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G. Lengellé, G. Singla, Y. Maisonneuve

ONERA, Energetics and Modelization Departments
BP 72, 92322 Châtillon Cedex
FRANCE

ABSTRACT
It is becoming increasingly necessary for many missile applications to be able to manage the thrust
evolution during the mission. This requires either thrust impulses, separated by time delays without thrust,
or thrust modulation. Propulsion with solid propellants is very limited with respect to such thrust
management; it can produce in a practical way two impulses with two separated grains ignited in
succession. Propulsion utilizing two liquid propellants allows a very flexible thrust evolution. It requires
two pressurization and feeding systems and some adjustable injection. The interest presented by hybrid
propulsion, in which a liquid oxidizer is injected and quickly gasified into a solid fuel grain (at least in the
case of the classical hybrid system), for missile applications deserves attention. Only one liquid is handled
with one pressurization system and a simplified injection device, or with the use of a catalyst bed which
ensures the gasification, before entering into the fuel grain channels, the combustion chamber is
simplified as compared to a bi-liquid one, being made of the solid fuel grain (possibly directly bonded on
a composite case), but the thrust flexibility is as good as that of the bi-liquid option.

In order to investigate the applicability of hybrid propulsion to missile missions, at least three themes
need to be addressed: the experimental knowledge of the operating of the hybrid system, the modelization
and dimensioning of the hybrid fuel grain, and from these elements the preliminary designing of the
hybrid system as compared to a solid propellant system.

The experimental work on hybrid propulsion is best carried in a set-up which allows in particular the
measurement of the instantaneous and local regression rate thanks to the use of ultra-sonic transducers.
As opposed to solid propellant combustion, sensitive to pressure essentially and with no strong gradients
(that is roughly uniform on the grain surface), hybrid combustion is sensitive essentially to the flow
conditions in the strongly sheared, and flame containing, layers in the channels inside the fuel grains and
thus the regression rate can be time evolutionary and to a lesser degree evolving in space. A set-up used
at ONERA with such ultra-sonic measurements is displayed.

The dimensioning of the hybrid grain has to take into account the phenomena already described:
the regression rate is related to the heat flux from the flame, between combustible gases and oxidizer,
which is contained in the sheared flow above the solid fuel. The energetic level reached is related to the
mixture ratio between oxidizer flow rate and computed fuel mass rate. The computation has to be repeated
as the internal geometry evolves and also as part of the optimization process on length, number of
channels, while respecting constraints on volume occupation, thrust level… The procedure adopted is that
of an integral method with respect to the flow description, thus allowing reasonable computing time
(note also that the evolving thrust has to be entered step by step into the evaluation of the motion of the
missile on its trajectory).

Finally, it is necessary to compare the hybrid system to the solid propellant system for a given application.
Various oxidizers can be envisioned: IRFNA, preferably gelled, H2O2, HAN (hydroxylammonium nitrate).
Probably two solid fuels are of practical interest: polybutadiene (a pure fuel which necessitates an outside

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Specialists’ Meeting on “Advances in Rocket Performance Life and Disposal”,
held in Aalborg, Denmark, 23-26 September 2002, and published in RTO-MP-091.

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heat flux to regress) which usually needs a multi-channel geometry, due to its low regression rate,
and PAG which has the advantage of possessing an autonomous flame flux (reinforced by the final flame
with the oxidizer) and thus a high regression rate with as a consequence a simplified grain geometry.
The above described means, experimental and computational, allow the pre-designing of a hybrid system.
The comparison with the solid propellant option should be carried with the constraint of an equal volume
available. An example of such an application for an air to air tactical missile caliber shows that in some
cases the hybrid system occupies less favorably the volume in terms of mass, but that this can be
compensated by a higher specific impulse. Thus the hybrid system can offer a comparable total thrust
packing but with a very highly flexible delivery.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Hybrid propulsion combines an oxidizer (stored as a liquid, but rapidly vaporized in the forward dome of
the motor, or gasified by flowing through a catalyst bed) which flows through long fuel channels and
burns with the pyrolysis gases coming from the ablation of a solid combustible fuel. It is the object of a
fairly strong revival, in particular in the United States. This revival is due to a number of advantages that
hybrid propulsion offers, to be found in the table, this table being for general applications, not only for
tactical missiles.

Advantages of hybrid propulsion

Q Safety
Inert manufacturing / transportation / assembly / launchpad operations
Reduced risk of catastrophic failure
Abort by engine shutdown

Q Reliability / Operating flexibility / Simplicity

Engine verification prior to lift-off
Tolerant to grain defects (debonds, cracks)
Thrust modulation for aerodynamic load relief or mission optimization
Start-stop capability
One liquid, simplified injector set-up

Q Costs
Reduced development and recurring costs
Safe materials

Q Environment impact
On pad and in flight, very reduced.

