARING TEST.

( IS : 1888 – 1982 )
54 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

INTRODUCTION:
This is the method of conducting the load test on soils and the evaluation of bearing capacities and
settlement from this test. This method assumes that down to the depth of influence of stresses the soil
strata is reasonably uniform. This should be verified by boring or sounding.
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of bearing plates, loading equipment and instruments to measure the applied
loads and resulting settlement.
a) Bearing plates: Consist of a mild steel 75 cm in diameter and 1.5 to 2.5 cm thickness, and few other
plates of same thickness, but smaller diameters (usually 60, 45, 30 and 22.5 cm dia.) used as stiffeners.
b) Loading equipment: Consist of a reaction or dead load and a hydraulic jack. The reaction frame may
suitable be loaded to give the needed reaction load on the plate. The load applied may be measured
either by a proving ring and dial gauge assembly or a pressure gauge connected to the output end of the
hydraulic jack.
c) Settlement measurements: May be made by means of three or four dial gauges fixed on the
periphery of the bearing plate from an independent datum frame. The datum frame should be
supported far from the loaded area.
Procedure:
The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm diameter plate rests
horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-grade. If the modulus of sub-grade reaction of natural
ground is needed, the topsoil may be removed up to a depth of about 20 cm before testing.
The plate is seated accurately and then a seating load equivalent to a pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320 kg
for 75 cm diameter plate) is applied and released after a few seconds. The settlement dial readings are
now noted corresponding to zero load. A load is applied by means of the jack, sufficient to cause an
average settlement of about 0.25 mm. When there is no perceptible increase in settlement or when the
rate of settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute (in the case of soils with high moisture content or in
clayey soils) the load dial reading and the settlement dial readings are noted. The average of the three
(or four) settlement dial readings is taken as the average settlement of the plate corresponding to the
applied load.
The load is then increased till the average settlement increase to a further amount of about 0.25 mm,
and the load and average settlement readings are noted as before. The procedure is repeated till the
settlement is about 1.75 mm or more.
Bearing pressure-settlement curve:
55 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Mean Bearing Pressure (Kg/cm )

2
1
0.5
0 0.1 0.2
Mean Settlement (cm)
Calculations:
A graph is plotted with the mean settlement versus bearing pressure (load per unit area) as shown in
above. The pressure ‘p’ (kg/cm2) corresponding to a settlement ∆ = 0.125 cm is obtained from the
graph. The modulus of sub grade reaction ‘K’ is calculated from the relation.
K = ( p / 0.125) kg/cm2/cm or kg/cm3.
13. DELETERIOUS CONTENTS OF SOILS.
I. Determination of Total Soluble Sulphates (IS : 2720 – Part – 27)
56 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

A. By Precipitation Method:
Object:
Determination of total soluble sulphate content of soil by precipitation method.
Apparatus:
1) Analytical Balance – sensitive to 0.001 g , 2) Glass Beaker – 250 ml capacity, 3) Glass Funnel – 50 mm
diameter, 4) Glass Bottle – 250 ml capacity with a rubber cork, 5) Crucible – 50 ml capacity, 6) Pipette –
25 ml, 7) Burette – 50 ml with 0.1 ml graduation, 8) Filter paper – Whatman No.42, 9) Heating
equipment, Muffle furnace, Mechanical shaker, Drying oven and A Mortar with rubber-covered pestle.
Reagents:
1. Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution: Dissolve 0.1 g of phenolphthalein in 60 ml of rectified spirit and

dilute with distilled water to 100 ml.
2. Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid: Specific gravity 1.18 (conforming to IS:265-1976)
3. Barium Chloride Solution: 5 percent. Dissolve 5 g of barium chloride in 100 ml of distilled water.
4. Silver Nitrate Indicator Solution: 0.5 percent. Dissolve 500 mg of silver nitrate in 100 ml of distilled
water.
Procedure:
a) Soil Sample: The soil sample shall be brought to a state in which it may be crumbled if necessary, by
drying it in an oven maintained at 105 to 1100C. The aggregations of particles shall be broken up in
mortar with rubber-covered pestle or the mechanical device. The sample shall be thoroughly mixed and
then sub-divided by quartering.
b) Procedure: Take 10 g of soil from the sample prepared as above in a 250 ml bottle with 100 ml of
distilled water. Give occasional shaking for 2 hours by means of the mechanical shaker. Allow the soil
suspension to stand overnight. Filter and take 25 ml of filtrate in a beaker and add concentrated
hydrochloric acid to just neutralize the solution if it is found alkaline to phenolphthalein indicator. Add
further 4 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid to make the solution acidic. Boil the soil suspension and add
barium chloride filter it. The precipitation shall be wash free from chloride ions. The filteration mass also
done through a preheated with sintered glass crucible. In the case of filter paper after drying ashing shall
be done on a low flame and the precipitate then ignited over a burner or in a muffle furnace at 600 to
7000C for half an hour cool in a desiccator weigh and note the weight of the residue. This is the weight
of barium sulphate. A corresponding weight of sodium sulphate should be calculated and thus its
percentage determined.
Note: To check whether the residue is free of chloride ions, collect the washings in a separate test tube
at different time intervals and a drop of 0.5 percent silver nitrate solution to it. The formation of white
cloudy precipitate shows the presence of chloride ions in the precipitate. Continue washing until the
57 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

white precipitation is not formed in the washings by the addition of silver nitrate solution. Hot water
may be used for washing.
Calculations:
Sulphates (as SO4), by mass = 41.15 x (W1 / W2)
Sulphates (as Na2 S04), by mass = 60.85 x (W1 / W2)
Where, W1 = mass in g of the precipitation and
W2 = mass in g of the soil contained in the solution taken for precipitation.
B. Volumetric Method:
Reagents:
1. Barium Chloride Solution: N/4. Dissolve 30.54 g of barium chloride in one litre of distilled water.
2. Potassium Chromate Solution: N/4. Dissolve 24.275 g of potassium chromate in a small amount of
distilled water. Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution to it to remove any chloride, filter and dilute to
250 ml.
3. Silver Nitrate Indicator Solution: 0.5 percent. Dissolve 500mg of silver nitrate in 100 ml of distilled
water.
4. Dilute Solution of Ammonium Hydroxide: Sp.Gr.0.888. Mix ammonium hydroxide and distilled water
in the ratio of 1:2.
5. Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid: Sp.Gr.1.11 (conforming to IS:265-1976).
Procedure:
Weigh 10 g of the soil specimen obtained by the method specified in above, in a beaker and add about
50 ml water. Stir well, allow to decant, filter, wash the soil on filter paper with a small quantity of water
and make the filtrate to 100-ml. Pipette out 10 ml of the water extract in a conical flask, make it slightly
acidic by adding concentrated hydrochloric acid and heat to boiling. While boiling, add barium chloride
solution (N/4) from the burette till the precipitation is complete and barium chloride solution is in slight
excess.
58 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Neutralize the solution with ammonium hydroxide and titrate the excess of barium chloride against
potassium chromate solution (N/4). The end point may be confirmed, if considered necessary, by using
silver nitrate solution as an external indicator.
Calculations:
Sulphates as sodium sulphate in soil, percent by mass = 0.0177 X 100 (x – y)
Where, x = volume of N/4 barium chloride added in ml.
y= volume of N/4 potassium chromate solution used in back titration in ml.
II. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER (IS : 2720 – Part – 22)
Apparatus:
59 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

1) Oven – thermostatically controlled (105 to 1100C), 2) Balance – sensitive to 0.001 g, 3) Volumetric

Flask – 2 nos of one litre capacity, 4) Burette – 2 nos of 25 ml with 0.1 ml graduation, 5) Pipette – 10 ml,
6) Conical Flask – 2 nos of 500 ml capacity, 7) Graduated Measuring Cylinders – 200 ml & 25 ml
capacities, 8) Desiccator – with any desiccating agent other than sulphuric acid, 9) Glass Weighing Bottle
– 25 mm diameter & 50 mm height fitted with a ground glass stopper, 10) Wash Bottle, 11) Sieves –
10mm & 425 micron.
Reagents:
1. Potassium Dichromate Normal Solution: Dissolve 49.035 g of potassium dichromate in one litre of
distilled water.
2. Ferrous Sulphate Solution: 0.5 N – Dissolve approximately 140 g of ferrous sulphate in 0.5 N sulphuric
acid to make one litre of solution (add 14 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid to distilled water to make
one litre of solution for 0.5 N sulphuric acid).
3. Sulphuric Acid, Concentrated: sp.gr. 1.83 (conforming to IS : 266-1977).
4. Orthophosphoric Acid, 85 percent: sp.gr. 1.70 to 1.75.
5. Indicator Solution: 0.25 g of sodium diphemylamine-sulphonate dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water.
Soil sample preparation:
The portion of the air-dried sample selected and weighed (W1). It shall then be sieved on a 10 mm IS
sieve and all particles other than stones crushed to pass through the sieve. The equivalent weight on
oven-dry basis of the material passing 10 mm IS sieve (W2) shall be calculated and recorded to the
nearest 0.1 percent of its total weight. A sample weighing approximately 100 g shall be obtained from
the material passing 10 mm IS sieve by quartering. This sample shall then be pulverized so that it passes
the 425 micron IS sieve.
Standardization of ferrous sulphate solution:
10 ml of the normal potassium dichromate solution will be run from a burette into a 500 ml conical
flask. 20 ml concentrated sulphuric acid shall then be added carefully and the mixture swirled and
allowed to cool for some minutes. 200 ml of distilled water shall then be added to the mixture followed
by 10 ml of phosphoric acid and 1 ml of the indicator and the mixture shall be shake thoroughly. Ferrous
sulphate solution shall then be added from the second burette in 0.5 ml increments, the contents of the
flask being swirled, until the color of the solution changes from blue to green. A further 0.5 ml of
potassium dichromate shall then be added, changing the color back to blue. Ferrous sulphate solution
shall then be added drop by drop with continued swirling until the color of the solution changes from
blue to green after the addition of a single drop. The total volume of ferrous sulphate solution used (x)
shall be noted to the nearest 0.05 ml (one ml ferrous sulphate solution is equivalent to 10.5/x ml
potassium dichromate).
Procedure:
A 5-gram soil sample shall be taken from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing the 425-
micron IS sieve and used for the test.
60 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The sample shall be placed in a glass weighing bottle and weighed to 0.001 g. A small quantity, from 5 g
to 0.2 g depending on the organic content shall be transferred to a dry 500 ml conical flask, the weighing
bottle reweighed (W3).
10 ml of N potassium dichromate solution shall be run into the conical flask from a burette, and add 20
ml of concentrated sulphuric acid very carefully from a measuring cylinder. The mixture shall be
thoroughly swirled for about one minute and allowed to stand on a heat-insulating surface, such as
asbestos or wood for 30 min to allow oxidation of the organic matter to proceed. During this period, the
flask shall be protected from draughts. Distilled water, 200 ml, shall then be added along with 10 ml of
orthophosphoric acid and one ml of the indicator. The mixture shall be shaken vigorously. If the
indicator is absorbed by the soil, a further one ml of the solution shall be added. Ferrous sulphate
solution shall then be added from the second burette in 0.5 ml increments, the contents of the flask
being swirled, until the color of the solution changes from blue to green. A further 0.5 ml of potassium
dichromate shall then be added, changing the color of the solution back to blue. Ferrous sulphate
solution shall then be added drop by drop with continued swirling until the color of the solution changes
from blue to green after the addition of a single drop. The total volume of the ferrous sulphate solution
used (y) shall be noted to the nearest 0.05 ml.
Calculations:
The volume (V ml) of potassium dichromate used to oxidize the organic matter in the soil is given by the
following formula:
V = 10.5 (1 – y/x)
Where, x = total volume of ferrous sulphate used in the standardization test.

y = total volume of ferrous sulphate used in the test.
The percentage of organic matter (OM) present in the oven-dried sample shall be calculated from the
following formula:
Percentage of Organic Matter (OM) = (0.6 W2 V) / (W1 W3)
Where, W1 = total weight of original sample.

W2 = weight of soil passing 10 mm IS sieve.
W3 = weight of dry soil specimen used in the test.
V = volume of potassium dichromate solution used to oxidize organic.
14. UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF COHESIVE SOIL.
(IS: 2720 – Part – 10)
INTURDUCTION:
61 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Unconfined compressive strength is the load per unit area at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen
of cohesive soil will fail in a simple compression test.
Object:
Determination of unconfined compressive strength.
Apparatus:
a) Compression Device
b) Sample Ejector
c) Test sample mould (Circular cross section with diameter of 38mm and height 75mm)
d) Deformation Dial Gauge (0.01mm sensitivity)
e) Vernier Calipers
f) Timer
Preparation of test Specimen:
The specimen size for the test shall have a minimum diameter of 38mm and the height 75mm. The soil
specimen to be used for test may be undisturbed, compacted or remolded.
a) Undisturbed Specimens: Undisturbed specimen shall be prepared from large undisturbed samples by
means of sample ejector without loosing the moisture. The specimen shall be handled carefully to
prevent disturbance, change in cross section or loss of water. The specimen shall be uniform circular
cross section with ends perpendicular to the long axis of the specimen.
b) Remolded Specimens: The specimen may be prepared either from a failed undisturbed specimen or
from a disturbed soil samples. In case of failed undisturbed specimen, the material shall be wrapped in a
thin rubber membrane and thoroughly worked with the fingers to assure complete remolding. Care shall
be taken to avoid entrapped air to obtain a uniform density, to remold to the same void ratio as that of
the undisturbed specimen, and to preserve the natural water content of the soil.
c) Compacted Specimens: when compacting disturbed material, it shall be done using a test sample
mould. Compacted specimen may be prepared at any predetermined water content and density.
Procedure:
The initial length, diameter and weight of the specimen shall be measured and the specimen placed on
the bottom plate of the loading device. The upper plate shall be adjusted to make contact with the
specimen.
The deformation dial gauge shall be adjusted to zero. Force shall be applied so as to produce axial strain
at a rate of 1.25mm per minute. Force and deformation readings shall be recorded at suitable intervals.
The specimen shall be compressed until failure surfaces have definitely developed or the stress-strain
curve is well past its peak or until an axial strain of 20 percent is reached.
The failure pattern shall be sketched carefully and shown on the data sheet or on the sheet presenting
the stress-strain plot. The angle between the failure surface and the horizontal may be measured, if
possible, and reported.
Calculations:
Stress and strain values shall be calculated as follows:
62 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

1. The axial strain, ε, shall be determined from the following relationship:
ε = ∆L/L0
Where, ∆L = the change in the specimen length as read from the strain dial indicator,
L0 = the initial length of the specimen.
2. The average cross-sectional area, A, at a particular strain shall be determined from the following
relationship:
A = A0 / (1 – ε)
Where, A0 = the initial average cross-sectional area of the specimen.
3. Compressive strength, c, shall be determined from the following relationship:
σc = P/A
Where, P = the compressive force
A = average cross-sectional area.
15. STANDARD PENETRATION TEST.
(IS: 2131 - 1981)
INTURDUCTION:
63 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Standard Penetration Test conducted by means of the split spoon, specified in this standard, furnishes
data about resistance of the soils to penetration which can be used to evaluate standard strength data,
such as N values (number of blows per 30cm of penetration using standard split spoon) of the soil and
calculation of bearing capacity of the soils.
Object:
This standard specifies a standard procedure for conducting the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) for
soils.
Apparatus:
a) Drive Weight Assembly (the drive weight assembly shall consist of a driving head and a 63.5 kg weight
with 75 cm free fall).
b) Split Spoon Sampler
Procedure:
The Standard Penetration Tests are carried out at 2.0m interval alternate to the undisturbed sampling or
as dictated by soil strata existing. Before testing, the borehole is cleaned properly and Split Spoon
Sampler is centrally seated in borehole. In case of SPT to be conducted below water table care is taken
that casing position is above the borehole depth. The water level in borehole is maintained above or at
least at the water table.
A standard hammer of 63.5 Kg. is dropped from a height of 75 cms and the no of blows for penetration
of Split Spoon Sampler for 0 - 15, 15 - 30 and 30 - 45 cms are noted. Standard Penetration Test value N
is considered for 15 - 45 cms penetration values. Sample for moisture content is collected in moisture
cans. For non-plastic silts and fine sands N value is corrected for effective overburden pressure and
dilatancy correction is added for tests conducted below water table Results are recorded.
Disturbed and Undisturbed Samples:
Disturbed samples from shell or from Split Spoon Sampler is collected in polythene bags with proper
levels such that we shall get the data of 0.5m interval or change in strata. Undisturbed samples in 38mm
dia Shelby tubes are collected alternate to SPT at 2.0m interval. The sampling tube is connected to the
rod by jarring link in case of 38mm dia Shelby tube or otherwise in case of 75 or 100mm dia tube, 'A' drill
rods are connected by suitable adopter with ball check value. Two or three undisturbed samples are
collected at same depth in case of 38mm dia tube to get sufficient sample for physical property tests.
Before lowering the sampler, the bore is cleaned properly and sampling tube is lightly oiled from inner
and outer side. Sampling tube is pushed into the borehole by pressure hammering as per the soil
stiffness. The sampling tube is immediately waxed after covering with aluminum foil. In case of medium
to coarse, non-cohesive, sand samples, where sampling is unsuccessful, Standard Penetration Test is
carried out on cleaning the borehole.
64 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Report:
Data obtained in borings shall be recorded in the field and shall include the following:
1) Date of boring, 2) Reference datum, 3) Job identification, 4) Boring number, 5) Sample number,
6) Type of sampler, 7) Drilling method, 8) Sample elevation and recovery ratio, 9) Limits of stratum,
10) Water Table information, 11) Soil identification, including condition of samples, 12) Penetration
records, 13) Casing used, and 14) Weather data.
The data obtained shall be prepared in a final form as a soil profile to show the nature and extent of the
soil strata over the area under consideration.
Corrections:
1. Due to Overburden: The N value for cohesion less soil shall be corrected for overburden according to
Standard graph (N’).
2. Due to Dilatancy: The value obtained from the graph shall be corrected for dilatancy if the stratum
consists of fine sand and silt below water table for values of N’ greater than 15 as under (N”):
N” = 15 + ½(N’ – 15)
65 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

ROAD AGGREGATES.
1.AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST.

