A LLEN A N D G R EEN O U GH S

N EW

L AT I N G RA MMAR

S C H OO LS A N D C O LLEG ES

F O UN D ED ON C OM P A R A TI VE GR A MMA R

ED I TED BY

J. B G R EEN O U GH
. G L K I TTR ED G E
. .

A A H O WA R D BEN ] L B O O GE
’
. . . .

GI N N C O MPA N Y
BO S TO N NEW YORK C H I C AGO LO N D O N
 EN TERED S TA rl o N ERs H A L L
'

AT
'

C O PY R I G H T , 1 888 , BY

J B G R EEN O U G H
,
. A ND J H A LLEN
. .

C O P Y R I G H T, 1 903 , B Y

G I N N 8: C O M PA N Y

A L L R I G H T S R ES ERVE D

mm: Qtficn au m B re s t
GINN C O M PA N Y P RO
P R I ETO R S o B
.

O S TON US A. . .
 PR EFA C E

TH E p re sen t book is f t h e e dit ion of 1 8 88

r
a c a e fu l re v ision o .

This r e v ision w as p lan n e d an d ac t u ally be gu n in t he life t im e o f

P r ofessor Gre e n ou gh an d h as be e n c arrie d ou t in ac c ordan c e
wit h p r in c ip le s t h at m e t wi t h his fu ll ap p r ov al Th e ren u m .

be rin g of t h e se c t ion s h as m ade it p ossible t o im p r o ve t h e

arran ge m e n t o f m at e rial in m an y p ar t ic u lars and t o av oid a c e r

t ain am ou n t of r ep et it ion w h ic h was in e v it able in t h e for m e r

e dit ion Th u s, w it hou t in c r e asin g t h e s iz e of t h e v olu m e t h e
.
,

e di t o rs h av e b e e n able t o in c lu de s u c h n e w m at t e r as t h e adv an c e

in gram m at ic al s c ien c e h as affor de d Th e st u dy of h ist ori c al

.

an d c o m p ar at iv e syn t ax h as b e e n p u rsu e d wit h c on s id e rable v ig or

d u rin g t h e p as t fi ft e en ye ars , an d t h e we ll e st ablis he d r esu lt s of -

t hi s s t u dy h av e be e n in se r t e d in t h e ir ap p opr riate p lac es . In

g r
e n e al,h ow e v e r , t h e p rin c ip les an d fac t s of Lat in syn t ax , as

se t for th b P r ofe ssor Gre en ou gh, h av e st ood t h e t e st bot h of

y
sc ie n t ifi c c rit ic ism an d of p r ac t i c al u se in t h e r
c las s- oom , an d

ac c o rdin gly r
t h e m an y f ie n ds of A llen an d G re e n ou gh s ’
Gram
m ar will n ot fi n d t h e n e w e dit ion s t an g e or r u n fam iliar in it s
m e t h od or it s c on t e n ts . Th e e dit o sr h av e se e n n o oc c asion to
c h an ge lon g-se t t le d n om e n c lat u re or t o adop t v el c lassifi c a
no

t ion s wh e n t h e u su al r
t e m s an d c at e
go rie s h ave p r ov e d s at is
fac t ory . On t h e ot h er h an d , t hey h a ve n ot hesit at e d t o m odify
e it h e r d oc t rin es or form s of s t at e m e n t wh e n e v e r im p r ov e m e n t
se e m e d p ossible .

In t h e m at t e r of h idd en qu an t it y t h e edit o rs h av e be en e v en
mo re c on s e rvat iv e t h an in t h e fo rm e r r e vision This su bj e c t is .

on e o f
g re at diffi c u lt
y , an d t he re su lt s of t he m ost r ec e n t in v est i
gat ion s are far fr om h arm on iou s I n m an y in st an c e s t h e fac t s
iv PR EFA C E

are q u it e u n dis c o v e rable

i n , g e n e ral, t he
an d, p h e n om e n a are of

c om p arat ive ly sligh t i n t e r est e x c e p t t o s p e c ial s t u d e n t s of t h e

arc an a of p h ilology N o v owel h as be en m arke d lon g u n le ss t h e

.

e vi de n c e p r
s ee m e d
a c t i c ally d e c isiv e .

The e dit ors h av e bee n fort u n at e in se c u rin g t h e advi c e an d

assis t an c e of Pr ofe s so r E S Sh eldon o f H arv ar d U n iv e rs it y for
. .
, ,

t h e fi rst t en p ag es d e alin g w it h p h on e t ic s an d ph on ology

, .Th ey
are e qu ally in d e b t e d t o Pr ofessor E P M o rris of Y ale Un i v e r
. .
,

sit y wh o h as h ad t he kin dn e s s t o r e v ise t h e n ot e s on h is t or ic al

,

an d c om p ar at i v e syn t ax Par t ic ular ac kn owledg m e n t is als o

.

d u e t o M r M Gran t D an iell wh o h as c oop e rat e d in t h e r e v ision

. .
,

t h r ou gh ou t an d wh ose ac c u r at e sc h olarsh ip an d long e xp e rie n c e

,

as a t e ac h e r h av e b e e n of t h e g re at es t se rv i c e at e v e ry p oin t .

SEP T E MB E R 1, 1903 .
 C ONTENTS

P AR T I — WOR D S AND F OR MS

LE TT E R S AN D S O U N DS
A lp h ab e t ; C lassi fi at ion o f Soun dsc
Ort h ograp h y , Sy llab les , Pron un iat ion c
Qu an t it y an d A en t cc
C om b in at ions ; Ph on e t i C h an ge s c
WOR DS AN D TH E I R FO RM S
Part s of Spe e h c
I n fl ec t ion ; R oot , S t em , an d B ase
Ge n der, N u m b e r, an d C ase
D E C LE NSI ON or NO U N S
Ge n eral R ules of c
D e le n sion
c
F irst D e len sion
Se c on d c
D e len sion
c
Th ird D e len sion
Mu t e S t e m s
Liq u id an d N asal S t e m s
P u re i-St e m s
Mixe d i-S t e m s
I rre gu lar N ou ns
Gre e k N ou n s
R u les of Ge n d e r
F ou rt h De len s ion c
c
Fift h D e len sion
c
D e fe t ive an d Variable N oun s
N am es of Persons
I N E T I ON
FL C or A D E TI E S
J C V

F irs t an d S e c d D cl
on e e ns ion s

Th ird D e le n sion c
C om p aris on
N u m e rals 0

I N E T IO N
FL C OF P RONO U N S
Pe rson al, R efle xive , P osse ss ive , D e m on st rat ive
R e lat ive , I n t e rrogat ive , I n d efi n it e
C orrelat ives ( Pron ou ns an d Ad verb s)
C O NJ U G A T I O N OF VE R B S
I n fle c t ion
S ign ifi c at ion : Voi c e, Mood Te n se
,

Pe rson al En din gs
vi C ONTENTS

F orm s S te m an d Ve rb -En din gs

:

Th e Ve rb S u m
R e gular Ve rbs
Th e F ou r C on j u gat ion s ; Prin ip al Parts c
F orm at ion of t h e Thre e S t e m s
Sy n ops is of t h e Ve rb
c
Pe u liarit ie s of C on j u gat ion
F irst C on j u gat ion
c
Se on d C on j u gat ion
Th ird C on j u gat ion
F ou rt h C on j u gat ion
Ve rbs In -io of t h e Th ird C on j u gat ion
“

D e pon e n t Ve rb s .

Pe rip h ras t i cC j
on u gat ions

I rre gu lar Ve rb s
c
D efe t ive Ve rb s
I m p e rson al Ve rb s
C lassifi e d Lis t s of Ve rbs
P A R TI C L E S

A d verb s
Pre posit ion s
c
C on j u n tion s
c
I n t erj e t ion s
F OR MA T I ON OF W O R DS
R oot s an d St e m s .

S uffi xes : Prim ary ; S ign ifi ca nt En d in gs

D e rivat ion of N ou ns
D erivat ion of A d j e t ives c
c
N ou n s wit h A dj e ti ve Su ffi xe s ; I rre gular D erivat ive s
De ri vati on of Ve rbs
C om p ou n d Words

PAR T I I S Y N TAX

INTRO DU TO
C RY N E OT
TH E S E E CE
NT N .

D e fi n it ion s S u b j e t. c an d Pre d i at e ,c Mod ifi c at ion , e tc .

A gree m en t . t h e F ou r C on c ords

NO U N S : A pp osit ion ; Pred i c at e A gre e m en t

A D JE C TI v E S
R u le s of A gree m en t
c
Sp e ial Uses
PR ONO U N S
Pe rson al an d D e m on s t rat ive
R e fle x ive
Posse ss ive
 C ONTENTS

Re lat ive
I n d efi n it e
Ali n e an d alt e r
VE RR S
Ve rb an dS ub e j ct ,
In c om p le t e S e n t en c es

PA R TI C L E SAd b . ve r s , c
C on j un t ion s , N e gat ives
QU E S T I ON S
C ON S TR U T I O NCCA OF S ES

I t d ct y N t
n ro u or o e

N M A V CA
O IN TI E SE

V A V CA
OC TI E SE

G EN I TI v E CA SE

Ge n i t ive wit h N ou ns
Possessive Ge n it i ve
Ge n it ive of Mat e rial, of Qu ality
Part it ive Ge n it ive
c
O b j e t i ve Ge n it ive
Ge n it ive wi t h A dj e t i ves c
Gen it ive wit h Ve i bs
Ve rbs of R e m e m b e rin g an d F orge t t in g
Ve rb s of R e m in d in g .

cc
Verbs of A u s in g , C on d e m n in g, an d Ac q u it t in g

Ve rb s of F e e lin g
I n t ere st an d ré fe rt

Ve rb s of Ple n t y an d W an t ; c
Sp e ial Ve rb s
Pe c u liar Ge n it i ves : c
Ex lam at ory , e tc .

D A TI VE C ASE

I n di re c t Obj ct wit h T
e ran sit ive s

I n d ire ct Obj ct wit h I t

e n ran s it ive s

D at i ve c f P ossess ion
D at i ve of t h e A ge n t
D at ive of R e fe re n c e

c
Et h i al D at ive
D at ive of Se p arat ion
D at ive o f t h e P urp ose or En d

D at ive w it h A d j e t ive s c
A
A C C U S T I VE C S E A
c
Di re t Ob j e t c
C ogn ate A c us at ive c
Two A us at ives cc
c
I diom at i an d S pe ial Use s c
A
AB L TI V E C S E A
Uses of t h e Ab lat ive Prop e r
A b lat ive of Se p arat ion
A b lati ve of S ou r e an d Mat e rial c
A b lat ive of C ause
 C ONTENTS

A blati ve A gen t of

A b lat ive of C om p arison

Uses of t h e A b lat ive as I n st ru m e n t al .

A b lat ive of Me ans or I n st ru m en t

A b lat ive of Man n er
A b lat ive of A om p an im e n t cc
A b lat ive of D e gree of D iffere n e c
A blati ve of Qu alit y
A b lat ive of Pri e c
A b lat ive of Spe ifi c cat i on

Ab lat ive A b solu t e

Use s of t h e A b lat ive as c
Lo at ive
TI ME AN D PL A CE

A
S P EC I L U S ES OF P R EPO S I TI ON S
Y A
S NT X OF TH E VE RR
Moo n s
I n t rod u t ory c Nt o e

INDI C ATI VE MOO D

S UB J UN C TI VE I N D E P EN D EN T SEN TEN C E S
IN

H ort at ory Su b j u n t ive c

H ort at ory S u b j u n t ive in C on e ssion sc c
Op t at ive Su b j u n t ive c
D elib e rat ive S u b ju n t ive c
Pot e n t ial Su b j un t ive c
A
I M PE R TI VE MO O D .

Prohi bit ion ( N e gat ive C om m an d)

I N F IN I TI VE M OO D
I n fi n it ive as N ou n
I n fi n it ive wit h I m pers on als
C om ple m e n t ary I n fi n it ive
I n fi n it ive wit h Su b j e t A u sat ive
.

c cc
I n fi n it ive of P u rp ose Pe uliar I n fi n it ives c
c
Ex lam at ory I n fi n i t ive
H ist ori c al I n fi n it ive

TEN SES
c
I n t rod u t ory ot e N
TEN SE S O F THE I N D I C TI VE A
Prese n t Ten se
I m p erfe t Te n se c
Fu t ure Te nse
Perfe t Te n se c
Plu p e rfe t Te n se c
F u t u re Pe rf e t Ten se c
Ep ist olary Ten se s
TEN SES O F TI I E S U B JUN C TI VE
c
Seq u en e of Te nses
 CONTENTS

TEN SES OF TH E I N F IN I TI VE
P A R TI C I P LES

c
D ist in ti on s of Te nse
Use s of
Part i ip les c
c
F u t u re A t ive Part i ip le c
Ge run d ive ( F u t u re Passive Part i ip le ) c
GER U N D AN D GE R U N D I v E

C O N D I TI O N A L S EN TEN C ES
c
I n t rod u t ory N ot e
Prot as is an d A p od osis
c
C lass ifi at ion of C on d it ion s
Si m p le Pre se n t an d Pas t C on di t ions
Fu t u re C on d it ions
C on d it ion s C on trary t o F a t c
Ge n e ral C on dit ion s
C on d it ion al R e lat ive Clauses
C on diti on D isgu ise d
C on di t ion Om it te d
C om p le x C on dit ion s
C lau se s of C om p aris on ( C on lus ion Om it t e d ) c
Use of S i an d it s C om p ou n d s
C O N C ES S I VE C L U S ES A
A
C L U S ES O F PR o v rso
A
C L U S ES O F P U R PO S E ( F I NA L CL A U S ES )
C A
L U S ES O F CH AA R C TER I S T I C

C A
L U S ES O F R ES U L T ( C O N S E C U T I VE C L A U SES )
CA A US L CL A U S ES

TEMP O R A L CL A U S ES

Ubi , u t , c um , qu an da, as I n d e fi n it e R elat ives

Post qu am , u bi , n t , sim n l at qu e

Cu m Te m p oral
C u m C au sal or C on c essive

An t eqn am an d pri u s quam

Dum , dé ne c , an d qu oad
A
C L U SES W I TH qui n AN D qnem i n ns
S UES TAN TI v E C L U SES A
c
I n t rodu t ory N ot e
S u b s tan t ive C lau se s of P urp ose an d I n fi n itive C lau ses
Su b st an t ive C lauses of R esult ( C on se u t ive Claus es) c
I n d ic at ive with qu od
I n d ire t c Qu est ions
I ND I R E C T D I S C O U R S E
c
I n trod u t ory N ote
c
D e larat ory Se n t en ces
S u b ordin at e C lau se s
X C ON TENTS

Te n ses of th e In fi n it i ve

Te n se s Su b j u n t ive
of t h e c
Qu e st ion s in I n d ire t D is ou rse c c
C om m an d s in I n d irec t D is ou rse c
C on d it ion s i n I n d ire t D is ou rse c c
I N TER MED I A
C L U S ES
TE A
I n form al I n d ire t D is ou rse c c
c
S u b j u n t ive of I n t e gral Part ( A t t ract ion )
A
I M PO R T N T R U L E S O F S N T X Y A
OR E R OF WOR DS
D
Ge n eral R u le s
c
S pe ial R u les
c
S t ru t u re of t h e Pe riod

PR O S OD Y

QUAN TI TY
RH Y TH M

c
I n t rod u t ory N ot e
Measu res of R h y t h m ; F e e t
Th e Mu sic al A cc en t ; C aesu ra ; D iaere s is
V ER S I F I C A TI O N

Th e Verse ; S an sion c an d Elision

c
D a t yli Ve rse c
c c
D a t y li H e xam e t e r
c
Ele gi a St an z a ; Ot h er D a ty li c cV e rse s

c
I am b i Verse
I am b i c T im r e t er

O t h e r I am b i cM e asu re s

c
Tro h ai Ve rse c
Mix e d Measures
Logaoed i cV e rse

Met re s of H ora e c
I n d ex t o t h e Met res of H ora c e

O th er Ly ri Poe ts c
c
Mi s ellan eous Me asu res
EA YPRL R O SO D Y
M A
I S C E LL N EO U S

R ck e on in g of Tim e
Me asu res of Valu e , Le n gth , an d c
C ap a it y

GLO S S A Y R OF TER M S
I N D EX OF VE R B S
I N D Ex OF WO R D S AN D S U B JEC TS
LA TI N A U TH O R S AN D TH E I R WO R K S
PA A R L L EL R EF ER EN C E S
 A LLEN AN D GR EEN O U GH S
’

N EW L A TI N G R A MMA R
 L A TI N G R A MMA R
Lat in Gram m ar is u su ally t re at e d u n d e r t h ree h e ads : 1 Word s an d .

Form s ; 2 S yn t ax ; 3 Proso d y. Syn t ax t re at s of t h e f u n t io n o f words

. . c
w h e n j oin e d t o ge t h e r as p art s o f t h e s e n t e n c e ; Prosody o f t h e ir arran ge
m e n t i n m e t ri al c c om p os it i on .

P AR T FI RS T— WOR D S AND F OR MS

THE ALPHABET

1 Th e Lat in A lph abe t is t h e sam e as t h e En glish ( wh ic h is

.

in fac t borr owed from it ) e x c ep t t h at it d oe s n ot c on t ain J, U,

an d W .

N OTE L — Th e Lat in alp h abe t w as b orrowed in ve ry early t i m e s from a Gree k

alp h ab et ( t h ou gh n ot from t h at m ost f am ili ar t o u s) an d d id n ot at fi rst on t ain t h e c
le t t e rs G an d Y c c
I t on sis t ed of api t al le t t e rs on ly , an d t h e sm all le t t e rs wi t h wh i h
. c
c
we are f am iliar d id n ot om e i n t o g e n eral u se u n t il t h e los e o f th e eigh t h en t u ry of c c
ou r e ra .

N OT E 2 — Th e Lat in n am e s o f t h e o n son an t s we re as follows z— B , be ( p ron ou n ed

. c c
c
bay) ; 0, c c (p ron ou n ed kay) ; D , d e ( d ay ) ; F , ef ; G, g e (g ay ) ; 11 , h a ; , ka ;
L el K ,

M, e m ; N , e n ; P, p e ( p ay) ; Q, q u ( koo) ; R , er ; 8 , es ; T, te ( t ay) ; X , i x ; Z , ze t a ( t h e

Gree k n am e , p ron ou n ed d zay t a) c
Th e so u n d of e a h vowel was u sed as it s n am e
. c .

a . Th e r
c h a ac t e rCo rigin all
y m e an t G, a alu e always v ret ain ed in
t h e abb reviat ion s C ( for . Gain s) an d Cn ( for Gnaeu s) . .

N —IO TE ly L t i C c m
. l t b
n e ar d f K d K di pp a d c p t b
a n a e a so o e use or , an sa e re ex e e
fore a i f w w d
n a e K i (K l d ) or s, as Th th w a d i t i ct i
. i
a en ae ,
us ere as n o s n on n
w i ti g b tw
r n th e d f g d k
een Lat t h i d f ct w
e sou n m di d by f m i g
s o an . er s e e as re e e or n

( f m C) t h
ro w ch c te G T hi t k t h lph b t ic p l c f m ly cc p i d by
e ne ara r . s oo e a a e a e or er o u e
2 w h ich h d g
, t f a I C ic t im (
o n e ou N D iio Y ( ig i
u se . lly f m
n e ro s
’
e see . . . or na a or
o f V) d Z w ani t d c d f m th di
e re
y G
n ro k lp h b t t
u e p t ro d i e or n ar re e a a e o re rese n soun s n

word s de rived f rom t h e Gree k , an d t h e y we re p u t at t h e e n d of t h e Lat in alp h ab e t .

b . I an d V w e re u se d b ot h as v owe ls an d as c on son an t s ( se e

N O TE .
—V orig in ally
d en ote d t h e vowel so u n d u an d F stood for t h e soun d of
c
our on son an t w c
Wh e n F a q u ired t h e valu e of ou r f , V am e t o be used for t h e
. c
so un d of w as w ell as f or t h e vowel n .

I n t h is b ook i i s u se d fo r b ot h vowe l an d c on son an t i, n for vowe l u , an d

v f or c on son an t u itis , vir, in venis

'

1
2 WOR D S A ND FO R MS

Clas s ificat ion of ,

Sou n ds

2 The s im ple Vowels are a, e, i ,

. o, u , y .

Th e D iph t h on gs are ac , e u , ei, eu, oe, u i , an d, I n ea rly Lat in ai , ,

oi , on I n t h e d ip h t h on gs b ot h v owe l s ou n ds
. are h e ar d on e fol,

lo win g t h e ot h e r in t h e s am e syllable .

3 C on son an ts are e it h e r v oic e d ( son cm t) or v oic ele ss ( su rd)

. .

Voic e d c on son an ts are p ron ou n c e d wit h t h e s am e v oc al m u r m u r '

t hat is h e ar d in v owels ; v oic e le ss c on son an t s lac k t his m u r m u r .