Various programs have allowed to acquire data on the operating of hybrid motors. A consortium of the
(then) General Dynamics Company – Thiokol – Rocketdyne for NASA has carried out firings of small
motors, Ref.1. The AMROC firm (now disappeared) has fired ten’s of motors fed with liquid oxygen from
4 kN up to almost 1.1 MN vacuum thrust (motor of almost 10 m in length) (the highest ever reached with
hybrid motors) in 1993 and 1994, Refs.2.

Under a NASA program, the Hybrid Propulsion Demonstration Program, a consortium led by Lockheed
Martin has fired motors of two categories, about 280 mm in diameter (11 inches), 3 m in length, fed by

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gaseous and then liquid oxygen, and about 610 mm in diameter (24 inches), 9 m in length, fed by liquid
oxygen, Refs.3,4,5. This program then went into successful demonstrations in flight of a hybrid motor in a
small sounding rocket (altitude ≈ 40 km), Ref.6. The next step was the firing in 2 burns of 2 motors,
starting in 1999 and ending in early 2002, of about 1.1 MN (vacuum) thrust, Refs.7,8.

Studies aimed at understanding and modeling the operating of the combustion in a hybrid motor have been
carried out both from an experimental viewpoint, Refs.9, on a small gaseous oxygen motor, of about
600 mm in length, and from a computation viewpoint, Refs.10,11, using a full Navier-Stokes, turbulent
model approach.

This approach cannot be avoided if one wants to describe the strongly recirculating pre-combustion and
post-combustion chambers of the motor. In the long fuel channels (with L/Din of the order of 10’s)
the radial gradients are prevalent and are controlling the chemical species diffusion and heat conduction
processes. A parabolized approach can then be applied, which can take into account finite kinetics and
turbulence flame interactions effects. However, in the preliminary design process, when various outside
diameters, numbers of ports, thrust evolutions (with of course the geometry of the perforation in constant
evolution during the firing) and performances are examined, it seems that a simpler approach should be
useful. Such a simplified approach has been developed at ONERA, Refs.12,13. It is based on the
assumption of a turbulent velocity profile and, as in an integral method for shear layer computation, on a
1D marching procedure down the length of the fuel perforations. The flame between oxidizer and fuel
gases is assumed to be very thin, controlled by the diffusion process. The parabolized approach mentioned
earlier allows to verify the validity of this integral method, Refs.14.

Finally two review documents should be mentioned, Ref.15 with a review of the historical development,
the mechanisms and the analyses on hybrid propulsion, Ref.16 by a panel representing the various
propulsion companies in the U.S., with arguments about the advantages of hybrid propulsion and the
possibilities of future applications.

This presentation will address the design tools which can be used for the conception of hybrid motors and
the experimental work to which they can be confronted and then will deal with the application to air to air
missiles.

2.0 DESIGN TOOLS AND EXPERIMENTS FOR THE CONCEPTION OF

HYBRID MOTORS

Regression Rate of the Solid Fuel

The principle of operation of a hybrid motor is represented in Figure 1. As opposed to solid propellant and
liquid propellant motors, the oxidizer to fuel mixture ratio and thus the performance is not set at will,
but results for the development of the flow and the combustion in the long fuel channels. Therefore a
proper knowledge of the mechanisms involved and a corresponding description are essential.

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Figure 1

The mechanisms of hybrid combustion are sketched in Figure 2. It is found that for the considered
operating conditions the flame between oxidizer and pyrolysis gases from the fuel is essentially
conditioned by their diffusion towards each other, the regression rate then becoming mostly dependent
upon the mass flow-rate within the fuel channel. Comparative computations were run, Ref.14, with a full
model (parabolized):
• with a finite chemical kinetics, it is found that the oxidizer and the fuel do no interpenetrate, and
thus that an infinitely fast reaction (with as a consequence that the flame is limited by diffusion)
is representative;
• with a turbulence - kinetics interaction model (the eddy breakup approach) taken into account,
which is found to have some effect in thickening the flame, with however a heat flux at the
surface very weakly modified and therefore a regression rate which is not affected.

Figure 2

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The design tool that will be used for applications is, as stated earlier, a one dimensional (integral method)
approach based on a model of a flame limited by diffusion. References 12, 13 and 14 give the details of
the approach.

The results of such a one dimensional approach are displayed on Figure 3, they are found to be fairly close
to the experimental measurements from Ref. 1, with an adjustment of the emissivity reflecting the fact that
polybutadiene when it pyrolyses into gases gives also some amount of carbon residues, soot and flakes,
which enhance the radiative flux to the surface.

Regression rate
Vreg (mm/s)
10

Ev=0
Ev=0.1
General Dynamics
Strand

0.1
10 100 1000 ρuox (kg/m s) 10000
2

O2 upon HTPB, L = 400 mm, Фin = 40mm

Figure 3: Testing of the Modeling of the Solid Fuel Ablation.

At ONERA a small motor is used for investigating various oxidizers and fuels, with the ultra-sonic
technique systematically used, Figures 4, 5 and 6 (See Ref.17 for information on the ultra-sonic method).
On Figure 7 results are displayed, showing proper agreement of the modelization and the experimental
results for N2O4 upon HTPB, pure or with 4 % carbon black. The regression rate is found to be enhanced
in the latter case (an interesting way to obtain better performance), this being reproduced in the model by
taking into account a higher emissivity.