( IS : 2386 – PART – 4 )
INTRODUCTION:
66 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Toughness is the property of a material to resist impact. Due to traffic loads, the road stones are
subjected to the pounding action or impact and there is possibility of stones breaking into smaller
pieces. The road stones should therefore be tough enough to resist fracture under impact. A test
designed to evaluate the toughness of stones i.e., the resistance of the fracture under repeated impacts
may be called an impact test for road stones.
Object:
To determine the toughness of road stone materials by Impact test.
Apparatus:
a) Impact testing machine: The machine consists of a metal base with a plane lower surface supported
well on a firm floor, without rocking. A detachable cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102mm and
depth 50mm is rigidly fastened centrally to the base plate. A metal hammer of weight between 13.5 and
14.0 kg having the lower end cylindrical in shape, 100mm in diameter and 50mm long, with 2mm
chamfer at the lower edge is capable of sliding freely between vertical guides, and fall concentric over
the cup. There is an arrangement for raising the hammer and allowing it to fall freely between vertical
guides from a height of 380mm on the test sample in the cup, the height of fall being adjustable up to
5mm. A key is provided for supporting the hammer while fastening or removing the cup.
b) Measure: A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75mm and depth 50mm for
measuring aggregates.
c) Tamping rod: A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section, 10mm in diameter and 230mm
long, rounded at one end.
d) Sieve: IS sieve of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm, and 2.36mm for sieving the aggregates.
e) Balance: A balance of capacity not less than 500 gm to weigh accurate up to 0.1 gm.
f) Oven: A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining constant temperature

between 1000C to1100C.
Procedure:
The test sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve and dried in
an oven for four hours at a temperature 1000C to 1100C and cooled. Test aggregates are filled up to
about one-third full in the cylindrical measure and tamped 25 times with rounded end of the tamping
rod. Further quantity of aggregates is then added up to two-third full in the cylinder and 25 stocks of the
tamping rod are given. The measure is now filled with the aggregates to over flow, tamped 25 times.
The surplus
aggregates are struck off using the tamping rod as straight edge. The net weight of the aggregates in the
measure is determined to the nearest gram and this weight of the aggregates is used for carrying out
67 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

duplicate test on the same material. The impact machine is placed with its bottom plate flat on the floor
so that the hammer guide columns are vertical. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the
machine and the whole of the test sample from the cylindrical measure is transferred to the cup and
compacted by tamping with 25 strokes.
The hammer is raised until its lower face is 380mm above the upper surface of the aggregates in the
cup, and allowed to fall freely on the aggregates. The test sample is subjected to a total 15 such blows,
each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second. The crushed aggregate is then removed
from the cup and the whole of it sieved on the 2.36mm sieve until no further significant amount passes.
The fraction passing the sieve is weighed accurate to 0.1gm. The fraction retained on the sieve is also
weighed and if the total weight of the fractions passing and retained on the sieve is added it should not
be less the original weight of the specimen by more than one gram, if the total weight is less than the
original by over one gram the results should be discarded and a fresh test made.
Calculations:
The aggregate impact value is expressed as the percentage of the fines formed in terms of the total
weight of the sample.
Aggregate Impact Value = 100 x (W2/W1)
Where, W1 = Original weight of the sample, W2 = Weight of fraction passing 2.36mm IS sieve.
Results:
The mean of the three results is reported as the AIV(Aggregate Impact Value) of the specimen to the
nearest whole number.
Limits:
< 10% Exceptionally strong.
10 – 20% Strong.
20 – 30% Satisfactory for road surfacing.
> 35% Weak for road surfacing.
2. LOS ANGLES ABRASION VALUE TEST.

( IS : 2386 – PART – 4 )
INTRODUCTION:
68 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Due to the movement of traffic, the road stones used in the surfacing course are subjected to wearing
action at the top. Resistance to wear or hardness is hence an essential property for road aggregates,
especially when used in wearing course. Thus road stones should be hard enough to resist the abrasion
due to the traffic. When fast moving traffic fitted with pneumatic tyres move on the road, the soil
particles present between the wheel and road surface causes abrasion on the road stone. Steel tyres of
animal drawn vehicles, which rub against the stones, can cause considerable abrasion of the stones on
the road surface. Hence in order to test the suitability of road stones to resist the abrading action due to
traffic.
Object:
To determine the aggregates abrasion test by Los Angles Abrasion method.
Apparatus:
a)Los Angles Abrasion Machine: The Los Angles Machine consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at
both ends, having an inside diameter 700mm and an inside length of 500mm, mounted on stub shafts
about which it rotates on a horizontal axis, and rotating arrangement for speed of 30 to 33 revolutions
per minute. An opening is provided in the cylinder for the introduction of the test sample. A removable
cover of the opening is provided in such a way that when closed and fixed by bolts and nuts, it is dust-
tight and the interior surface is perfectly cylindrical. A removable steel shelf projecting radially 88mm in
to the cylinder and extending to the full length of it, is mounted on the interior surface of the cylinder
rigidly, parallel to the axis. The shelf is fixed at a distance of 1250mm from the opening, measured along
the circumference in the direction of rotation. Abrasion charge, consisting of cast iron spheres
approximately 48mm in diameter and 390 to 445gm in weight are used.
b) Balance -10 kg capacity – sensitivity 0.1 gm.
c) Test Sieve – 1.70 mm IS sieve.
d) Oven.
Procedure:
Clean aggregates dried in an oven at 105 – 1100C to constant weight, confirming to any one of the
grading A, to G, is used for test. The grading or gradings used in the test should be nearest to the grading
to be used in the construction. Aggregates weighing 5 kg for gradings A, B, C or D and 10 kg for gradings
E, F or G may be taken as test specimen and placed in the cylinder. The abrasion charge is also chosen,
depending on the grading of the aggregate and is placed in the cylinder of the machine. The cover is
then fixed dust-tight. The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute.
The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for gradings A, B, C and D, for gradings E, F and G, it shall be
rotated for 1000 revolutions. The machine should be balanced and driven in such a way as to maintain
uniform peripheral speed.
69 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

After the desired number of revolutions, the machine is stopped and the material is discharged from the
machine taking care to take out entire stone dust. Using a sieve of size 1.70mm IS sieve, the material is
first separated into two parts and the finer portion is taken out and sieved further on a 1.70mm IS sieve.
The portion of material coarser than 1.70mm size is washed and dried in an oven at 105 – 1100C to
constant weight and weighed correct to one gram.
Calculations:
The difference between the original and final weights of the sample is expressed as a percentage of the
original weight of the sample is reported as the percentage wears.
Loa Angles Abrasion Value = 100x(W1 – W2)/W1
Where, W1 = Original weight of the sample, W2 = Weight of aggregate retained on 1.70mm IS

sieve, (W1 – W2) = Los in weight due to wear.
Results:
The result of the Los Angles Abrasion is expressed as a percentage wear and the average value of three
tests.
Limits:
Loa Angles Abrasion for road aggregates = Maximum 40%.
Types of Grading and Abrasion charges:
Abrasion charge
Weight in grams of each test sample in size range, mm (Passing
Grading
spheres
Number
nd retained on square holea)

Weight of
of
80 to 63 to 50 to 40 to 25 to 20 to 12.5 10 to 6.3 to 4.75 to charge, gm

63 50 40 25 20 12.5 to 10 6.3 4.75 2.36
A - - - 1250 1250 1250 1250 - - - 12 5000+/-25
B - - - - - 2500 2500 - - - 11 4584+/-25
C - - - - - - - 2500 2500 - 8 3330+/-20
D - - - - - - - - - 5000 6 2500+/-15
E 2500 2500 5000 - - - - - - - 12 5000+/-25
F - - 5000 5000 - - - - - - 12 5000+/-25
G - - - 5000 5000 - - - - - 12 5000+/-25
3.AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST.

( IS : 2386 – PART – 4 )
INTRODUCTION:
70 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The principal mechanical properties required in stones are (i) satisfactory resistance to crushing under
the roller during construction and (ii) adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic.
Aggregates used in road construction, should be strong enough to resist crushing under traffic wheel
loads. If the aggregates are weak, the stability of the pavement structure is likely to be adversely
affected. The strength of coarse aggregates is assessed by aggregates crushing test. The aggregate
crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing low aggregate crushing
value should be preferred.
Object:
To determine the aggregate crushing value by compressive testing machine.
Apparatus:
a) Steel cylinder with open ends, and internal diameter 152mm, square base plate, plunger having a
piston of diameter 150mm, with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger so that a rod could be
inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
b) Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 115mm and height 180mm.
c) Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 16mm and length 450 to 600mm.
d) Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy up to 1gm.
e) Compressive testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tonnes, at a uniform rate of loading of 4
tonnes per minute.
Procedure:
The aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on 10mm IS sieve is selected for standard test. The
aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing. The aggregate may be dried by heating at a
temperature 1000C to 1100C for a period of 4 hours and is tested after being cooled to room
temperature.
The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of approximately equal
depth, each layer being tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod. After the third layer is
tamped, using the tamping rod as a straight edge levels off the aggregate at the top of the cylindrical
measure. About 6.5kg of aggregate is required for preparing two test samples. The test sample thus
taken is then weighed. The same weight of the sample is taken in the repeat test.
The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate; one third of the test sample is
placed in this cylinder and tamped 25 times by the tamping rod. Similarly, the other two parts of the test
specimen are added, each layer being subjected to 25 blows. The total depth of the material in the
cylinder after tamping shall however be 100mm. The surface of the aggregates is leveled and the
71 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

plunger inserted so that it rests on this surface in level position. The cylinder with the test sample and
the plunger in position is placed on compression testing machine. Load is then applied through the
plunger at a uniform rate of 4 tonnes per minute until the total load is 40 tonnes, and then the load is
released. Aggregates including the crushed portion are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a
2.36mm IS sieve. The material, which passes this sieve, is collected.
The above crushing test is repeated on second sample of the same weight in accordance with above test
procedure. Thus two tests are made for the same specimen for taking an average value.
Calculation:
The aggregate crushing value is defined, as a ratio of the weight of fines passing the specified IS sieve to
the total weight of the sample expressed as a percentage.
Aggregate crushing value = (100 x W2)/W1
Where, W1 = Total weight of dry sample.
W2 = Weight of the portion of crushed material passing 2.36mm IS sieve.
Results:
The mean of the crushing value obtained in the two tests is reported as the aggregate crushing value.
Limits:
The aggregate crushing value for cement concrete pavement shall not exceed 30%.
The aggregate crushing value for wearing surfaces shall not exceed 45%.
4. FLAKINESS & ELONGATION INDEX TEST( SHAPE TEST ).

( IS : 2386 – PART – 1 )
INTRODUCTION:
72 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The particle shape of aggregates is determined by the percentages of flaky and elongated particles
contained in it. For base course and construction of bituminous and cement concrete types, the
presence of flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable as they may cause inherent
weakness with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads. The angularity number i.e., flaky and
elongation has considerable importance in the gradation requirements of various types of mixes such as
bituminous concrete, cement concrete and soil aggregate mixes.
Object:
To determine the flakiness and elongation of the aggregates by standard flakiness gauge and elongation
gauges.
Apparatus:
a) Flakiness gauge (Thickness gauge): The Flakiness index of aggregates is the percentages by weight of
particles whose least dimension is less than three-fifths (0.6) of their mean dimension. The test is not
applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3mm. The apparatus consists of a standard thickness gauge of IS sieve
sizes 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3mm and a balance to weigh the samples.
b) Elongation gauge (Length gauge): The elongation index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of
particles whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and four fifth times (1.8) their mean
dimension. The elongation test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3mm. The apparatus consists of a
standard length gauge of IS sieve sizes 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3mm.
Procedure:
a) Flakiness Index: The sample is sieved with the sieves mentioned in above. A minimum of 200 pieces
of each fraction to be tested is taken and weighed. In order to separate flaky materials, each fraction is
then gauged for thickness on a thickness gauge. The amount of flaky material passing the gauge is
weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the test sample.
Calculation:
In order to calculate the flakiness index of the entire sample of aggregates first the weight of each
fraction of aggregate passing and retained on the specified set of sieves is noted (X1, X2, X3… etc). Each
of the particle from this fraction of aggregate is tried to be passed through the slot of the specified
thickness of the thickness gauge are found and weighed (x1, x2, x3…etc). Then the flakiness index is the
total weight of the flaky material passing the various thickness gauges expressed as a percentage of the
total weight of the sample gauged.
Flakiness Index = 100 x (x1+x2+x3+……..)/(X1+X2+X3+………)
b) Elongation Index: The sample is sieved through the IS sieves specified as above. A minimum of 200
pieces of each fraction is taken and weighed. In order to separate elongated material, each fraction is
then gauged individually for length in a length gauge. The pieces of aggregates from each fraction tested
which could not pass through the specified gauge length with its long side are elongated particles and
are collected separately to find the total weight of aggregates retained on the length gauge from each
73 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

fraction. The total amount of elongated material retained by the length gauge is weighed to an accuracy
of at least 0.1 percent of the weight of the sample.
Calculation:
In order to calculate the Elongation index of the entire sample of aggregates first the weight of each
fraction of aggregate passing and retained on the specified set of sieves is noted (Y1, Y2, Y3… etc). Each
piece of these are tried to be passed through the specified length of the gauge length with its longest
side and those elongated pieces which do not pass the gauge are separated and weighed (y1, y2, y3…).
Then the Elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length gauges,
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.
Elongation Index = 100 x (y1+y2+y3+……)/(Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ….…)
Combined Flakiness & Elongation Index: To determine this combined proportion, the flaky stone from a
representative sample should first be separated out. Flakiness index is weight of flaky stone metal
divided by weight of stone sample. Only the elongated particle is separated out from the remaining (non
flaky) stone metal. Elongation index is weight of elongated particles divided by total non-flaky particles.
The value of flakiness index and elongation index so found are added up.
Limits:
(i) Flakiness Index for Bituminous and Non-bituminous Mixes = Max. 15%
(ii) Elongation Index for Bituminous and Non-bituminous mixes = Max. 15%
(iii) Combined Flakiness and Elongation Index for Bituminous and Non-bituminous mixes = Max.30%
(iv) Flakiness Index for Concrete mixes = Max.35%
5.SOUNDNESS TEST.
( IS : 2386 – PART – 5 )
INTRODUCTION:
74 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

This test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action.
In order to quicken the effect of weathering due to alternate wet-dry and or freeze-thaw cycles in the
laboratory, the resistance to disintegration of aggregate is determined by soaking the specimen in
saturated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate.
Object:
Determination of the soundness of aggregates.
Apparatus:
The apparatus required for the test are containers for aggregates, sieves (63, 50, 40, 31.5, 20, 16, 10, 8,
4.75 and 4mm), balance of capacity 5kg to weight accurate to at least 0.1g and oven to maintain 1050C
to 1100C.
Procedure:
Saturated solution of Sodium sulphate (the anhydrous Na2SO4 or the crystalline Na2SO4 10H2O) is
prepared in water at a temperature of 250 to 300C. The solution is maintained at a temperature of
270C+/-20C and stirred at frequent intervals, until it is used. At the time of using the solution should have
a specific gravity of not less than 1.151 and not more than 1.171, and discolored solution should not be
used. It may be necessary to use not less than 420g of anhydrous salt or 1300g of the crystalline
decahydrate salt per liter of water.
Alternatively saturated solution of Magnesium sulphate may be prepared by dissolving either anhydrous
(MgSO4) or crystalline (MgSO47H2O) magnesium sulphate. At the time of using, the solution should have
a specific gravity of not less than 1.295 and not more than 1.308. Not less than 400g of the anhydrous
salt or 1600g of the crystalline heptahydrate may be used per liter of water.
The specimen of coarse aggregate for the test may be prepared after removing the fraction finer than
4.75mm IS sieve. The sample should be of such a size that it would yield not less than the following
amounts of the different sizes, which should be available in amount of 5 percent or more.
(i) 20mm to 10mm - 1000 g

10mm to 4.75mm - 300 g
consisting of 20 to 12.5mm – 67%

12.5 to 10mm – 33%
(ii) 40mm to 20mm - 1500 g

consisting of 40 to 25mm – 67%
25 to 20mm – 33%
(iii) 63mm to 40mm - 3000 g
75 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

consisting of 63 to 50mm – 50%

50 to 40mm – 50%
(iv) 80mm and large sizes by

20mm spread in sieve size, - 3000 g
each fraction
The sample of coarse aggregate should be thoroughly washed and dried to a constant weight at 1050 to
1100C and is separated to different size ranges, as given above, by sieving. The proper weight of the
sample for each fraction is weighed and placed in separate containers for the test. In the case of fraction
coarser than 20mm, the particles are also counted. The samples are immersed in the prepared solution
of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 to 18 hours in such a manner that the solution covers
them to a depth of at least 15mm. The containers are kept covered to reduce evaporation and during
the period of immersion, the temperature of the solution is maintained at 270 +/- 10C.
After the immersion period, the aggregates are removed from the solution, drained for about 15
minutes, and placed in the drying oven maintained at a temperature of 1050 to 1100C. The samples are
dried to a constant weight at this temperature by checking the weights after 4 hours up to 18 hours.
When the successive weights differ by less than 1 g, it may be considered that constant weight has been
attained and then it may be allowed to cool to room temperature. Then the aggregates are again
immersed in the prepared solution, for the next cycle of immersion and drying. The number of cycles of
alternate immersion and drying are minimum 5 for road aggregates.
After completion of the final cycle, the sample is cooled washed free from the sulphat. This may be
determined when there is no more reaction of the wash water with barium chloride (i.e., when there is
no white precipitation when barium chloride is added to wash water, it can be said that there is no
sulphate with wash water). Each fraction of the sample is then dried to constant temperature of 1050 to
1100C and weighed. Coarse aggregate fractions are sieved by IS sieves of sizes indicated below:
Size of aggregate Sieve size used to determine loss
63 to 40 mm 31.5 mm
40 to 20 mm 16.0 mm
20 to 10 mm 8.0 mm
10 to 4.75 mm 4.0 mm
Each fraction of aggregate is examined visually to see if there is any evidence of excessive splitting,
crumbling or disintegration of the grains. A combined sieve analysis of all the materials subjected to the
above test cycles, may also be carried out to note the variation from the original grain size distribution
of the sample.
76 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Limits:
Soundness of aggregates: Loss with Sodium Sulphate – 5 cycles Max.12%.
Loss with Magnesium Sulphate – 5 cycles Max.18%.
6.SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION TEST.