1 . Th e c
v oi e d c on so n an t s are b , d , g , l, r, m , n , z, c on son an t i, v

2 . Th e vo ic e le ss c on son an t s are p , t , c
( k , q) , f, h , s, x

4 . C ons on an t s are fu r t h e r c lassifi e d as in t h e followin g t able

D EN T A LS P AAA
L T LS

Voi c e d ( m e d iae) g
Mu te s Voi c e le ss
( te n u é s
) c
( , q)
k
Asp irat e s ch

N asals 11
( b e fore 0, g, q )
Liq u ids
Fri c at i ve s
( Sp iran t s) s z

S ib ilan t s
Se m i vo we ls v c on son an t 1
Dou ble c on s on an t s are x cs ) an d z d z) ; h i s m e re l
y a b re at h in g .

l . Mu t e s c c
p ron oun ed b y blo k in g e n t ire ly , f or an in st an t , t h e p assage of t h e
are
b re at h th rou gh t h e m ou t h , an d t h e n allowi n g it t o e s ap e wi t h an e xp losion ( d ist i n t ly c c
h e ard b e f ore a f ollowi n g vo w el) B e tw e e n t h e e xp losi on an d t h e vowe l t h e re m ay b e
.

a sligh t p u ff of b re at h ( h ) , as i n t h e A
sp irat es ( p h , t h , c h ) 2 .

. c
2 Lab ials are p ron ou n e d wit h t h e lip s, or lip s an d t e e t h .

c
3 D e n t als ( som et im e s alle d Lin gu als) are p ron ou n ed w it h t h e t ip of t h e t o n gu e
. c
c
t ou h i n g or app roa ch i g t h
n e u pp e r f ron t t e e t h .

4 Palat als are ro n ou n

.
p c e d w i t h a p art of t h e
u p p e r surfac e of t h e t o n g u e t ou h in g c
or app roac h i n g t h e p alat e 8 .

c c
5 F ri at ive s ( or S p iran t s) are on son an t s in whi h t h e b re at h p asse s on t in u ou sly
. c c
t h rou g h t h e m ou t h wi t h au d ible f ri t ion c .

c c
6 N asals are lik e voi e d m u t e s , e x e p t t h at t h e m ou t h re m ai ns lose d an d t h e
. c
b re at h p as se s t h rou gh t h e n ose .

1 c c
S t ri t ly a labio d e n t al, p ron ou n e d wi t h t h e u n d er lip t ou hi n g t h e u p p e r t e e th c .

3 Th e as irat e s are
p c
alm ost wh olly on fi n e d t o w ord s b orrow ed f rom t h e Gree k In .

c
early Lat in su h b orrow ed s ou n d s lost t h e ir asp irat ion an d b e am e si m p ly p , t , c c .

3 Palat als are oft e n lasse d as 1 ve ars c

( ) l , p ron ou n ed wit h t h e t on gu e t ou h in g or ris c c
c
i n g t o ward t h e soft p alat e ( i n t h e b a k p art of t h e m ou t h) , an d ( 2) p a la t als , i n wh i h t h e c
c
t o n gu e t o u h e s orrise s toward t h e h ard p alat e ( fart h er f orw ard in t h e m ou t h) C om p are .

c c
t h e in it ial on son an ts in ke y an d ool, w hi sp e rin g t h e t w o word s , an d it wi ll b e ob served
t h at b e fore e an d i t h e k is sou n ded fart h e r forward in t h e m ou t h t h an b e fore a, 0, or u .
 5 , 6] OR THO GR AP H Y 3

5 . v owe ls i an d u s erve as c on s on an t s wh e n p ron ou n c ed

Th e
rap idly be fore a v owel so as t o st an d in t he sam e syllable C on
1
.

son an t i h as t h e sou n d of En glish c on s on an t y; c on son an t u

( ) v

t hat of En glish c ons on an t w .

C on s on an t i an d u
( ) v are som e t i m e s c all d S
e e m ivo we ls .

N O TE 1 —Th e Lat in alp h ab e t d id n ot d ist in g u ish b e twee n t h e vowe l an d ons on an t

. c
c
sou n d s of i an d u , b u t u se d e a h le t t e r ( I an d V) wi t h a d ou b le v alu e I n m od e rn b ook s .

i an d u are oft e n u se d f or t h e vowe l soun d s, j an d v f or t h e on son an t so u n d s ; b u t i n c

c
p rin t in g in ap i t als Jan d U are avoid ed : IVl s ( I ii li u s) Th e h ara t e rs Jan d U are c c
on ly S ligh t m od ifi at ions of t h e c h ara t e rs I an d V c c
Th e ordi n ary En g lish sou n d s of .

c c
j an d v did n ot e xi st i n lass i al Lat in , b u t on son an t u p e rh aps app roa h ed En glish v c c
c
i n t h e p ro n u n iat i on of som e p erson s .

N O TE 2 — I n t h e c om b in at ion s q u , g u , an d so m e t im e s su , u see m s t o b e t h e on so
. c
n an t ( W ) . c
Th u s, aqu a , an g u i s , c én su é t u s ( om p are En glis h q u a rt , an g u ish , s u ave) In .

c c
t h ese om bi n at ions , h owe ver, u is re k on e d n e i th er as a v owe l n or as a o nson an t 2 c .

OR THOGRAPH Y
6 . Lat in g v
sp e llina r i e d som e wh at wi t h t h e c h an e s
g in t h e
lan g u ag e an d w as n e v e r abs olu t e ly s e t t le d in all d e t ails .

Th us , we fi n d lub e t , vort6 , as e arli e r, an d libe t , ve rt a, as lat e r form s . Ot h e r

variati ons are opt u m u s an d op tim u s , g eru n d u s an d g eren d u s .

Th e spe lli n g of t h e fi rst c e n t u ry of ou r e ra, kn own c h ie fly from

i n sc rip t ion s , is t ole rably u n ifor m , an d is c om m on ly u se d in m od e r n
e dit ion s o f t he c lassic s .

a. Af t er v ( c on son an t u
) , 0 w as an ci e n t ly u se d i n st e ad of u
an d t hi s Spe lli n g was n ot e n t ire ly give n up u n t il t h e m i d dle of t h e fi rst
c e n t u ry of ou r e ra .

b . Th e olde r c
qu o b e am e c u in t h e Au gu st an p e rio d ; i n t h e se c on d c e n

t u ry of our e ra t h e sp e lli n g q u n e st ablish e d it se lf i n so m e word s :

c um , old e r q u om ; 3 eq u os , e u s , lat er e qu u s c s e qnon t ur, s e c u nt ur, lat e r s equ un t ur ;

s im ilarly e x s ti n gu on t , e x s ti n g u n t , late r e x s ti n g u n n t .

N O TE .
—I n m ost m od e rn ed i t ion s th e sp e llin g qu u is ad op t e d , e x ep t in cu m c .

0. Be t we e n c on son an t i an d a c
p re e din g a, e , 0, or U , an i w as d e ve lop e d
as a t ran sie n t sou n d , t h u s p rod u c i n g a d ip h t h o n g ai, e i, e t c , b e f ore t h e c on .

s o n an t i . In su ch c ase s b u t on e i was writ te n : as , aifi ( f or j ai-ib ) , m ain s

( f or 1m ai -
iu s) , pé iu s ( for j pe i iu s) -
.

1 C om p are t h e En glish w ord I n d i an as p ron ou n ed in t wo sy llables or i n t hree c .

c
3 I n su h w ord s it i s
p oss ible t h at t h e p rec ed i n g on son an t w as lab i aliz ed an d t h at c
no c
d is t in t an d se p arat e on son an t u w as h e ard c .

3 Th e s e llin
p g qu u m i s v e ry lat e an d w it h ou t au t h ority .
4 WOR D S A N D F O R MS as

d . Sim ilarly i n c om p ou n d s of c
ia i6 b u t on e i w as writ t en ( as, c on -i c id,

n ot c on -n c ié
) ; bu t t he u su al p ron u n c iat i on p rob ab ly sh owe d c on so n an t i
f ollowe d b y vowe l i ( se e 11 e ) . .

N O T E — S om e variat ion s are d u e t o late r h an g e s i n Lat in i t se lf

. c , an d t h e se are n ot
n ow re c i n lass i al t e xt s
ogn iz e d c c .

cc
I U n a e n t e d t i an d c i , w h e n f ollowe d b y a vowe l, am e t o b e p ron ou n e d alik e ;
. c c
c ‘

h e n e n i mt io w as lat e r sp e l ed w it h a an d d i c io w i t h a t
l
c .

2 Th e so u n d of h w as aft e r a t im e lost an d h e n e t h is le t t e r w as of t e n om it t e d ( as ,
. c
aré n a for h aré n a) or m i st ak e nly writ t e n ( as , h um or f or ti m e r) .

3 Th e d ip h t h on g ae e arly i n t h e t im e of t h e Em p ire a q u ire d t h e v alu e of lon g op e n

. c
e ( ab ou t lik e En glish e i n t h e re) , an d s im ilarly oe aft e r a t im e b e am e a lon g lose e c c
( ab ou t lik e t h e En glish e y i n t hey) an d so b ot h we re oft e n c onf u se d in sp e llin g w it h
e : as, c
c oe na or ae n a f or t h e orre t f orm c c c én a .

S y llable s

7 . Ev e ry Lat in wor d h as as m an y syllable s as it h as v o we ls or

dip h t h on gs
a— c i é m o—
né -
, ,
fi -li-u s , f e -rO-c i-t a-t e .

a. I n t h e di visi on of word s i n t o syllab le s a si n g le on son an t ( i n lu din g c c

c o n son an t i an d v) b e t we e n t wo vowe ls i s w rit t e n an d p ron ou n e d wit h c
t he f ollowi n g vo we l . D ou b le d c on so n an t s are se p arat e d
'

- e r m i—
l i m it t ol
t i t i i di vi
'

a - é - -
r -
a -
p , s , n II ,

N O TE 1 — S om e . for s in gle on son an t s t o an y on son an t grou p ( as

e xt e n d th e ru le c c
S p , st , g n ) t h at c an b e g in a word I n t h is b ook , d i x-ir, sax-u m , e t c are p re fe rre d t o
. .

c
d i -xit , sa-x u m ; t h e p ron u n i at i on was p rob ab ly d i e-si t , sac -su m .

N O T E 2 —A sy llable e n d in g w it h a v ow e l or d ip h t h on g is alle d op e n : all ot h e rs

. c
c
are alle d lose c
Th u s i n pa-t er t h e fi rst sy llab le i s op e n , t h e s e on d lose
. c c .

b . In c om p ou n ds t h e p art s are se p arat e d

ah -e s t , ob -lat u s , dis -e c m o, d u -p lex , di

Pron u n c iat ion

8 . Th e so -c alle d R om an Pr on u n c iat ion of Lat in aim s to re
p re

se n t app ox i m at e ly r t he p ron u n c iat ion of c lass ic al t im e s .

VO W EL S : 5 as i n f ather ; 5 as in id e a .

é as e h ? ( p ro lon e d ,
g ) or a i n d ate ; e as e h ?
( c lip p e d) or e in n et .

I as in c
m a hin e ; I as i n holiest or s it .

6 as i n holy ; 6 as in obey .

‘
II as oo i n boot ; ii as ao in foot .

y b e t w e en 11 an d i ( F re n h c 11 or Ge rm an ii ) .

DI P H TH O N G S : ae like ay ; e i as in ei
ght ; oe lik e oy i n boy ;
like ow in n ow;
’
as e h oo :
’
eu au u i as oo e e .
6 W OR D S AN D F OR MS 11

11 . The Q u an t it y of t he Syllable is im p ort an t for t he p osit ion

of t h e ac c e n t an d in v e rsifi c at ion .

a. A syllab le c on t ain i n g a lon g v owe l or a dip h t h on g is s ai d t o b e lon g

by n atu re : as, m a-t er, ae s , e u-la .

b . A syllab le c o n t ai n in g a sh ort v owe l followe d b y t wo c on s on an t s

( c
e x ept a m u t e b e fore 1 or r
) or by a c
dou b le o n son an t ( x, z) is s aid to be
lon g by p os it ion , bu t t he vow e l i s p ron ou n c e d s hort : as, e st , t er-t a, s ax-u m ,

Me-zen -t iu s .

N O TE — Wh e n a c i s d ou b led t h e p ron u n iat i on

on son an t c sh ou ld S h ow t h i s d is
Th u s in
t in c t ly . m i t t 6 b ot h t s S h ou ld b e p ron ou n e d as in
~
’
c ou t -t alk ( n ot m ere ly a
sin g le t as i n be tt e r) .

0. A syllab le c on t ain i n g a sh o rt v owe l followe d b y a m u t e b e fore 1 or r

is p rop e rly sh ort , b u t m ay b e u se d as lon g i n v e rse S u h a syllable is s ai d
. c
t o b e c om m on .

N O TE 1 - I n sy llab le s lon g b y p osit ion , b u t h avin g a S h ort vow el, t h e le n gt h i s

.

c
p art ly d u e t o t h e fi rst of t h e on son an t s , whi h st an d s i n t h e sam e sy llable w it h t h e c
vowe l I n syllable s of
. om m on c
q u an t it y ( as t h e fi rst sy llab le of pat t ern ) th e ord i
c
n ary p ron u n iat ion w as p a t rem , b u t i n v e rse pat re m was allow ed so t h at t h e sy llab le
- -

c ou ld b e om e lon g c .

N O TE 2 — I n fi n al sy llab le s e n d in g w i t h a on son an t , an d on t ain in g a sh ort v ow el,

. c c
t h e q u an t it y in ve rse i s d e te rm in ed b y t h e f ollow in g word : i f t h i s b e g in s w it h a vowe l
c
t h e fi n al on son an t i s j oin e d t o it in p ron u n iat ion ; if i t b e gi n s wit h a on son an t t h e c c
syllab le i s lon g b y p os it ion .

N O TE 3 — I n ru le s f or q u an t i t y h is n o t ou n t e d as a c on son an t , n or is t h e app ar
. c
c
e n t ly o n son an t al u in q u , g u , su ( se e 5 N . .

d yllab le w h ose v owe l is a, e , 0, or u , followe d b y on son an t i , is

. A s c
lon g wh e t h e r t h e vowe l i t se lf is lon g or sh ort : as, a-ib, m a-ior, p é-iu s .

c c
I n su h ase s t h e le n gt h of t h e syllab le i s i n di ate d in t h is b ook b y a c -

c c
ir u m fle x on t h e vowe l .

N O TE —Th e len gt h of a syllable b efore on son an t i i s d u e t o

. c a tran sit ion al s ou n d
c
( vowel i) wh i h form s a d ip h t h on g w ith t h e p re e din g vow el : c as , a-i b ( for j ai -i o) ,
m a-i or ( for T
m ai-i or) Se e 6 . . c .

e. In som e c om p ou n ds of iac io ( as , i n—
i cib) t h e c on son an t i of t he sim p le

ve rb w as p rob ab ly p ron ou n c ed
( t h ou gh n ot writ t e n ) Thu s t h e . fi rst syl

lab le was lon g b y p osit ion : as, in ic io ( for in ii c ib)

- -
Se e 6 d . . .

In su ch c a se s t h e le n gt h of t he syllab le is n ot in di c at ed i n t his b ook b y

a ci c r um fle x on t he vowe l .

f . W he n a syllab le is lon g b y p osit ion t h e qu an t it y o f t he vowe l is n ot

always d e t e rm i n ab le . Th e vowe l Sh ou ld b e p ron ou n e d sh ort u n le ss i t is c
k n own t o b e lon g .

N OTE — Th e qu an t ity of a vowel u n der th ese ir u m st an e s i s said t o b e h idde n c c c .

I t i s ofte n d e t e rm in e d wi t h a g re ate r o r less d eg re e of e rt ain ty b y i n s ript ion al e vi c c

c
d e n e ( see 10 N ) or b y ot h e r m eans
. . I n t h is b ook , t h e qu an t i t y of all su h vowe ls
. c
kn own t o b e lon g i s m ark e d .
 12 - 14] A C C EN T 7

Accent

12 . W ords of t wo s
yllables are ac c en t e d on t he fi rst s ll
y able
' ’ ’
as , R o m a, n des , t an go .

W or d s of mo re t h an t wo syllable s are ac c e n t e d on t he Pe n u lt 1

if t h at is lon g (
’
as , am i c u s, m on e t u r, con t i n
’ ’
git ) ot h e rwise on the
’ ’ ’
A n t e p en u lt ( as, do m inu s , a lac ri s, di ss oc iabili s
) .

a. When an e n clit ic i j s oi n e d t o a word , t h e a cc en t f alls on t he syllab le

n ext b e fore t h e en c lit i c wh , e t her lon g o r s h o rt : as , déaqu e , i m aré

’ ’
ve , t ib i
’
ne,

it aqu e
’

( an d so
) ,
as d ist i n gu ish e d fro m i t aqu e ’

( th ere oref ) . So ( a cc ord

in g t o
’

) i n de ,
’
som e ex e c q uan d b, e tc .

Exc ep t ions 1 C e rt ain app are n t

. c om p ou n ds o f c
fa ie re t ain the a cc e n t of t he
S im p le ve rb : as , be n ef a c it , c alefa c it
’ ’

(se e 2 66 a). .

N O TE .
— Th e se we re n ot t ru e c om p ou n d s, b u t p h ras es .

2 . I n t h e se c on d c
d e le n s ion t h e ge n it i ve an d vo at ive of n ou n s in -i u s an d t h e c
ge n it ive of t h o se in -
iu m e t a n t h e a e t of t h e n o
r i n m i cc
n at ive : as , C orn e li , Ve r i li ,
’

g
’

in ge
’
ni ( see § 4 9 . c) .

3 . c
C e rt ain word s wh i h h ave lost a fi n al vow e l re t ain t h e a en t of t h e cc c om

p le t e w ord s : as , illi o f or i lli c e , prbdii c f or p redfi c e , sat i n for sati s n e

’ ’ ’ ’ ’
.

Com bin at ion s

13 . In som e c ase s ad ac e n t j w or ds , be i n g p r on ou n c e d t oge t h e r ,

are wr it t e n as on e

Un u s qu i squ e ( un u squ i s qu e ) , s i qu is ( S i qu is ) , qu aré ( qu a ré ) , qu am obre m ( qu am

ob re m c f qn as ob res ) , ré s p fi bli c a (ré s p ubli a) , i fi s i fi ran du m ( i II S ifi ran dum ) ,
. c '

pat erfam i li as ( p at e r fam ilias ) .

N O TE . S om e t im es a slig h t ch an g e i n p ron un i at ion c resu lt ed , as , e sp e ci ally in t h e

old p o e t s , b e fo re e st i n h om bst ( h om o e st ) , p e ri c u lu m st ( pe ri u lu m c e st ) ,
au su st ( an su s est )
cc
,
’ ’

q u ali st ( quali s est ) S im ilarly t h e re o u r vi n , sc i n for vi sn e ,

. sc i sn e , si s ( si -vi s
) sed es
,

( si au d é s ) ,
sfi lt i s ( Si v u lt i s ) . C om p are in En glish so m e body , t o bre akf ast ; he
’
8, I
’
ve ,
th ou
’
rt .

Ph on et ic Chan ges

14Lat in , t h e lan g u ag e o f t h e an ie n t Ro m an s w as p rop e rly , as it s n am e im p lies , c ,

c
.

t h e lan gu age S p ok e n in t h e p lai n of Lat iu m , ly in g sou t h of t h e Tib e r, wh i h w as t h e fi rst

cc
t e rrit ory o u p ied an d g ove rn e d b y t h e R om an s I t is a d e s e n d an t o f an e arly f orm . c
of s p ee h c c
om m on ly c
alle d I n d o-Eu rop e an ( b y so m e I n d o- Ge rm an i c ) , from wh i h
-
c
c
are also d e s e n d ed m ost of t h e im po rt an t lan g u age s n ow i n u s e in Eu rop e , i n lu din g c
am on g ot h e rs En glish , Ge rm an , t h e S lav i an d t h e C e lt i lan g u ag e s , an d f u rt h e r som e c c
n e w or form e rly sp ok e n i n sia, as S ans k rit , Pe rs ian , rm e ni an A
Gree k lik ewise A .

1 Th e Pe n u lt is t h e last sy llable bu t on e ; t he A n t e p e n u lt , t h e last b u t t wo

8 WO R D S A ND F O R MS I 4 , 15

b e lon g s t o t h e sam e f am ily Th e R om an e ( or Ro m an i ) lan g u ages , of wh i h t h e

. c c c
m os t i m p o rt an t a re I t a l i an , F r e n h ,
P r ov e n c al , S p an i s h P o c
rt u gu e se , an d R ou m an i an , ,

c
are m od e rn d e s e n d an t s of sp ok e n Lat in .

c
.

Th e e arlies t k n own f orm s of Lat in are p re s e rved in a f e w in s rip t ion s Th e se in .

c re as e i n n u m b e r a s w e a pp r o a h t h e t i m e w h e n t h e la c
n gu ag e b e g an t o b e u se d in lit e ra

t u re ; t hat is , ab ou t B C 2 50 I t i s t h e om p arat ive ly s t ab le lan g u ag e of t h e lass i al

. . . c c c
ri o d 8 0 — A D 1 4 ) t h a t i s o rd in a rily m e an t wh e n w e sp e ak of Lat in , an d it is
pe . .

m ain ly t h is t h at is d es rib e d i n t h is b ook c .