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Figure 4: Principle of the Ultra-Sonic Transducer.

Figure 5: Small Scale Motor.

Figure 6: Views of the Demonstration Motor.

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REGRESSION RATE MM / S

Specific mass flow-rate ρ u│ox kg / m2s

N2O4 upon HTPB
Computation: ─ ε = 0.02, ▲ ε = 0.1, 6 ε = 0.5
Testing: ▲ Pure HTPB ■ HTPB + 4 % carbon black

Figure 7: Regression Rate Enhancement.

Performance Evaluation
The AMROC Company, Ref.2, has fired several times two motors with liquid oxygen upon polybutadiene
in the 1.1 MN vacuum thrust category (that is the equivalent of what the HPDP has fired starting in 1999).
These firings, some of them summarized on Figure 8, gave results to which the evaluation of the behavior
of the fuel channels and of the energetic performance can be compared. The modeling takes into account
the oxidizer/fuel ratio resulting from the description of the flow and the combustion in the channels,
then assumes that equilibrium is reached (for the attained O/F ratio, not necessarily at the maximum) in
the post-combustion chamber (this is in accordance with the, later, high measured combustion
efficiencies). The expansion in the nozzle is taken as frozen (the equilibrium expansion is closer to reality,
but the about 10 s impulse loss (no particulates) brings down anyway to the frozen level). The table of
Figure 8 shows (taking into account that the third burn, on the same motor, is perturbed by the beginning

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of the failure of the nozzle) that the modeling is fairly accurate (the design of the motor is such that the
O/F is somewhat below the optimum of 2) as compared to the testing. It is to be noticed that the model
restitutes the scale effect according to which for a given specific mass flow-rate there is a quite
pronounced effect of the size of the fuel grain, see Figure 9.

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

Test Model Test Model Test Model
Mixture ratio 1.59 1.62 1.71 1.78 1.82 1.86
Isp (s) 234 239.2 244 245.7 225 249
Thrust (kN) 965 994 1032 1039 957 1070

3rd test affected by nozzle

failure

Figure 8: AMROC Firings and Model.

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Scale effects
Vreg (mm/s)
10

Type Ariane booster L = 0.1 m

Type missile L=1m
Type experim. set-up L = 10 m

0.1
10 100 1000 2 10000
ρu ox (kg/m s)

Figure 9: Effect of Scale upon the Regression Rate.

3.0 OXIDIZERS AND FUELS OF INTEREST

As an oxidizer, hydrogen peroxide is very much considered, the specialized conferences of Refs.18
giving an important amount of information on what grades are available, what catalysts can be used …
In References 19 and 20, the latter at ONERA, this oxidizer was set at 85 % concentration for applications
in a hybrid motor for the propulsion of micro-satellites. It appears that now 90 % concentration H2O2 is
commercially available and that 98 % concentration can be obtained from enrichment with mobile
evaporation units. Both grades will be looked into. By flowing through a catalyst bed the hydrogen
peroxide decomposes into water vapor and oxygen according to the characteristics indicated.
The temperatures reached after decomposition are high enough to allow the ignition of the solid fuel so
that a number of thrust actuations can be obtained by opening the feed valve and letting the oxidizer flow
through the catalyst bed.

Mole balance in the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

90% (H 2 O2 )liq + 0.21(H 2 O )liq → (H 2 O ) gas + 1 O2 + 0.21(H 2 O ) gas

2
1
98% (H 2O2 )liq + 0.038(H 2O )liq → (H 2O )gas + O2 + 0.038(H 2O )gas
2

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Resulting mass fractions and temperature after decomposition

% H2O2 Initial density Y H 2O YO2 Temperature (°K)
90% 1.39 0.57 0.43 1040
98% 1.43 0.54 0.46 1190
100% 1.44 0.53 0.47 1225

Another oxidizer of much interest is hydroxyl ammonium nitrate HAN. One

of its interests is a high specific mass, with a density of 1.83 for pure solid
HAN. A liquid consisting of 95 % HAN and 5 % water seems to be currently
available for practical use. The catalytic decomposition, according to Ref. 21,
will result in the mole balance:
NH 3 OH + + NO3− + 0.28(H 2 O )liq → (2 + 0.28)(H 2 O )gas + N 2 + O2

The mass fractions and temperature resulting from the decomposition

%HAN Initial density YH 2 O YO2 YN 2 Temperature (°K)

95% 1.8 0.41 0.32 0.27 990

Considering fuels, the first one is HTPB, a pure fuel which cannot regress without external heat flux.

The behavior under pyrolysis of this fuel was detailed in Refs. 12 and 13, as regards kinetics of
decomposition, with a surface temperature of around 1100 °K, a heat of ablation of about 800 cal / g for a
heat of degradation, into mostly the monomer C4H6, of 450 cal / g.