( IS : 2386 – PART – 3 )
INTRODUCTION:
77 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or quality of the material.
The specific gravity test helps in the identification of stone.
Water absorption gives an idea of strength of aggregate. Aggregates having more water absorption are
more porous in nature and are generally considered unsuitable unless they are found to be acceptable
based on strength, impact and hardness tests.
Object:
To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates by perforated basket.
Apparatus:
a) A wire basket of not more than 6.3mm mesh or a perforated container of convenient size with thin
wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
b) A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature of 1000 to 1100C.
c) A container for filling water and suspending the basket.
d) An airtight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.
e) A balance of capacity about 5 kg, to weigh accurate to 0.5 g, and of such a type and shape as to
permit weighing of the sample container when suspended in water.
f) A shallow tray and two dry absorbent clothes, each not less than 750 X 450 mm.
Procedure:
About 2 kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and then placed in
the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 220 to 320C with a cover of at
least 50mm of water above the top of the basket. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is
removed from the sample by lifting the basket containing it 25mm above the base of the tank and
allowing it to drop 25 times at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket and the aggregate
should remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24 +/- 0.5 hours afterwards.
The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of 220 to 320C.
In case it is necessary to transfer the basket and the sample to a different tank for weighing, they should
be jolted 25 times as described above in the new tank to remove air before weighing. This weight is
noted while suspended in water W1 g. The basket and the aggregate are then removed from water and
allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to one of the dry
absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weight in
water W2 g.
The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture could be
removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth spread in a single
layer, covered and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface
dry. 10 to 60 minutes drying may be needed. The aggregates should not be exposed to the atmosphere,
direct sunlight or any other source of heat while surface drying. A gentle current of unheated air may be
used during the first ten minutes to accelerate the drying of aggregate surface. The surface dried
aggregate is then weighed W3 g. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven
maintained at a temperature of 1100C for 24 hours. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an
airtight container and weighed W4 g. At least two tests should be carried out, but not concurrently.
78 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Calculations:
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with the basket = W1 g

Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = (W1-W2) = Ws g.
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W4 g
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = (W3-Ws) g
(i) Specific gravity = (Dry weight of aggregate)/ (Weight of equal volume of water)
= W4 / (W3 – Ws)
= W4 /[W3 – (W1 – W2)]
(ii)Apparent Sp.gr. = (Dry wt.of agg.)/(Wt.of equal volume of water excluding air voids in
aggregates)
= W4 / (W4 – Ws)
= W4 / [W4 – (W1 – W2)]
(iii) Water absorption = percent by weight of water absorbed in terms oven dried weight
of aggregates.
= 100x(W3 – W4)/ W4
Limits: The specific gravity of aggregates ranges from 2.5 to 3.0

The water absorption of aggregates ranges from 0.1 to 2.0 %.
7. TEN PERCENT FINES VALUE.

( BS : 812 – PART – 111 )
INTRODUCTION:
The ‘Ten percent fines’ value is a measure of resistance of the aggregates to the crushing.
79 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Object:
To determine the ten percent value of aggregates by crushing machine apparatus.
Apparatus:
a) Steel cylinder with open ends, and internal diameter 152mm, square base plate, plunger having a
piston of diameter 150mm, with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger so that a rod could be
inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
b) Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 115mm and height 180mm.
c) Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 16mm and length 450 to 600mm.
d) Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy up to 1gm.
e) Compressive testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tonnes, at a uniform rate of loading of 4
tonnes per minute.
Procedure:
The aggregate passing 14mm IS sieve and retained on 10mm IS sieve is selected for test. The aggregate
should be in surface-dry condition before testing. The aggregate may be dried by heating at a
temperature 1000C to 1100C for a period of 4 hours and is tested after being cooled to room
temperature.
The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of approximately equal
depth, each layer being tamped 25 times. The same sample poured in to the cylinder with three equal
layers, each layer being tamped 25 times. The test sample in the cylinder with the plunger in position is
placed in the compression-testing machine. The load is applied at a uniform rate so as to cause a total
penetration of the plunger of about 20mm for normal crushed aggregates in 10 minutes. But for
rounded or partially rounded aggregates, the load required to cause a total penetration of 15mm is
applied where as for honeycombed aggregate like expanded shale or slag that for a total penetration of
24mm is applied in 10 minutes. After the maximum specified penetration is reached, the load is released
and the aggregate from the cylinder is sieved on a 2.36mm IS sieve. The fines’ passing this sieve is
weighed and is expressed as a percentage by weight of the test sample. This percentage normally falls in
the range of 7.5 to 12.5; but if it does not fall in this range, the test is repeated with necessary
adjustment of the load.
Two tests are carried out at the load ‘X tonnes’, which give the percentage fines between 7.5 to 12.5 and
let the mean of the percent fines be ‘Y’ for calculating the load required for ten percent fines.
80 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Load for 10 percent fines = 14 X / (Y+4)
Results:
The 10 percent fines value of Granular Sub base material is should be more than 50 KN.
8. BULKAGE & SILT CONTENT OF FINE AGGREGATE.

( IS : 2386 – PART – 3 )
INTRODUCTION:
Sand brought on to a building site or other works may contain an amount of moisture, which will cause
it, when loosely filled into a container, to occupy a large volume than it would occupy if dry. If the sand
81 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

is measured by loose volume, it is necessary in such a case to increase the measured volume of the
sand, in order that the amount of sand put into the concrete may be the amount intended for the
nominal mix used (based on dry sand). It will be necessary to increase the volume of sand by the
‘percentage’ bulking. The correction to be made is only a rough approximation because the system of
measurement by loose volume is a rough method at the best, but a correction of the right order can
easily be determined and should be applied in order to keep the concrete uniform.
Object:
This method of test covers the field method for determining the necessary adjustment for the bulking &
silt content of fine aggregate.
Apparatus:
250ml measuring cylinder, tray and water cane etc.
Procedure:
In a 250ml-measuring cylinder, pour the damp sand (consolidated by shaking) until it reached the 200ml
mark. Then fill the cylinder with water and stir the sand well (the water shall be sufficient to submerge
the sand completely). It will be seen that the sand surface is now below its original level. Suppose the
surface is at the mark ‘Y’ml the percentage of bulking of the sand due to moisture shall be calculated
from the formula.
Percentage bulking = [(200/Y) – 1] x100
Silt content = 100(X – Y)/Y
Where, X = the level of top surface of material i.e., sand + sedimentation of silt.
Y = the level of top surface of sand layer.
Results: Report the percentage bulking of the sand to the nearest whole number.
Limits: Bulkage and silt content is allow maximum 10%
9. DELETERIOUS CONTENT OF AGGREGATES.

( IS : 2386 – PART – 2 )
I. DETERMINATION OF CLAY LUMPS:
Apparatus:
82 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

1) Balance – sensitive to 0.001 g, 2) Containers – size and shape that will permit the spreading of the
sample on the bottom in a thin layer, 3) Sieves – conforming to IS : 460-1962.
Sampling:
Samples shall be obtained by quartering or by the use of a sampler, from a representative sample
selected from the material to be tested. They shall be handled in such a manner as to avoid breaking up
clay lumps, which may be present. Samples shall be dried to constant weight at a temperature not
exceeding 1100C.
Samples of fine aggregate shall consist of particles coarser than 1.18 mm IS sieve and shall weigh not
less than 100 g.
Samples of coarse aggregate shall be separated into different sizes using 4.75mm, 10mm, 20mm and
40mm IS sieves. The weight of the sample for different sizes shall be not less than those indicated
below:
Size of Particles Making Up the

Weight of Sample Min.(g)
Samples (mm)
4.75 to 10 1000
10 to 20 2000
20 to 40 3000
Over 40 5000
In the case of mixtures of fine and coarse aggregates, the material shall be separated into two sizes on
4.75mm IS sieve, and the samples of fine and coarse aggregates shall be prepared as described above.
Procedure:
The sample shall be spread in a thin layer on the bottom of the container and examined for clay lumps.
Any particles, which can be broken into finely divided particles with the fingers, shall be classified as clay
lumps. After all discernible clay lumps have been broken, the residue from the clay lumps shall be
removed by the use of sieves indicated below:
Size of Particles Making up the Size of Sieve for Sieving Residue of

Sample Clay Lumps
Fine aggregate (retained on 1.18mm
850 - micron
IS sieve)
4.75 to 10 mm 2.36 mm
10 mm to 20 mm 4.75 mm
20 mm to 40 mm 4.75 mm
Over 40 mm 4.75 mm
83 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Calculations:
The percentage of clay lumps shall be calculated to the nearest 0.1 percent in accordance with the
following formula:
L= 100(W – R)/W
Where, L = percentage of clay lumps.
W = weight of sample.
R = weight of sample after removal of clay lumps.
II. DETERMINATION OF CLAY, FINE SILT AND FINE DUST.
Apparatus:
1) A watertight screw-topped glass jar of dimensions similar to a 1-kg fruit-preserving jar, 2) A device for
rotating the jar about its axis, with this axis horizontal, at a speed of 80 +/- 20 rev/min, 3) A
sedimentation pipette of the Andreason type of approximately 25 ml capacity. This consists mainly of a
pipette fitted at the top with a two way tap and held rigidly in a clamp which can be raised or lowered as
84 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

required, and which is fitted with a scale from which the changes in height of the pipette can be read, 4)
A 1000 ml measuring cylinder, 5) A scale or balance of capacity not less than 10 kg, readable and
accurate to one gram, 6) A scale or balance of capacity not less than 250 g, readable and accurate to
0.001 g, 7) A well ventilated oven, thermostatically controlled, to maintain a temperature of 100 to
1100C.
Chemicals:
A solution containing 8 g of sodium oxalate per litre of distilled water shall be taken. For use, this stock
solution is diluted with distilled water to one tenth (that is 100 ml diluted with distilled water to one
litre).
Test sample:
The sample for test shall be prepared from the main sample taking particular care that the test sample
contains a correct proportion of the finer material. The amount of sample taken for test shall be in
accordance with below table.
Maximum size present in Approximate weight of sample

substantial proportions (mm) for test (kg)
63 to 25 6
20 to 12.5 1
10 to 6.3 0.5
4.75 or smaller 0.3
All in aggregates shall be separated into fine and coarse fractions by sieving on a 4.75 mm IS sieve and
the two samples so obtained shall be tested separately.
Procedure:
Method for fine aggregate: Approximately 300 g of the sample in the air dry condition, passing the 4.75
mm IS sieve, shall be weighed and placed in the screw topped glass jar, together with 300 ml of the
diluted sodium oxalate solution. The rubber washer and cap shall be fixed, care being taken to ensure
water tightness. The jar shall then be rotated about its long axis, with this axis horizontal, at a speed of
80 +/- 20 rev/min for a period of 15 minutes. At the end of 15 minutes, the suspension shall be poured
into the 1000 ml measuring cylinder and the residue washed by gentle swirling and decantation of
successive 150 ml portions of sodium oxalate solution, the washings being added to the cylinder until
the volume is made up to 1000 ml. The determination shall be completed as described below.
Method for coarse aggregate: The weighed sample shall be placed in a suitable container, covered with
a measured volume of sodium oxalate solution (0.8 g per litre), agitated vigorously to remove all
adherent fine material and the liquid suspension transferred to the 1000 ml measuring cylinder. This
process shall be repeated as necessary until all clayey material has been transferred to the cylinder. The
volume shall be made up to 1000 ml with sodium oxalate solution and the determination completed as
described below.
85 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The suspension in the measuring cylinder shall be thoroughly mixed by inversion and the tube and
contents immediately placed in position under the pipette. The pipette shall then be gently lowered
until the tip touches the surface of the liquid, and then lowered a further 10 cm into the liquid. Three
minutes after placing the tube in position, the pipette and the bore of tap shall be filled by opening and
applying gentle suction. A small surplus may be drawn up into the bulb between tap and tube, but this
shall be allowed to run away and any solid matter shall be washed out with distilled water from top end.
The pipette shall then be removed from the measuring cylinder and its contents run into a weighed
container, any adherent solids being washed into the container by distilled water from top end. The
contents of the container shall be dried at 100 to 1100C to constant weight, cooled and weighed.
Calculations: The proportion of fine silt and clay or fine dust shall then be calculated from the following
formula:
100 1000W2
Percentage of clay and fine silt or fine dust = (100/W1)x[(1000W2/V) – 0.8)]
Where, W1 = weight in g of the original sample.
W2 = weight in g of the dried residue.
V = volume in ml of the pipette
0.8 = weight in g of sodium oxalate in one litre of the diluted solution.
III.DETERMINATION OF LIGHT-WEIGHT PIECES.
Apparatus:
1) Balances – for weighing fine aggregates, a balance having a capacity of not less than 500 g, sensitive
to at least 0.1 g; for weighing coarse aggregates, a balance having a capacity of not less than 5000 g,
sensitive to at least 1 g.
86 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

2) Containers – containers suitable for drying the aggregate sample, and containers suitable for holding
the heavy liquid during the sink-float separation.
3) Skimmer – a piece of 300-micron sieve cloth of suitable size and shape for separating the floating
pieces from the heavy liquid.
4) Hot-plate or oven.
Heavy liquid: The heavy liquid shall consist of a mixture of carbon tetrachloride, and 1, 1, 2, 2-
tetrabromoethane, bromoform, and monobromobenzene, or bromoform and benzene, in such
proportions that the desired specific gravity will be obtained. Bromotrichloromethane may be used as a
heavy liquid having a specific gravity of 2.00. The specific gravity shall be maintained within +/- 0.01 of
the specified value at all times during the test.
The approximate volumes of materials to be combined to produce a mixture of the desired specific
gravity may be computed from the following specific gravities of the different liquids:
Liquid Specific gravity

1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane 2.97
Benzene 0.88
Bromoform 2.88
Carbon tetrachloride 1.58
Monobromobenzene 1.49
For determining coal and lignite, the heavy liquid used shall have a specific gravity of 2.00 +/- 0.01.
Test Sample: The minimum size of test sample shall be as follows:
Maximum size of Minimum weight of

aggregate (mm) sample (grms)
6.3 (fine aggregate) 200
20 3000
40 5000
80 10000
Procedure:
1) Fine aggregate: Allow the dried sample of fine aggregate to cool to room temperature and then sieve
over a 300-micron IS sieve until less than one percent of the retained material passes the sieve in one
minute of continuous sieving. Weigh the material coarser than the 300-micron IS sieve to the nearest
0.1 g; then introduce it into the heavy liquid in a suitable container, the volume of liquid being at least
three times the absolute volume of the aggregate. Pour the liquid off into a second container; passing it
through the skimmer and taking care that only the floating pieces are poured off with the liquid and that
none of the sand is decanted onto the skimmer. Return to the first container the liquid that has been
87 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

collected in the second container and, after further agitation of the sample by stirring, repeat the
decanting process just described until the sample is free of floating pieces. Wash the decanted pieces
contained on the skimmer in carbon tetrachloride, until the heavy liquid is removed, and then dry. The
pieces will dry very quickly, but may be placed in an oven at 1050C for a few minutes if desired. Brush
the dry decanted pieces from the skimmer onto the balance pan and determine the weight to the
nearest 0.1 g.
2) Coarse aggregate: Allow the dried sample of coarse aggregate to cool to room temperature and sieve
over a 4.75 mm IS sieve. Weigh the material coarser than the 4.75 mm IS sieve to the nearest 1 g; then
introduce it into the heavy liquid in a suitable container, the volume of the liquid being at least three
times the absolute volume of the aggregate. Using the skimmer, remove the pieces that rise to the
surface, and save them. Repeatedly agitate the remaining pieces and remove the floating pieces until no
additional pieces rise to the surface. Wash the decanted pieces in carbon tetrachloride until all of the
heavy liquid is removed, and allow to dry. Determine the weight of the decanted pieces to the nearest
1-gram.
Calculations: Calculate the percentage of lightweight pieces as follows:
For fine aggregate: L= 100W1/W2
For coarse aggregate: L= 100W1/W3
Where, L= percentage of lightweight pieces.
W1 = dry weight in g, of decanted pieces.
W2 = dry weight in g, of portion of sample coarser than 300-micron IS sieve.
W3 = dry weight in g, of portion of sample coarser than 4.75 mm IS sieve.
IV. DETERMINATION OF SOFT PARTICLES.
Apparatus: The apparatus shall consist of a brass rod, having a Rockwell hardness of 65 RHB to 75 RHB.
A brass rod of about 1.6mm diameter and of proper hardness inserted into the wood shaft of an
ordinary lead pencil is a convient tool for field or laboratory use.
88 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Test Sample: Aggregates for the test shall consist of material from which the sizes finer than the 10mm
IS sieve have been removed. The sample tested shall be of such size that it will yield not less than the
following amount of the different sizes, which shall be available in amounts of 10 percent or more:
Sieve size (mm) Sample Weight (grms)