15 A m on g t h e m ain fe at u r es in t h e c h an ge s of Lat in fr om
.

the e arlie st st age s of t h e lan gu ag e as w e kn ow i t u p t o t h e for m s

of c las sic al Lat in m ay b e m e n t ion e d t h e followin g

Vowel Chan ges

1 . Th e old d i p h t h on g ai be c am e the c la ic al ass e

( ae dilis for old aidi lis
) ,

old oi be c am e oe or ii ( f m
ir s f or old oin os
) ,
an d o ld on be c am e II
'

( dii c b f or
old dou c b) .

2 . In c om p ou n d v e rb s the v o we l a o f t he S im p le v e rb oft e n ap p e ars as i

or e , an d ac s i m i larly ap p e ars as i :

c
fa ie, f a t u m , b u t c c 6n fi c i 6 , c on fe c t u m ; c ae db, bu t oc c idd, an d sim ilarly ce cidi ,

p erfe t c of c ae db (c f . c ado, oc c ido; c cidi

e , p e rfe t c of c ado ) .

c
N O TE — Th is h an g e i s om m on ly as rib e d t o an a e n t u at ion on t h e fi rst sy l
. c c cc
c
lable , wh i h se e m s t o h ave b ee n t h e ru le in Lat i n b e fore t h e ru le g ive n ab ov e ( see 12 )
c
b e am e e st ab li sh e d Th e origin al I n d o-Eur op ean a e n t , h ow e ve r, w as n ot lim ite d b y cc
—
.

c
e it h e r of t h e se p ri n ip les ; it was p rob ab ly a m u si al a e n t se alle d , on s ist in g in a c cc c c
C h an ge of p itc h , an d n ot m e re ly in a m ore f or i b le Ut t e ran e of t h e a e n te d syllab le c c cc .

3 . Two vowe ls c o m in g t oge t h e r are of t e n c on t r ac t ed

cage for Tc o—
agb ; p ram ?) f or Tp ro-
em b ; n il fo r n ih i l ; dé be b f or Tde-h ibeb
( Tdé -h ab s b
) .

Con son an t Ch an ges

4 . An old S re gu larly be c am e r b e t we en t wo v owe ls

p assin g
fi rst t hrou gh t h e sou n d of
( En
gli sh
) 2

ge n i t ive of
1
c ram ( cf . e st ); ge n e ris , ge n u s .

N O TE — Fi n al 8 som et im e s b e am e
. c r b y an alogy : as , h on or ( old e r b on es) , f rom t h e
an alogy of h on bri s , e t c .

5 . A de n t al ( t , d ) o ft e n be c am e S , e sp e c ially wh e n st an din g n ex t t o t , d,
or S : as, e qu e st ri s f or t e qu ett ris , ca su s f or j c adt u s ( c f . 6 , b e low ) .

6 . Man y in st an c e s of assi m ilat i on , p art ial or c om p le t e , are f ou n d :

c e s si c
f or i e d-S i ; su m m u s f or Ts u p m u s c
s ri p t u s for s c ri b t u s (b u n vo i ci ng to

p b e f ore t h e voi e le ss tc ); an d in c om p ou n d ve rb s (s ee
1 A sim ilar h an ge c c an be s ee n i n En g li s h : as , were ( c f was) , lorn ( c f lose)
. . .
 15 - 1 7 ] VO WEL VA R I A TI ON S 9

D issi m i lat i on , t h e o p p osit e kin d of ch a n

ge , p re ve n t e d i n s om e ca
se s t he
re p e t it i on of t he s am e so u n d in s u c c c e ssive syllab le s :

Th us , p arilia f or palilia ( from Palé s ) ; m eri di é s f or T nat fi rali s wit h

i

m e di d é s ; su ffi x
ali s ( af t e r I ) , b u t p op u laris wi t h -ari s ( af t e r
7 . Fi n al S was i n e arl
y Lat in n ot alw a s
y p ron ou n c e d : as,
plén u ( s ) fi déi .

N O TE .
— Tra c
e s of t h i s p ron u n iat ion e xi st e d in C i e ro s t im e c H e spe ak s of t h e om is c ’

c
.

sion of fi n al s b e fore a word b e gi n n in g wit h a on son an t as c o u n t rifi e d ( su brfls t i cu m )

8 . A fi n al c on son an t of t e n disap p e ars : as, virgb f or 1virg6n ; lac for
j lac t c or f or (c ord .

9 . G, c ,
an d h u n it e wi t h a f ollo win g S t o f o rm x : as, réx f or T
ré g s ; dux
1
f or j du c s t ri xi for j t rah si .

1 0 G an d h b e f ore t b e
. c om e c : as, ré c t u m for J
[ re gt u m ; a t n m f or fagt u m ; c
t ré c t u m for j t raht u m
fi

11 Be t we e n m an d S or m an d
p is of t e n d e ve lop e d
. t, a : as, S ii m p si for
j sfi m si ; ém p t u m f or j ém t u m .

16 c
I n om po u n d s wi t h p re p osit ion s t h e fi n al on son an t in t h e p re posit ion was oft e n
. c
c
assim ilat e d t o t h e f ollo wi n g on son an t , b u t u sag e v arie d o n sid e rab ly c .

Th e re is good au t h orit y fo r m an y o m p le t e or p art ial as sim ilat ion s ; as , for ad , c

ac c ag g ap p at t i n st e ad of ad c ad g e t c Be fore a lab i al on so n an t we fi n d c om . c
( c om b c om p c omm b u t c on i s t h e f orm b e fore 0, d , f , g , ons i , q , s , t , on s v ; w e c . c
c c
.

fi n d c on l or c oll c on r or c orr c d in on e t e, c oni v eo, c eni t or, c on ub i u m I n u su ally .

c h an g e s t o i m b e fore p , b , m oh an d s ub m ay assim ilat e b t o a f ollow in g 0, f , g , or

.

c
p ; b e f ore 8 an d t t h e p ro n u n i at i on of p re p os it ion s e n d in g in b d o u b t le ss h ad p ; surr
su m m o cc
u r f or su b r su b m Th e in se p arable am b lose s b b e fore a on son an t c .

C i rc u m o fte n lose s it s 111 b e fo re i Th e s of d i s b e om e s r b e fore a vow e l an d is assim i

. c
lat e d t o a follow in g f ; som e t im e s t h is p re fi x ap p e ars as d i I n st e ad o f e x w e fi n d c i
b e fo re f ( also ec f Th e d of red an d S é d is g e n e rally lost b e f ore a on son an t Th e c .

c
p re p os it ion is b e tt e r le ft un h an ge d in m os t ot h e r ase s c .

Vowel Variat ion s

17Th e p ar e n t lan g u ag e
. sh o w e d g r e at v ar i at i on in t h e v ow e l
s ou n ds of k i n d r e d w o rds
3
.

a. Thi s v ari at i on is of t e n c alle d b y t h e Ge rm an n am e A blau t . I t h as

le f t c on sid e rab le t ra c es i n t h e f orm s of Lat in word s, app e ari n g so m e t im e s

as a diff e re n c e of q u an t i t y i n t h e s am e vo we l ( as , 11, E; e, som e t im e s as a

d iffe re n c e in t h e v owe l i t s e lf as ,
( e, o ; i, s e)
t e ge, I c over, ; p e n de, I weigh , p on d u s , weight ; fi dé s , f aith , fi du s ,
t oga, a robe

f aithf u l, foe du s , a treat y ; m i s e r, wret hed , m ae s t u s , s ad ; dare , t o give, c

dbn u m , a g if t ; re gb , I ru le , ré x , a kin g ; d u x , a lead er, d r i ed ( f or old er
c
d e u e) , I lead . C o m p are En glish d rive , d rove (drave) , dri ven ; bi n d , bou n d ,
ban d ; s in g , san g , s u n g ; et c .

1 R e ally f or ft rag h si Th e 11 of t rah b re p re se n t s an -old e r p alat al sou n d ( se e

.

2 R e ally f or T t rag h t u m Th e se are ase s of p art ial assim ilat ion ( of 6 , abo ve)
. c . .

3 Th is variat io n w as n o t w i t h o u t re g u larit y , b u t w as on fi n e d w it h in d e fi n ite lim its c .

4 I n Gre e k , h owe ve r, i t i s m ore e xt e n sive ly p re se rv e d .

10 W OR D S AND F ORM S 18 , 19

Kindred Form s
18 Both Lat in an d En glish h ave g on e t h rou g h a se rie s of p h on e t i h an g es, d if cc
c c
.

fe ren t i n t h e t wo lan gu age s , b u t fo llow in g d e fi n i t e laws in e a h H en e b ot h p re .

c c
se rve t ra e s O i t h e Old e r sp e e h i n som e f e at u re s of t h e v owe l sy st e m , an d b ot h S h ow
c c c c
e rt ain orre sp on d e n e s i n o n son an t s in word s w h i h e a h lan gu ag e h as in h e rit e d fro m c c
c
t h e Old om m on st o k c
On ly a f ew of t h ese orre sp on de n e s c an b e m en t ion ed h e re
. c c .

19 . Th e m ost im p or t an t rre sp on de n c e s in c on son an t s be t we e n

co

Lat in an d En glish , in c o n at e w ords m a be s e e n in t h e follo win

g y , g
1
t able
L A TI N EN G L I S H
h li d 2
p : p at e r f : f at er, e ar e r f a er

f from bh : f erb, frat er b : to bear, brot her

b lu b e t , lib et v, f : love , lief
3
t : tfi, t e n n is th : t hou , t hin
(1 : d u o, de n t t : two, tooth
f from db : f ac id (1 : do
d m e di u s (1 : m id
b t ub e r d : red

c c : ord c orn fi h heart , horn

:

qu : qu od w h : what
g g e n u s , g u st u s
: 0, k, ch : kin , ch oos e

h ( from gh ) z h ort u s , h ae du s y, g : y ard , g oat

c on s . i : i n gu m y : y oke
v : ven t as , ovis w : win d , e we

f rom g v : viv u s ( for i g vivos ) ,

v
Q“, C, 15 : qu i k, c c om e
v e ni b ( for i gve m i a) .

N O TE 1 c
S om e t im e s a on son an t lost i n Lat i n is st ill re p re sen t e d i n En glish : as ,
.
’

n i v ( for i sn i v En g s n ow an se r ( for T h an se r) , En g g oose

. . .

c
N O TE 2 — F rom t h e se ase s of k in d re d word s in Lat in an d En g lish m u st b e are
. c
c c
f ully di st in gu i sh e d t h ose as e s i n wh i h t h e Lat in w ord h as b e e n t ak e n in t o En glish e it h e r
c
di re t ly or t h rou gh som e on e O f t h e m od e rn d e s en dan t s of Lat in , e sp e i ally F re n h c c c .

Th u s fac ib is k in d red wit h En g do, b u t from t h e Lat in p art i ip le ( fa t u m ) of t hi s v e rb

. c c
c c
om e s En g f a t , an d f rom t h e F re n h d es e n d an t (f ai t) O f f a t u m
. c
om es En g f e atc c c . .

1 Th e I n do—
Eu rop e an p are n t sp e e ch h ad am on g it s c c
on son an t s v oi e d asp irat e s

(bh ,
d h , gh ) A ll t h e se su ff e re d
. ch
in Lat in , t h e m ost i m p ort an t re su lt s b e in g ,
an g e
for b h , Lat i n f , 1) ( En glish h as b ,
v , or f)
; f or d h , Lat in f , b , d ( En glish h as d ) for g h ,
Lat in 11 , g ( En glish h as y , g ) Th e ot h e r m u t e s su ffe re d i n Lat in m u h le ss h an ge ,
. c c
wh ile in En glish , as i n t h e ot h e r Ge rm an i lan gu age s , t h e y h ave all h an ge d c on sid c c
e rab ly in a cc c
ord an e w it h wh at h as b een alle d Grim m s Law for t h e sh ift in
’
c
g of m u t e s .

2 Th e t h i n
f at her i s a lat e d evelop m e n t Th e old er form f ade r seem s t o S h ow an .

c
e x e p t i on t o t h e ru le t h at En glish orre sp on d s t o Lat in t c
Th e p rim it i ve Ge rm an i . c
cc c
f orm was d ou b t le ss i n a ord an e w it h t h is ru le , b u t , o n ac ou n t of t h e p osit ion of t h e c
cc c c
a en t , whi h in Germ an i was n ot orig in ally on t h e fi rst sy llab le i n t h is word , t h e
c on son an t u n d e rwe n t a se on d ary h an ge t o d c c .

3 Bu t t o t h e c
grou p st of Lat i n orre sp on d s also En glish st ; as in Lat in st d, En g lish
s t an d .
 5 2 0] THE PAR TS OF SPEEC H 11

TH E P AR TS OF S PEEC H

20 . W ords are di v ide d in t o e igh t Par t s of Sp e e c h : N ou n s,

A dj e c t iv es ( i n c lu din g P ar t ic ip le s , Pr on ou n s , Ve r bs , A d v e r bs ,
)
Pr ep os it ion s, C on j u n c t ion s, an d I n t e rj e c t ion s .

a. A N ou n i s t h e n am e of a p e rson , p la c e, t h in g, or ide a : as, Cae sar ;

R bm a, R om e ; d om u s , a house v irt fi s , virt u e .

N am e s of c
p art i u lar p e rso n s an d p la c e s are c all d P e ro e r
p N ou n s o th e r

n ou n s are c alle d C om m on .

N or m — An Ab ct N
s t ra ou n i s t h e n am e O f a q u ali t y or id e a : as, au da i a , bold n ess c
sen e ct fi s, old ag e . A C ll c t i
o e c
v e N ou n i s t h e n am e Of a grou p , lass, o r t h e lik e : as , t u rba ,

c rowd e xe r ci t as , arm y .

b . A n Ad j ct i
e ve is a word t h at at t rib u t e s a q u alit y : as, b onu s , g ood
fort is , brave, s tron g .

N O TE 1 A c
P art i i p le i s a w ord t h at att ri b u t e s q u alit y li k e an ad j e t i ve , b u t , b e i n g
. c
d e ri ve d f rom a v e rb , ret ain s i n so m e d eg re e t h e p owe r of t h e ve rb t o asse rt : as ,
c
C aes ar on su l c t eat u s , Ows ar h avi n g bee n d e c t e d on su l c .

c
N O T E 2 —Et y m ologi ally t h e re is n o d iff e ren e b e t we en a n ou n an d an ad j e t ive ,
. c c
b ot h b e i n g form e d alik e S O , t oo , all n am es origi n ally att rib u t e q u ali t y , an d an y c o m
.

m on n am e ca n st ill b e so u se d Th u s, Ki n g William d is t in gu is h e s t h i s W illiam f rom

.

ot h e r W illiam s, b y t h e at t ri b u t e of roy alt y e xp re ssed i n t h e n am e ki n g .

0. A Pron o u n i s a wo rd u se d t o d ist in g u i sh a p erso n , p la e , t h i n g, or c

id e a wi t h ou t e it h e r n am in g or c
d e s rib i n g i t : as, is , he ; qu i, who ; n bs, we .

N ou n s an d
p ron ou n s are O ft e n c all d Se u b stan t ive s .

d . A Ve rb i s a wo rd whi h i s c c ap ab l e O f asse rt in
g s o m e t h in g : as , s u m ,
1 am am at , he loves .

c
N or m — I n all m od e rn sp ee h t h e v e rb is u su ally t h e on ly w ord t h at asse rt s an y- u

t hi n g , an d a v e rb i s t h e re fore s u p p ose d t o b e n e e ssary t o o m p le t e an asse rt io n c c .

c c
S t ri t ly , h owev er, an y ad j e t ive o r n ou n m ay , b y at t rib u t in g a q u alit y or g iv i n g a
c
n am e , m ak e a o m p le t e ass e rt ion I n t h e i n fan y of lan g u ag e t h e re ou ld h ave b ee n
. c c
n o ot h er m e an s of asse rt in g , as t h e ve rb i s of om p arat ive ly lat e d e velop m e n t c .

e. A n A d ve rb is a word u se d to t h e t im e , p la e , or m an n e r of
e x p re ss c
an asse rt ion or at t rib u t e : as, sp le n d ide m e n daz , g loriou s ly f alse h od ié n at u s
e st , he was born to—
dag .

N on a— Th ese s am e c
f u n t ion s are O ft en p erform e d b y ase s (see 2 14- 2 17) of c
c
n ou n s , p ron ou n s , an d ad j e t ives , an d b y p h rases or s en t e n es I n f a t , all adve rb s c . c
c
we re orig in ally ases or p h rase s, b u t h ave b e om e sp e ializ ed b y u se c c .

f . A Pre p osit ion is a word wh i h c sh o ws the re lat i o n b e t wee n a n o u n or

p ron ou n an d som e ot h e r w ord or words i n t h e s am e se n t e n c e : as, pe r agros

it , he goes over the fi elds é p lfi rib u s fi n u m , on e ou t of m an y

N O T E — Most re p o sit io n s are sp e ializ e d ad v e rb s ( c f

p c . Th e re lat ion s e x

c
.

p resse d b y p rep os it ion s w e re e arli e r e xp resse d by ase -e n din g s .

12 W OR D S A ND F OR MS 2 0- 2 2

j c
g A C o n u n t io n is a word w h i h o n n e t s w ords, or g rou p s o f words,
. c c c
c
wi t h o u t affe t in g t h e ir g ram m at i al re lat ion s : as , s t , an d ; se d, bu t c .

N O TE — S om e ad ve rb s are also u sed as c on n e cti ve s . Th ese are alle d c

d ve rb ial A
Con j u n t ion s c or c
C on j u n t i ve ( R e lat i ve) Ad ve rb s : as , u b i , wh ere ; d en c e , u n t il .

h . c
I n t e rj e t ion s are m e re e x c lam at i on s an d are n ot s t ri c t ly t o be cl asse d

as p art s of s p e e ch . Th u s, h e u s , halloo 6, oh !

N O TE .
— I n ter e j ct i o n s som e t i m es e xp re ss an e m o t ion c c
w hi h affe t s a p e rso n o r t h in g
m e n t i o n e d , an d h av e a g ram m at i al on n e t ion
so c c c lik e ot h e r w ord s : as , m e vi c t i s, woe
t o th e c on qu e re d ( alas f or t h e on q u e re d) c
I NF LECTI ON

21 . Lat in is an infle c t e d lan gu ag e .

I n fi e c t ion is a c h an g e m ad e in t he for m of a w o r d t o S h ow i t s

g ram m at i c al r e lat ion s .

a I fl ti . al c h a g
n ec on n e s som e t i m e s c
t ak e p la e i n t h e b o dy o f a wo rd , or

at t h e b e gi n n in g, b u t O ft e n e r in i t s t e rm i n at io n

v ex, a voi e c ; v ec i s , o f a voi e c ; I c all; v o at , c he call ; s v oc e t , let h im c all;

v oc avi t , h e has call d ; e t an git , h e t ou c he s ; t et i git , he t ou hed c .

b . Te rm in at io n s o f i fl cti
n e on h ad ori gi n ally in de p e n d e n t m e an in gs wh i h c
are n ow c
ob s u re d . Th y c e orre sp on d
y t o t he
n e arl u se of p re p osi t i o n s,
au x ili arie s, an d p e rson al p ron o u n s i n En glis h .

Th u s , i n c
v o at , t h e t e rm in at ion is e qu ivale n t t o he or she ; in v oe is , t o th e

p re p osit ion of; an d in voc e t the ch an ge of vowe l s ign ifi e s a ch an ge of m ood .

c . c
I n fl e c t ion al h an ge s i n t h e b ody of a v e rb u su all
y d e n o te re lat io n s O f
t e n se or m oo d , an d o f t e n c orre sp on d t o t he u se O f au x iliar
y ve rb s in En g
li sli °

f ran gi t , he breaks or is bre akin g ; fregit , he broke or has broken ; m ord e t , he

m om ordit , h e bit 1
bit es .

22 Th e in fle c t ion o f N ou n s A dj e c t iv e s, P r on ou n s , an d P ar
. ,

t ic ip le s t o d e n o t e g e n de r, n u m b e r, an d c ase is c alled D e c le n sion ,

an d t h e se p ar t s of s p e e c h are s aid t o b e d e c lin e d .

Th e in fle c t ion of Ve rb s t o de n ot e v o ic e , m ood, t e n se, nu m be r ,

an d p e s on r is c alle d C on j u gat ion , an d t he v e rb is s aid t o be c on

j u g at e d .

N O TE . A c
d j e t i ves are O f t e n said t o h ave in fl e ti on s of om p ari son c c . Th e se are ,
h o w e ve r, p rop e rly st e m -form at ion s m ade b y d e rivat ion ( p 55 , f oo t n ot e) . .