The computed performances at equilibrium with H2O2 (for an expansion from 70 bars to 1) are as follows,
with the indicated characteristics taken into account:

Ingredient Molecule H 0f (cal/g) Density

HTPB C71.15H112.48N0.94O0.86 5 0.95

H2O2 (90%) H2O1.8265 -1570 1.39
H2O2 (98%) H2O1.9628 -1392 1.43

I sp maxi (s) R mel opt

H2O2(90%)/HTPB 262 7.5

H2O2(98%)/HTPB 270 6.5

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With HAN the performances are, with the characteristics as indicated:

Ingredient Molecule H 0f (cal/g) Density

HTPB C71.15H112.48N0.94O0.86 5 0.95

HAN (95%) H4N0.9211O2.3817 -1050 1.80

I sp maxi (s) R mel opt

HAN(95%)/HTPB 241 10

One has to notice that the optimum mixture ratio is fairly high, this being due to the comparatively low
amount of oxygen in the decomposition gases from HAN.

The other considered “fuel” is GAP, glycidyl azide

polymer. Some information about the origins of this
polymer is to be found in Ref. 22. Results on the behavior
under pyrolysis or combustion are given in Refs. 12, 23, 24.
Due to the N3 group it has an exothermic decomposition to
the amount of – 150 cal / g. The heat of ablation is about 50
cal / g, from cp ( Ts – T0 ) evaluated at about 200 cal / g
(for a surface temperature of about 750 °K). It should be compared to the very endothermic heat of
ablation of HTPB. Ablation gases resulting from this degradation, although weakly oxidizer containing,
are able to sustain a premixed flame reaching probably 1350 °K. GAP will then possess an autonomous
burning rate:
r& = 1.3P 0.55
(with rb in mm / s for p in bars) such that at 40 bars it reaches about 10 mm / s. At the end of this premixed
flame the mole fractions of the gases indicated are obtained, Ref.24:

N2 C (s ) CO CO2 CH 4 H2 H 2O
Xi 19.02 29.83 13.93 0.35 3.68 31.52 1.59

These still combustible gases will participate in the final flame, after diffusion towards the oxidizing gases
from the main flow. The modeling of the regression of GAP when exposed in a hybrid flow amounts to
superimpose the heat flux from its premixed flame and the heat flux from the main flame (such as that
taken into account for pure combustible materials). The results of the modelization are compared on
Figure 10 to the measurements of Ref.1 (the results for pure HTPB from the same reference are found on
Figure 3). Although most of the regression comes from the conduction flux (and within that to a large
extent from the autonomous flame of the GAP which creates a regression rate of about 8.5 mm / s),
the taking into account of an emissivity of 0.5 (justified by the large amount of carbon material ejected
from the combustion of GAP) allows to match quite well the measurement. Also indicated on this figure
are the results for a mixture of 70 % GAP and 30 % HTPB, which responds to the (weakened)
autonomous flame and to the final flame with the oxidizer gases (the less abundant carbon production is
reflected by the emissivity of 0.3 required to reproduce the experiment). In the practical application,
if extinction of the propulsion by closing the flow of the oxidizer is requested, this is not obtained without
any doubt with pure GAP, which will probably maintain its autonomous burning. It is stated in Ref. 1 that
mixtures below 70 % of GAP are self extinguishing, an interesting feature to keep in mind.

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GAP or GAP/HTPB
Vreg (mm/s)
100

10

1
General Dynamics
Computation Ev=0.1
Computationl Ev=0.5
Computation Ev=0.3

0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% GAP
Specific mass – flow rate ρ u│ox = 160 kg / m2 s in O2, p = 30 bar

Figure 10: Regression Rate of GAP or GAP-HTPB in a Hybrid Motor.

The computed performances (for an expansion from 70 bars to 1) are as indicated for 98 % H2O2:

Ingredient Molecule H 0f (cal/g) Density

GAP C3.3H5.6O1.12N2.63 280 1.28

H2O2 (98%) H2O1.9628 -1392 1.43

I sp maxi (s) R mel opt

H2O2(98%)/GAP 266.5 3

With HAN:

Ingredient Molecule H 0f (cal/g) Density

GAP C3.3H5.6O1.12N2.63 280 1.28

HAN (95%) H4N0.9211O2.3817 -1050 1.80

I sp maxi (s) R mel opt

HAN(95%)/GAP 243 4.5

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4.0 APPLICATION TO THE PRE-DESIGNING OF A HYBRID MOTOR FOR

AN AIR / AIR MISSILE
The above presented results and methods have been applied to the case of a motor for a tactical missile in
the category of the air to air AMRAAM. The source of information for this application was mostly the
documents emitted in the context of a similar effort conducted at the Phillips Laboratory of the Air Force,
Refs. 25 and 26. The dimensions of the motor are indicated on Figure 11, sketched with the hybrid option.
The main characteristics of the solid propellant load in the motor are indicated in the following table.