10 to 12.5 200
12.5 to 20 600
20 to 25 1500
25 to 40 4500
40 to 50 12000
Procedure:
Each particle of aggregate under test shall be scratched with the brass rod with a small amount of
pressure (about 1 kg). Particles are considered to be soft if during the scratching process, a groove is
made in them without deposition of metal from the brass rod or if separate particles are detached from
the rock mass.
Calculations: The report shall include the following information.
a) Weight and number of particles of each size of each sample tested with the brass rod.
b) Weight and number of particles of each size of each sample classified as soft in the test.
c) Percentage of test sample classified as soft by weight and by number of particles.
d) Weighed average percentage of soft particles calculated from percentage in item (c) and based on the
grading of sample of aggregate received for testing.
89 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

BITUMEN
&
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.
Bitumen:
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude.
Tar:
Tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal or wood.
Both bitumen and tar have similar appearance, as both are black in color, both these materials can be
used for pavement works, but they have different characteristics.
90 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The bitumen is brought to sufficient fluidity or viscosity before use in pavement construction by any one
of the following three methods:
a) by heating, in the form of hot bitumen binder.
b) by dissolving in light oils, in the form of cutback bitumen.
c) by dispersing bitumen in water, in the form of bituminous emulsion.
The paving bitumen available in India is classified into two categories:
i) paving bitumen from Assam petroleum denoted as A-type and designated as A35, A45, A55, A65, A90
& A200.
ii) paving bitumen from other sources denoted as S-type and designated as S35, S45, S55, S65, S90 &
S200.
Cutback bitumen:
Is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced by a volatile diluents. For use in
surface dressings, some types of bituminous macadam. Cutback bitumens are available in three types,
namely (i) Rapid curing (RC), (ii) Medium curing (MC) and (iii) Slow curing(SC).
Bitumen Emulsion:
Is a liquid product in which a substantial amount of bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in
an aqueous medium and stabilized by means of one or more suitable materials. The main advantages of
emulsions are that (i) they can be used, without heating for preparing mixes, (ii) they are particularly
useful for patch repair works and can be used even when the surface is wet or it is raining. Three types
of emulsified bitumen can be prepared (i) Rapid Setting (RS)- is a setting emulsified bitumen used for
penetration and surface treatment, (ii) Medium Setting (MS)- is used for plant mixes with coarse
aggregate, (iii) Slow Setting (SS)- is used for fine aggregate mixes.
Foamed Bitumen:
Is an alternative to cutback bitumen or bitumen emulsion and has the advantage of higher initial set up
strength because it contains no cutter, and only about 3% water. The process is in the development
stage and is not widely used at present.
1. PENETRATION TEST
( IS : 1203 – 1978 )
INTRODUCTION:
Penetration test is the test on bitumen to grade the material in term of its hardness.
Object:
91 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

To determine the penetration of bitumen by penetration test.
Apparatus:
a) Container: A flat-bottomed cylindrical metallic container 55mm in diameter and 35mm or 57mm in
height.
b) Needle: A straight, highly polished hard steel needle.
c) Water bath: A water bath is maintained at 25 +/- 10C containing not less than 10 liters of water, the
sample is immersed to depth not less than 100mm from the top and supported on a perforated shelf
not less than 50mm from the bottom of the bath.
d) Penetrometer: Electrically operated automatic penetrometer / Manually operated penetrometer. It

is an apparatus, which allows the needle assembly of gross weight 100gm to penetrate without
appreciable friction for the desired duration of time 5 sec. The dial is accurately calibrated to give
penetration value in units of one tenth of an mm.
e) Transfer tray: A small tray, which can keep the container fully immersed in water during the test.
f) Stop Watch.
Procedure:
The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency between 750C and 1000C above the approximate
temperature at which bitumen softens. The sample material is thoroughly stirred to make it
homogenous and free from air bubbles and water. The sample material is then poured into the
containers to a depth at least 15 mm more than the expected penetration. The sample containers are
cooled in atmosphere temperature not lower than 130C for one hour. Then they are placed in
temperature controlled water bath at a temperature of 250C for a period of one hour.
The sample container is placed in the transfer tray with water from the water bath and placed under the
needle of the penetrometer. The weight of needle, shaft and additional weight are checked. The total
weight of this assembly should be 100gm.
Using the adjusting screw, the needle assembly is lowered and the tip of the needle is made to just
touch the top surface of the sample, the needle assembly is clamped in this position. The contact of the
tip of the needle is checked using the mirror placed on the rear of the needle. The initial reading of the
penetrometer dial is either adjusted to zero or the initial reading is taken before releasing the needle.
The needle is released exactly for a period of 5 secs. by pressing the knob and the final reading is taken
on the dial. At least three measurements are made on this sample by testing at distance of not less than
10mm apart. After each test the needle is disengaged and cleaned with benzene and carefully dried. The
sample container is also transferred in the water bath before next testing is done so as to maintain a
constant temperature of 250C. The test is repeated with sample in the other containers.
Results:
92 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

The difference between the initial and final penetration readings is taken as the penetration value.
Bitumen
A35 & S35 A45 & S45 A55 & S55 A65 & S65 A90 & S90 A200 & S200
grade
Penetration
30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 80 to 100 175 to 225
value
2.SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST.

( IS : 1202 – 1978 )
Object:
To determine the specific gravity of the bitumen by specific gravity bottle.
Apparatus:
93 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

a) Pycnometer / specific gravity bottle – 50 ml capacity.
b) Balance – sensitivity 0.1mg.
Procedure:
The specific gravity bottle is cleaned, dried and weighed along with the stopper. It is filled with fresh
distilled water, stopper placed and the same is kept in water container for at least half an hour at
temperature 270C +/- 10C. The bottle is then removed and cleaned from outside. The specific gravity
bottle containing distilled water is now weighed.
The bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature and is poured in the above empty bottle
taking all the precautions that it is clean and dry before filling sample materials. The material is filled up
to the half taking care to prevent entry of air bubbles. To permit an escape of air bubbles, the sample
bottle is allowed to stand for half an hour at suitable temperature cooled to 270C and then weighed. The
remaining space in the specific gravity bottle is filled with distilled water at 270C, stopper placed and is
placed in water container at 270C. The bottle containing bituminous material and remaining water is
removed, cleaned from outside and is again weighed.
Calculations:
The specific gravity of the bituminous material is calculated as follows:
Specific gravity = (Wt of bituminous material)/(Wt of equal volume of water at 270C)

= (c – a)/ [(b – a) – (d – c)]
Where a = weight of the specific gravity bottle

b = weight of the sp.gravity bottle filled with distilled water.
c = weight of the sp.gravity bottle about half filled with bitumen.
d = weight of the sp.gravity bottle about half filled with bitumen and
the distilled water.
Limits: Specific gravity of Bitumen at 270C is Minimum 0.99.
3.SOFTENING POIN TEST ( RING AND BALL TEST ).

( IS : 1205 – 1978 )
INTRODUCTION:
Bitumen does not suddenly change from solid to liquid state, but as the temperature increases, it
gradually becomes softer until it flows readily. All semi-solid state bitumen grades need sufficient
fluidity before they are used for application with the aggregate mix. For this purpose bitumen is
94 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

sometimes cutback with a solvent like kerosene. The common procedure however is to liquefy the
bitumen by heating. The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains particular
degree of softening under specified condition of test. For bitumen, it is usually determined by ‘Ring and
Ball’ test.
Object:
To determine the softening point of the bitumen by ‘Ring and Ball’ apparatus.
Apparatus:
a) Ring and Ball apparatus – It consists
(i) Steel Balls – 2 nos.each has a diameter of 9.5mm and weight is 2.5+/-0.05gm.
(ii) Brass Rings – 2 nos. each 6.4mm depth, inside diameter at top 17.5mm, inside diameter at bottom
15.9mm and outside diameter 20.6mm and three equally spaced ball guides.
(iii) Support - The metallic support is used for placing pair of rings. The upper surface of the rings is
adjusted to be 50mm below the surface of water or liquid contained in the bath. A distance of 25mm
between the bottom of the rings and top surface of the bottom plate of support is provided. It has a
housing for a suitable thermometer.
b) Thermometer – 00C to 3500C – sensitivity 0.10C.
c) Bath and stirrer – A heat resistant glass container of 85mm diameter and 120mm depth is used.
Procedure:
Sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 1000C above the approximate softening
point until it is completely fluid and is poured in heated rings placed on metal plate. To avoid sticking of
the bitumen to metal plate, coating is done to this with a solution of glycerin and dextrin. After cooling
the rings in air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are placed in the support as
mentioned in item(iii) above. At this time the temperature of distilled water is kept at 50C. This
temperature is maintained for 15 minutes after which the balls are placed in position. The temperature
of water is raised at uniform rate of 50C per minute with a controlled heating unit, until the bitumen
softens and touches the bottom plate by sinking of balls. At least two observations are made.
Results:
The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the bottom plate of support is
recorded as softening value.
Limits:
95 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Bitumen
A35 & S 35 A45 & S45 A55 & S55 A65 & S55 A90 & S90 A200 & S200
Grade
Softening 0 0 0 0 0 0
50 to 65 C 45 to 60 C 45 to 60 C 40 to 55 C 35 to 50 C 30 to 45 C
Point
4.VISCOSITY TEST.
( IS : 1206 – 1978 )
INTRODUCTION:
Viscosity is defined as inverse of fluidity. Viscosity thus defines the fluid property of bituminous material.
The degree of fluidity at the application temperature greatly influences the ability of bituminous
96 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

material to spread, penetrate into the voids and also coat the aggregates and hence affects the strength
characteristics of the resulting paving mixes.
Object:
To determine the viscosity of bitumen by Tar Viscometer.
Apparatus:
Tar Viscometer with 4mm and 10mm orifices – The apparatus consists of main parts like cup, valve,
water bath, sleeves, stirrer, receiver and thermometers etc.
Procedure:
The tar cup is properly leveled and water in the bath is heated to the temperature specified for the test
and is maintained throughout the test. Stirring is also continued. The sample material is heated at the
temperature 200C above the specified test temperature, and the material is allowed to cool. During this
the material is continuously, stirred. When material reaches slightly above test temperature, the same is
poured in the tar cup, until the leveling peg on the valve rod is just immersed. In the graduated receiver
(cylinder), 25ml of mineral oil or one percent by weight solution of soft soap is poured. The receiver is
placed under the orifice. When the sample material reaches the specified testing temperature within +/-
0.10C and is maintained for 5 minutes, the valve is opened. The stopwatch is started, when cylinder
records 25ml. The time is recorded for flow up to a mark of 75ml.(i.e., 50ml of test sample to flow
through the orifice).
Results:
The time in seconds for 50ml of the test sample to flow through the orifice is defined as the viscosity at a
given test temperature.
Limits:
97 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

Type of Orifice size, Viscosity

Test temp,0C
material mm range, sec.
A35 & S35 10mm 600C 90 - 100
A45 & S55 10mm 600C 80 - 90
0
A55 & S55 10mm 60 C 70 - 80
A65 & S65 10mm 600C 60 - 70
A90 & S90 10mm 600C 50 - 60
0
A200 & S200 10mm 60 C 40 - 50
Cutback -
RC,MC&SC - 4mm 250C 25 - 75
Grade - 0
0
Grade - 1 4mm 25 C 50 - 150
Grade - 2 10mm 250C 10 - 20
0
Grade - 3 10mm 25 C 25 - 75
0
Grade - 4 10mm 40 C 14 - 45
Grade - 5 10mm 400C 60 - 140
Viscosity conversion chart:
Required Viscosity
Known Viscosity Sec Sec Sec Sec
c.s 0 Sec Sec
Engler STV STV Saybol Saybol
Vk Redw - I Redw - II
10 mm 4 mm Univ. Furol
c.s
1 0.132 4.1 0.41 0.0025 0.076 4.7 0.47
Vk
0
Engler 7.58 1 31.1 3.11 0.019 0.576 35.63 3.563
Sec
0.244 0.0322 1 0.1 0.00061 0.0185 1.12 0.112
Redw - I
Sec
2.44 0.322 10 1 0.0061 0.185 11.2 1.12
Redw - II
Sec
400 52.8 1640 164 1 30.4 1880 188
STV 10 mm
Sec
13.2 1.74 54.1 5.41 0.033 1 62.04 6.204
STV 4 mm
Sec
0.213 0.028 0.873 0.0873 0.00053 0.0162 1 0.1
Saybol Univ.
Sec
2.13 0.28 8.73 0.873 0.0053 0.162 10 1
Saybol Furol
5. FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST.

( IS : 1209 – 1978 )
98 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

INTRODUCTION:
Bituminous materials leave out volatiles at high temperatures depending upon their grade. These
volatile catch fire causing a flash. This condition is very hazardous and it is therefore essential to qualify
this temperature for each bitumen grade.
Flash point: The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of substance
momentarily takes fire in the form of a flash under specified condition of test.
Fire point: The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under
specified condition of test.
Object:
To determine the flash and fire point of bitumen by Pensky-Martens closed tester.
Apparatus:
a) Pensky-Martens closed tester consist of cup, lid, stirrer device, shutter, flame exposure device.
b) Thermometer ( 0 – 3500C) – sensitivity – 0.10C.
Procedure:
The material is filled in the cup up to a filling mark. The lid is placed to close the cup in a closed system.
All accessories including thermometer of the specified range are suitably fixed. The bitumen sample is
then heated. The test flame is lit and adjusted in such a way that the size of a bleed is of 4mm diameter.
The heating is done at the rate of 50C to 60C per minute. The stirring is done at a rate of approximately
60 revolutions per minute. The test flame is applied at intervals depending upon the expected flash and
fire points. First application is made at least 170C below the actual flash point and then at every 10C to
30C. The stirring is discontinued during the application of the test flame.
Results:
The flash point is taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time of the flame
application that causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup in closed system. For open cup it is the
instance when flash appears first at any point on the surface of the material. The heating is continued
until the volatiles ignite and the material continues to burn for 5 seconds. The temperature of the
sample material when this occurs is recorded as the fire point.
Limits:
The flash point for all grades of bitumen materials is 1750C, minimum.
6.DUCTILITY TEST.
( IS : 1208 – 1978 )
99 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

INTRODUCTION:
In the flexible pavement construction where bitumen binders are used, it is of significant importance
that the binders form ductile thin films around the aggregates. This serves as a satisfactory binder in
improving the physical interlocking of the aggregates.
Object:
To determine the ductility of the bituminous material.
Apparatus:
a) Ductility machine.
b) Briquette moulds.
c) Knife.
Procedure:
The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 75 to 1000C above the approximate softening point
until it is fluid. It is strained through 90 micron sieve, poured in the mould assembly and placed on a
brass plate, after a solution of glycerin and dextrin is applied at all surfaces of the mould exposed to
bitumen. After 30 to 40 minutes, the plate assembly along with the sample is placed in water bath
maintained at 270C for 30 minutes. The sample and mould assembly are removed from water bath and
leveling the surface using hot knife cuts off excess bitumen material. After trimming the specimen, the
mould assembly-containing sample is replaced in water bath maintained at 270C for 85 to 95 minutes.
The sides of the mould are now removed and the clips are carefully hooked on the machine with out
causing any initial strain.
The pointer is set to zero, the machine is started and the two clips are pulled apart horizontally at a
uniform speed of 50 +/- 2.5mm per minute. While the test is in operation, it is checked whether the
sample is immersed in water at depth of at least 10mm. The distance, at which the bitumen thread of
each specimen breaks, is recorded (in cm) to report as ductility value.
Results:
The distance stretched by the moving end of the specimen up to the point of breaking of thread
measured in centimeters is recorded as ductility value.
Limits: The minimum ductility value of A35 & S35 grade bitumen is 50 cm at 270C.
All other grades, the ductility value is 75 cm at 270C.
7.LOSS ON HEATING OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.