1 Th e on ly c
p rop e r i n fl e t ion s of v e rb s are t h ose of t h e p e rson al e n din g s ; an d t h e
c c c
h an g e s h e re re fe rre d t o are st ri t ly h an g e s of s t e m , b u t h av e b e om e a p art of t h e c
sy st e m of i n fl e t i on s c .
 4 W OR D S A N D F OR MS 26—3 0

26 . Th e S t e m ro ot : as in du c i of a le ader
m ay b e t h e s am e as t he -
s, ,

fer- t he be ars ; b u t i t is m or e fre qu e n t ly for m e d fro m t h e ro ot

,

1 B y c h a gi g
. l gt h n i g it n w l a i
or enc b— wd t ( C A en n s vo e : s n s o s, s a us S B,

shave
) ; é g
—i f rI i g ( EG d i
s, o t) ; vb i
a c n f i ( V R c ll) ,
re c c - s, o a vo c e OC, a .

By t h e add i t io n of a sim p le
2 . s u ffi x
( ori
gi n ally an o t h e r roo t ) : as in f u ga
s t e m of f u ga, fl ight ( F U G it ) ; re g i s,— y o u ru le
( R EG s t e m -e n d i n
g
s in i—
e
t , he allows /0
( SI n

3 . By t wo or m ore of t h e se m e t h ods : as i n d fi c i t , he leads

-
( DUC s te m

e n di n g

4 By d e ri vat i on an d
. c om p osit ion , f ollo wi n g t h e law s of de v e lop m e n t
pe c uliar t o t h e lan g u age .
( S ee 2 2 7 if ) .

27 . The B ase is t h at p ar t of a w o r d w h i c h is u n c h an ge d in
in fle c t ion : as , se rv in se rvu s ; m én s in m é n s a ; i gn in i gn i s .

a. Th e B ase an d t h e S t e m are Of t e n id e n t i c al , as in m an y c on s on an t

st e m s of n ou n s
( as, reg in ré g-i s
) . I f , h owe ve r, t h e st e m e n ds in a vowe l,

t h e latt e r d o e s n ot ap p e ar i n t h e b ase , b u t is vari ou sly c om b i n e d wi t h t h e

i n fle c t ion al t e rm i n at ion . Th u s t h e st e m of se rvu s is se rvo t h at of m é n sa,
m é n sa t h at of i gn is , i gn i

28 . I n fle c t ion al t e rm i n at ion s are v ariou sly

m odifi e d by c om
bin at ion w it h t h e fi n al v o w e l or c on so n an t of t h e S t e rn , an d t h u s

the v ariou s form s of D e c le n s ion an d C on j u g at ion ( se e 3 6, 1 6 4)

d e v e lop e d .

GENDER

29 . Th e Gen de r s d ist in gu ish e d in Lat in are th re e : M asc u lin e ,

F e m in i n e , an d N eu t e r .

3 0 The ge n de r of Lat in
. n oun s is e it h e r n at u ral or g ram m a t ic al .

a. N at u ral Ge n d e r i s dist in t ion c as to the se x O f t he ob e j ct d e n ot e d : as,

p u er boy ; p u ella g irl; réx kin g ; ré gin a

qu e en .

N O TE 1 .
— Man y n ou n s c
h av e b ot h a m as u li n e an d a f e m in i n e f orm t o dist in gu ish
c c
se x : as, ervu s , e rva, s t ag , d oe ; c li é n s , c li en t a , li e n t ; v ic t or, v i t ri x , on qu e ror c c c .

Man y d e s ign at ion s of p e rson s ( as n au ta , sai lor) u su ally t h ou gh n ot n e e ssarily m ale c

are alway s t re at ed as m as u lin e c
S im i larly n am es of t ri bes an d p eop les are m as u lin e :
. c
as , R am an i , th e R om an s ; Persae , t h e P e rsi ans .

N O TE 2 - A f e w n e u t e r n ou n s are u se d to d e sign at e p e rson s as b e lon gin g t o a las s :

. c
c
as , m an i p i u m t u u m , y ou r s lave ( y ou r hat t el) c .

Man y p e t n am e s Of g irls an d boy s are n e u t e r in form : as , Pae g n i um , Gly c eri u m .

c c c
N O T E 3 — N am e s of lasse s o r olle t i on s of p e rson s m ay b e of an y g e n d e r : as,
.

e xerc i t u s ac i es an d agm en arm y ; Op e rae (F . workm e n ; c op i ae

(F . t roop s ; sen at u s se n at e ; c onors c oh ort ; c on c i li um c ou n cil .

1 Th e se s u fi ix es are I n dO-Eu rop e an ste m -e n d in g s .

 3 0—34 ] GEN ER A L R U LES OF GEN D ER 15

b . Gram m at i c al Ge n d e r is a f orm al di st in t ion c as to se x wh e re no a ct u al

se x e x i s t s in t h e ob e j ct . I t is sh o wn b y t h e f orm of t he ad e j ct i ve j oin e d
w it h t h e n ou n : as, lap is m agn u s a gre at st o n e ; m an u s m e a ( )R , my
han d .

Gen e ral R u les of Gen de r

31 . Nam es of M ale be in gs, an d of R iv e r s , W in ds M on t hs , , an d

M o u n tain s ,
are m ascu lin e :

p at e r, f at her ; I d li u s , Ju li u s ; Ti be ri s , t he Tiber ; au s t e r, sou t h win d ; [ an n a

ri u s , Jan u ary ; Ap e nn in u s , t he A p en n in es .

N O TE — N am es o f Mon t h s are p rop e rly ad j e t iv e s, t h e m as c c ulin e n oun m en si s,

m o n th , b e in g u n d e rst ood : as, Ian u ari u s , Jan u ary .

(1 . A fe w n am e s of R ive rs e n d in g in
-
a ( as , Allia) , wi t h t h e Gre e k n am e s

Lét h é an d S t yx , f e m in in e ; ot h e rs are v ari ab le or u n e rt ain

are c .

b S o m e n am e s of Mo u n t ai n s are f e m i n in e or n e u t e r, t ak in g t h e ge n d e r
.

of t h e ir t e rm i n at i o n : as, Alpé s the A lp s ; S bract e

32 . N am es of Fe m ale be in gs , of C it ie s, C ou n t ri es , Plan t s , Tre es ,

an d Ge m s, of m an y A n i m als ( e sp e c iall
y B i r d s) , an d O f m os t ab

r
s t ac t Q u alit ie s , are f e m in in e
m at e r, m other ; I d li a, Ju lia ; R ein a, R om e ; I t alia, I taly ; ros a, rose ; p in u s ,
p in e ; s ap p h iru s , s ap p hire ; an as , du k ; c v erit as , tru th .

a. S om e n am e s o f To wn s an d C ou n trie s are m as uli n e c as, S ulm b, Gabii

Tare n t u m , I llyri u m
or n e u t e r, as, c .

b . A fe w n am e s Of Plan t s an d Ge m s f ollow t h e ge n d e r of t h e ir t e rm i n a
t io n : as , c en t au ré u m e n tau ry ; a an t h u sc be arsf oot ; Opalu s c
op al .

N OTE Th e gen de r of m ost of t h e ab o ve m ay also b e re ogn iz e d b y t h e t e rm in a

.
- c
cc
t ion s , a o rd in g t o t h e rule s g iv e n u n d e r t h e se v e ral d e le n sions Th e n am e s o f Ro m an c .

c
w om en we re u s u ally fem in i n e ad j e t ive s d e n ot in g t h e ir g é ns or h ou s e ( see 108 b) . .

33 I n d ec lin able n ou ns , in fi n it ive s, t e rm s or p r as e s

h u s e d as

n ou n s , an d w or ds q u ot e d m e r e ly for t h eir fo rm , are n eu t er

f it s , rig ht
; n i hil, not h in g g u m m i , gu m ; s c i re t u u m , y ou r kn owledge
; (t o
”
vale, a sad f a ewe
“
k n o w) t ri s t e r ll h Oc ip su m di d , t his very lon g .

34 . M an y n ou n s m ay be e it h e r m asc u lin e or fe m in in e , ac c o rd
in g t o t he se x of t he j
ob e c t . Th ese are said t o be of C om m on

Ge n d e r : as , ex su l, ex ile ; hes , or or c ow ; r
pa en s , p aren t
'

N O TE Se veral n am e s O f an im als ha ve a g ram m at i al g e n d er, in d ep e n d e n t O f se x

. c .

Th es e are alle d ep i e n e c c
Th u s lep u s , h are , i s alw ay s m as u lin e , an d vu lp es , f or, is
. c
alw ay s fe m in i n e .
16 D EC LEN S I ON OF N OUN S 3 5- 3 7

N UMBER A N D C AS E

35 . N ou n s, Pr on ou n s, A dj e c t iv e s , an d Par t ic iples are d e c lin e d

i n t wo N u m b e rs , si ng u lar an d
p lu ral; an d in s ix C as e s , n om n a i
t i ve , g en it ive, d at ive, ac cu sat ive, ablat ive , voc at ive .

a. Th e N om in at i ve i s t h e ca
se o f t h e Su b j e t c O f a se n t e n c e .

Th e Ge n it ive m ay ge n e rally b e t ran slate d b y t h e En gli sh Posse ssive ,

b .

c
o r b y t h e O b j e t ive wit h t h e p re p o s it ion of .

c Th e D at ive is t h e as e o f t h e I n d i re t O bj e t
. c I t m ay u s u ally c c
c
b e t ran slat e d b y t he O b j e t ive wi t h t h e p re p osit io n t o o r f or .

d . Th e A cc u s at iv e is t he ca se o f t h e Dire t O b je t c c o f a v e rb It
is W it h m an y of t h e p re p o sit ion s
u s e d als o .

e The Ab lat ive m ay u su ally b e t ran slat e d b y t h e O b

. j ct i
e ve w it h f rom ,

by with, in , or at
, I t i s o f t e n u se d wit h p re p osi t ion s
. .

c
f Th e Vo at ive i s t h e ase of Dire t Ad dre ss
. c c .

g . All t h e ca se s, e x e p tc t he n om in at ive an d c
v o at ive , are u se d as Ob e j ct
ca se s ; an d are som e t i m e s alle d O b li qu e C ase s c ( ca u s s obli u i
q ) .

h . I n n am e s of t o wn s an d a fe w o t h e r word s app e ar t ra c e s of an ot h e r

c ase
( t he Lo c at ive
) ,
d e n ot in g t he p la c e whe re : as, R bm ae , at R om e ; rfi ri, in
t he c ou n try .

. c
N O TE — S t lll an o t h er ase , t h e I n st ru m en t al, ap p e ars in a few adv e rb s 2 15 .

D EC LEN S I ON OF N O U N S

36 c c
D e le n sion i s p rod u e d b y addin g t e rm in at io n s o rig in ally sig n ifi an t to d iffe r c
c cc
,

e n t f orm s O f s t e m s , vow e l o r on son an t Th e vario u s p h on e t i orru p t ion s i n t h e lan

.

g u a g e h av e g i v e n ri se t o t h e se v e ral d e le n s io ns M os t o f t h e ase c
-e n din s as i ve n
g , g . c
c
i n Lat in , on t ain also t h e fi n al le t t e r o f t h e st e m .

A c c
d j e t iv e s are , i n g e n e ral, d e lin e d lik e n ou n s , an d are e t ym olog i ally t o b e lassed c c
c
w it h t h e m ; b u t t h e y h ave se ve ral p e u liari t i e s of in fl e t ion ( see 109 if ) c .

37 . N ou n s are i n fle c t e d in fi ve D e c le n sion s, dist in gu ish e d by

th e fi n al le t t e r ( c harac t erist ic o f t h e S t e m , an d by t h e c as e -e n din
) g
of the Ge n i t iv e S in g u lar .

D EC L . l CH AA
R C TE R I S TI C 5 GEN S I N G
. . ae

2 6
3 i or a C o n son an t
4 ii
5 é

a. Th e S t e m o f a n ou n m ay b e f o u n d , if a c o n s on an t st e m , by om i t t in g
t he c ase -e n d in g ; i f a vo we l s t e m ,
by s u b st i t u t in g f or t h e c ase-e n din g t h e
c h a ac r c
t e ri s t i v o we l .
 3 8 , 3 9] C A S E—EN D IN GS O F TH E EI V E D EC L EN S I ON S 17

38 . Th e follow in g are Ge n e ral R u les Of D e c len s ion

a. Th e Vo c at i ve is always t he sam e as t h e N o m in at ive , e xc e
p t in t h e
s in gu lar of n ou n s an d ad e j ct i ve s in -
u s of t he s e on dc c
d e le n sion , c
w h i h h ave
-e in t h e v o at iv ec . I t is n ot c
in lu d e d i n t h e p arad ig m s , u n le s s i t difl e rs
fro m t h e n om i n at ive .

b . In n e u t e rs t h e N o m in at iv e an d A cc u s at ive are alw ays alike , an d in

t h e p lu ral e n d i n -
5 .

c . Th e A cc u sat ive s in
g u lar O f all m as c u lin e s an d
‘
f e m in in e s e n ds in -m ;
t he A cc u s at iv e p lural i n
-
s .

d . I n t he last t h re e d e le n sio n s c ( an d in a fe w c ase s in t h e o t h e rs

) t he
Dat ive S in gu lar e n d s i n
e Th e Dat ive an d A b lat ive p lu ral are always alik e
. .

f Th e Ge n i t ive p lu ral always e n d s i n 4 1111

. .

y Fi n
. al -i
,
-o -u O f i n fle t ion are alwa s lon
, y g; fi n al -
a i s short, c c
ex e p t in
t h e Ab lat ive s in gu lar of t he fi rs t c
d e le n sio n fi n al -e i s lon g i n t h e fi rs t an d

c
fi ft h d e le n sion s , short in t h e se c on d an d t hird . F i n al -is an d -u s are lon g in

p lu r al c as es .

Case—
e n din gs of t h e Five Dec len s ion s

39 . Th e r egu lar C ase -e n d in gs Of the se ve ral d e c le n sion s are

1
t h e follo win g

DEC L I . D EC L I I . D EC L I I I . D EC L I V . D EC L V .

SI N G UL A R

-u m
NOH '

( m od ifi e d st e m )

ii )
'
-u i -

-e m -
im ) ( lik e n om .

) -
u m -e m
49 01)
-u m ( li k e n om .
)

PLU R A L

-n a -é s

-
§ ru m -6 ru m -u m ,
—
iu m -u u m —
e ru m
-
ib u s -
ib u s -
u b us
)
-
éb u s

is ) ia
'
-
és - -a
,
- -n a

1F or an ie n t , rare ,c an d Gre e k f orm s ( w h i h c are h e re o m it t e d ) , see un d e r th e

se ve ral d e le ns i onsc .
18 D EC LEN SI ON OF N OUN S 40-4 3

FI R S T DEC LEN S I ON ( d -S TE MS )
40 Th e S t e m
. of n ou n s of t h e Fi rst D ec le n sion e n ds in a Th e
N o m in at iv e e n di n g is -
a
( t h e s t e m v owe l S h or t e n e d
-
) exc e p t in ,

Gre ek n ou n s .

41 . Lat in n ou n s of t h e Fi rs t D e c le n sion are t h u s de c lin e d

st e lla, F .
, star

S TE M s t e lla

SI N G U L A R
C A S E- EN D I N G S

a s tar -a

a star

with, f rom , by, etc . a star

PL U R A L

s tars

with, f rom , by, e tc . st ars

a. Th e Lat in h as n o art i cl e ; he n c e st e lla m ay m e an a star, the st ar, or

si m p ly star .

Gen de r i n t h e First Dec len s ion

42 . N ou n s of the fi rs t d e c len sio n are F e m i n in e .

c
Ex ep tions : N ou n s m as c u lin e from t h e ir sign ifi at i on c : as , n au t a, sailor . SO a
fe w fam ily or p e rson al n am e s : as , Mfi ré n a, Dolabe lla, S c ae vola 1 also, Hadria, the
A driatic .

r
Case-Fo m s i n t he Fi rst Dec len sion

43 . a. c
Th e ge n it ive sin g u lar an ie n t ly e n de d i n a t ( d is syllab i ) , wh i h c c
is o cc asio n ally f ou n d : as, an lai Th e sam e e n din g som e t im e s o u rs i n t h e
. cc
d at ive , b u t o n ly as a d ip h t h on g .

c
1 S ae vola is re ally a f e m in in e j c
ad e t ive , u sed as a n ou n , m ean in g li t t le lef t h and ;
b u t , b e in g u se d as t h e n am e o f a m an ( orig in ally a n i kn am e ) , it b e am e m as c c c u lin e.

c
Original g en d ers are oft e n t h u s han g ed b y a h an g e in t h e sens e of a n oun c .
 43 , 44] FI R ST D EC LEN SI ON (A STEMS)
-
19

b . An O ld ge n it i ve in i si s p re se rve d i n t h e word fam ilies, Ofte n u se d i n

t he c om b in at ion s pat er ( m at er, fi liu s , filia) fam ilias , f ather, e t c , of a f am ily .

( p lu r .
p at t és fam ilias or fam iliarum ) .

c . Th e Lo cat i ve f orm for t h e sin gular e n ds i n -ae ; f or t h e p luralin i s

( c f.

p 3 4, foot n ot e ) :
. as, R Om ae , at R om e ; At h éni s , at A t he ns .

( 1 Th e ge n it iv e p lu ral is som e t im e s f ou n d i n -u m in st e ad of -Zi rum , e s e

.
p
y y f c
c iall i n Gre e k p at ron m i s , as, Aen eadu m , son s o E n e as, an d i n om p ou n d s c
wit h -c Ola an d -gena, sign if yin g d wellin g an d d es e n t : as, c aelicolu m , e les c c
t ials ; TrOiu ge nu m , sons of Troy ; s o als o i n t h e Gree k n ou n s am p h ora an d
c
dra h m a .

e. Th e d at ive an d ab lat ive p lu ral of d ea, g oddess, fi lia, dau ghter, e n d in

an olde r f orm -ab u s
( deab u s , fi lié b u s ) t o d i st in g u i sh t h e m from t h e orre c
sp on di n g cas e s of deu s , god , an d fili u s , son ( d e is , m iis ) SO rare ly wit h ot h e r
.

words, as , libe r t a, f re e d-wom a n ; m dla, she-m u le ; e qua, m are Bu t , e x e p t . c

wh e n t h e t wo s e x e s are m e n t ion e d t o ge t h er ( as i n f orm ulas, do c u m e n t s,

t he f orm in is is
- re f e rre d i n all b u t dea an d fi lia
p .

N O TE l —Th e old e n d in g of t h e ab lat ive si n gu lar (i d) is som et im e s re tain e d in

.

early Lat in : as , p rai dad , boot y (lat e r, p re edi ) .

N O TE 2 — I h t h e d at i ve an d ablat ive p lu ral -e i s for -i s is som e t im e s fou n d , an d -ifs

.

( as in t ae n ii s ) i s o asi on ally occ

n t ra t e d t o ( c
-i s t ac n i s c
) so re g ularly in word s in h is ( as,
Bi is from Bdiae) .

Greek Nou n s of t h e First Dec len sion

44 . M an y D e c le n sion bo rr o we d fr om t h e
n ou n s of t h e Fi r st
Gr e e k are e n t ir ely Lat i n iz e d ( as , au la, c ou rt) ; bu t o t h e rs r e t ain
t rac es of t h e ir Gr e e k c ase -fo r m s in t h e S in g u lar .

E le ct ra, F . syn op sis , F . art of m us ic , F .

NO M . Ele c t ra ( 3 )
GEN . Ele c t rae
DAT . Ele c trae m fi sic a e

Ac e . Ele c t ram an ) -

ARL . Ele c t ra

A n d rom a he, c F . En eas, M

z . P e rsian , M .

NO M . A n drom a h e c -
a
)
GEN . A n drom ac hé s ae
-
)
D AT . A n dro m ac h ae
Ac e . A n d ro m ac h é n -e m
)
AR L . An d rom a h e ( é c )
V oc . A n drom ac h é -
a
)
20 D EC LEN S I ON O F N OUN S 44-4 6

A n hises, M c . s on o f E n e as, M . c om e t, M
A n h i se s c A e n e ad é s -
a
)
A n c hi sae A e n e adae
A n c hi s ae A e n e ad ae
A n c h i sé n am
-
) A e n e ad é n
A n h i sec -
5) A e n e ad é -
5)
An c hi se -
5, -a
) A e n e ad é a
-
)
Th e re are ( b e sid es p rope r n am es ) ab ou t t h i rt y-fi ve o f t h e se word s, se ve ral b e in g
n am e s o f p lan t s o r art s : as , c ram b é , c abbag e ; m fi si c é , m u s i Most h ave also c . re g u lar

Lat in f orm s : as , c om et a ; bu t the n om in at ive s om e t im es h as t h e a lon g .

a. Gre e k form s are fou n d on l

y i n t he s in gu lar ; t h e p lu ral, wh e n it
o cc u rs, is
gu lar :re as , c om ét ae , 431m m , e t c .

b . Man y Gre e k n ou n s v ar
y b e t we e n t h e fi rst , t h e se c on d, an d t h e t h ird
c
d e le n si on s as, Bobt ae (g e n i t ive of Bobt é s , —
is ) , Th ii c yd idas ( acc u sat i ve p lu
ral o f c
Th u ydides , -is ) . See 52 . a an d 81 .