Non aluminized Isp=240s d=1.73 Tc=2800°K Total impulse Propellant mass

AP propellant 70 to 1 127 000 N s 54 kg

Figure 11: Overall View of the Hybrid Motor from Refs. 25, 26.

The hybrid option is to be compared to these characteristics, while keeping as best as possible the volume
occupied by the solid propellant motor.

For the purpose of illustration, the “pre-designing” (knowing that the point is mostly to show that the
hybrid option can reasonably fit into the existing envelope, with no pretension to get into even the sketchy
conception of the pressurization system and injection device, which incorporates the catalyst bed for the
decomposition of the oxidizers considered) of the hybrid motor, with H2O2, 90 and 98 % or 95 % HAN
upon HTPB, takes into account two impulses of 3 and 2 seconds with the aim of the total impulse
indicated above.

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H2O2/HTPB in the specified volume H2O2/HTPB in increased volume

Parameters H2O2(90%)/HTPB H2O2(98%)/HTPB H2O2(90%)/HTPB H2O2(98%)/HTPB

rcc (mm) 30 30 30 30
rhydro (mm) 6 6 6 6
N slots 13 13 13 13
P0 (bars) 70 70 70 70
PS (bars) 1 1 1 1
m& ox (kg/s) 7.6 7.9 8.85 8.68
r& (mm/s) 1.63 1.65 1.75 1.7
Rmel 7.33 7.51 7.79 7.94
I sp (s) 256 262 255 261
I t (N.s) 110372 117210 127430 127432
t =0
m F (kg) 5.87 5.87 5.87 5.87
t =0
m ox (kg) 38 39.5 44.27 43.4
Lox (mm) 1151.6 1145 1344.4 1259.7
LF (mm) 352.2 352.2 352.2 352.2
t =0
m prop . (kg) 43.87 45.37 50.14 49.27
=tc
m tprop . (kg) 0.88 0.81 0.33 0.57

L 87 % It L 92 % It It L + 12.5 % It L+7%

(In this table rcc refers to the central canal radius, rhydro to the equivalent hydrodynamic
radius of the slots)

It is seen that the combination of hydrogen peroxide and HTPB is somewhat short of the requisites. This is
due to the large volume occupied by the oxidizer tank of the not very dense H2O2. The 98 % HP allows
meeting the total impulse with a slightly longer motor but with two inert components and the possibility
of several restarts of the solid fuel due to the high temperature reached at the exit of the catalyst bed
(1190 °K).

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HAN(95%)/HTPB in the specified volume

Parameters HAN(95%)/HTPB

rcc (mm) 30
rhydro (mm) 6
N slots 15
P0 (bars) 70
PS (bars) 1
m& ox (kg/s) 9.9

r& (mm/s) 1.29

Rmel 10

I sp (s) 240
I t (N.s) 127570
m Ft =0 (kg) 5.59
moxt =0 (kg) 49.5
Lox (mm) 1156.2
LF (mm) 352.2
=0
m tprop . (kg) 55.10
=tc
m tprop . (kg) 0.91

L It

Due to its better density, in spite of a lower Is, the combination of HAN and HTPB fits in the available
volume and offers the requested total impulse. If multiple restarts are required, it would remain to be
shown experimentally that the not so high temperature at the exit of the catalyst bed (990 °K) is enough to
ensure the re-ignition of the HTPB.

Looking now into the option of using the high regression rate GAP, which allows a solid fuel grain with
only a central perforation, the application was made for two impulses of 2 and 2 s so as to fit in the
available web thickness of the caliber, while aiming for the solid motor total impulse.

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Parameters H2O2(98%)/GAP HAN(95%)/GAP

rcc (mm) 30 30
rhydro (mm) 0 0
N slots 0 0
P0 (bars) 50 50
PS (bars) 1 1
m& ox (kg/s) 10.49 12.80
r& (mm/s) 19.2 17.8
Rmel 4.89 5.90
I sp (s) 245 225
I t (N.s) 126500 137880
t =0
m F (kg) 7.65 8.17
t =0
m ox (kg) 41.96 51.20
Lox (mm) 1261 1196
LF (mm) 272 312
t =0
m prop . (kg) 49.61 59.37
=tc
m tprop . (kg) 0.19 0.67

L It L It + 8.5 %

The above table corresponds to a computation run in such a way as to satisfy the volume available in the
solid propellant motor. It is seen that the mixture ratio is not truly optimized and thus the Is. In spite of this
the total impulse obtained with the reference solid propellant motor and more can be achieved.

One drawback of the GAP option is that, if restarts are found to be necessary, extinction after closure
of the oxidizer flow is not guaranteed, due to the fairly high autonomous burning rate of GAP. It was
mentioned earlier that mixtures of less than 70 % GAP with polybutadiene are self extinguishing,
this remaining to be confirmed experimentally.

These various results are represented on Figure 12 so as to have a visual impression of their main
characteristics.