( IS : 1205 – 1978 )
100 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

INTRODUCTION:
The loss in weight (exclusive of water) of bituminous materials when heated is called loss on heating of
bituminous materials.
Object:
To determine the loss on heating of bituminous materials.
Apparatus:
a) Oven – heating capacity is minimum 1800C and interior dimensions min.330X330mm.
b) Aluminum Rotating shelf - the self shall be suspended by vertical shaft and centered with respect to
the horizontal interior dimensions minimum diameter of 250mm, and shall be provided with a
mechanical means of rotating it at the rate of 5 to 6 rpm.
c) Thermometer – 0 to 3600C – sensitivity 0.10C.
d) Containers- Metal or glass cylindrical containers shall have a flat bottom and diameter 55mm, 35mm
depth minimum.
e) Balance – sensitivity 0.01gm.
Procedure:
Heat the sample with care, stirring constantly to prevent local overheating, until the sample has become
sufficiently fluid to pour. Place the sample in container and cool the sample to room temperature and
then weigh to the nearest 0.01gm. Bring the oven to a temperature of 1630C and place the container in
oven for period of 5 hr. Remove the sample from the oven, cool to room temperature, and weigh to the
nearest 0.01gm. And calculate the loss due to heating.
Limits:
Loss on heating of all grades, except A200 & S200 of bitumen is maximum 1% by mass. Loss on heating
of grade A200 & S200 is maximum 2% by mass.
8.STRIPPING VALUE OF AGGREGATES.

( IS : 6241 – 1959 )

INTRODUCTION:
Bitumen and tar adhere well to all normal types of aggregates provided they are dry and are not
exceptionally dusty. Largely the viscosity of the binder controls the process of binding. When the
viscosity of the binder is high, coating of aggregates by the binder is slower. In the absence of water
there is practically no adhesion problem in bituminous road construction. Two problems are observed
due to the presence of water. First, if aggregate is wet and cool it is normally not possible to coat with a
bituminous binder. This problem can be dealt with by removing the water film on aggregate by drying,
and by increasing the mixing temperature. Second problem is stripping of coated binder from the
aggregate due to the presence of water. This problem of stripping is experienced only with bituminous
mixtures, which are permeable to water.
Object:
To determine the stripping value of aggregates by static immersion method.
Apparatus:
Thermostatically controlled water bath, beaker.
Procedure:
This method covers the procedure for determining the stripping value of aggregates by static immersion
method, when bitumen and tar binder are used. 200gm of dry and clean aggregates passing 20mm IS
sieve and retained on 12.5mm sieve are heated up to 1500C when these are to be mixed with bitumen
and the aggregates are heated up to 1000C when these are to be mixed with tar. 5% by weight of
bitumen / tar binder is heated to 1600C (1100C in the case of tar binder). The aggregate and binder are
mixed thoroughly till they are completely coated and the mixture is transferred to a 500ml beaker and
allowed to cool at room temperature for about two hours. Distilled water is then added to immerse the
coated aggregates. The beaker is covered and kept in a water bath maintained at 400C, taking care that
the level of water in the water bath is at least half the height of the beaker. After 24 hours the beaker is
taken out, cooled at room temperature and the extent of stripping is estimated visually while the
specimen is still under water.
The stripping value is the ratio of the uncovered area observed visually to the total area of aggregates in
each test, expressed as a percentage.
Limits:
The maximum stripping value is 5%( i.e., minimum retained coating is 95%).
9.BINDER CONTENT OF PAVING MIXTURES.

( SP : 11 – 1976 )

Object:
To determine the binder content in the mix by cold solvent extraction.
Apparatus:
a) Centrifugal extraction machine electrically operated.

b) Balance – 15 kg capacity – sensitivity 0.1gm.
c) Cold solvent – Commercial grade of Benzene.
d) Filter paper – Wat 60.
e) Oven.
Procedure:
A representative sample about 1000gm is exactly weighed and placed in the bowl of the extraction
apparatus and covered with commercial grade of benzene. Sufficient time (not more than 1 hour) is
allowed for the solvent to disintegrate the sample before running the centrifuge.
The filter paper of the extractor is dried, weighed and then fitted around the edge of the bowl. The
cover of the bowl is clamped tightly. A beaker placed under to collect the extract.
The machine is revolved slowly and then gradually increases the speed, maximum of 3600 rpm. This
speed is maintained till the solvent ceases to flow from the drain. The machine is allowed to stop and
200ml of benzene is added and the above procedure is repeated. A number of 200ml solvent additions
(not less than three) are used till the extract is clear and not darker than a light straw colour.
The filter paper removed from the bowl, dried in air then in oven to constant weight at 1150C and
weighted the fine materials that might have passed through the filter paper are collected back from the
extract preferably by centrifuging. The material is washed and dried to constant weight as before. The
percentage of binder in the sample is calculated as below.
Percentage of binder = 100x [W1 – ( W2 + W3 ) + W4]/W1
Where, W1 = Weight of sample.

W2 = Weight of the sample after extraction.
W3 = Weight of Fine material recovered from the extract.
W4 = Increase in weight of the filter paper.
10.TEST FOR CONTROL OF RATE OF SPREAD OF BINDER.

( SP : 11 – 1976 )

Object:
To determine the rate of spread of binder by tray test.
Apparatus:
a) 20cmX20cm and 3cm deep metal trays – 5 nos.

b) Balance – 0.1gm sensitivity.
Procedure:
Light metal trays of about 20cmX20cm and 3cm deep previously weighed and numbered, are placed at
intervals along the road in the path of the binder distributor between the wheel tracks. After the
distributor has passed, the trays are removed and wrapped in weighed sheets of paper so that they can
be handled stocked and weighed as soon as convenient. The spacing and the number of trays can be
varied to suit the circumstances of the particular site, but at least five trays shall normally be used. The
tray test gives a measure of the variation in rate of spread along the road and a good approximation to
the average rate of0 spread.
Precautions:
The trays shall be weighed correct to first place of decimal in gram. The maximum longitudinal
distribution error shall be within 10% of the specification.
Transverse distribution by the machine can be checked by placing a number of trays to collect the binder
sprayer over each 5cm of the width of the spray bar. The variation in transverse distribution shall not be
more than 20% from the man (not counting the extreme 15cm at either side of sprayed area).
11.TEST FOR RATE OF SPREAD OF GRIT IN SURFACE DRESSING.

( SP : 11 – 1976 )

Object:
To determine the rate of spread of grit by measuring the area covered by each lorry load of known
capacity.
Procedure:
Measuring the area covered by each lorry load of known capacity can check the rate of spread of grit by
gritters.
Removing the chippings from small areas of the road and weighing them can also check this. A small
square metal frame is laid on the new dressing and all the chippings within the enclosed area which is
10cm square are collected and washed in solvent to remove the binder, weighed and the rate of spread
is measured at points along the road at intervals of between 1 meter to 4 meters.
The transverse variation shall be less than +/- 20 percent of the mean.
12.MARSHALL STABILITY TEST.

( ASTM – D – 1559 & MS-2)

INTRODUCTION:
Bruce Marshall, a former Bituminous Engineer with the Mississippi State Highway Department,
formulated the concepts of the Marshall method of designing paving mixtures. The U.S.Army Crops of
Engineers, through extensive research and correlation studies, improved and added certain features to
Marshall’s test procedure, and ultimately developed mix design criteria.
The original Marshall method is applicable only to hot-mix asphalt paving mixtures containing
aggregates with maximum sizes of 25mm or less.
This method covers the measurement of the resistance to plastic flow of cylindrical specimens of
bituminous paving mixture loaded on the lateral surface by means of the Marshall apparatus.
Object:
To determine the stability, flow, voids, voids in mineral aggregates, voids filled with asphalt and density
of the asphalt mixture by Marshall stability test.
Apparatus:
a) Specimen Mould Assembly – Mould cylinders 101.6mm(4 in.) in diameter by 75mm(3 in.) in height,
base plates, and extension collars.
b) Specimen Extractor – Steel disk with a diameter 100mm, and 12.7mm thick for extracting the
compacting specimen from the specimen mould with the use of the mould collar. A suitable bar is
required to transfer the load from the proving ring adapter to the extension collar while extracting the
specimen.
c) Compaction Hammer – The compaction hammer shall have a flat, circular tamping face and a 4.5kg(10
lb) sliding weight with a free fall of 457mm (18 in.). Two compaction hammers are recommended.
d) Compaction Pedestal – The compaction pedestal shall consist of 200X200X460mm(8X8X18 in.)

wooden post capped with a 305X305X25mm(12X12X1 in.) steel plate. The pedestal should be installed
on concrete slab so that the post is plumb and the cap is level. Mould holder provided consisting of
spring tension device designed to hold compaction mould centered in place on compaction pedestal.
e) Breaking Head – It consists of upper and lower cylindrical segments or test heads having an inside
radius of curvature of 50 mm. The lower segment is mounted on a base having two vertical guide rods,
which facilitate insertion in the holes of upper test head.
f) Loading Machine – The loading machine is provided with a gear system to lift the base in upward
direction./ on the upper end of the machine, a calibrated proving ring of 5 tonne capacity is fixed. In
between the base and the proving ring, the specimen contained in test head is placed. The loading
machine produces a movement at the rate of 50mm per minute. Machine is capable of reversing its
movement downward also.
g) Flow meter – One dial gauge fixed to the guide rods of a testing machine can serve the purpose. Least
count of 0.25mm(0.01 in.) is adequate.
h) Oven or hot plates

i) Mixing apparatus.
j) Thermostatically control water bath.
k) Thermometers of range 0 – 3600C with 10C sensitivity.
Procedure:
In the Marshall method each compacted test specimen is subjected to the following tests and analysis in
the order listed below:
i) Bulk density determination
ii) Stability and flow test
iii) Density and voids analysis
At least three samples are prepared for each binder content.
Preparation of test specimens:
The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and the filler material should be proportioned and mixed in such
a way that final mix after blending has the gradation with in the specified range.
The aggregates and filler are mixed together in the desired proportion as per the design requirements
and fulfilling the specified gradation. The required quantity of the mix is taken so as to produce a
compacted bituminous mix specimen of thickness 63.5mm, approximately.
Preparation of Mixtures: Weigh into separate pans for each test specimen the amount of each size
fraction required to produce a batch that will result in a compacted specimen 63.5 +/- 1.27mm(2.5 +/-
0.05 in.) in height. This will normally be about 1200gm(2.7 lb.). It is generally to prepare a trial specimen
prior to preparing the aggregate batches. If the trial specimen height falls outside the limits, the amount
of aggregate used for the specimen may be adjusted using:
Adjusted mass of aggregate = [63.5x(mass of agg. used)]/[Specimen height (mm) obtained]
Take the sample as mentioned above, and heated to a temperature of 1750 to 1900C. The compaction
mould assembly and hammer are cleaned and kept pre-heated to a temperature of 1000C to 1450C. The
bitumen is heated to temperature of 1210 to 1380C and the required quantity of first trial percentage of
bitumen (say, 3.5% by weight of mineral aggregates) is added to the heated aggregate and thoroughly
mixed using a mechanical mixer or by hand mixing with trowel. The mixing temperature may be 1530 to
1600C. The mix is placed in a mould and compacted by hammer, with 75 blows on either side (for light
compaction it is 50 blows). The compaction temperature may be 1380 to 1490C. The compacted
specimen should have a thickness of 63.5 +/- 3.0mm. Three specimens should be prepared at each trial
bitumen content, which may be varied at 0.5 percent increments up to about 7.5 or 8.0 percent.

Marshall Stability and Flow values: The specimens to be tested are kept immersed under water in a
thermostatically controlled water bath maintained at 600 +/- 10C for 30 to 40 minutes. The specimen are
taken out one by one, placed in the Marshall test head and the Marshall Stability value (maximum load
carried in kg. before failure) and the flow value (the deformation the specimen undergoes during
loading up to the maximum load in 0.25mm units) are noted. The corrected Marshall stability value of
each specimen is determined by applying the appropriate correction factor.
The following tests are determined first, to find out the density, voids, VMA and VFB.
Tests:
The specific gravity and apparent specific gravity values of the different aggregates, filler and bitumen
used are determined first.
i) Bulk specific gravity of aggregate ‘Gsb’ is given by:
Gsb = (P1+P2+P3+…..+Pn)/[(P1/G1)+(P2/G2)+(P3/G3)…….+(Pn/Gn)]
Where, Gsb = Bulk specific gravity for the total aggregate.

P1, P2, Pn = Individual percentages by weight of aggregate.
G1, G2, Gn = Individual bulk specific gravities of aggregate.
ii) Effective specific gravity of aggregate ‘Gse’ is given by:
Gse = ( 100 – Pb) /[(Pmm/Gmm) –( Pb/Gb)]
Where, Gse = Effective specific gravity of aggregate, constant for all at 5% bitumen
content.
Gmm = Maximum specific gravity of paving mixture (no air voids), determine
by Vacuum pump test (ASTM – D – 2041).
Pb = Bitumen content, percent by total weight of mixture.
Gb = Specific gravity of Bitumen.
iii) Maximum specific gravity of mixture ‘Gmm’ is given by:
Gmm = 100 / [(Ps/Gse) +( Pb/Gb)]
Where, Gmm = Maximum specific gravity of paving mixture (no air voids)
Ps = Aggregate content, percent by total weight of mixture
Pb = Bitumen content, percent by total weight of mixture
Gse = Effective specific gravity of aggregate
Gb = Specific gravity of bitumen
iv) Bitumen absorption ‘Pba’ is given by:
Pba = 100Gb(Gse – Gsb) / (GsexGsb)

Where, Pba = Absorbed bitumen, percent by weight of aggregate

Gse = Effective specific gravity of aggregate
Gsb = Bulk specific gravity of aggregate
Gb = Specific gravity of bitumen
v) Effective bitumen content of a paving mixture ‘Pbe’ is given by:
Pbe = Pb – (Pba x Ps)/100
vi) Voids in mineral aggregate in compacted paving mixture ‘VMA’ is given by:
VMA = 100 – (Gmb x Ps)/Gsb
Where, VMA = Voids in mineral aggregate, percent of bulk volume

Gsb = Bulk specific gravity of total aggregate
Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture
Ps = Aggregate content, percent by total weight of mixture
vii) Air voids in compacted mixture ‘Va’ is given by:
Va = 100 x (Gmm – Gmb) / Gmm
Where, Va = Air voids in compacted mixture, percent of total volume

Gmm = Maximum specific gravity of paving mixture
Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture
viii) Voids filled with bitumen in compacted mixture ‘VFB’ is given by:
VFB = 100 x (VMA – Va)/VMA
Where, VFB = Voids filled with bitumen, percent of VMA

VMA = Voids in mineral aggregate, percent of bulk volume
Va = Air voids in compacted mixture, percent of total volume
Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content:
Six graphs are plotted with values of bitumen content against the values of:

a) Density ‘Gmb’ g/cc.

b) Marshall Stability, S kg.
c) Voids in total mix, Va %.
d) Flow value, F (0.25mm units).
e) Voids filled with bitumen, VFB %.
f) Voids in mineral aggregate, VMA %.
Let the bitumen contents corresponding to maximum density be B1, corresponding to maximum
stability be B2 and that corresponding to the specified voids content Va (4.0% in the case of dense AC
mix) be B3. Then the Optimum Bitumen Content is given by:
Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) = (B1 + B2 + B3)/3
The values of flow and VFB are found from the graphs, corresponding to bitumen content OBC. All the
design values of Marshall stability, flow, voids and VFB are checked at the Optimum Bitumen Content,
with the specified design requirements of the mix.
Design Requirements of the mix:
i) Marshall Stability value, kg = 820 kg.(min.)

ii) Flow value, 0.25mm units = 8 – 16
iii) Voids in total mix, Va % = 3–5%
iv) Voids in mineral agg.(VMA), % = 10 – 12 %(min.)
v) Voids filled with bitumen(VFB) % = 65 – 75 %
The highest possible Marshall stability values in the mix should be aimed at consistent with the other
four requirements mentioned above. In case the mix designed does not fulfill any one or more of the
design requirements, the gradation of the aggregates or filler content or bitumen content or
combination of these are altered and the design tests are repeated till all the requirements are
simultaneously fulfilled.
Job Mix Formula:
The proportions in which the different aggregates, filler and bitumen are to be mixed are specified by
weight or by volume for implementation during construction.
Caution: Mixes with high Marshall stability values and very low Flow values are not desirable as the
pavements of such mixes may be brittle and are likely to crack under heavy traffic.
Correction Factors

Approximate
Volume of
Thickness of Correction Factors
Specimen in cc
Specimen in mm
457 - 470 57.1 1.19
471 - 482 58.7 1.14
483 - 495 60.3 1.09
496 - 508 61.9 1.04
509 - 522 63.5 1.00
523 - 535 65.1 0.96
536 - 546 66.7 0.93
547 - 559 68.3 0.89
560 - 573 69.9 0.86
Swell test:
Apparatus:
a) Moulds with internal diameter 101.6mm(4 in.) and length 127mm(5 in.)
b) Perforated, 98.4mm diameter x 3.2mm thick with adjustable stem, for swell measurement.
c) Dial gauge, mounted on tripod, with reading accuracy to 0.025mm.
d) Aluminum pans, 190mm diameter x 64mm deep.
Procedure:
Allow compacted swell test specimen to stand at room temperature for at least one hour. Place the
mould and specimen in 190mm diameter x 64mm deep aluminum pan. Place the perforated disk on
specimen, position the tripod with dial gauge on mould, and set the adjustable stem to give a reading of
2.54mm on the dial gauge. Introduce 500ml of water into the mould on top of the specimen and the
measure distance from the top of the mould to the water surface with the graduated scale. After 24
hours, read the dial gauge to the nearest 0.025mm and record the change as swell. Also, measure the
distance from the top of the mould to the water surface with the graduated scale and record the change
as permeability or the amount of water in ml that percolates into and/or through the test specimen.
Note:
i) Water Sensitivity: The loss of stability on immersion in water at 600C. The allowable limit is minimum
75% retained strength.
ii) Marshall Quotient (Stiffness): is the ratio of stability and flow.