N O TE — Th e Gre e k
. a cc u s at ive S c i p iadam , f rom S c i p i ad é s , d e s e n d an t c f
o c
t h e S ip i os,
is fou n d i n H ora e c .

S ECON D DECLEN S I ON -S TEMS

( o )
45 . Th e S t e m o f n o u n s of t h e S e c on d D e c le n sion e n ds in 6
as , vi ro ( s tem o f vi r, m an ) , se rvo (s t e m r
of s e vu s or se rvos , slave ) ,

Of bellu m , war)
bello ( st e m .

a. Th e N o m i n at ive i s f orm e d from t h e st e m by ad d i n g 3 i n m as c u lin e s

an d f e m i n in e s, an d m in n e u t e rs , t he v owe l 6 b e in g we ake n e d t o ii ( se e
1
6 . a, 46 . N .
) .

b . In m os t n ou n s wh o se st e m e n ds in I 6 t h e s is n o t ad de d i n t h e N om i
1
n at ive , bu t 0 is lost , an d e i n t ru d e s b e f ore r, if n ot alre ady p re se n t : as ,

age r, st e m agr6—2
; cf .
p u e r, st e m p u erO
c
Ex ep t i on s : e ru s , h e s p e ru s , i fi n ip e ru s , m bru s , n u m e ru s , t au ru s , u m eru s , u t e ru s ,

vi ru s , an d m an y Gre e k n ou n s .

c . The st e m -vowe l 6 h as a v arian t fo rm c

whi h i s p rese rve d i n t h e
Lat i n c
vo at i ve sin g u lar o f n o u n s in -u s : as, c
se rve, v o at i ve of se rvu s , s lave .

N O TE — I n . c om p osi t ion t h i s 1! ap p e ars as i . Th u s , — b elli-g e r, warli ke ( fro m

st e m o f b ellu m ,
w ar) .

N ou n s of t h e S e c on d D e c le n sion in an d
46 .
-
na
( 08 ) -
um -e m
)
are t h u s d e c lin e d :

1 C om p are t h e En glish h am be r from F re n h h am bre c c c .

2 C om p are Gre e k d y p os, wh i h sh ows t h e o ri gi n al 0 o f t h e c st e m .

3 c
By so- alle d A blau t ( se e 5 17 a) . .
22 D EC LEN SI ON OF N OUN S 4s, 49

Gen de r in t h e S ec on d Dec len s ion

48 . N ou n s e n d in g in -
us -
os ) ,
-e r
,
-
ir, are M asc u lin e ; t h os e en d

in g in um
- - n
o ) are Neu ter .

c
Ex ep ti ons : N am e s Of c ou n t ri e s an d t own s in -u s
)
-os are F e m in in e : as ,
A e gy p t u s , Corin t h u s . A lso m an y n am e s of p lan t s an d ge m s , wit h t h e followin g
alvu s , belly ; c arb as u s , li ne n ( p l c arbas a, . sails , N ) . c olu s , d istajf ; h u m u s , g rou n d ;

van n u s , win n owin g - shovel .

Man y Gre ek n ou n s re t ain t h eir origin al ge n d er as , aret u s (E ) , t he P olar B e ar ;

m et h od u s ( E ) , m ethod .

a. Th e follo win g i n -u s are N e u t er ; t h e ir a cc us at ive

( as wi t h all n e u t e rs
)
is t he s am e as t he no m i n at i ve p e lagu s, se a ; vi ru s , p ois on ; vu lgu s ( rare ly
:

the c rowd . Th ey are n ot f ou n d i n t h e p lu ral, e x e p t p elagu s, whi h h as c c

a rare n o m i n at ive an d a cc u s at ive
p lu ral pe lage
''

N O T E — Th e . n om in at ive p lu ral n e u t e r c ét é , se a m on s t ers , oc c u rs ; t he n om in at ive

sin gu lar c é t u s o cc urs in Vit ru vi us .

r
Case-Fo m s in t h e Sec on d Dec len sion

49 . a. Th e Lo c at i ve f orm Of c
t h i s d e le n sion e n ds for t h e s in g u lar i n -1

as, h u m i, on the g rou n d ; Cori n t h i , at C orin th ; f or t h e p lu ral, i n -i s : as ,

Philipp i s , at P hilip p i ( pof 3 4 , f

. o o t n ot e
.
) .

b Th e ge n i t ive e n de d, u n t il t h e Au u s t an A e ,
O f n ou n s i n -iu s o r -iu m
.
g g
in a S i n gle — i : as , ffl i , of a son ; Pom p ei , of P omp ey ( Pom p é iu s ) ; b u t t h e
a cce t
n o f t h e n o m i n at i ve i s re t ai n e d : as , i n gé n i , f g
o e n i u s
1 ’
.

0 Prop e r n am e s i n -iu s h ave -i i n t h e vo at ive , re t ain i n g t h e a e n t O f

. c cc
Ve rgi li SO also, fili u s ,
’
t he n o m in at ive : as, . son ; gen i u s , d ivin e g u ardian : as,
.

au di , m i fi li, hear, m y son .

j c
A d e t ive s in -iu s f orm t h e c
v o at ive in -
i e , an d som e o f t h e se are o cc a
si on ally u se d as n o u n s : as, Lac e dae m oni e , 0 Sp artan .

N O TE .
— Greek n am e s in -i u s h ave th e c
vo at ive i s z as, Ly rc i u s, v o at ive Lyrc i e
-
c .

The ge n it ive p lural Of t e n h as -u m or ( aft e r v) -om ( c f

d . 6 a) i n st e ad . .

of -6ru m , e sp e i ally i n t h e p oe t sc as, d e u m , su pe ru m , divom , of the gods ;

viru m , of m e n . c
A lso i n om p o u n d s of vir, an d in m an y words O f m on e y,
m e asure , an d we igh t as, S éviru m , f
o the S eviri num m um , of c oins i fi ge ru m ,

f
o c
a res .

6. The origi n al e n d i n g o f t he ablat ive S in gu lar 6d ) i s

-
som e t im e s fo u n d
in early Lat in : as Gnaivod ( lat e r Gn aeb) C n eiu s
, , ,
.

f Prop e r n am e s i n ain s -é i u s —
. 6iu s ( as, Aurun c u léiu s, Boi ) ,
-
, ,
are c
de lin e d
like Pom pé iu s .

1Th e ge n it ive i n -ii o cc u rs on c e in Virgi l, an d c on stan t ly in Ovi d , b u t was p rob ab ly

u n k n own t o C i e ro c .
 49—
52] S EC OND D EC LEN S I ON —
( STEMS)
O 23

g . De u s g od , i s t h u s de li n e dc :

S I N G UL A R PL U R A L

N O TE — c
Th e vo at ive sin gu lar Of d eu s d oe s n ot o u r in lassi Lat in , b u t i s s aid
. cc c c
t o h ave b e e n d ee ; d eu s ( lik e t h e n om in at ive) o u rs in t h e Vu lg at e cc
F or t h e g e n i t ive .

p lu ral, d i vu m or di vom ( from di vu s, di vi n e) is Oft e n use d .

50 Th e followin g s t e m s in
. ero in w h ic h e be lon gs t o t h e st em ,
r e t ain th e e th rou ghou t an d are d e c lin e d lik e pu er
adu lt e r, ad u lterer ; g e n er, son -t u -l
a w p u er, boy ;
soc et , f at her-
tu —
law v e s pe r, even in g ; Libe r, B ac hus c .

c
A lso , t h e ad j e t ive libe t , f ree, Of c
wh i h h be ri ,
‘

child re n , is t h e p lu ral 1 1 1 a) ,
.

an d c om p ou n d s in -f er an d -
ge r (st e m f ero g e ro as , luc if e r, m orn in g star ;
arm i ger, squ ire .

a. An O ld n om i n at ive s oc eru s o cc u rs . SO c
vo at ive p u ere , boy, as if f rom
f p u e rus ( re gu larly p u er) .

b . Vir, m an , h as ge n i t ive viri ; t h e ad j e t i ve c sat u r, sate d , h as sat u ri ; ves

p e r, e ve n in c
g , h as ab lat ive ves p e re ( lo at ive ve sp e ri , in the e ve n in g) .

0. c
Mu l ibe r, Vu lc an , h as -be ri an d -b ri i n t h e ge n it ive Th e b arb ari . c
n am e s Hibé r an d Celt ib é r re t ain 6 t h rou gh ou t .

51 Th e followi n g, n ot h avm g e 111 t h e st e m , in se r t it in

.

n om in at iv e si n u lar an d are d e c lin e d lik e age r 4 7 )

g
ager, fi eld , st e m agro c olu be r, sn ake ; m agis t er, m as ter ;
ape r, boar ; con ger, sea ee l; m in i st e r, servan t ;
arbit e r j u d g e ;
, c u lt er, kn if e , ole as t e r, wild olive

au s t er, sou th win d ; f abe r, s m i th g ru s ) , wild as s ;

-
; on ag e r

c c
an er, c rab ; fi be r, beaver ; s c om be r -
c
b ru s ) , m a kerel .

c ap e r, goat ; libe r, book ;

Greek Nou n s of t h e Secon d Dec len s ion

52 Gre e k n ou n s o f t h e S e c on d D e c len s ion e n d in -os, l b s, m as

.

c u lin e or fe m in in e , an d i n ~ou n e u t e r .

Th e y are m os t ly p rop e r n am e s an d are d ec lin ed as follows i n

t h e S in g u lar, t h e Plu r al, w h e n fou n d, be in g r e g u lar :
24 D EC LEN S I ON or NO UN S 52 - 5 5

SI N G U L A R

Delo s I lio n
ihr
D ela I lia
Delo n -
u m ) I li o n
Dela lliO
Dé le I lio n

( 1. Man y n am e s in - és b e lo n gi n g t o t h e t h i rd d e le n sion h ave also a c

ge n it ive i n -i : as , Th fi c yd idé s , Th fi c ydid i ( c om p are § 4 4 b) . .

b . Se ve ral n am e s in -
sr h ave als o a n om i n at ive in -
u s : as , Te u c e r or

Te u c ru s . Th e n am e Pan t h fi s h as t h e vo at ive Pan t h ir c ‘

81 .

c Th e ge n it ive p lu ral O f e rt ai n t it le s
. c Of b ook s t ake s t h e Gre e k t e r
m in at io n -bu z as , Gebrgic bn , of the Ge orgic s .

d . Th e t e rm i n at ion -
oe ( for Gree k -o i
) is som e t im e s fou n d i n t h e n om i
n at ive p lu ral : as , Adelp h os , t he A d e lp hi ( a p lay of Te re n e ) c .

6 . Gree k n am e s in -e u s ( like Orp h eu s) h ave f orm s Of t h e se onc d an d

t h ird d e le n sion s c ( see

THI R D DECLEN S I ON C ON S ON A N T A i —S TEMS

( N D )

53 . N ou n s Of t h e Th i d De c le n sion r en d in a, e , i , o, y, c,

s, t, x .

54 . St e m s of t h e Thi d D e c len s ion r are c las s e d as follo ws

a . Mu te st e m s .

I . C o n son an t S t e m s
b Liq u i d
. an d N as al s t e m s .

a . Pu re i—
St e m s .

II I -S t e m s
Mix e d
.

6 . i-S t e m s .

55 . Th e N om in at iv e is alw ays d e riv e d fr om t h e st e m .

Th e v arie ty in form in t h e N om in at ive is d u e t o s im p le m o di

fi c at ion s O f t he st e m , of wh ic h t h e m os t i m p or t an t are

1 . C om b i n at ion of fi n al c on son an t s : as o f c( or g) an d s t o f orm x ; du x,

c
d u is , st e m du c ré x, ré gi s , st e m reg

2 . O m is sion O f a fi n al c on son an t : as of a fi n al n as al ; led , leOn is , ste m

le On Orat ib, Orat ibn is , st e m Orat iOn

3 . O m is si on of a fi na l v o we l : as o f
fi n al i ; c lc
a ar, c alc ari s , s t e m calca i r

4 . C h an ge O f vo w e l i n the fi n al syllab le as of a to e ; p ri n e p s c ( f )
or -cap s ,

p ri n c ip i s , st e m p ri n c ip ( for -
c ap
 T H I R D D EC LEN S I ON : C ON S ON A N T S TEMS 25

C O N S O N A N T S TEMS

Mu t e S t em s

56 . M as c u lin e an d Fe m in in e N ou n s wit h m u t e s t e m s fo rm t h e
N o m in at i ve by ad din
g 8 t o t he st e m .

A lab ial ( p ) i s re t ain e d b e fore 8 : as, p ri n c e —

p s .

A li n g u al ( t , d ) i s d ropp e d b e fore 8 as, m ile s ( st e m m ilit c us t os ( st e m

c fi s t Od

A p alat al (c , g) u n it e s wit h s t o form x : as, du x ( for T s) ,

d u c - réx
( for
! reg-s
) .

a. I n di ssyllab i c s te m s the fi n al syllab le O fte n sh ows e in t h e n om in a

t ive an d i in t he st e m : as , c
p ri n e ps , s t e m p ri n cip ( fo r -ca
p

57 . N ou n s of t his c lass are d e c lin e d as follo ws

p ri n c ep s , C .
, ch i f
e radix , F .
, root m ile s , M .
, s old i er

S T EM p ri n ip c S TEM ré d ic S TEM m ilit

SI N GU L A R
C A S E—END I N G S

-e m

PL U R A L

-
u m
-
ib u s

-
ib us

c us t bs , C g u ard
.
, d u x, C , leader
.

S TEM c fi s t bd S T EM d u c

SI N GU L A R
A S E—
C FI N D I N G S
 26 D ECLEN SI ON OF N OUNS 5 7—
60

PLU R A L

a. I n like m an n e r are c
d e lin e d
ari es , -e ti s ram ; com e s , -iti s c om p an ion ; la i
p ,s -i di s ston e
i udex , -ieie j u dg e ; c om ix , -i ei e (E ) , raven , an d m an y ot h er n ou n s .

M ost M as c u lin e Fe m in in e Th ose t hat

'

58 . m u t e st e m s are or .

are n e u t e r h av e for t h e N om in at iv e t h e sim ple st e m . Bu t ,

a. Lin gual S t e m s ( t , d ) en din g in t wo c on son an t s drop t h e fi n al m u t e
as, c or ( st e m cord lac ( st e m 1act SO also St e m s in at from t he Gre e k
st e m
poém at
as , poé m a (
b . Th e st e m c
ap it sh ows 11 in t h e n om i n at ive ( cap u t f or fcapot ) .

59 . N ou n s Of t his c las s are de c lin e d as follo ws

cor, N ; . heart cap ut , N .

, he ad p oé m a, N .
, p oem
S TEM c ord S TEM c apit S TEM poem e t

C A S E- E N D I N G S

c orde

PLU R AL
c ord a

—
ib u s

60 Th e follo w in g i
. rre gu lariti es re qu ire n ot ic e

a.Gree k n e u t e rs wit h n om in at ive s in gu lar i n -a ( as poem a) fre q u e n t ly

e n d i n -i s i n t h e d at iv e an d ablat i ve p lu ral, an d rare ly i n -Orum i n t h e ge n i

t ive p lu ral ; as, poé m at is ( for p oé m at ib u s) , poém at brum ( f or p oé m at u m ) .

b . A nu m ber of m on o syllabi c n ou n s wit h m u t e st e m s wan t t h e ge m ,

t i ve p lu ral ( like c or
) . Se e 1 03 g 2 . . .
 61, 62 ] TH I RD D ECLEN S I ON : C ON S ONAN T S TEMS 27

Liqu id and Nasal St em s (I, n, r )

61 . In M asc u lin e an d Fe m ini n e n ou n s wit h li q u id an d n asal

st e m s t h e N om in at ive is t h e s am e as t he s te m .

Ex c e p t ions are t h e followin g :

l . S t e m s in bn d rop 11 in t h e n omi n at ive : as in le gib, ste m le gian

2 . S te m s in din an d gi n d rop n an d k e e p an origin al 6 in t h e n om in at ive : as
in virgb, s t e m vi rgi n - l .

St e m s in in ( n o t din or g in re tain n an d h ave e in st e ad of i in t h e

3 . n om

in at ive : as in c om ic e n , S t e m corni c in
4 S t e m s i n t r h ave -t e r in t h e n om in at ive : as , pat e r, s t e m pat r
.

62 N . ou ns O f t h is c las s are de c li n e d as follows

c bn sul, M .
, c onsu l v irgb, E .
,
m aid en p at er, a , f ather
S TEM c bn s u l STEM lebn S TEM virgin S TEM p at r

SI N G U L A R
C A S E-EN D I N G S

PLU R AL
c On su lé s le dn é s
c On su lu m le On u m
c On su li b u s le On i b u s
c On su lé s le On é s
c On su li b u s le On i b u s

N O TE 1 .
— Ste m s in Il rr (N )
. lose on e of t h e ir liqu ids in t h e n om in at ive : as, far,
farri s ; m el, m elli s .

N OT E 2 . A f wm c
e as u lin e an d fe m in in e st e m s h ave a n om in at ive in -
s as well as
in -r
: as , b on ds or h on or, arbbs or arbor .

N O TE 3 .
— Can is , d og , an d i u ven i s , you th , have -i s in t h e n om i n at i ve .

1 c
Th e se differe n e s d epe n d in p art u p on sp e i al p h on e t i law s, in a ord an e wi t h c c cc c
c cc cc
wh i h v ow e ls in w eakly a e n t e d or u n a e n t ed syllab le s are variou sly m od ifi ed , an d
in p art u pon t h e in fl u en e O f an alogy c .

2 Th es e n o d ou b t h ad ori in all t er i n t h e ste m b u t t h is h ad b e om e w e ak e n e d

, , g y , c
c
to t r in som e O f t h e ase s e v en i n t h e p aren t sp e e h c
I n Lat in on ly t h e n om in at iv e an d .

c
v o at ive sin g u lar S h ow t h e 6 Bu t c f Mi sp it ri s an d Mi sp it eri s (ma[r]s-p it er) , q u ot e d b y
. .

c
Pris ian as o ld fo rm s .
28 D EC LEN SI ON OF N OUN S se e s

63 . I n Neu te r n ou n s wi t h liqu id or n as al s t e m s t h e N om in a
ti ve is t h e sam e as t he st e m .

c
Ex ep ti on s : 1 . S t e m s in in h ave e in s te ad of i in t h e n om in ati ve : as in
n bm e n , s t e m n bm i n

2 . Most st e m s in ex an d or h ave -n a in t h e n om i n at ive as , g en u s , st e m g e ne r 1

64 . N ou n s of t h is c lass are de c lin e d as follows

n om e n , N .
, n am e gen u s , N .
, w as co p r u s, N .
, body ae qu or, N .
, sea

S TEM n om in S TEM g en e r S TEM c orpor S TEM ae qu or

SI N G U L A R

n om e n
n Om ini s
n om in i
n Om e n

n Om in e

PL U R A L

n Om i n a
n Om in u m
n Om in ib u s
n om in a
n Om i n ib u s

So also are c
d e lin e d op u s , -
e ris , work ; p ign us , -e r is or -
oris , p le dg e , etc .

N O T E —Th e followin g re al or app are n t liq u id an d n asal st e m s h ave t h e g e n it ive

.

p lu ral i n -i u m
, an d are t o b e la sse d w i t h t h e ic-
st e m s : i m b e r, li n t er, ut er, v en t er ; g li s ,

m as, m as , [fré n ] ; also v i ré s ( p lu ral Of vi s : s e e

i S TEMS-

65 . N ou n s Of t his c lass i n c lu de

1 . P ure i-S t e m s
a. Mas c u lin e an d F e m i n in e p arisyllab i c 2
n ou n s i n -is an d f ou r i n -
e r.

b . N e u t e rs i n -e
,
- l an d -
a , ar .

2 . M ix e d i-S t e m s, d e c lin e d in t h e S in gu lar lik e c on son an t s t e m s,

in t h e p lu ral lik e i-S t e m s .

1 Th ese w e re origin ally s st e m s ( c f § 151 -

.

2 Le h avin g t h e s am e n u m b e r O f syllab le s i n t h e n om in at i ve an d
.
ge n it ive sin gu lar .
30 D EC LEN S I ON OF N OU N S m es- 7 1

69 . N ou n s Of t h is c lass are d e c lin e d as follows

se dile , N .
,
seat an i m al, N .
, an im al c alca r, N .
,
sp u r

S TEM s e di li S T EM an im ali S T EM c lc a i
a r

SI N G U L A R
OA S E—
EN D IN G S
-e or

-e or

PLU R A L

ib u s
-

-ib u s

Mixed i-S t em s

70 . M ix e d i S t e m s are e it he r orig in al i s t e m s t h at
- -
hav e lost t h e ir
i e
form s i n t h e g S in u la r, or c on son an t s t e m s t h at h a ve assu m e d i

for m s in t h e plu ral .