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98% H2O2 - HTPB Central canal

and 13 slots

1260 mm 350 mm
43.4 kg 5.9 kg
3
Is = 261 s It = 127 10 Ns p = 70 bar L + 7%

95% HAN - HTPB Central canal

and 15 slots

1150 mm 350 mm
49.5 kg 5.6 kg
3
Is = 240 s It = 127 10 Ns p = 70 bar L

98% H2O2 - GAP

Central canal

1260 mm 270 mm
42 kg 7.6 kg
3
Is = 245 s It = 127 10 Ns p = 50 bar L

95% HAN - GAP

Central canal

1195 mm 310 mm
51.2 kg 8.2 kg
3
Is = 225 s It = 1.1 (127 10 ) Ns p = 50 bar L

Figure 12: Various Oxidizer / Fuel Combinations in A/A Missile Motor.

5.0 CONCLUSIONS
This presentation is devoted to the investigation of the feasibility of using hybrid propulsion for small
tactical missiles of the air to air type, in order to manage the thrust evolution as much as possible,
by modulation and / or start and stop propulsion. The option looked into is that of the “pure” hybrid in

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which oxidizer and fuel are separated, as opposed to some options in which a liquid oxidizer is injected
into a solid propellant motor in order to shift its level of operating.
• In the hybrid option the oxidizer to fuel ratio, which has to be optimized for proper performance,
is conditioned by the operating of the fuel grain. The modelization takes into account, with a
simplified approach (which is found to be sufficiently accurate), the development of the flame,
between oxidizer gases and fuel gases (resulting from the pyrolysis of the combustible fuel),
which is contained in the sheared layers of the flow.
• A number of experiments have been carried out on small laboratory motors, including at ONERA
with the use of the ultra-sonic technique, as well as on large motors at the level of 1.1 MN thrust.
The results of the modelization (which contains the effect of scale) are compared favorably to
these experiments.
• Two oxidizers are considered:
• Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 at 90 and 98 % concentrations, considered to be available in a
number of development programs. By flowing through a catalyst bed hydrogen peroxide
decomposes into oxygen at temperature high enough, up to 1190 °K, to ignite the fuel grain.
• Hydroxyl ammonium nitrate, HAN, at 95 % concentration. It has the advantage of a higher
density. Its decomposition temperature is lower, 990 °K, which should be checked with
respect to the ignition of the fuel.
• Two solid fuels are taken into account:
• Polybutadiene, HTPB, very much considered in many applications, solid propellants or hybrid
grains. It can be noticed that the polybutadiene can be of a simplified variety since it contains
no charges.
• Glycidyl Azide Polymer, GAP, which, although essentially a combustible material, sustains a
weak flame which coupled to its very low heat of ablation induces a fairly high regression
rate, thus simplifying the grain geometry.
• The reference to which the hybrid option is compared is the solid propellant motor with a non
aluminized AP propellant.
• The H2O2 – HTPB combination is found to deliver the reference total impulse if a small increase
in the length of the motor is accepted (7 % for the high HP concentration). The advantage of this
option is a guaranteed extinction and re-ignition.
• The HAN – HTPB combination reproduces the total impulse in the available volume, due to the
higher density of the HAN. HAN might be considered less readily available than HP.
Its decomposition temperature does not guarantee the re-ignition of the fuel grain; this is a point to
check experimentally.
• The H2O2 – GAP combination has a high specific impulse and allows obtaining the reference total
impulse. Extinction at the interruption of the oxidizer flow is not guaranteed due to the self
burning of GAP.
• The HAN – GAP combination has more than the reference total impulse in the given volume. It is
hard to optimize its mixture ratio due to the high regression rate with respect to the web thickness
to be burned in the available caliber. Again, extinction is not guaranteed.

As a way of general conclusion, one interesting option should be using 98 % H2O2, due to its being
considered in many development programs and its seemingly being fairly available, in association with a
combined fuel made of 70 % GAP and 30 % HTPB. The total extinguibility (claimed in the literature)
would have to be checked. The high decomposition temperature of the hydrogen peroxide should allow
the re-ignition of the grain.

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6.0 REFERENCES
[1] General Dynamics-Thiokol-Rocketdyne, Hybrid Propulsion Technology, NASA CR 183972-
183973-183974-183975, November 1989.

[2] AMROC, Estey, P., Altman, D., McFarlane, J.S., An Evaluation of Scaling Effect for Hybrid Rocket
Motors, AIAA paper n° 91-2517, 27th Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1991.
McFarlane, J.S., Kniffen, R.J., Lichatowich, J., Design and Testing of Amroc’s 250000 lbf Thrust
Hybrid Motor, AIAA paper n° 93-2551, 29th Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1993.

[3] JIRAD, Boardman, T.A. and Carpenter, R.L. (Thiokol), Goldberg, B.E. (NASA), Shaeffer, C.W.
(CSD), Development and Testing of 11 and 24 Inch Hybrid Motors Under the Joint Government
Industry IR and D Program, IAA paper n° 93-2552, 29th Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1993.