Allowable limit for base course = 350
for wearing surfaces = 400.

Marshall Curves
Bitumen(%) ’vs’ Stability(kg) Bitumen(%) ‘vs’ Density (g/cc)
1500 2.5
1200
900 2.4
600
300 2.3
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Bitumen(%) ‘vs’ Flow(mm) Bitumen (%) ‘vs’ Voids(%)
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Bitumen(%) ‘vs’ VFB(%) Bitumen(%) ‘vs’ VMA(%)
80 20
70 18
60 16
50 14
40 12
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

CEMENT & CONCRETE.
1. DETERMINATION OF NORMAL CONSISTENCY

( IS : 4031 – part – 4 )

Object:
Determination of the quantity of water required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency.
Apparatus:
Vicat apparatus (confirming to IS : 5513 – 1968) with plunger ( 10mm in dia ).
Theory:
The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit the vicat
plunger to penerate to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the vicat mould, when the cement paste is
tested as described in the following procedure.
Procedure:
Prepare a paste of weighted quantity of cement ( 350 gms) with a weighted quantity of water, start with
30% water of 350 gms of cement taking care that the time of gauging is not less than 3 minutes and not
more than 5 minutes and the gauging shall be completed before any sign of setting occurs. The gauging
time shall be counted from the time of adding the water to the dry cement until commencing to fill the
mould. Fill the vicat mould with this paste, the mould resting upon a non-porous plate. After completely
filling the mould, trim off the surface of the paste, making it in level with the top of the mould. The
mould may slightly be shaken to expel the air.
Place the test block with the mould, together with the non-porous resting plate, under the rod bearing
the plunger ( 10mm dia ) lower the plunger gently to touch the surface of the test block and quickly
release, allowing it to penetrate into the paste. This operation shall carried out immediately after filling
the mould.
Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of water and test as described above until the amount of
water necessary for making the standard consistency as defined above is obtained. Express the amount
of water as a percentage by weight of the dry cement.
Precautions:
Use clean appliances for gauging. The temperature of cement and water and that of test room, at the
time when the above operations are being performed, shall be 270C +/- 20C. the room temperature
shall be maintained at 270C +/- 20C.
2.DETERMINATION OF INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIMES OF CEMENT.

( IS : 4031 – part – 5 )

Object: Determination of the Initial and Final setting times of cement.
Apparatus: The vicat apparatus ( conforming to IS : 5513 – 1968 ).
Sample: 350 gms of cement is taken.
Procedure:
Preparation of Test Block: Prepare a neat cement paste by gauging 350 gms of cement with 0.85 times
the water required to give a paste of standard consistency. The paste shall be gauged in the manner and
under the conditions prescribed in determination of consistency of standard cement paste. Start a
stopwatch at the instant when water is added to the cement. Fill the mould with the cement paste
gauged as above, the mould resting on a non-porous plate, fill the mould completely and smooth off the
surface of the paste making it level with the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared in the
mould is the test block.
Use clean appliances for gauging. The temperature of water and that of the test room, and the time
gauging, shall be 270C +/- 20C.
During the test, the block shall be kept at a temperature of 270C +/- 20C and at not less than 90% relative
humidity.
Determination of Initial Setting Time: Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the
non-porous plate, under the rod bearing initial setting needle, lower the needle gently in contact with
the surface of the test block and quickly release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block. In the
beginning the needle will completely pierce the test block. Repeat this procedure until the needle, when
brought in contact with the test block and released as described above, fails to pierce the block for 5 +/-
0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. The period lapsing between the time water is added
to the cement and the time at which the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5 +/- 0.5 mm shall be
the initial setting time.
Determination of Final Setting Time: Replace the needle of the vicat apparatus by the needle with an
annular ring. The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle gently to the
surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression thereon, while the outer ring fails to do so.
The period elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement and the time at which the
needle makes an impression on the surface of the test block while the attachment fails to do so, shall be
the final setting time.
Limits:
Initial Setting Time, minimum - 30 minutes.
Final Setting Time, maximum - 600 minutes.
3. DETERMINATION OF SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT

BY THE LE CHATELIER METHOD.

( IS : 4031 – part – 3 )
Object:
Determination of the Soundness of cement by the Le Chatelier method.
Apparatus:
The apparatus for conducting the test consists of small split cylinder of spring brass or other suitable
metal of 0.5 mm thickness, forming a mould 30 mm internal diameter and 30 mm high. On either side of
the split mould are attached two indicators with pointed ends, the distance from these ends to the
center of the cylinder being 165 mm. The mould shall be kept in good condition with the Jaws not more
than 0.50 mm apart.
Procedure:
Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it with cement paste formed by gauging cement with 0.78 times
the water required to give a paste of standard consistency. The paste shall be gauged in the manner and
under the conditions prescribed in determination of consistency of standard cement paste, taking care
to keep the edges of the mould gently together while this operation is being performed. Cover the
mould with another piece of glass sheet, place a small weight on this covering glass sheet and
immediately submerge the whole assembly in water at a temperature of 270C +/- 20C and keep there for
24 hours.
Measure the distance separating the indicator points. Submerge the moulds again in water at the
temperature prescribed above. Bring the water to boiling, with the mould kept submerge, in 25 to 30
minutes, and keep it boiling for three hours. Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and
measure the distance between the indicator points. The difference between these two measurements
represents the expansion of the cement.
Limits:
Expansion should not be more than 10 mm.
4. DETERMINATION OF FINENESS OF CEMENT.

( IS : 4031 – part – 3 )

Object:
To determine the fineness of cement by dry sieving.
Apparatus:
a) Standard balance with 100 gm. weighing capacity.

b) IS : 90 micron sieve confirming to IS : 460 – 1962 and a Brush.
Procedure:
a) Break down any air-set lumps in the cement sample with fingers.
b) Weigh accurately 100 gms of the cement and place it on a standard 90 micron IS.sieve.
c) Continuously sieve the sample for 15 minutes.
d) Weigh the residue left after 15 minutes of sieving. This completes the test.
Result:
The percentage weight of residue over the total sample is reported.
% Weight of Residue = (Wt. of Sample Retained on the Sieve)/(Total Weight of the Sample)
Limits:
The percentage residue should not exceed 10%.
Precautions:
Sieving shall be done holding the sieve in both hands and gentle wrist motion, this will involve no danger
of spilling the cement, which shall be kept well spread out on the screen. More or less continuous
rotation of the sieve shall be carried out throughout sieving.
Washers, shots and slugs shall not be used on the sieve. The underside of the sieve shall be lightly
brushed with a 25 or 40 mm bristle brush after every five minutes of sieving.
Mechanical sieving devices may be used, but the cement shall not be rejected if it meets the fineness
requirement when tested by the hand method.
5.DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT.

( IS : 4031 – Part – 6 )

Object:
Determination of the compressive strength of standard cement mortar cubes compacted by means of a
standard vibration machine.
Apparatus:
Vibration machine, cube moulds of size 7.06 cms(confirming to IS : 4031 – 1968), and Standard Sand to
be used in the test shall be confirm to IS : 650 – 1966.
Procedure:
Mix Proportions and Mixing: Clean appliances shall be used for mixing and the temperature of the
water and that of the test room at the time when the above operations are being performed shall be 270
+/- 20C.
Place in a container a mixture of cement and standard sand in the proportion of 1 : 3 by weight; mix it
dry, with a trowel for one minute and then with water until the mixture is of uniform colour. The
quantity of water to be used shall be as specified below. In any event, it should not take more than 4
minutes to obtain uniform coloured mix. If it exceeds 4 minutes, the mixture shall be rejected and the
operation repeated with a fresh quantity of cement, sand and water.
The material for each cube shall be mixed separately and the quantity of cement, standard sand and
water shall be as follows:
Percentage of water to be added to the cement and sand in ( 1:3 ) cm (P/4 + 3) X % combined weight of
cement and sand = (P/4 + 3) X 800/100.
Cement 200 gms, standard sand 600 gms, water (P/4 + 3) per cent of combined weight of cement and
sand, where P is the percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency.
Moulding Specimens:
In assembling the moulds ready for use, cover the joints between the halves of the mould with a thin
film of petroleum jelly and apply a similar coating of petroleum jelly between the contact surfaces of the
bottom of the mould and its base plate in order to ensure that no water escapes during vibration. Treat
the interior faces of the mould with a thin coating of mould oil.
Place the assembled mould on the table of the vibration machine and firmly hold it in position by means
of suitable clamps.
Securely attach a hooper of suitable size and shape at the top of the mould to facilitate filling and this
hooper shall not be removed until completion of the vibration.
Immediately after mixing the mortar, place the mortar in the cube mould and rod with a rod. The mortar
shall be rodded 20 times in about 8 seconds to ensure elimination of entrained air and honey combing.

Place the remaining quantity of mortar in the hooper of the cube mould and rod again as specified for
the first layer and then compact the mortar by vibration.
The period of vibration shall be two minutes at the specified speed of 12000 +/- 400 vibrations per
minutes.
At the end of vibration remove the mould together with the base plate from the machine and finish the
top surface of the cube in the mould by smoothing surface with the blade of a trowel.
Curing Specimens:
Keep the filled moulds at a temperature of 270C +/- 20C in an atmosphere of atleast 90% relative
humidity for about 24 hours after completion of vibration. At the end of that period remove them from
the moulds immediately submerge in clean fresh water and keep them under water until testing. The
water in which the cubes are submerged shall be renewed every 7 days and shall be maintained at a
temperature of 270C +/- 20C. After they have been taken out and until they are tested, the cubes shall
not be allowed to become dry.
Testing:
Test three cubes for compressive strength at the periods mentioned under the relevant specifications
for different hydraulic cements, the periods being reckoned from the completion of vibration. The
compressive strength shall be the average of the strengths of the three cubes for each period of curing.
The cubes shall be tested on their sides without any packing between the cube and the steel platens of
the testing machine. One of the platens shall be carried base and shall be self-adjusting and the load
shall be steadily and uniformly applied, starting from zero at a rate of 350 kgs/cm2/min.
Calculation:
Calculate the compressive strength from the crushing load and the average area over which the load is
applied. Express the results in kgs/cm2 to the nearest 0.5 kg/cm2.
Compressive strength, kg/cm2 = P/A, where ‘P’is the crushing load in kg, and ‘A’ is the area in cm2.
6.DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.

( IS : 516 – 1959 )

Object:
Determination of compressive strength of concrete.
Apparatus:
Testing Machine: The testing machine may be of any reliable type of sufficient capacity for the tests and
capable of applying the load at the specified rate. The permissible error shall not be greater than 2
percent of the maximum load. The testing machine shall be equipped with two steel bearing platens
with hardened faces. One of the platens shall be fitted with a ball seating in the form the portion of a
sphere, the center of which coincides with the central point of the face of the platen. The other
compression platen shall be plain rigid bearing block. The bearing faces of both platens shall be at least
as larger as, and preferably larger than the nominal size of the specimen to which the load is applied.
The bearing surface of the platens, when new, shall not depart from a plane by more than 0.01mm at
any point, and they shall be maintained with a permissible variation limit of 0.02mm. the movable
portion of the spherical seated compression platen shall be held on the spherical seat, but the design
shall be such that the bearing face can be rotated freely and tilted through small angles in any direction.
Age at test: Tests shall be made at recognized ages of the test specimens, the most usual being 7 and 28
days. The ages shall be calculated from the time of the addition of water of the dry ingredients.
Number of Specimens: At least three specimens, preferably from different batches, shall be made for
testing at each selected age.
Procedure:
Specimens stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal from the water and while they are
still in the wet condition. Surface water and grit shall be wiped off the specimens and any projecting find
removed specimens when received dry shall be kept in water for 24 hours before they are taken for
testing. The dimensions of the specimens to the nearest 0.2mm and their weight shall be noted before
testing.
Placing the specimen in the testing machine the bearing surface of the testing machine shall be wiped
clean and any loose sand or other material removed from the surface of the specimen, which are to be
in contact with the compression platens. In the case of cubes, the specimen shall be placed in the
machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to opposite sides of the cubes as cast, that is,
not to the top and bottom. The axise of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the center of thrust
of the spherically seated platen. No packing shall be used between the faces of the test specimen and
the steel platen of the testing machine. As the spherically seated block is brought to bear on the
specimen the movable portion shall be rotated gently by hand so that uniform seating may be obtained.
The load shall be applied without shock and increased continuously at a rate of approximately 140
kg/cm2/min.until the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no grater load
can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen shall then be recorded and the
appearance of the concrete and any unusual features in the type of failure shall be noted.
Calculation: The measured compressive strength of the specimen shall be calculated by dividing the
maximum load applied to the specimen during the test by the cross sectional area, calculated from the

mean dimensions of the section and shall be expressed to the nearest kg per cm2. Average of three
values shall be taken as the representative of the batch provided the individual variation is not more
than +/-15 percent of the average. Otherwise repeat tests shall be made.
A correction factor according to the height / diameter ratio of specimen after capping shall be obtained
from the curve shown in Fig.1 of IS:516-1959. The product of this correction factor and the measured
compressive strength shall be known as the corrected compressive strength this being the equivalent
strength of a cylinder having a height/diameter ratio of two. The equivalent cube strength of the
concrete shall be determined by multiplying the corrected cylinder strength by 5/4.
7.DETERMINATION OF WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE ( SLUMP TEST )

( IS : 1199 – 1959 )

Object:
This method of test specifies the procedure to be adopted, either in the laboratory or during the
progress of work in the field, for determining, by the slump test, the consistency of concrete.
Apparatus:
a) Mould: the mould for the test specimen shall be in the form of the frustum of a cone having the
following internal dimensions:
Dimensions cm
Bottom diameter. 20
Top diameter. 10
Height. 30
b) Tamping Rod: The tamping rod shall be of steel or other suitable material, 16 mm in diameter, 0.6m
long and rounded at one end.
Procedure:
The internal surface of the mould shall be thoroughly cleaned and freed from superfluous moisture and
any set concrete before commencing the test. The mould shall be placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid
and non-absorbent surface, such as a carefully leveled metal plate, the mould being firmly held in place
while it is being filled. The mould shall be filled in four layers, each approximately one-quarter of the
height of the mould. Each layer shall be tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod.
The strokes shall be distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section of the mould and for the
second and subsequent layers shall penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom layer shall be
tamped throughout its depth. After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete shall be struck off level
with a trowel or the tamping the rod, so that the mould is exactly filled. Any mortar, which may have
leaked out between the mould and the base plate, shall be cleaned away. The mould shall be removed
from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the
concrete to subside and the slump shall be measured immediately by determining the difference
between the height of the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested. The above
operation shall be carried out at a place free from vibration or shock, and within a period of two minutes
after sampling.
The slump measured shall be recorded in terms of millimeters of subsidence of the specimen during the
test. Any slump specimen which collapses or shears off laterally gives incorrect result and if this occurs
the test shall be repeated with another sample.
8. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT.

( IS : 2720 – Part – 3 )

Object: To determine the specific gravity of cement using Le Chatelier Flask or Spcefic Gravity Bottle.
Apparatus:
a) Le Chatelier Flask or Specific Gravity Bottle – 100 ml capacity.
b) Balance capable of weighing accurately upto 0.1gm.
Procedure:
Weigh a clean and dry Le Chatelier Flask or Specific Gravity Bottle with its stopper (W1). Place a sample
of cement upto half of the flask (about 50 gm) and weight with its stopper (W2). Add kerosene (polar
liquid) to cement in flask till it is about half full. Mix thoroughly with glass rod to remove entrapped air.
Continue stirring and add more kerosene till it is flush with the graduated mark. Dry the outside and
weigh (W3). Entrapped air may be removed by vacuum pump, if available. Empty the flask, clean it refills
with clean kerosene flush with the graduated mark wipe dry the outside and weigh (W4).
Calculations:
Specific gravity = (W2 – W1) /[(W2 – W1) – (W3 – W4)]x0.79
Where, W1 = weight of empty flask.

W2 = weight of flask + cement.
W3 = weight of flask + cement + kerosene.
W4 = weight of flask + kerosene.
0.79= specific gravity of kerosene.
Limit: Specific gravity of cement = 3.15 g/cc .
9.DETERMINATION OF FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.