N OT E .
— It is som e t im es im poss ib le t o dist in gu ish b e t w ee n t h e se t wo lasses c .

71 . M ix e d i S t e m s h av e
- -e m in t h e ac c u s at i e an d v -
e in t h e abla

t iv e S in u ar , iu m n t e g e
g l - i h n it i v e
1
an d -i s or -
és in t h e ac c u sat i ve
u r al
’

p l Th e y in
. c lu d e t h e fo ll o win
g:
2
1 . N ou n s in - és, ge n .
-
is .

2 . Mon osyllab les in -s or -x

p re c e de d by a c on so n an t : as, ars , pbn s , arx .

3 . Polysyllab le s i n -n s or t s z as, c lié n s , coh ors

- .

4 . N ou n s i n -t as , ge n it ive -tati s ( ge n i t ive p lu ral u s u ally -um ) 1 as, ivit as c .

5 . Pe nat es , op t i m at es , an d n o u n s d e n ot i n g b irt h o r ab o de p atrials) in -as ,

i s , p lu ral at es , —
it é s : as, Arp in as , p lu ral Arp in i t é s ; Qu iri s p lu ral Qu irit es
'

- .
,

6 Th e f ollo wi n g m on osyllab le s i n -s or -x p re
. c e d e d b y a v owe l : dds ,

frau s, glis , lis , m as, m ils, n ix, n ox, s t rix, vi s .

1 Th ere i s m u h c i ty i t h p ct i
var e f th ci t n e ra ce o e an e n s , som e of t h ese words h avi n g
-ium , s om e -u m , an d m b th so e o .

2 Th e se are a ci ce dé l é c ae ca t e ladé
na s , ae s, a c s, as s, n s, c s , c om pag es , c on t ages , f am és ,
fé lé s , fi d é s ( p lu ral) ,
i n d oles , lab é s , lu é s , m eles , m blé s , n ubé s , palu m bé s , p rblés , p rbpag é s ,
p i bé s , sed es , saepé s , sord es , st rag é s , st ru é s , su bolé s , t abé s , t orqu es , t u d es , v at é s , v e h é s,
v ep ré s , ve rré s , vu lp es ; aed é s h as als o n om i n at i ve ac ai s .
 7 2 - 7 5] TH I R D D EC LEN S I ON : MI XED I - STEMS 31

72 . N ou ns of t h is c lass are t hu s d e c lin e d

nfi bé s , F , lou d
. c u rb s , F .
, ci t y n ox , F ig h t
.
, n c lié n s , M .
,
cli
e nt ae t as , rm, ag e
S TEM n fi b (i) S T EM u rb (i) S TEM noc t ( i) S T EM cli en t (i) S T EM ae t at ( i)

SI N GUL A R

n ox

PLU R A L

no ct e s c li e n t é s
1
n oc t i u m c lie n t i u m
n oc t i b u s c lie n t i b u s

no c ti s
( é s)
-
c li e n ti s —
( é s)
n oc t i b u s c lie n ti b u s

S u m m ary of zl-S t em s

7 3 Th e i—
, de cle n s ion was c f on u se d e v e n t o t h e Rom an s t h e m s elve s, n or was i t s t ab le

at all p e riod s of t h e lan gu a Lat i n h avi n g i -form s w h i h af te rward s d isap

g e , e arly c
p e a red T h.e r e w a s a t e n d e n n n o u n cy i
s t o l os e t h e i -
f orm s , in ad j e t i ve s t o g ai n t h e m c .

Th e n om in at ive p lu ral -i s) 3 w as m o st t h orou gh ly lost , n e xt t h e ac u s at ive sin gu lar c

-im
), n e xt t h e abla t i v e -
l w h ile t h e g e n i t i v e a n d a u sa t i v e p lu ral -i u m
,
-i s
) w e re cc
re t ain e d in alm os t all .

74 . I—
S te m s S h ow t he i Of t he st e m in t h e followi n g fo r m s
a. Th e y h ave t h e ge n i t iv e p lu ral in -iu m ( b ut som e m on osyllab le s
it e n t ire ly) F or a f e w e x e p t ion s, se e
. 78 c .

b . All n e u t e rs h ave t h e n om i n at ive an d a cc u s at ive p lu ral i n

- ia
.

c . Th e acc u sat ive p lural ( M . or F .

) is re g u larly is
-
.

d . Th e acc u sati ve sin gu lar

( M . or F .
) of a fe w en ds i n -im
e. Th e ab lat ive si n gular O f all n e u t e rs , an d of m an y m as uli n e s c
fe m in in e s, en ds in -i ( se e
75 . The re gu lar c ase -e n d in g Of t h e A c c u sat i ve s in g u la r of i
st e m s
(M . or F .
) w ou ld b e -im : as , s it i e , s it im
( cf . s t ella, am ; se
-
rvu s,

-u m
) ; bu t in m ost n ou n s t his is c h an ge d to -
em ( follo win
g t h e

c on son an t d ec len sion ) .

1 Rare ly c li en t u m .
2 Al so aet at iu m . Cf 71 4
. . .

An old , t h ou g h p 3 2 , f oot n ot e
3 o ri g in al, e n d i n g
n ot the ( se e .
32 D EC LEN SI ON OF N O UN S 7 5—7 8

a. Th e a cc us at ive i n ~i m i s f ou n d ex cl u s iv e l
y
1 . I n Gre e k n ou n s an d in n am e s of rive rs .

2 . I n b fi ri s , c c
u u m is , ravi s , s iti e , t u s sis, vi s .

3 . I n ad ve rb s i n - t im ( b e in g a cc us at i ve Of n ou n s in -
t i s) , as , p art im ; an d in
am u ss im .

b . Th e a cc u s at i ve in -
im i s fou n d som e t im e s i n fe b ris, p u pp is , t e st is ,

t u rri s, s e c fi ri s , sem e n t is , an d rare ly i n m an y ot h e r word s .

76 . Th e regu lar form Of t h e A blat i v e S in g u lar of i S t em s wou ld -

be -
i : as, s it i e , sit i b u t in m ost n ou n s t h is is c h an
g ed to -e .

a. Th e ab lat ive in -
i i s fo u n d ex cl u sive l
y
1 . In n ou n s h avin g t h e acc us at ive in -i m 7 5) also s e c fi ri s .

2 . I n t h e f ollowin g ad e j ct i ves u se d as n ou n s : aeq u alis , ann ali s , s qu ali s , c on

s alaris , g e n t ilis , m olari s , p ri m ipi lari s , t ri bfi li s .

3 . I n n eu t ers in -e , -al, -ar : e x e p t b ac c ar, i ubar, c ré t e , an d s om e t im e s m are .

b . Th e ab lat ive in -i i s f o u n d som e t im e s

1 . In avi s , cla iv s, febri s , f m i s , ig n is , 1 i m be r, lux , n avi s , ovi s , pe lvis , p u p p is ,

s é m e nt i s , s t ri gili s ,
‘
cc
t u rn s , an d o asion ally i n ot h er w ord s .

2 . I n t h e f ollowin g adj e t ives c us ed as n ou n s : affi ni s , b i p e nn i s , c an ali s , f am ili

ari s , n at al s , ri vali s , s ap ien s ,
i t ri aen e , t riré m is , v bc ali s .

N O TE 1 — Th e ab lat ive O f fam és is alway s fam e

. 10 5 e) Th e d e fe t ive m i n e h as . . c
som e t im e s m i n i 103 b N ) as ab lat ive . . . .

N O TE 2 — Most n am e s of t own s i n —
. e ( as , Praen e s t e , Terg e st e ) an d S brac t e a m ou n
,

tain , h av e t h e ablat ive in -e Caere h as Caeré t e . .

N O TE 3 —Can i s an d i u v en i s h ave c an e , i u ven e

. .

7 7 The . N o m in at re gu lar
iv e p lu ral O f i-s t e m s is - s 2
é , b u t -i s i s

o c c as ion ally fou n d Th e re g u lar A c c u s at iv e p lu ral i s is c om m on ,

.
-

bu t n ot e x c lu s i v e ly us e d in an y word . An Old fo rm for bo t h

—
eI s dip h t h on g)
c as e s I s ( .

78 . The follow in g h av e -
um
( n ot -
iu m ) in t h e g e n it i ve p lu r al

1 . Always, — ca n is , iuve n i s,3 am bagés , m are ( on c e on ly, ot h e rwise wan t

i n g) , volu c ri s ; re gu larly, s edes , vat es .

2 . S om e t im e s, ap i s , caed é s , clade s, m en s is , st ru é s, s u bolé s .

3 . Ve ry rare ly, —p at rials in as, -at is ; -i s, -it is ;

-
as, Arp inas , Arp in at u m ;
S am n i s , S am n it u m .

1 A1w form u la aqu a e t i g ni i n t erdi i

ay s in t h e c
Eu rope an e n d in g of t h e n om in at ive p lu ral, -é s ( p rese rve d i n Gree k in
2 Th e I n d O-

c c
on s on an t ste m s , as sm ug, 6p r vy-e s) , on t ra t s wi t h a st e m -v owe l an d g ives -é s i n t h e
‘ '
c
c
Lat in i -d e le n sion ( c f t h e Gree k p lu ral ba g)
. Th is -é s w as e xt e n d ed t o on s on an t . c
s t e m s i n Lat in 8 Can i s an d i u ve ni s are re ally n -s t e m s
. .
5 7 9] THI R D D EC LEN S I ON : I R R EGULA R N OUN S 33

I rregu lar Nou n s of t h e Thi rd Dec len s ion

79 . I n m an y n o u ns t h e s t e m is irr e gu larly m o difi e d in t h e n om i

ve
n at i Or o t h e r c as e s . S om e p e c u liar for m s are t h u s d e c lin e d

s en e x, M . ca dr , F .

or , c ow old m an flesh

SI N G U L A R

se n e x

o ssi s vis
( rare )
vi ( rare )
se me m c arn e m

se n e ca rn e o s se

P LU R A L

se n és ca rn é s o s sa

se n u m c arn i u m ossi u m vi ri u m

b u
( b u s) o ssi b u s

ossa

( b ub u s ) ossi b u s

sirs , C I u p p it e r, M . n ix r

SI N GU L A R

su e m n i ve m

PL U R A L

n ivé s

n ivi u m
n i vi b u s

n ivé s

n i vib u e

1 Al so lfi p it er .
 34 D EC LEN SI ON OF N O UNS 7 9—
81

a. Two vowe l s t e m s i n ii grii an d sit , wh i h f ollow t h e t hird d e le n sion ,

-
c c
add 8 i n t h e n om i n at ive , an d are in fle te d like m u t e st e m s : grfi s h as als o c
a n o m i n at ive grui s ; sh e h as b ot h suib u s an d s iib u s i n t he d at ive an d ab lat i ve

p lu ral, grus h as on ly gruib u s .

b I n t he . st e m b ov ( b ou t h e dip h t h o n g ou b e c om es 5 in t h e n om in at ive

b bs , b bvis
( ) .

In
'

iv
na
(nau an i is ad d e d ( ni vi s, -is) , an d i t is de lin e d like t urri s c
I n I bv ( Z ens) t h e dip h t h o n g ( on ) b e om e s ii i n I fi -p it e r
z c ( f or -p at er ,
)
gen i t ive I bvis , e t c b u t t h e form I u pp it e r i s p re ferre d
. .

0 I n it e . r , it in e ri s ie cur, iec in ori s ( iecori s) su pellex s u pelléc t ili s

t he n o m i n at ive h as b e e n f orm ed from a sh ort e r s t e m ; in se n ex, s e ni s ,

( )
E ,

f ro m a lon ge r ; so t h at t h ese words sh ow a c om bin at ion of f orm s from t wo

dist i n t c st e m s .

d . In n ix, ni vi s the n om in at ive re t ai n s a g f ro m t h e origin al st e m , t h e g

u n it in g wi t h s, t he n om i n at ive e n d i n g, to f orm x I n t h e ot h e r ase s t h e
. c
ste m assu m e s t h e f orm n iv an d iti i n t h e ge n i t ive p lural
ad ds .

Vas vasi s , k e ep s t h rou gh ou t ; p lu ral vi sa, vasbrum A dat ive

''

e. . 8 .

p lu ral vasib us also o cc u rs . Th e re i s a rare sin gular vasu m .

Th e Locat ive Case

8 0 The Loc at i. ve form for n ou n s of r

t h e t hi d d e c le n sion e n ds

in t h e g s in
in t he
p l u la r
u ral in -ibu s : as, ruri , in t he
in -i or -e ,

c ou n t r ; Cart h agin i or Cart h a Tr l 1

y gi n a, at C r hag e ; Tranibu s,
a t at a le s .

Greek Nou n s of t h e Thi rd Dec len s ion

81 . M an y n ou n s o rigin ally G r e ek m ost ly p r op e r n am es

re t ain Gr eek fo rm s O f in fle c t i on SO . e sp e c i all

y
1 . Ge n i t ive si n gu lar in -os
, as, t i gri dos .

2 . Acc at iv us e s in g u lar i n -a, as, aet h era .

3 . V c at i
o i ve s n gu lar like t h e st e m , as, Pe ri c lé , Orp h eu , At la .

4 . N om in at ive p lu ral i n -és , as , h érbé s .

5 . cc
A u sat ive p lu ral i n -as, as, h érbas .

1 Th e I n do—
Eu rop e an lo c ti i g l
in -i , w h i h b e am e -6 i n Lat in
a ve s n u ar e n d e d
Th u s c c .

t h e Lat in ab lat i ve in -e s, s or a i h i t ic lly c

on sid e red , a lo at i ve Th e Lat in ab lat i ve i n c .

-i fr m -i a
( o ) w a s a n a n a o a o r a on ( c f l gi c l f m t i
-a f rom -se —
,
5 f rom M ) , p rop e rly b e lon g .

i n g to i -st e m s W i t h n am e s o f t o wn s an d a f e w ot h e r word s, a lo at i ve f u n t io n was

. c c
c
as ri b ed t o form s in -i ( as , C art h agi n i ) , p art ly on t h e an alogy o f t h e re al lo at iv e o f c
o-st e m s ( as, C ori n t h i , § 49 a) ; b u t f orm s i n 45 also su rvive d in t hi s u s e
. Th e p lu ral .

-b u s i
s p rop e rly d at i ve or ab lat ive , b u t i n f orm s lik e Traili b u s it h as a lo at i ve f u n c c
t i on C f Ph ili ppi s
. 49 a) , i n wh i h t h e e n d in g -i s is, h ist o ri ally
. . c c c on sid e red , e it h e r

lo c at ive , or i n st ru m e n t al, or b ot h , an d At hé n i s 43 ) , i n whi h t h e . c c e n d in g i s fo rm e d

on t h e an alogy of o-st e m s .
 8 2 , 83 ] TH I R D D EC LEN SI ON : GR EEK N OU N S 85

82 . S om e of t h es e fo m s are r se e n in t h e follo win g e x am ple s

h é rbs , M .
, he ro lam p as , F .
, tor hc b asis , F . bas e ti g ris , C .
, t ig e r n ais , F .
, n ai ad

S TEM h erb S T EM lam p ad S T EM

25 i?
1
S T EM naid

SI N GU L A R

PL U R AL
NOM . herOES lam p adé s b ases t igré s
GEN . h é rOu m lam p adu m b asi u m ( -e On ) t igri u m
D .
,A .
1 h erOi b us lam p adi b u s b asi b u s t igri b u s
ACC . h é rOas lam p ad as b asi s t igri s -
id § s )

PR O P ER N AME S

Di d?)
Di d On i s ( Di dfi s
)
Di dOn i ( D i dO)
Di dOn e m -6 )
D i dOn e ( -O)
Di d f)

Pe ric lé s
Pe ric li s -i)
F e rioli ( -i )

Peric le m ( -
e a, -eu )
c
Pe ri le
Pe ri c lé s ( -é )

N O TE . Th e re gu lar Lat in form s m ay b e u se d for m ost Of t h e abo ve .

83 . O t h e r p e c u liarit ies are t h e follo win g

a. De lp h inu s , -i h as also t h e f orm de lp hin , -i n i s ; S alam i s , -is
h as ac c . S alam in a .

b . Most st e m s in id ( n om .
-is
) O ft e n h ave also t h e f orm s of i-st e m s : as,

ti gri s , ge n -idis -idos ) . o r -i s ; ac c .

-i de m ida)
- or -i m - in ) ; ab l . id e
- or i
- .

Bu t m an y, i n lu di n g m c ost fe m i n in e p rope r n am e s, h ave ac c -i d elu . ida) ,

-

abl .
- ide , — n o t -im or -
i .
( T h e se s t em s are irre g u lar als o i n Gre e k
) .

1 D at i ve , h é rbi si n ( on c e on ly ) .
36 D EC LEN SI ON OF N OUNS 83- 8 6

6. St e m s i n ou som et i m es re t ain -n in t h e n om in at ive : as, Agam e m

mi n ( or Agam e m n b) , ge n it ive -5n is , a u sat ive -6na cc .

d . S t e m s i n ont f orm t h e n om i n at ive i n -bu z as, h ori zbn , X en op h bn ;

bu t a f ew are o cc a i s on ally Lat in iz e d i n t o ou ( n om . as, Drac b, -5n i s ;

An t ip h b, -5n is .

6 . Like S i m ois are c

de lin e d st e m s in an t en t , an d a few in fm t ( n om i
n at ive in -as , -is, i t s) as, Atlas, -an t is Trap e zii s , -i1n t is .

f . S om e word s flu t u at e b e t we e n d ifi c e re n t c
d e le n sion s : as Orp h eu s b e
t we e n c
t he se on d an d t h e t h ird .

g is fou n d in t h e ge n it ive p lu ral in a f e w Gree k t it le s of b ook s : as,

.
-6n

Met am orp h bsebn , of t he M e tamorp hoses ( O vid s we ll-kn own p oe m ) ; Gebrgicbn ,

’

f
o the Ge orgic s ( a p oe m of Virgil) .

Gen de r i n t h e Th i d Dec len sionr

84 . Th e Ge n de r of n ou n s O f t h is d e c le n sion m u s t be le a rn e d
by p rac t ic e an d fr om t h e Lexic on M an y are m as c u lin e or fe m i .

n in e b n at u r e or i n ac c or dan c e w it h t h e e n e ra l r u le s for g e n
y g
d er ( p Th e m os t im p or t an t r u le s for t h e
. ot h e s , r w it h t h e ir
rin c i al e x c e t ion s , are t h e follo win — 1
p p p g:
85 . M asc u lin e are n ou n s in -or
,
-
65 , -sr
,
-
és ( gen . it is) ,
- -
ex
( g en .

i i
- c s
) as , colo r , flbs, im ber, gurges ( gu rgit i s) , ve rt ex (vert ic is) .

Ex c e p t ion s are t he followin g

a. Fe m in i n e are arbor ; c bs , dds ; lin t e r .

b . N e u t er are ador, ae qu or, c or, m arm or ; Os

( brie) ; also os ( ossis)
c adaver, it er, t ub er, fi b er, vér ; an d n am e s of p lan t s an d t re e s i n -er : as
,

c
a er, pap aver .

86 . Fe m i n in e are n ou n s in -
o, a s , Jae, -i s , -fi s , -x , an d in -
s p r e c e d e d
by a c on son an t : v
as, legi o, c i i t as , n ubes, avi s , vi rt ue , arx, u rbs . Th e
n ou n s i n -6 are m ost ly t h os e in -do an d -go, an d abst ac t an d r c olle e

ti ve n ou n s in 4 6 .

Ex c e p t ion s are t h e follow in g :

a Masc u lin e are led lebn is ; ligb On is ;
.
, , se rm b, -5n is ; also c ardb, harp agb,
m argb, brd5, t u rb b ; an d on re t e n ou n s in c c -i5 : as, p u gib, fi n ib, p ap ilib
2

c c c
a i n a es, ari é s , ele s , le b é s , p ari es, p é s ;
'' '

1 S om e n ou n s of d ou b t fu l or vari able g e n d e r are om it te d .

2 Man y i n -6 ( g en -5 n i s) are
n ou n s . c c
m as u lin e b y sign ifi at ion : as , gerb, arri e r ; c
rest i b , rop e m ake r ; an d f am ily n am es c
( ori g in ally n i k n am es) : as , Ci c ero, Nasb S ee .

236 , 255 . c .
 8 D EC LEN S I ON OF N OUNS 90- 93

Gen der i n t h e Fou rt h Dec len sion

90 . M ost n ou n s Of t h e Fo u rt h D e c le n sion i n -u s are M asc u lin e .

c
Ex ep tions : Th e f ollowin g are F e m in in e ac u s , an u s , c olu s , dom u s , i dd s (plu ral) ,

m an u s , p orti c u s , qu in qu at rus (p lu ral) , soc ru s , t rib u s , wit h a f e w

n u ru s , n am e s O f

p lan ts an d t rees A lso, rarely , p en u s , spe u s

. c .

91 . Th e on ly N e u t e rs of t h e F ourt h D e c le ns ion are corn u, gen fi ,

pec il 1 05 f ) , verii
.
1 .