[4] JIRAD, Carpenter, R.L. and Boardman, T.A. (Thiokol), Clafin, S.E. (Rocketdyne), Harwell, R.J.
(NASA), Hybrid Propulsion for Launch Vehicle Boosters: A Program Status Update, AIAA paper
n° 95-2688, 31st Joint propulsion Conference, July 1995.

[5] HPDP, Jones, M.D. and Abel, T.M. (Lockheed Martin), Weeks, D.J. (NASA), Subscale Hybrid
Rocket Motor Testing in Support of the Hybrid Propulsion Demonstration Program, AIAA paper n°
97-2800, 33rd Joint Propulsion Conference, July 1997.

[6] HPDP, Arves, J.P. and Jones, H.S. (Lockheed Martin), Kline, K., Smith, K., Slack, T. and Bales, T.,
(Environmental Aeroscience Corp.), Overview of Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program, AIAA paper
n° 97-2799, 33rd Joint Propulsion Conference, July 1997.

[7] HPDP, Abel, T.M. (Lockheed Martin), Harwell, R.J. (NASA), A Status Update for the Hybrid
Demonstration Program, AIAA paper n° 97-2798, 33rd Joint Propulsion Conference, July 1997.

[8] HPDP, Boardman, T.A. (Thiokol), Abel, T.M. (Lockheed Martin), Clafin, S.E. (Rocketdyne),
Shaeffer, C.W. (CSD), Design and Test Planning for a 250 klbf Thrust Hybrid Rocket Motor Under
the Hybrid Propulsion Demonstration Program, AIAA paper n° 97-2804, 33rd Joint Propulsion
Conference, July 1997.
Park, O.Y., Bryant, C.T., Carpenter, R.L. (Thiokol), Performance Analysis of HPDP 250 K Hybrids,
AIAA paper n° 2000-3544, 36th Joint Propulsion Conference, July 2000.

[9] Penn State, Chiaverini, M.J., Kuo, K.K., Peretz, A., Harting, G.C., Heat Flux and Internal Ballistic
Characterization of a Hybrid Rocket Motor Analog, AIAA paper n° 97-3080, 33rd Joint Propulsion
Conference, July 1997.
Chiaverini, M.J., Serin, N., Johnson, D.K., Lu, Y.C., Kuo, K.K., Risha, G.A., Regression Rate
Behavior of Hybrid Rocket Solid Fuels, J. of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 16, n° 1, 2000.

[10] Cheng, G.C., Farmer, R.C., Jones, H.S., McFarlane, J.S., Numerical Simulation of the Internal
Ballistics of a Hybrid Rocket Motor, AIAA paper n° 94-0554, 32nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting,
January 1994.

[11] Venkateswaran, S., Merkle, C.L., Size Scale-up in Hybrid Rocket Motors, AIAA paper n° 96-0647,
34th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, January 1996.

[12] ONERA, Lengellé, G., Fourest, B., Godon, J.C., Guin, C., Condensed Phase Behavior and Ablation
Rate of Fuels for Hybrid Propulsion, AIAA paper n° 93-2413, 29th Joint Propulsion Conference,
June 1993.

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[13] ONERA, Lengellé, G., Simon, P., Hoc, T. and Dijkstra, F. (TNO), Design Tools for Hybrid Motors,
5th International Symposium for Space Transportation Propulsion, AAAF, Paris, May 1996.

[14] ONERA, Simon, P., Modeling and Simulation of Combustion Mechanisms in a Hybrid Rocket
Motor, Doctoral Thesis, Université de Poitiers, December 1996.
Wang, H.Y., Most, J.M. (Laboratoire de Combustion et de Détonique, ENSMA), Simon, P.,
Lengellé, G., Prediction of Fuel Regression Rate in Confined Turbulent Boundary Layer
Combustion, 5th International Symposium in Chemical Propulsion, Stresa, Italie, June 2000.
Publication Begell House, New York, 2002.

[15] Kuo, K.K., Importance and Challenges of Hybrid Rocket Propulsion Beyond Year 2000,
von Kármán Lecture, 37th Israel Annual Conference on Aerospace Sciences, February 1997.

[16] Hybrid Rocket Propulsion, Report of an AIAA Workshop, Washington DC, September 1995.

[17] Cauty, F., Non-Intrusive Measurement Methods Applied to Energetic Material Regression Rate
Determination, 2nd International High Energy Materials Conference, Chennai, India, December 1998.

[18] 1st to 5th International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conferences, latest at Purdue University,
September 2002.

[19] Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd, Sellers, J.J. and Lawrence, T. (USAF), Paul, M., Results of a
Low-Cost Propulsion System Research for Small Satellite Application, International Symposium,
Systems and Services for Small Satellites, Annecy, June 1996.

[20] ONERA, Lengellé, G., Foucaud, R., Godon, J.C., Heslouin, A., Lecourt, R., Maisonneuve, Y.,
Pillet, N. (CNES), Hybrid Propulsion for Small Satellites. Analysis and Tests, AIAA Paper n° 99-
2321. 35th Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1999.
Maisonneuve, Y., Godon, J.C., Lecourt, R., Lengellé, G., Pillet, N. (CNES), Hybrid Propulsion for
Small Satellites. Design Logic and Tests., 5th International Symposium in Chemical Propulsion,
Stresa, Italy, June 2000. Publication Begell House, New York, 2002.