( IS : 516 – 1959 )

Object: Determination of the flexural strength of concrete specimen.
Apparatus:
a) Standard moulds of size 15 X 15 X 70 cms for preparing the specimen.

b) Tamping bar.
c) Testing Machine.
Procedure:
Test specimens stored in water at a temperature of 250C to 300C for 48 hours before testing shall be
tested immediately on removal from the water, whilst they are still in a wet condition. The dimensions
of each specimen shall be noted before testing. No preparation of the surface is required.
Placing the specimen in the testing machine: The bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers
shall be wiped clean, and any loose sand or other material removed from the surfaces of the specimen
where they are to make contact with the rollers. The specimen shall then be placed in the machine in
such a manner that the load shall be applied to the upper most surface as cast in the mould, along two
lines spaced 20 or 13.30 cms apart. The axis of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the axis of
the loading device. No packing shall be used between the bearing surface of the specimen and the
rollers. The load shall be applied with shock and increasing continuously at a rate such that the extreme
fiber stress increases at approximately 7 kgs/cm2/mm for the 10 cm specimens, the load shall be
increased until the specimen falls, and the maximum load applied to the specimen during the test shall
be recorded. The appearance of the fractured faces of the concrete and any unusual features in the type
of failure shall be noted.
Calculation:
The flexural strength of the specimen shall be expressed as the modules of rapture ‘ fb’ which if ‘a’
equals the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support measured on the centerline of
the tensile side of the specimen, in cm, shall be calculated to the nearest 0.5 kg/cm2 as follows.
fb = ( p X l ) / ( b X d2 )
When ‘a’ is greater than 20.0 cm . for 15.0 cm specimen or greater than 13.30 cm for a 10.0 cm
specimen, or
fb = ( 3p X a ) / ( b X d2 )

When ‘a’ is less than 20.0 cms. but greater than 17.0 cms for 15.00 cms specimen, or less than 13.30 cms
but greater than 11.0 cms for a 10.0 cms specimen, where b = measured width in cms of the specimen,
d = measured depth in cms of the specimen at the point of failure, l = length in cm. of the span on
which the specimen was supported, and p = maximum load in kg. applied to the specimen.
If ‘a’ is less than 17.0 cm. for a 15 cm specimen or less than 11.0 cm for a 10.0 cm specimen, the result of
the test shall be discarded.
10.DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE.

(MOSRTH: 1716.5)
Object: Determination of the Permeability of concrete specimen.
Apparatus:
a) Standard Cube moulds of size 150 X 150 X 150 mm or Cylindrical moulds 150mm dia and 160mm
height for preparing the specimen.
b) Tamping bar.
c) Testing Machine.
d) Permeability equipment.
Procedure:
At least three specimens prepared with cubic moulds or cylindrical moulds as per the design mix and
placed in curing tank for 28 days.
After 28 days curing, the test specimen is fitted in a machine such that the specimen can be placed in
water under pressure up to 7 bars.
At first a pressure of one bar is applied for 48 hours, followed by 3 bars for 24 hours and 7 bars for next
24 hours.
After the passage of the above period, the specimen is taken out and split in the niddle by compression
applied on two round bars on opposite sides above and below.
The water penetration in the broken core is to be measured with a scale and the depth of penetration
assessed in mm.
Calculation:
The depth of penetration in the broken core is the permeability of the particular concrete mix and
reported in mm.
Limits:
The maximum permissible limit for the concrete is 25mm.
11.DETERMINATION OF ENTRAINED AIR CONTENT OF CONCRETE

(AASHTO: T 152-74)

Object:
Determination of the air content of freshly mixed concrete from observation of the change in volume of
concrete with a change in pressure.
Apparatus:
a) Air Meter, b) Measuring bowl, c) Spray tube, d) Trowel, e) Tamping Rod, f) Rubber Mallet
Procedure:
Place a representative sample of the concrete in the measuring bowl in three equal layers. Compact
each layer of concrete by 25 strokes of the tamping rod and evenly distributed over the cross section.
After consolidation of the concrete strike off the excess concrete by trowel and leveled up to the given
marking. And then the sides of the bowel sharply tapped 10 to 15 times with rubber mallet to remove
the large air bubbles.
Thoroughly clean the flanges or rims of the bowel and cover the bowel with pressure tight clamps.
Assemble the apparatus and add the water over the concrete by means of the tube until it rises to about
the halfway mark in the standpipe. Incline the apparatus assembly about 300 from vertical and using the
bottom of bowel as a pivot. Tapping the cover lightly to remove any entrapped air bubbles above the
concrete sample. Return the apparatus assembly to a vertical position and fill the water column slightly
above the zero mark.
Apply slightly more than the desired test pressure (about 0.2 psi) by hand pump to relieve local
restraints and record the water level on the standpipe as “h1”. Then the ultimate pressure (14.7 psi) is
apply on the test specimen until no change in the indicated air content (about 1 min) and record the
water level on the standpipe as “h2”. The apparent air content “A1” is equal to “h1-h2”.
Calculation:
Calculate the air content of the concrete in the measuring bowl as follows:
Air content of the sample tested = As = (A1 – G)
Where, As = air content of the sample tested, percent

A1 = apparent air content of the sample tested, percent
G = aggregate correction factor, percent.
12.DETERMINATION OF FLOW OF CONCRETE

(AASHTO: T 120 - 42)

Object: Determination of the flow of concrete.
Apparatus:
a) Mould (bottom dia=254mm, top dia=171mm and height = 127mm)

b) Flow Table
c) Tamping Rod.
Procedure:
Sample of concrete for test specimens shall be taken at the mixer. The flow table top shall be wetted
and cleaned of all gritty material and the excess water removed with a rubber squeegee. The mould
shall be placed in centered on the flow table and fill the concrete sample in two layers. Each layer shall
be rodded with 25 strokes of the tamping rod. The excess concrete trimmed with trowel and cleans the
table again. The mould shall be immediately removed from the concrete by a steady, upward pull. The
table shall then be raised and dropped (drop is 12.7mm) 15 times in about 15 seconds by revolving the
actuating cam continuously at a uniform rate. The diameter of the spread concrete shall be the average
of six symmetrically distributed caliper measurements read to the neares 6.4mm.
Calculation:
The flow of the concrete shall be recorded as the percentage increase in diameter of the spread
concrete over the base diameter of the molded concrete.
Flow percent = 100x (Spread diameter – Original diameter)/ (Original diameter)
Where, As = air content of the sample tested, percent
A1 = apparent air content of the sample tested, percent
G = aggregate correction factor, percent.

OTHER TESTS.
1. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE IRREGULARITIES (UNEVENNESS)

(IRC: SP: 11)
Object:

Checking the surface unevenness using a straight edge and wedge.
Apparatus:
1) 3-metre straight edge may be made of steel or seasoned hard wood with the dimensions of 75mm
wide and 125mm deep.
2) Graduated wedge – with a least count of at least 3mm.
Procedure:
For recording undulations in the longitudinal profile the straight edge is to be placed longitudinally
parallel to the center line of the road measurements along two parallel lines may normally the sufficient
for a single lane pavement and along three lines for the two lane pavement one additional line may be
covered for each additional lane.
The straight edge has limitations for as regards the measurement of undulations at vertical
curves. Additional templates may be made for this purpose especially if the curves are sharp.
The straight edge may be placed at the starting point, wedge inserted between it and the test surface
where the gap is maximum and reading taken. The edge may then be slide by about ½ length i.e. 1.5m,
and the wedge reading repeated. This process should be continued. The straight edge need not always
be moved forward but may be moved backward and forward to record the maximum undulation
existing at a location. Locations with undulations in excess of the specified magnitude should be marked
on the surface.
2. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE UNEVENNESS BY AUTOMATIC ROAD UNEVENNESS RECORDER /

ROUGHOMETER.
Automatic road unevenness recorder also known as BUMP INTEGRATOR or ROUGHOMETER gives
speedily a quantitative integrated evaluation of surface irregularities on an electromagnetic counter. It

comprises of a trailer of single wheel with a pneumatic tyre mounted on a chassis over which on
integrating device is fitted. The machine has a panel board fitted with two sets of electromagnetic
counters for counting the uneven index value. The operating speed of the machine is 30 +/- ½ km/hr. A
vehicle, usually a jeep, towed the machine and tyre pressure is 2.1 kg/cm3 (30 PSI).
Operation of the Bump integrator:
The Bump integrator should towed by a vehicle at a speed of 30 km/hr. A jeep with a canvass body is
eminently suitable because it affords opportunities for the driver to keep a watch on the unit. The jeep
should have sound suspension and damping system. The tyres pressure in the rear wheels of the jeep
should be same.
Before carrying out tests it is advisable to check the following items:
1) Integrator-cord terminals are in parked position i.e. the cord joining the integrator unit to the wheel
axle should be fathered to the chassis in a non-operational position.
2) Tyre pressure is 2.1 kg/cm3 (30 PSI).
3) Level of fluid in dashpots is up to top mark of the dipstick (check and maintain level to 3 cms below
the cylinder cap).
4) The electromagnetic counters are working in this is simply checked by running a short distance in
operational mode.
5) All the bolts of the towing hitch and the bracket fixed with the towing vehicle are tight.
6) The caster-wheel adjustable jacks are removed from the Bump integrator.
7) Tyre pressure gauge and foot pump kept in towing vehicle.
8) The control-knob (if provided) of the wheel-revolution contact is screwed down to disengage the
counter (this knob is located on top of the small box positioned where the wheel is bolted to the axle).
9) Spare like integrator cords, tool-kit, dipstick and fluid for the dashpots kept in the towing vehicle.
10) The relevant result-recording forms are also kept with the counter-board.
Comprehensive notes should be taken giving particulars of test length, width of road, type of surfacing
and any other relevant details needed.
The machines driver over the test section of road at a speed of 30 +/- ½ kmph. Normally in the nearside
wheel track of the nearside lane (position of machine on road is dependent on purpose of
measurements).
At the beginning of the section, the observer having set the counters to zero operates the on/off switch
to on-position on the instrument board.

At the end of the section the observer changes over to the second set of counters, which are then set to
zeros thus allowing continuous measurements. The readings of the integrating and wheel-revolution
counters are entered. The test section should not be less than 500m. Bump integrator is run on two
parallel lines (on each wheel track) on single lane carriageway and on three parallel lines (one on each
wheel track and the third on the central line) for double lane carriageway.
Processing of results obtained with Bump integrator:
The results obtained with Bump integrator are the following for a test section over which it has been run
to evaluate its riding quality:
i) Integrator value of irregularities in inches (BI counter reading).
ii) The number of wheel revolutions (wheel revolution counter).
Each set of readings (BI reading and corresponding number of wheel-revolutions) are required to be
converted to the unevenness index value (UI value) in terms of cms/km.
The unevenness index value for the test section is arrived at by taking mean of UI values corresponding
to the three sets of readings.
The unevenness index value is calculated by dividing the BI counter values (in cms.) by the distance
traveled in kms.
= ( Integrator counter value (cms)) / (Distance traveled (km))
3.DETERMINATION OF STRENGTHENING OF FLEXIBLE ROAD PAVEMENTS USING BENKELMAN BEAM

DEFLECTION TECHNIQUE.
INTRODUCTION:
Ever since Benkelman devised the simple deflection beam for measurement of pavement surface
deflection on WASHO test road in 1953, its use has become quite popular for evaluation of
strengthening requirements of flexible pavements quickly and conveniently, Benkelman beam has been

in use in India for more then a decade by different organizations. Since no uniform procedure was
available for the design of flexible overlays by using the deflection technique, the specifications and
standards committee of the IRC flat the necessity for preparing tentative guidelines.
Basic principles of the deflection method:
The deflection method is based on the concept that pavement sections, which have been conditioned by
traffic, deform elastically under a load. The deformation of elastic deflection under given load depends
upon the sub grade soil type and its conditions of moisture and compaction, thickness and quality of the
pavement courses, drainage condition, pavement surface temperature etc. Extensive studies in other
countries have shown that performance and life of flexible pavements are closely related to the
pavement elastic deflection caused by the passage of wheel loads.
The Benkelman Beam measures pavement deflection under a wheel load. It consists of a slender beam
3.66m long pivoted at a distance of 2.44m, from the tip by suitable placing the probe between the dual
wheels of a loaded truck; it is possible to measure the rebound and residual deflections of the pavement
structure. While the rebound deflection is the one related to pavement performance, the residual
deflection may be due to non-recoverable deflection of the pavement or because of the influence of the
deflection bowl on the front legs of the beam.
Procedure for deflection survey:
The deflection survey essentially consists of two sets of operation, namely,
i) conditions survey for collecting basic information about the road structure and based on this
demarcation of the road into sections of more or less equal performance, and
ii) actual deflection measurements.
i) Pavement condition survey: This phase of operation, which should precede the actual deflection
measurements, consists primarily of visual observations supplemented by simple measurements for rut
depth using a 3-meter straight edge. Based on these, the road should be classified into sections of equal
performance with the criteria given as under.
Classification Pavement conditions

Good No cracking, rutting less than 10mm.
No cracking or cracking confined to single crack in wheel track
Fair
with rutting between 10mm and 20mm.
Poor Extensive cracking and/or rutting greater than 20mm.
As it is inexpedient to modify the overlay design at frequent intervals, it will be preferable if length of
each section is kept minimum of 50m.
During condition survey, information should also be collected about drainage characteristics,
topography, climatic condition and other relevant features. Test pits should be dug approximated every
250 –500m depending on the uniformity in performance or pavement structure to determine the
thickness and composition of the pavement layers as also the sub grade soil characteristics. Where it is

intended to compare the results with the CBR design method. CBR of the sub grade soil should also be
determined on the lines recommended in IRC:37-1970.
The data collected at the condition survey should be recorded a proforma for which is suggested in
below.
Format for the collection of field information during test.

Pavement condition survey.
Name of Road:
Section:
Pavement Condition Existing Pavement Details

Sl. Section Surfacing Base
Riding Overall
No. or Km. Cracking Patching Rutting
quality rating Type Thickness Type Thickness
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Continuation of this table is given below.
Existing Pavement Details

Sub-base Subgrade Soil
Field Moisture Field dry
Type Thickness Total Thickness LL PI CBR @ Remarks
content density
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
@ This test may be conducted where it is desired to compare the overlay design with that given by CBR
method. The test condition of the CBR specimens should be as recommended in IRC: 37.
ii) Deflection measurements:
In each road section of uniform performance minimum ten equidistant points should be marked in each
lane of traffic for making the deflection observations in the outer wheel path. The interval between the
points might vary from as low as 50m depending on the length of section under investigation. On roads
with more than one lane, the points marked on adjacent lanes should be staggered. In the transverse
direction, the measurement points should be 60cm from the pavement edge where the lane width is
less than 3.5 and 90cm for wider lane width.
For measuring the pavement deflection, several procedures are available and fall under two main
categories, (i) testing under static load, and (ii) testing under creep speed. For the purpose of these
guidelines, either the CGRA procedure, which is based on testing under static load, or the WASHO
procedure, based on creep load test may be made. In both cease methods; a standard truck having the
rear axle equipped with dual tyres inflated to a pressure of 5.60 kg/cm2 and transmitting a load of 8170
kg is used for loading the pavement. During actual tests, the load and tyre pressure are maintained
within a tolerance of +/- 1% and +/- 5% respectively.

The pavement temperature also influences deflections measured by Benkelman Beam. For design
purpose therefore, all deflection values should be related to a single common temperature, which is
recommended to be 350C. Measurement made when the pavement temperature is other than 350C
should be corrected in accordance with the procedure. Pavement deflections are also affected by the
seasonal variation in climate. For the purpose of these guidelines, it is intended that the pavement
deflections should pertain to the period when the sub grade is at its weakest condition. In India, this
period occurs during the monsoon season and immediately thereafter. It is desirable to conduct the
deflection measurements during such periods, but where this is not feasible a correction factor may be
applied to the deflection value.
The deflection measurements and other information collected during the deflection survey should be
recorded; for this a proforma is given below. This table also has columns for working out overlay
thickness.
Format for recording and analysis of pavement deflection data.
Name of road: Date and time of observation:
Section: Climatic conditions:
Lane or road: Ambient temperature:
Pavement deflection - mm Mean

Standard
Sl.N Pavement Correction Correction deflec-
Location Concreated deflection
o temp. Measured for for tion.
deflection …….
temperatur season mm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Continuation of this table is given below.
Charactreristic
Design.(Traffic), Permissible Overlay
deflection - Remarks
Com.Veh./Day deflection. required
mm
10 11 12 13 14
Correction for temperature variations:
The stiffness of bituminous layers charges with temperature of the binder and consequently the surface
deflections of a given pavement will vary depending on the temperature of the constituent bituminous
layers. For purpose of design, therefore it is necessary that the measured deflection be corrected to a
common standard temperature of 350C. Correction for temperature is not applicable in case of roads
with thin bituminous surfacing (such as premix carpet or surface dressing over a non-bituminous base)

since these are usually unaffected by changes in temperature. But temperature correction will be
required for pavement having a substantial thickness of bituminous construction (i.e. minimum 40mm).
Correction need not however be applied in the later case if road is subject to severe cracking or
bituminous layer is substantially stripped.
The deflection pavement temperature relationship is linear above temperature of 300C. For convenience
in the application of temperature correction it is recommended that deflection measurements should be
taken when pavement temperature is greater than 300C.
Correction for temperature variation on deflection values for pavement temperature greater than 300C
should be 0.0065mm for each degree centigrade change from standard temperature of 350C. The
correction will be positive for pavement temperature lower than 350C and vice versa. For example if
deflection is measured at 370C. The correction factor will be (2X0.0065 = 0.013mm). The correction
should be subtracted from measured deflection to obtain corrected value corresponding to standard
pavement temperature of 350C. The deflection measurement should take when pavement temperature
is uniform and near about 350C, so measurements should be made during morning or evening hours.
In colder areas, the areas of altitude greater than 1000m where the average day temperature is less
than 200C for more than 4 months, it is recommended that deflection measurements be made when
ambient temperature is above 200C and no correction for temperature is required.
In cases, where temperature correction is required, pavement temperature should be measured, during
deflection survey. The measurement should be made at depth of 40mm using short stem mercury
thermometer. A hole of about 10mm dia and 40mm deep should be dug in pavement and filled with
enough glycerol.
Correction for seasonal variation of deflection:
Since the pavement deflection is dependent upon change in the climatic season of the year, it is always
desirable to take deflection reading during the season when the pavement is in its weakest condition,
because permanent deformation and consequent pavement distress occurs in this period of the year.
Since in India this period occurred during and after monsoon, deflection measurements should confined
to this period only as far as possible. When deflections are measured during summer they require a
correction factor (which is defined as the maximum deflection during or immediately after monsoon to
that of minimum deflection in summer). This correction and other factors due to large variations in
subgrade soil composition and climatic conditions prevailing in India, it is difficult to give single value to
this factor. It is, however, recommended that for dry clayey subgrade soils it may be taken as 2 where
as for sandy subgrade it may be taken as 1.2 to 1.3.
Analysis of deflection data:
Deflection values as corrected above should be plotted against the chainages. For each section mean
and standard deviation should be obtained using the following formula.