Case-Form s in t h e Fou t h Dec len sion r

92 . Th e follo win g p e c uliari t ies in c ase-fo rm s Of t h e F ou t h r
D e c le n s ion r e q u ir e n ot ic e :

a. A ge n i t ive si n gu lar in -
i ( as of t he c
s e on d c
de le n sion ) so m e t im es

o cc u rs in n ou n s g e n i t ive se nati ( re g ularly se natii s)

in -t u s : as, se nat u s , .

b I n t h e g e n it i ve p lu ral -u u m is so m e t i m e s p ro n ou n e d as on e sylla
. c
ble , an d m ay t h e n b e writ t e n -um : as, c u rru m ( Ae n vi 6 53 ) f or c u rru u m . . .

c Th e d at ive an d ab lat ive p lu ral i n -libu s are re t ai n e d i n p art u s an d

.

t ri bu s ; so re u larl
g y in art us an d lac u s , an d o cc a is on all
y in ot he r w ords ;
p ort u s an d spe u s c h ave b ot h -u b u s an d —
ib u s .

d . Most n am e s o f p lan t s an d t re es, an d col u s, d istafi

‘

, h ave also f orm s of

t he c
se o n d c
d e le n si on : as, fi c us , fig g e n it ive f i c ii s
, or fi ei .

ge n i t ive sin g u lar in

An O ld u i s or -n os an d an O ld ge n it ive p lu ral in
-
6.
-n om o cc
u r rare ly : as, se na t ui s , se nat u os ; flu ct u om .

f Th e ab lat ive sin gu lar e n de d an ie n t ly in

. c i1d
-
( c f § 43. . N . as,

m agist rat ii d .

93 . Dom u s ( E ) , hou se, h as t wo s t e m s e n di n

g i n u an d o H en c e
it sh ows for m s of bot h t h e fou r t h an d se c on d de c le n sion s

SI N G UL A R PLU R A L

NO M . d om u s d om us
GEN . d om fi s
( d o m i , loc .
) d om u u m ( d O m Oru m
)
DAT . d om u i ( d om O
) d om i b u s
Ac c . do m u m d om é s ( d o m fi s
)
An n . d om O ( d o m u ) d om ib u s

N O TE 1 .
— Th e c
Lo at ive is d om i ( rare ly d om u i) , at h om e .

N O TE 2 . Th e Ge n i t ive d om i o cc u rs i n Plau t u s ; d om dru m is late or p oe t i c .

1 A f w the o e r n e u t ers O f c
t hi s d e len s ion are m e n t ion e d b y t h e an ie n t gram m arian s c
as o cc i g i c
u rr n n e rt ain c ase s .
 94—96] FI FTH D EC LEN S I ON ( E-S TEMS
) 39

94 . M ost n ou n s Of r
t h e F ou t h D e c le n s ion are fo m e d f r r om
v e rb -s t e m s , or root s , by m e ans of t he su ffi x -
tu s -
su s
) 2 3 8 b) .

ca t n u s , son g , C A N , c an d, sin g ; c as u s ( for i c ad-t u s

) , hanc e, c C AD , c add, f all;
e xsu lat u s , exile, from e xs u ld, to be an exile ( e xe n l) .

a. Man y are f orm e d e it h e r f rom ve rb -s t e m s n ot in u se , or by an alogy

c dn s u lat us ( as if from Tc dn s u ld, a

- re
) , s e nat u s , in ce s t u s .

b . Th e a cc u s at i ve an d t h e d at ive or ab lat ive O f n ou n s in -t u s -sus

) form
t h e Su p in e s O f ve rb s 1 5 9 b)
. : as , s pe ct ii t u m pet itu m ; di ct i i , fi sh
, .

0. Of m an y ve rb al d e rivat ive s on l
y t he ab lat iv e is u se d as a n ou n : as,

iu ssfi ( m ed , by
) ( m y) c om m an d ; so in iu ss ii ( p op u li ) , withou t ( the p e op le
’

)
s ord er .

Of s o m e o n ly t h e d at ive i s u s e d : as , divisu i .

FI FTH DECLEN S I ON é —
( S TEMS )

95 . The S t e m O f n ou n s O f t h e Fift h De c le n sio n e n ds in e whic h

r
ap pe a s in all t h e c ases . Th e N om in at iv e is fo r m e d fr om t h e s t e m
by ad din g 8 .

96 N ou n s. Of t h e F ift h D e c le n sion are d e c li n e d as follows :

ré s , F .
, t hi ng d iés , M , d ay
. fi dé s , F .
, f ait h
S TE M re S T EM di é S T EM fi dé

SI N G U L A R

PL U R A L

ré b u s éb
-
us

N O TE — Th e e of the ste m is S h ort e n e d i n t h e g e n it iv e an d d at iv e s in gu lar o f fi d é s,

spé s , res , b u t i n t h es e i t i s foun d lon g in e arly Lat in . c
I n t h e a c u sat ive s in g u lar e
i s alw ay s sh ort .
40 D EC LEN S I ON OF N OU N S 97-99

Ge n de r in t h e Fift h Declens ion

97 . A ll n ou n s of t h e Fi ft h D e c le n s ion are F e m in in e , e xc e
p t
u su ally d ay , an d m eridiés
dié s ( n oon .

a . Diés is so m e t i m e s f e m i n in e in t h e sin gu lar, e sp e ially in p h rase s in d i c

c at i n
g a fi xe d t im e , an d re gu larly fe m i n in e wh e n u se d O f t i m e i n ge n e ral

as , Cdn stit ii ti did, on a se t d ay ; lon ga diés, a lon g t im e .

Case-Form s i n t he Fift h Dec len sion

98 . Th e followin g p e c u liari t ie s re qu ir e n ot ic e

a. c
O f n ou n s of t h e fi f t h d e le n s ion , on ly d ié s an d rds are de li n e d t hrou gh c
ou t . c
Most wan t t he p lural, whi h i s, h owe ve r, fou n d i n t h e n o m i n at ive or
a cc u sat ive in ac id s, e ffi gi ,
é s elu i f
v s , ac i s, g
e é lac ié s , se ri é s , s p e i es , s pies
1
c .

b . Th e Lo c at i c
ve f orm O f t h i s d e le n sio n e n d s i n -5 I t is fou n d o n ly in .

c e rt ain ad ve rb s an d e x p re ssi on s o f t im e :

h odie, to-d ay die qu art d (old , qu art i ) , t he f ou rth d ay ;

pere n di é , day af ter to- m orrow ; p ri di e, the d ay bef ore .

0. Th e fi f t h d e le n sion is c closely re lat e d t o t h e fi rst , an d se ve ral n ou n s

h ave form s Of b ot h : as, m i t e ria, -i es sae vi t ia, -

ié s . Th e ge n it ive an d d at ive
in -di are rare ly fou n d in t h ese word s .

d . S om e n ou n s v ar
y b e t we en t h e fi f t h an d t h e t h ird d e le n sion c : as ,

re qu ié s , saties
( also se t ias , ge n it ive wi t le) , p lébé s also pleb s , ge n i t i ve p léb is ) ,
(
fam és , gen it ive fam is , ab lat ive fam é
'

N O TE .
— In t h e g e n iti ve an d d at iv e -éi —
€i ) was so m e t im e s c
o n t ra ct ed in t o él :
-
'

as , t rib fi n u s p lé béi , t ri bu n e of t h e p eop le ( p lé bé s) . Ge n it i ve s i n i an d also o -

ur: -é
“

cc
as , d ii ( Aen i —
p lébi sc i t u m , aci é ( B G ii A f e w e xam p le s o f t h e old g e n i
—
. . . . .

t i ve in é s are f ou n d ( of .
-as in t h e fi rst c
d e le n sion , § 4 3 b.
) T h.e d at ive h a s rare ly
-E
,

an d a form in -i i
c
s ite d .

DEFECTI VE N OUN S

Nou n s want i n g i n t h e Plu ral

S om e n ou n s are or din ar ily fou n d in t h e S in g u lar
99 . nu m be r
on l
y ( sing u ld ri a t an tu m
) T h e s e are .

1 Most p rop e r n am e s : as, Cae sar C aesar ; Galli a Gau l

.
, ,
.

2 . N am e s of t h in gs n ot c ou n t e d , but re ck on e d in m ass : as, au ru m , gold

dé r, air ; t rit i c m u ,
whe at .

3 . A b st r ac t n ou n s : as, am b it id, am bit ion ; fort it ildd, cou rage ; calo r, heat .

1 Th e form s f ac ié ru m ,
sp ec ié ru m ,
sp ec ié bu s , sp eru m , sp eb u s , are c ite d b y gram m ari an s,
also Bpé ré s , spé ri b u s , an d som e of t h es e o cc ur in lat e au th ors .
 100—102 ] D EFEC TI VE N OUN S 41

100 . M an y of t h ese n ou n s , h o w e v e r, are u se d in t h e p lu ral in

s om e ot h e r s ens e .

a. Th e p lu ral of a
p rope r n am e m ay b e app lie d t o t wo or m ore pe rson s
or p la c e s, or e ve n t h i n gs, an d so be c o m e st ri t l c
y o m m on : c
d u od ec im Cae saré s , t he t welve C wsars .

Galliae , the two Gau ls ( C is an d Tran salp in e ) .

Cas t ore s , C as tor an d P ollux ; I ové s , im ages o f Jup iter .

b . Th e p lu ral of n am e s O f t hin gs re ck on e d
in m ass m ay de n ot e p arti u lar c
c
ob e ts : as , ae ra,
j bron ze u t e n sils , n i vé s , sn o
wflakes or d ifi ere n t ki n ds of a t hin g :
'

as, h e rds, airs ( good an d b ad) .

0. Th e p lu ral of ab stra t c n oun s den ote s o cca i s on s or in stan c es of t h e qu ali ty,

or t h e like :

qu ae dam e xc e llen tiae , som e ases of c su p eriori ty dti a, p eriods of rest ; c aldré s ,

fri got s , tim es of heat an d old c .

Nou n s wan t in g in t h e S in g q

101 . S om e n oun s are c om m on ly or e x c lu si v e ly fo u n d in t h e

Plu ral (p lurd lia t an tu m ) . Su c h are

1 . Man y n am e s of t o wn s : as, At h é nae ( A the n s) , Th ii ri i, Ph ilip p i , Véii .

2 . N am e s of fe st ivals an d gam e s : Oly m p ia, the Olymp ic Gam es ; Bac c hfi

as,

Dalia, f e ast of Ba cc h us ; Qu i n qudt rils, f est ival of M in e rva ; lfldi R dm i n i , the

R om an Gam es .

3 . N am e s of cla pp er lasses ; m a
sse s : as, op t i m i t é s , t he
idré s, an estors ; u c c
lib e ri , c hildre n ; pe nét é s , hous e hold gods ; Qu irit es , c it ize n s ( o f R o m e ) .

4 Word s p lu ral b y sign ifi at ion : as, arm a, weap on s ; art ii s , j oin ts ; divi
. c
ti ae , ri hes ; c i lae , s tairs ; valvae ,
s ce f old in
g d oors ; f oré s , d ouble-d oors ;
-
an gu s ti ae ,

a n arrow p ass
( n arrow s
) ; m oe n ia, c ity wall s .

N O TE 1 S om e w ord s, p lu ral b y s n
. ig ifi c t i
a on in Lat in , are t ran slat e d b y En glish
n ou n s i n t h e s in g u lar n u m b e r : as , d eli c iae , d elig h t , d arli n g ; f au c é s , t h roat ; d aes, ly re

( also s in g ular in p oe t ry) i n si diae , am bu sh ; c ervi c es , n e k ; vi sc era, fl esh c .

N O TE 2 - Th
e p oe t s oft e n us e t h e p lu ral n u m b e r for t h e sin gu lar, som e t im es f or
.

c
m e t ri al re as on s , som e t im e s from a m e re fash ion : as, dra ( for 68 ) t he f a e sc é pt ra ( for c
sc ep t ru m ) , s e t re
p c
; silen t i a ( for sile n t iu m ) , silen e c .

102 . Som e n ou n s o f the abo v e c lasse s 1 01 1 . h av e aco rre

sp on d in
g s in
g ula r , as n ou n or adj e c t iv e , O ft e n in a sp e c ial se n se

1 . As n ou n , t o d e n o te a s in gl eb j ct O e : as, Bac c hi n al, a sp ot sac re d to

Ba cc h us; opti m i s , an arist o rat c .

2 . As c
ad j e t iv e : as , C at d Mai or, C at o t he Elde r .

3 . In a se n se rare , or f ou n d on ly in e arly Lat in : as , s cala , a ladd er ;

valva, a d oor; art u s, a j oin t .
42 D EC LEN SI ON or N OU N S 103

Nou n s Defect ive in Ce rt ain Cases

103 . M an y n ou n s are de fe c t ive in c ase -fo rm s

a. c
I n de lin ab le n ou n s , u se d o n ly as n o m in at ive an d a cc u sat i ve s in ular
g
fas , n efas, in st ar, n ih il, Op u s
( n ee d) , se u s c .

N O TE 1 .
— Th e c c
i n d ec li n ab le adj e t i ve n e esse is u se d as a n o m in at iv e o r a u sat i ve cc .

N OTE 2 .
— Th e g en i t i ve n i hili an d t h e ab lat i ve n i h ilo ( fro m n i h i lu m , n oth i n g ) o u r cc .

b . N ou n s f ou n d i n on e c ase o n ly (m on op t ot e s
)
1 . I n th e n om i n at ive sin gu lar : glds ( E ) .

2 . I n t h e ge n it ive s in gu lar : di c i s , nau c i

3 . I n t h e d at ive sin gu lar : di vi s u i ( M ) ( c f . . 94 . c) .

4 . cc
I n t h e a u sat i ve sin gu lar : am u ssim v en u m ( d at ive v ein)
“

i n Ta it u s) c .

5 . I n th e ab lat ive sin gular : pon d?) ( N ) m an e ( N ) . . e st u by c ra ft ; iu s ed ,

in iu ss u, natfi ,
an d m an y ot h e r ve rb al n ou n s in -as ( M .
) 94 . c) .

N O TE — Man e i s also u sed as an in de lin able ac u sat i ve , an d an old form m i ni is c c

u se d as ab lat i ve Pon d owit h a n u m eral i s oft e n ap p are n t ly e q u i vale n t t o p ou n ds
. A .

n om i n at iv e s in g u lar ast u s an d a p lural ast fi s o u r rare ly i n lat e r w rit e rs cc .

6 . I n the a cc us at ive p lu ral : in fi t ias .

N ou n s fo u n d i n t wo c as es o n ly d i
c .
( p t ot es
)
n om in at ive an d ab lat ive sin gu lar
1 . I n the f ors , f ort e (E ) .

2 . I n t h e gen it ive an d ab lat ive sin gu lar : s p on t i s ( rare) , sp on t e ( E ) .

3 . cc
I n t h e a u sat ive sin gu lar an d p lu ral d ic am , di c as ( E ) .

4 . cc
I n t h e a u sat ive an d ab lat ive p lu ral : f oras , f ori s ( E ) ( c f foxes ) , . u s e d as

ad ve rb s .

d . N ou n s fou n d i n thre e c ases o n l

y ( t rip t ot es)
1 . I n t h e n om in at ive , a cc us at i ve , an d ab lat i ve s in gu lar : im pe t u s , -u m
,
—
fi
lu é s , -e m, -é
(E ) .

2 . I n t he n om in at ive , a cc u s at ive , an d d at ive or ab lat ive p lural g rat es ,

-ib u s
( F) .

3 . I n t he n om in at ive , gen it ive , an d d at ive or ablat ive p lu ral : i fi g e ra,

-u m -ib u s
,

b u t i fi ge ru m , e tc .
, in t h e s in gu lar
(c f . 105 b). .

e. N o u n s fou n d in f ou rc ases on l
y ( t e t rap t ot e s
)
I n t h e ge n it i ve , d at ive , acc u sat ive , ab lat i ve s in gu lar : di c ion i s , -i , -e m
,
-e
(E ) .

f . N o u n s de li n e d c re
gu larly i n t h e p lu ral, b u t de fe t ive i n th e s in g u lar c
1 . N ou n s f ou n d in t h e s in gu lar, i n gen it ive , d at ive , a u sat ive , ablat i ve : frugie , cc
—
e m , -e ( E ) Opi s , -i ( on c e on ly ) ,
-e m
, (
-e E n om in at ive Op s as a d ivin it y
) .

2 . N ou n s f ou n d in t h e d at ive , a cc u sat ive , ab lat ive :

p re ci ,
-e m
,
-e
(E ) .

3 . N ou n s fou n d in t h e a cc us at ive an d ab lat ive : c as s e m ,

-e
( ) E sorde m , —
e (E ) .

4 . N ou n s f oun d in t h e ab lat ive on ly : am b age (E ) f au c e (E ) obic e

g . N ou n s re gu lar in t he sin gu lar, c

d e fe t ive i n t he p lu ral

1 S om e e arly o r lat e form s an d ot h e r rari t ies are om it t e d .

2 Th e d at i ve si n g u lar im p et u i an d t h e ab lat i ve p lural i m pe t ib u s o cc u r on c e ea ch .

 103 —105] VA R I A BLE N OUN S 43

1 Th e f ollowin g n eu t e rs h ave in t h e p lu ral t h e n om i n at ive an d a u sat ive

. cc
on ly : fe l (f e lla) , f ar ( f arra) , h orde u m ( h orde s ) , i fi s , brot h ( i fi ra) , m e l ( m e lla) , m urm u r

( m u rm u rs ) , p us ( p fi ra) , rfi s ( t ri m ) , t he or thi s (t ura) .

N O TE Th e n e u te r ius , ri gh t , h as o n ly iura i n
. cl c
ass i al wri t e rs , b u t a v e ry rare g en i
t i ve p lu ral i urum o u rs in o ld Lat in cc .

2 . c alx , c or, 063 , c ru x , fax , fae x , lanx , lfi x , h e x, as ( bri s) , 1 os ( os s i s ) ,

2
p i x , p ix,
ros , s al, s ol, vas (v adi s) wan t t h e ge n it ive p lu ral
, .

3 . Mos t n oun s c
of t h e fi f t h d e le n sion w an t t h e wh ole or p art of t h e p lu ral

(se e 98 a) . .

h . c
N ou n s d e f e t ive i n b ot h sin g u lar an d p lu ral
l N ou n f ou n d in t h e ge n it ive ,
. a cc us at ive , ab lat ive s in gu lar ; n o m in at i ve ,

acc u sat ive , d at i ve , ab lat ive p lu ral : v ic i s , -e m ,

-e - és, - ib u s .

2 .N ou n f ou n d in t h e ge n it ive , d at ive , a cc usat i ve , an d ab lat iv e s in gu lar ;

ge n i t iv e p lu ral w an t in g : d ap i s ,
-i
,
-e m
,
-
e —
; é s,
- ib u s .
3

VAR IABLE N OUN S

104 . Man y n ou n s v ary e it h e r in D e c len sion or i n Ge n de r .

105 . N ou n s t h at v ary in D e c le n sion are c alle d he t e ro c lit es 4

.

an d m an y n am e s
'

a. Colu s ( )
E , d is tafi ; dom u s ( E ) , house ( se e
of p lan t s i n
-u
s, v ary b e t we en t h e S e o n d an d F our t h D e le n si on s c c .

b . S om e n o u n s vary b e t we e n t h e S e c on d an d Th i rd : as, ifi geru m , -i , -6 ,

ab lat ive -6 or -e , p lu ral -a
,
-u m, ib us ;
- Mu lc ib er, ge n it ive b e ri an d
- - b e ri s ;
se qu e st e r, g e n i t iv e -t ri an d -
t ri s ; vas, vasis , an d ( old
) vas u m ,
- i 79 . e
) .

0. S om e vary b e t we e n t h e S e c on d , Thi rd, an d F ou rt h : as, p e n u s , pe n u m ,

ge n i t ive p e n i an d p en ori s , ab lat iv e p en fi .

d Man y n ou n s v ary b e t we e n t h e F irst

. an d F ift h ( se e 98 c
) .

6 . S om e v ary b e t wee n t h e Th ird an d F if t h . Th u s, - re qu 1e s h as ge n i

t iv e - et i s , d at ive wan t in g, a cc u sat ive -et e m o r -e m , ab lat iv e é
-
( on c e —
é t e) ;
fam é s , re u larl
g y of c
t h e t hird d e le n sion , h as ab lat ive f am é 76 . N .

an d p ubes ) ( M . d at iv e p ii be i n Plau t u s
h as on( c e ) .

f . Pec u s v ari e s b e t we e n t h e Third an d F o ur t h , h avi n g p e c ori s , etc .

,
but
also n o m in at i ve p e c fi , ab lat ive p e h ; p lu ral p e n a, g e n i t ive p e c u u m c c .

g . Man y v ary b e t we e n d ifi e re n t st e m s O f the s am e c

de le n sion as , fem u r
n it i ve -ori s , also in i s ( as from T
fe m e n ) ; ie c u r ge n it ive ie c in ori s,
-
ge

ioc in ori s , i ecoris ; m fi n u s p lu ral m im era an d m an ia .