[21] Kuwahara, T., Nakagawa, I., Hatano, H., Onda, T. and Takizuka, M., Thermal Decomposition
Characteristics of HAN Composite Propellants, AIAA Propulsion conference, 1997.

[22] Frankel, M.B., Grant, L.R., Flanagan, J.E, Historical Development of Glycidyl Azide Polymer,
Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 8, N° 3, May-June 1992.

[23] Trubert, J.F., Duterque, J., Lengellé, G., Study of the Condensed Phase Degradation and Combustion
of Glycidyl Azide Polymer, 30th International Annual Conference of ICT, Karlsruhe,
June 29-July 02, 1999.

[24] Kubota, N., Sonobe, T., Combustion Mechanism of Azide Polymer, Propellants, Explosives,
Pyrotechnics, 13, 172-177, 1988.

[25] Mahaffy, K.E., Harting, G.C., Bates, R., Walsh, R. and Hansen, C., Hybrid Propulsion for Air Force
Applications Study, Phillips Laboratory, Air Force Material Command, Edwards Air Force Base,
May 1996.

[26] Mahaffy, K.E., Hansen, C. and Kirschner, T., Multi-Mission Hybrid Tactical Propulsion,
RTO Conference, Corfou, Greece, April 1999.

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SYMPOSIA DISCUSSION – PAPER NO: 11

Discusser’s Name: Alain Davenas

Question:
My question is rather related to the use of large hybrids (space launch applications). Very high levels of
instabilities (vibrations) have been observed on some tests of the 100-ton thrust motor in the US.
Don’t you think unknowns and risks in instabilities still exist for hybrid applications? Do we know
enough?

Author’s Name: Guy Longellé

Author’s Response:
• AMROC conducted six tests on two 100-ton thrust motors (reported in our paper) up to 1995.
All were stable.
• The hybrid propulsion demonstration program (NASA-Lockheed-Martin) conducted six tests on two
100-ton thrust motors. Some experienced strong pressure peaks that were never quite explained.
The last of the series in January 2002 were stable.
• There are still risks of instabilities like any propulsion system. The particular application to missiles is
of course for much smaller scales (AMROC length is low and the fuel grain is more like 300 mm)
with completely different frequencies.

Discusser’s Name: W. Davies

Question:
1) While a hybrid propulsion system offers thrust modulation, shouldn’t its overall capabilities must be
judged at a system level in comparison with conventional solid rocket motors having fixed mass and
volume constraints?
2) Can the low regression rates required by a sold fuel hybrid propulsion system be consistently and
reliably achieved on a production basis?

Author’s Name: Guy Longellé

Author’s Response:
1) This is what we hoped to have accomplished by the work presented in this paper. We looked into the
hybrid option using the volume occupied by the solid rocket motor, while maintaining the total
impulse offered by the solid rocket motor. The mass of the hybrid motor option is usually equivalent
to that of the solid motor, sometimes lower by a few kilograms.
2) The fuels contemplated are HTPB or GAP and hopefully if their quality is assured, their regression
rate should not suffer dispersion. Note that in some options, GAP or Gap-HTPB, the regression rates
can be around 10 mm/second, a burning rate that is comparable to that of solid propellants.

Discusser’s Name: Hans Besser

Question:
1) For air-to-air missile applications of hybrids, it appears that the volume assumptions for the oxidizer
feeding/evaporation are optimistic. Would you care to comment?
2) Why haven’t you incorporated a post combustion chamber used in the motor design?

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Author’s Name: Guy Longellé

Author’s Response:
1) The option we propose is to flow the oxidizer through a catalyst bed (the nature of the catalyst
materials is known for both hydrogen peroxide (HP) and hydroxyl ammonium nitrate (HAN) in such a
way that it enters into the solid fuel grain as a vaporized hot steam (up to about 1200 degrees Kelvin),
so there is no injector per se. It is a fact, nevertheless, that we would have to optimize the catalyst pack
design so as to reduce the volume it occupies in the missile.
2) In the missile considered here, her is always a blast tube that is hopefully long enough to complete
whatever remains for complete combustion. Also when the oxidizer to fuel ration is optimized for the
design of the fuel grain, there is not much oxidizer or fuel left at the end of the grain. This of course
would have to be checked in an experimental program.

Discusser’s Name: Guy Powell

Question:
Do the HAN and HP oxidizers meet the operating environment temperatures required for air-to-air
missiles? If so, how are they met?

Author’s Name: Guy Longellé

Author’s Response:
Although I am not very knowledgeable on his particular point, I have some information on additives that
lower the freezing point of HP and HAN to the required temperatures for operation (and for his we can
refer to six symposiums on HP, the most recent one being held at Purdue university the week before this
meeting).

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