Mean deflection (x’) = ΣX/n
Where, X = Individual deflections.
N = Number of measurements.
x’ = Mean deflection
Standard deviation (σ) = Σ (X – x’ 2 )/ (n – 1)
Where, σ = Standard deviation.
X = Individual deflection.
n = Number of measurements.
x’ = Mean deflection.
Characteristic deflection = (x’ + σ )
Allowable deflection: Based on the limited experience available in this country following tentative limits
are set for allowable deflection corresponding to two methods of deflection measurements.
Allowable deflections where the deflections are

Traffic Intensity measured by :
CGRA method WASHO method
250 - 450 commercial vehicles/day 1.50 mm 1.40 mm
450 - 1500 commercial vehicles/day 1.25 mm 1.10 mm
1500 - 4500 commercial vehicles/day 1.00 mm 0.80mm
Determination of overlay thickness:
Having obtained the characteristic deflection and permissible deflection for a given section, following
relationship may be used for obtaining overlay thickness:
h = R log10 (∆a /∆)
where, h = thickness of granular overlay in mm
∆a = characteristic deflection.
∆ = allowable deflection.

R = constant which may be taken as 550.
Evaluation of overlay thickness by CGRA curves:
The overlays to be provided can be assessed with the help of CGRA curves. The deflection having known
and the traffic intensity known the overlay can be directly read on Y-axis. The various curves give the
allowable deflection in the particular type of load for particular traffic intensity. The X-axis shows or read
the observed deflection. The Y-axis reading will get us the thickness of overlays to be laid on the existing
crust to meet the traffic demand.
CGRA – DEFLECTION TEST PROCEDURE.
Object:
This method of test covers a procedure for the determination of the static rebound deflection of
pavement under a standardized axle load, tyre size, tyre spacing and tyre pressure.

Equipment:
The equipment shall include:-
1) Benkelman Beam:
a) Length of probe arm from pivot to probe point. - 244 cm.
b) Length of measurement arm from pivot to dial. - 122 cm.
c) Distance from pivot to front legs. - 25 cm.
d) Distance from pivot to rear legs. - 166 cm.
e) Lateral spacing of front support legs. - 33 cm.
2) A 5-ton truck is recommended as the reaction. The vehicle shall have an 8170 kg. rear axle load
equally distributed in two wheels, equipped with dual tyres. The tyres shall be 10.00X20-12 ply inflated
to a pressure of 5.60 kg/cm2. The use of tyres with tubes and rib treads is recommended.
3) Tyre pressure measuring gauge.
4) Thermometer (0 – 1000C) with 10 division.
5) A mandrel for making 4.5 cm deep hole in the pavement for temperature measurement. The
diameter of the hole at the surface shall be (1.25 cm) and at bottom 1 cm.
Procedure:
1) The point on the pavement to be tested is selected and marked. For highways, the points are located
60 cm from the pavement edge if the lane width is less than 350 cm, 90 cm from pavement edge if lane
width is 350 cm or more.
2) The dual wheels of the truck are centered above the selected point.
3) The probe of the Benkelman Beam is inserted between the duals and placed on the selected point.
4) The locking pin is removed from the beam and the legs are adjusted so that the plunger of the beam
is in contact with the stem of the dial gauge. The beam pivot arms are checked for free movement.
5) The dial gauge is at approximately 1 cm. The initial reading is recorded when the rate of deformation
of the pavement is equal or less than 0.025 mm per minute.
6) The truck is slowly driven a distance of 270 cm and stopped.
7) An intermediate reading is recorded when the rate of recovery of the pavement is equal to or less
than 0.025 mm per minute.

8) The truck is driven forward a further 9 m.
9) The final reading is recorded when the rate of recovery of pavement is equal to or less than 0.025 mm
per minute.
10) Pavement temperature is recorded at least once every hour, inserting thermometer in the standard
hole and filling up the whole with water. At the same time air temperature is recorded.
11) The tyre pressure is checked at two to three hour intervals during the day and adjusted to the
standard, if necessary.
Calculations:
1) Subtract the final dial reading from the initial dial reading. Subtract the intermediate dial reading from
the initial dial reading.
2) If the differential readings obtained compare within 0.025 mm, the actual deflection is twice the final
differential reading.
3) If the differential readings obtained do not compare to 0.025 mm, twice the final differential dial
reading represents the apparent pavement deflection.
4) Apparent deflections are corrected by means of the following formula:-
XT = XA + 2.91 Y
Where, XT = True pavement deflection.

XA = Apparent pavement deflection.
Y = Vertical movement of the front legs i.e., twice the difference
between the final and intermediate dial readings.
WASHO – DEFLECTION TEST PROCEDURE.
Equipment:
1) Benkelman Beam

2) 5-tonne truck with 8170 kg. rear axle load equally distributed on the two wheels. The 10X20-12 ply
tyres should be inflated to 5.60-kg/cm2 pressure.
3) Tyre pressure measuring gauge & other equipments are given in CGRA test procedure.
Procedure:
1) The point on the pavement where deflection measurement is desired will be selected and marked.
2) Move the truck so that its rear wheel is about 1.2m behind the selected point.
3) Insert probe arm between dual tyres of the vehicle to a distance of about 1.2m. lining up arm by eye
in such a position that rubbing of probe arm and tyre walls does not occur.
4) While truck is standing, record initial reading of dial. Turn on vibrator buzzer before taking first
reading.
5) Vehicle should be moved slowly (2 Kmph) and smoothly forward to at least 3m past the tip of the
beam. The beam operator should catch to see that the probe arm does not rub. The maximum dial
reading will occur when wheels are opposite the contact point, record this value.
6) After a reasonable length of time or when the dial needle has come to rest final reading should be
recorded.
Calculations:
1) The maximum deflection is the difference between the initial and maximum readings multiplied by
two.
2) The rebound deflection is the difference between the second reading and the final reading multiplied
by two.
3) The residual deflection is the difference between the initial reading and final reading multiplied by
two.
C.G.R.A.Curves:

ADDITIONAL PAVEMENT THICKNESS (mm)

875
0.635mm(0.025")
750
0.762mm(0.03")
625 0.889mm(0.035")
500 1.020mm(0.04")
375 1.270mm(0.05")
250
1.520mm(0.06")
125
0.75
1.25
1.75
2.25
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3
7.5
BENKELMAN DEFLECTION (mm)
CBR Curve for Flexible Pavement Design:
100
120
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
80
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
A
40
B
50 No of Commercial Vehicles per
Curve
C day exceeding 3T.load
60 D
A 0 - 15
70 E
B 15 - 45
80 F
C 45 - 150
90 G
D 150 - 450
100 E 450 - 1500
F 1500 - 4500
G ABOVE 4500

TEST FORMATES.



































































LIST OF ESSENTIAL LABORATORY

EQUIPMENTS.
SIEVES.

I) G.I. Frame Sieves – 450mm dia.with lid and pan

(1) 125mm IS Sieve : 1 No.
II) Brass Frame Sieves – 300mm dia with lid and pan
(1) 63mm IS Sieve : 2 Nos.
(6) 37.5mm IS Sieve : 2 Nos.
(30) 710 micron IS Sieve : 2 Nos.
FOR SOILS AND AGGREGATES.

1) Riffle Box for 40mm : 1 No.

2) Riffle Box for 20mm : 1 No.
3) Atterberg Limits (liquid and plastic limits)
determination apparatus – Casegrande apparatus : 1 set.
4) Atterberg Limits (liquid and plastic limits)
determination apparatus – Cone penetration
apparatus : 1 set.
5) Modified compaction apparatus with all accessories : 2 sets.
6) Dry density test apparatus (sand replacement
apparatus – Medium & large size cylinders : 3 sets each.
with all accessories)
7) California Bearing Ratio test apparatus
(5 T capacity with all accessories) - Lab : 1 set.
- Field : 1 set.
8) CBR moulds with all accessories : 6sets min.
(Tripad, Dial gauges of 0.01LC & Surcharge
weights - 5kg and 2.5kg)
9) Rapid Moisturemeter with chemicals : 4 sets.
10) Specific Gravity bottles (pycnometer apparatus) : 3 sets.
with all accessories
11) Specific Gravity bottle – 50ml capacity : 2 sets.
- 100ml capacity : 2 sets.
12) Soil Hydrometer : 1 set.
13) Triaxial apparatus with all accessories : 1 set.
14) Plate Bearing Test apparatus with accessories : 1 set.
15) Aggregate Crushing apparatus with all accessories : 1 set.
16) Aggregate Impact Testing apparatus with all
accessories : 1 set.
17) Los Angeles Abrasion apparatus with all accessories : 1 set.
18) Density Basket : 1 set.
19) Length & Thickness Gauges
(Flakiness & Elongation index apparatus) : 2 sets each.
20) Mechanical Sieve Shaker with 300mm & 450mm
dia. adopters for corresponding sieves) : 1 set.
21) Nuclear Densometer : 1 set.
22) Water Tank for CBR moulds soaking
(6 ft X 3 ft X 1.5 ft) : 1 No.
FOR CEMENT & CONCRETE WORKS.

1) Vicat apparatus with all accessories : 1 set.

2) Lechatelier apparatus – for soundness test : 1 set.
3) Compression Testing Machine – 200 T capacity : 1 set.
4) Flexural Strength Testing Machine : 1 set.
5) Cement Mortar Cube Vibrator : 1 set.
6) Vibrating Table – 500mm X 500mm : 1 set.
7) Concrete Cube Moulds – 150mmX150mmX150mm : 48 Nos. min.
8) Mortar Cube Moulds – 70.6mmX70.6mmX70.6mm : 24 Nos. min.
9) Slump Cone apparatus with all accessories : 4 sets.
10) Laboratory Mixer about 1 cft. : 1 No.
11) Water Tank for curing – 15 ft X 6 ft X 3ft. : 1 No.
12) Ennore Sand – Gr.I, Gr.II and Gr.III : 3 Bags each.
FOR BITUMINOUS MIXTURES.
1) Universal Penetrometer automatic type : 1 No.

2) Ring and Ball apparatus electrically heated : 1 No.
3) Standard Tar-Viscometer electrically heated
with 4mm & 10mm cup and valve : 1 No.
4) Flash & Fire point Apparatus
(Pensky-Marten closed tester apparatus) : 1 No.
5) Ductility Testing apparatus electrically operated : 1 No.
6) Marshall Stability Test apparatus
with all accessories : 1 No.
7) Marshall Moulds : 18 Nos.
8) Centrifuge Bitumen Extractor electrically operated : 1 No.
9) 3 m Straight edge with dip measuring wedge : 1 No.
10) Camber Board : 1 No.
11) Core cutting machine with 100mm dia. diamond
cutting edge : 1 No.
12) Vacuum pump : 1 No.
GENERAL EQUIPMENTS.

1) Thermostatically Controlled Drying Ovens

Controlled at 1050 – 1100C +/- 10C and
Range 400 – 2500C +/- 10C : 2 Nos.(small & big)
2) Thermostatically Controlled Water Bath
Range 0 – 1000C +/- 20C : 1 No.
3) Weighing Machines
(i) 250 kg capacity, sensitivity 100g : 1 No.
(ii) 50 kg capacity, sensitivity 10 g : 2 Nos.
(iii) 25 kg capacity, sensitivity 10 g : 2 Nos.
(iv) 10 kg capacity, sensitivity 1 g (electrical) : 2 Nos.
(v) 5 kg capacity, sensitivity 0.1 g (electrical) : 1 No.
(vi) 1 kg capacity, sensitivity 0.01 g (electrical) : 1 No.
(vii) 200 g capacity, sensitivity 0.001 g : 1 No.
4) Stop Watch – 0.5 sec sensitivity : 2 Nos.

5) Distillation apparatus with all accessories : 1 set.
6) PH Testing kit : 1 set.
7) Water testing kit : 1 set.
8) Thermometers
Glass thermometers, range 0 – 2500C : 4 Nos.
0
Steel thermometers, range 0 – 300 C : 4 Nos.
Distance thermometer, range 0 – 2500C : 2 Nos.
9) Glass wares
(i) Measuring jars – 100ml to 1000ml capacity : 3 Nos. each.
(ii) Conical Flasks – 500ml capacity : 2 Nos.
(iii) Pipettes : 2 Nos.
(iv) Burettes with stand : 2 Nos.
(v) Funnels : 2 Nos.
(vi) Beakers – 500ml and 250ml capacity : 2 Nos. each.
10) Wash Bottles : 4 Nos.
11) Trays
(i) 750mm X 600mm X 60mm : 6 Nos.
(ii) 450mm X 300mm X 60mm : 6 Nos.
(iii) 300mm X 250mm X 40mm : 6 Nos.
12) Sampling Tins with lid - 100mm dia. : 48 Nos.
- 50 mm dia. : 48 Nos.
13) Vernier Calipers : 1 No.
14) Measuring Tap – 5m : 2 Nos.
15) French Curves : 1 set.
16) Gas stove, kadai, scoops, 2lb hammers, wooden hammers, chisels and glosses.
CHEMICALS.
1) Calcium Carbide.

2) Sodium Carbonate.
3) Sodium Oxalate.
4) Carbon Tetrachloride.
5) 1, 1, 2, 2 – tetrabromoethane.
6) Benzene.
7) Bromoform.
8) Monobromobenzene.
9) Sodium Sulphate.
10) Magnesium Sulphate.
11) Sodium Hexametaphosphate.
12) Sodium Hydroxide.
13) Hydrogen peroxide.
14) Hydrochloric Acid.
15) Sulphuric Acid.
16) Sodium Acetate.
17) Asetic Acid.
REAGENTS.
1) Phenolphthalein solution.
2) Barium Chloride solution.
3) Silver Nitrate solution.
4) Potassium Chromate.
5) Ammonium Hydroxide.
OTHERS.
1) Filter papers – whatman 40 – 60.

2) Litmus papers – Blue & Red.

TEST REQUIREMENTS, FREQUENCY AND

LIMITS.










FIELD LABORATORY PLAN


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Highway Material Testing Manual

1 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

2. Grain Size Analysis 22

3. Specific Gravity of Soil 29

4. Moisture content Test 30

5. Free Swell Index Test 32

6. Consistency Limits of Soils 33

8. Field Density Test by Sand Replacement Method 41

9. California Bearing Ratio Test 45

10. Shear Test by Triaxial Method 50

11. Sand Equivalent Test 53

12. Bearing Capacity of Soil by Plate Bearing Test 55

13. Deleterious contents of Soil 57

1. Aggregate Impact Value Test 67

2. Los Angles Abrasion Value Test 69

3. Aggregate Crushing Value Test 71

4. Flakiness & Elongation Index (Shape Test) 73

6. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test 78

7. Ten Percent Fines Value Test 80

2 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

8. Bulkage & Silt content of Fine Aggregates 82

9. Deleterious content of Aggregates 83

III TESTS ON BITUMEN AND BITUMINOUS MATERIALS 90 - 112

2. Specific Gravity Test 94

3. Softening Point Test (Ring & Ball Test) 95

5. Flash and Fire Point Test 99

6. Ductility Test 100

7. Loss on Heating of Bituminous Materials 101

8. Stripping Value of Aggregates 102

9. Binder content of Paving Mixtures 103

10. Test for Control Rate of Spread of Binder 104

11. Test for Rate of Spread of Grit in Surface Dressing 105

12. Marshall Stability Test 106

IV TESTS ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE 113 - 129

1. Determination of Normal Consistency 114

2. Determination of Initial and Final Setting Time

3. Determination of Soundness of Cement by the

Le Chatelier Method 116

4. Determination of Fineness of Cement 117

5. Determination of Compressive Strength of Cement 118

3 V.K.L. Rao, SQME

6. Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete 120

7. Determination of Workability of Concrete (Slump Test) 122

8. Determination of Specific Gravity of Cement 123

9. Determination of Flexural Strength of Concrete 124

10. Determination of Permeability of Concrete 126

11. Determination of Entrained air content of Concrete 127

12. Determination of flow of Concrete 128

V OTHER TESTS 129 - 142

1. Determination of Surface Irregularities (Unevenness)

by Straight edge method 130

2. Determination of Surface Unevenness by Automatic

Road Unevenness Recorder 131

3. Determination of Strengthening of Flexible Road

Pavements using Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique 133

VI TEST FORMATS 143 - 209

1. APPENDIX – I (Soil Testing Formats) 144 - 162

2. APPENDIX – II (Aggregates Testing Formats) 162 - 173

3. APPENDIX – III (Bitumen & Bituminous material

Testing Formats) 174 - 191

4. APPENDIX – IV (Cement & Concrete Testing Formats) 192 - 199

5. APPENDIX – V (Other Gradation Testing Formats) 200 - 209

VII LIST OF ESSENTIAL LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS 210 - 215

VIII TEST REQUIREMENTS FREQUENCY & LIMITS 216 - 225