Th e ab lat iv e plu ral 6n b u s i s rare , t h e lassi al i d iom b e in g i n ore om n i u m , i n e ve ry

1
’

c c
bod y s m ou t h , e t c , n o t i n Ori b u s om n i u m
’
. .

Th e g e n it ive p lu ral oss i u m i s lat e ; ossu u m ( from ossu a, p lu ral of a n e u t e r u -st e m )

is e ar ly an d lat e .

3 A n Old n o m in at i ve d ap s i s i t e d c .

c
L

an ot h e r, an d KMvw , t o i nfl e e t )
”
( gr p
“
4 Th at i s, n oun s of d iff e ren t in fl e t i on s S
,
.
44 D EC LEN SI ON OF N OUN S [ gs 106, 107

106 . N ou n s t h at v ary in G en d e r are s aid t o be he t erog en eou s .

1

a. Th e followin g h ave a m as u li n ec form i n -n a an d a n e u te r in um

-

b alt e u s, ca seu s , clip e u s, coll m u , c i n gu lu m , p ile u s , t e rgu m , vallu m , wi t h m an y

o t h e rs of rare o cc u rre n c e .

b . Th e f ollowin g h ave i n t h e Plu ral a di ffe re n t ge n d e r f rom t h at of t he

S in g u lar
baln e u m bath ; baln e ae (E ) ,
baths ( an e st ab lish m en t ) .

c ae lu m heave n ; c ae los ( M ac c . .
,

) , a sai l; c arb as a ( N ) ) sai ls

c arbas u s (E -6ru m .
, .

dé li c iu m p leasu re ; deli ciae ( E ) , p et .

e p u lu m f east ; e p u lae ( E , f east

) .

fren u m a bit ; fré ni ( M ) or fré n a

. a brid le .

ioc u s u j est ; io a c ioc i

loc u s p lac e ; loc a lo i ( Mc .
, us ually top i c s, p assages in b ooks) .

ras t ru m a rake ; ras t ri rast ra rakes .

N O TE . S om e of t h e se n ou n s are c
h e t e ro lit es as well as h e t e roge n e ou s .

107 . M an y n ou n s are fou n d in t h e Plu al in a p e c u lia r r s en se :

ae des , -is ( ) E , tem p le ; ae des , i u m , hou se
- .

aqu a ( E ) , wat er aqu ae , m i n eralsp ri n gs , a waterin g-p la e c .

au xili u m help au xilia, au xili ari es .

bon u m a good b on a, g oods , p rop ert y .

c aree r du n geon ; c arc e ré s , barri ers ( of ra c c

e - our se
) .

c as t ru m f ort ; c as t ra, c am p .

c m it i m
o u p la c e o f assem bly ; c om it ia, an ele cti o n. ( t own -m eetin
g) .

copi ( ) a E , p lent y c 6p iae , store s , troop s .

h aes ( )
E , harp -st rin g fi dé s , ly re .

fi n i s en d ; fi n é s , bou n ds, territori es .

f ort fi n a ( E ) f ortu n e ; , f ort fi n ae , p ossessi ons .

gratia ( E ) f avor ( rare ly

, , than ks ) ; g rat iae , t han ks ( als o, t he Gra c )
es .

h ort u s a g arden , h ort i , p leasu re-grou n ds .

im pe dim e nt u m ( N ) h in dran c e .
, im p e dim e n t a, baggag e .

lit t e ra ( E ) letter (of alp h ab e t )

, lit t e rae , ep i stle , literatu re .

lo c us p lac e [p lu ral loc a c

loc i , 2 t op i s , p la es i n books c .

lfi du s sp ort , ludi , p u bli g am es c .

m ds h abit , c u stom ; m bres , cha act r er .

n at ali s birt hd ay ; n at ale d c t s, e s en , origin .

op e ra ( ) work ; E , Op erae , d ay-laborers h an d s

[op s , ] opi s ( E ) , help 103 .
f . 1) op es , resou r es, c wealth .

p ars ( E ) , p art ; p art é s , p art ( on t h e st age ) , p art y .

rost ru m beak o f a ship ; ra st ra, sp eaker s p latf orm

’
.

s ax (M . or salt ; s alé s , c
witti i sm s .

t ab e lla (E ) , tablet ; t abe llae , d c o u m ent s , re ords c .

1 Th at i s , of d iff e ren t g e n d e rs ( gr epos, an ot h e r, an d y évos, g en der) .

2 I n e arly w ri t e rs t h e reg u lar p lural .

46 D EC LEN S I ON O F A D JEC TI VES 109, 1 10

AD JECTI VES

109 . A dj ec t iv e s an d Par t ic ip le s
in g e n e r al form e d an d de
are

c li n e d like N ou n s , d iffe ri n g fro m t h e m o n ly i n t h e ir u se .

1 . In a cc ord an c e w i t h t h e ir u se ,t h e y dis t in gu ish ge n d e r b y d iff e re n t

f orm s i n t h e s am e word , an d agre e wit h t h e i r n ou n s in ge n de r, n u m be r, an d
ca se . Th u s,
b on u s p u er, t he good boy .

bon a p u e lla, t h e g ood g irl .

b on u m d dn u m , the g ood g if t .

2 . c
I n t h e ir i n fle t i on t h e y are e i t h e r
( 1) of t h e First an d Se c on d D e c le n
sion s, or
( 2) of t h e Th ird D e le n s ion c .

F I R S T AN D S ECON D DEC LEN S I ON S ( ti AN D o-S TEMS )

1 10 A d . j e c t iv e s of t h e Fi rs t S e c on d D e c len s ion s ( a an d
an d

o- st e m s ) are de c lin e d i n t h e M asc u lin e like s ervu s , pu er, or ager ;

i n t h e F e m in in e like s t ella ; an d in t h e N e u t e r like bellu m .

Th e re gu lar t ype of an ad e c t iv e of j t h e Fi rst an d S e c on d D e c le n ~

s ion s i s bon u s, -a -
, u m , w h ic h i s t h u s d e c lin ed
.
:

b on u s , bon a, b onu m , good

MA S C U LI N E F EM I N I N E N EU T ER.

S TEM hon o S TEM bon a S TEM h ono

SI N GUL A R

PL U R A L
 111] F I R ST A N D SEC ON D D EC LEN S I ON S 47

N OTE S t e m s in q u o h ave n om in at i ve -c u s — q u os) , q u a, ~cu m -q u om ) , a u sat i ve

- cc
-c u m — —
.

- u am -c um
q u om ), q , q u 0m ) , t o avo id q u u ( see 6 b an d 46 N Th u s, . . .

NOM r
p p o i n c u
. s -q u o s
) p pro i n q u a ro
p p i n c u m -
gn om )
GEN p rop i n q u i
.
p rop in q u a e p rop in q u i , e t c .

B u t m ost m od e rn edit ion s d isreg ard t h i s p rin ip le c .

a. Th e Ge n i t ive S in gu lar m as c u li n e o f ad e j c t iv es i n -iu s e n ds i n -ii, an d

t he Vo c at ive in -ia ; n ot in -i , as in n ou n s
( c f § 49
. . b, c) ; as, Lace dae m on iu s ,

N O TE .
— Th e p ossess i ve m eu s , m y , h as t h e c
v o at ive m as c u li n e mi ( of .

1 11S t e m s e n din g in ro p r e c e de d by e form t h e N om in at iv e

.

M as c u lin e like p u er 4 7 ) an d are de c lin e d as follows :

m is er, m is era, m i se ru m , wretc hed

M A S C U LI N E EE M I N IN E N EU T ER

S TEM m i se ro S TEM m is era S TEM m i se ro

SI N G U L A R

m i se r m i se ra m i se ru m
m ise ri m ise rae m ise ri
m is e ré m i se ra e m i s e rO
m i se ru m m is e ra m m ise ru m
m is e r?) m is e ri m ise r?)

PL U R A L

m i se ri m ise rae m i se ra
m ise rOru m m i se raru m m i se ré ru m
m i se ri s m is e ri e m i seri s
m i se ré s m i se ras m i se ra
m i se ri a m i s e ri a m ise ri e

it . Like m i se r are c
de lin e d as pe r, gib b er, la c e r, libe r, p rosp er ( also p ros
peru s ) , sat u r -
u ra, -
uru m
) , t e n e t , w it h c om p o u n d s o f -fe r an d -
ge r : as, sae t i

g ,
e r -e ra -e ru m
, , bris tle-be ari n g also , u su ally, dext er . I n t h e se t h e e b e lo n g s t o
t he s te m b u t in dext ra i t is of t e n o m it t e d as, dext ra m an u s , t he ri
ght han d .

N OT E — St e m s i n éro (as wit h m Ori gEru s, p rop éru s, h av e t h e re gu lar n om i

n at i ve m as c ulin e in -as .

b . Th e f ollowin g la k c a n om in at ive si n gular m as u lin e c in c la ic ss u se :

c ét era, in fe ra, post ers , s u p era . Th e y are rare ly fou n d i n t h e si n g u lar e x e p t c

in c e rt ai n p h rase s : as, post e r?) dié , the n e xt d ay .

N O TE .
— An ablat ive f e m in i n e in -6 i s fo u n d i n a f e w Gree k adj e ti ves c : as , lec t i c a
oc t bp h orb ( Ve rr
'

. v .
48 D EC LEN S I ON OF A D JEC TI VES 1 12 , 113

1 12 S t e m s in t o p r e c e de d by a c on son an t for m t h e N om in at iv e
.

M asc u lin e like ager 4 7 ) an d are de c lin e d as follows :

n iger, n igra, n i gru m , c
bla k

N EU TER

S TEM n igro

SI N GUL A R

PL U R A L

a. Like n i ge r are c
d e lin e d ae ge r, i t er, c réb e r, r
fab er, glab e r, i nt e ge , ludi ce r,
ma c p ige r, pu l h e r, ru b er,
er, c c c
sa er, s abe r, si n i st e r, t s et ar, vafe r ; also t h e p os

s e ssive s n ost er, ve st er

113 . Th e followin g j
n in e ad e c t i ve s wit h t heir c om p ou n ds h av e
t h e G e n it i ve S in g ular in -
iu s an d t h e D at iv e in i in all g en de rs -

ali u s ( N . aliu d ) , other . t 6t u s , whole . alt e r, -t e ri as

, t he other .

n ullu s , n o, n on e. fi llu s , an y . n e u t e r, -t ri u s , n either .

s blu s , alon e . un u s , on e . u t e r, -t ri u s , whic h ( of t wo) .

O f t h e se t h e sin
g u la r is t h u s d e c lin e d

fi nu s u t ru m
un i u s un i u s un i u s

un u m i mam un u m
 113 —1 15] J
A D EC TI VES O F THE TH I R D D EC LEN SI ON 49

a. Th e p lu ral of t h e se words is re gu lar, like t h at of bon u s

b . Th e ge n it ive i n -iu s, d at ive in -i , an d n e u te r i n -d are p ro n om i n al in
origi n
(cf . illins , illi , illu d , an d
c . Th e i of t h e ge n i t ive e n din g - i u s , t h ou gh origin ally lon g, m ay b e m ade
sh ort in ve rse ; so O ft e n in alt eri u s an d re gu larly in u t ri u s qu e .

d . I n ste ad o f aliu s, alt eri u s is c om m on ly u se d , o r in t h e p o sse ssive se ns e

c
t h e adj e t ive ali en u s , be lon gin g t o an othe r, an othe r s
’
.

e. In c om po u n ds — as alt erut er — som e t i m e s b ot h p art s are c

d e lin e d,
so m e t i m e s o n ly t h e latt e r . Th u s, alt eri u t ri o r alt e rut ri , t o on e o f the t wo .

N O TE — Th e re g u lar g e n it ive an d
dat ive form s ( as i n bon u s) are som et im e s f ou nd
in som e o f t h e se wo rd s : as , g e n it ive an d d at ive f e m in i n e , aliae ; d at i ve m as ulin e , c
ali o . R are form s are ali s an d ali d ( for ali us, ali u d ) .

THI RD DECLEN S I ON ( CON S ON AN T AN D i —

S TEMS )

114 . A dj e c t iv e s of t h e Th ird D e c le n s ion are thus c las sifi e d

1 . Ad j ct i
Th re e Te rm in at ion s i n t h e n om i n at ive s in gu lar, — o n e
e ve s o f

c
f or ea h ge n de r : as, a e r, a ri s , a re c c c .

c
2 A dj e t ive s o f Two Te rm i n at io n s ,
. m as ulin e an d fe m i n in e t h e s am e c
as, levi s ( M .
, E ) , le ve
3 . A d j e t ive s c of O n e Te rm i n at i on , - t he s am e f or all t h re e ge n de rs : as,

at rOx .

c
a . A dj e t ive s of t wo an d t h ree t e rm i n at ion s are t ru e i-st e m s an d h e n e ret ain c
in t h e ablat i ve s in gu lar -i , in t h e n eu t e r p lu ral -ia, in t h e ge n it ive p lu ral -iu m , an d
in t h e ac c us at ive p lu ral re gu larly
-i s
(se e 7 3 an d

Adject ives of Th ree an d of Two Term i nat ion s

1 15 . A d j e c t iv e s of Thr e e Te rm in at ion s are t h u s d e c lin e d

c c c
a er, a ri s , a re , keen , S TEM a ri c
S rN G U L A R PLU R AL

c
a ri s c
a res c
a res ac ri a
ac i r s c
a ri s ac ri u m ac ri u m ac ri u m
ac ri b u s ac rib u s ac ri b u s
ae re m c
a ri s -
é s) c
a ri s -é s
) ae ri a
ac ri b u s ac ri b u s ac ri b u s

1 B u t t h e fo rm s of som e are d ou b t f u l .
50 D EC LENS I ON OF A D JEC TI VES 1 15- 117

a. c
Like a e r are d e li n e d t h e f o llo win g c st e m s in ri

alac e r, c am p e s t e r, c e le ber, eq u e s t e r, p alfi s t er, pe de s t e r, p u t e r, s alfi b er, S ilve s t e r,

t erre s t e r, v olu ce r S o als o n am es of m on t hs in -be r : as , O t obe r ( c f
. c .

N O TE 1 — c
Th i s f orm at i on is om p arat i vely lat e , an d h en e , i n t h e po e t s an d in e arly
. c
c
Lat i n , e it h er t h e m as ulin e or t h e f e m in i n e form of t h e se ad j e t ive s w as som e t im e s c
u s ed f or b o t h ge n d e rs : as, c oe t u s alac ri s I n ot h ers , as faen eb ri s , f fi n eb ri s , i llus
t ri s , lfi g u b n s , m e d i oc ri s , m u li eb ri s , t h e re i s n o se p arat e m as u lin e form at all, an d t h ese
’

c
c
are d e lin e d lik e le vi s
N O TE 2 — C ele r, c ele ri s , c elere , swif t , h as t h e g en it ive p lu ral c ele ru m , u se d on ly as a
, .

n ou n , d e n ot in g a m ilit ary ran k Th e p rope r n am e Celer h as t h e ab lat i ve i n -e

. .

116 . A d j e c t iv e s of Two Te rm in at ion s are th u s d e c lin e d

le v is , leve , light , S TEM le vi

Si N G U LA R PL U R A L

M .
, F . M .
,
E

N O TE . A dj c t i e v es of tw o an d t h re e t e rm in ati on s som e t im es h av e an ab lat ive in -

e
i n p oe t ry , rare ly in p ros e .

j ect ive of On e Te m in at ion Ad s r

11 7 Th e r e m ain in g adj e c t iv e s o f t h e t h ird d e c le n sion are C on

.

son an t st e m s ; bu t m os t of t h e m e x c e p t C o m p ar at i v e s h av e t h e , ,

followi n g for m s of i st e m s 1 -

-i i n t h e ab lat ive si n gu lar

( bu t ofte n -e
);
-ia i n t h e n om i n at ive an d a cc u sat ive p lu ral n e u te r ;
-iu m i n t h e g e n it ive p lu ral ;
-is
( as we ll as -é s in t h e a
) cc u sat i v e p lu ral m c
as u lin e an d f e m i n in e .

I n t he oth e r c as e s t h e y follow t h e r u le for C on son an t st e m s .

a. Th e se ad e j ct i c
ve s, e x e p t st e m s in l or r form t h e n om in at ive sin gu
lar f rom t he ste m by ad d i n g 3 : as, at rbx
( st e m at rOc s
) , e gen s ( st e m
2
e ge n t s
) .

bH e re b e lon g t h e p re se n t p art i ip le s i n
. c -
(
n s st e m n t
2
: as, am i n e , m on éns .

c
Th e y are d e lin e d like e gé n s ( b u t of .

1 F or d e t ails se e 121 .
2 S te m s i n nt om it 1: b e f ore t he n om in at iv e -s .
 1 19] A D JEC TI VES OF TH E THI R D D EC LEN S I ON 51

118 . A d j e c t iv es of on e r
t e m in at ion are d e c lin e d as follow s

at rOx, fi er e, c S T E M at rbc e gé n s , n eed y , S TE M e ge n t i

S I N G UL A R

M .
, F . M .
,
F .

PL U R A L

e ge n t é s e ge n t i a

e ge n t i u m e ge n t i u m
e ge n t i b u s e ge n t i b u s

és) e ge n t i a
ge n ti s
e -

e ge n t i b u s e ge n t i b u s

1 19 . O th e r e x am p le s are t h e followin g

con ot s , c harm on i ou s p raec ep s , head lon g

S TEM c c
on ord S T EM p rae c i pi t

SI N G U L A R

M .
, E M .
, F .

c on c ors

PL U R A L

p rae c ip it é s p rae c ip it i a
1
rae c ip i t i u
[p m ]
p rae c ip itib u s p rae c ip it i b u s
rae c ip it i s
p é s) p rae c ip it i a
-

p rae c ip it i b u s p rae c ip it i b u s

1 Give n b y gram m arian s , b u t n ot fou n d .

52 D EC LEN S I ON O F A D EC TI VES J 1 19

SI N G U L A R

M .
,
E M .
,
F . M .
,
F

NO M . i en a i en a
GEN . eu n tis p ari s
‘
D AT . eu n ti p ari
A cc . eu n t e m ié n s p are m
ABL . eu n te -
i) eu n te i)
-
p ari

PL U R A L

NO M eu n t é s eu n ti a p ares p ari a di vi t é s [ d i t i a]
'

G EN . e u n ti u m e u n tiu m p ari u m p ari u m di vi t u m d i vi t u m

DAT ti b e u n ti b u s p ari b u s d i vit i b u s d i vi t i b u s
’

. eun us p an b u s
Ac c . c u n t is -
é s) eu n tia p ari s
-
é s ) p ari a di vi ti s -
és) [di t i a ]
ABL . e u n tib u s e u n t ib u s p ari b u s p ari b u s di vi t ib us d i vit i b u s

SIN GUL A R

M . F . M F .

PL U R A L

N O TE O f t h ese ve t u s i s orig in ally an s-st e m

. I n m ost s-s t e m s t h e r h as i n t ru d e
. d
it self i n t o t h e n om in at i ve also , as b i -c orp or ( f or Tb i -c orp os) , d eg en er ( f or f il e-gen e s) .

1 An ablat iv e i n -e is v e ry rare .
54 D EC LEN SI ON OF A D JEC TI VES 12 1, 1 2 2

3 . Th e f ollowin g h ave re gu larly -i — am én s an

,
c ep s , co c o n ts
( an d ot h e r

c om p o u n ds of c or ) , c bn s ors
( bu t as a s u b st an t iv e , -e
) ,degen e r, h ebe s , in gen e ,
i n op s , m e m ot ( an d c om p ou n ds) i r ( i n p rose ) , p e rp es ,
pa , p rae cep s , p raepe s , t eres .

4 . Th e followin g h ave re u larl -e z— c ae le s , om p os , j dé s e s , d ive s , h os e s ,

g y [ ] p c
p art i c ep s , c
p au p er, p rin ep s, s bs p es , s u p erst es S o also p at rials ( se e 7 1 5 ) an d . .

st e m s in at , it n t rt wh e n u se d as n ou n s , an d som e t im e s wh e n u se d as
c
adj e t ive s .

Th e Ge n i t ive Plu ral

b . e n ds c om m on ly in ium
-
, b u t h as -u m in t h e
followin g : 1
1 . A lways in c om p os , dives , i n op s , p art i c ep s , prae pe s , p ri n c eps , s u pple x, an d

c om p ou n d s of n ou n s c
whi h h ave -u m : as , qu adru-pé s , bi-c olor .

2 . S om e t im es , in p oe t ry , in p art i ip le s i n m s c : as , s ile n t u m c cili

on um , a c ou n

c il o f the silen t shades ( A e n vi . .

c . Th e A cc u sat ive Plu ral re gu larly e n ds in -i s

, bu t c om p arat ive s c om

m ou ly h ave -és .

d Vet us an d
‘

.
( ge n .
-
éri s) p ii bes ( ge n .
-éri s) re gu larl
y h ave -
e in t he ab la
t ive sin gu lar, -a in t he n om i n at i ve an d a cc u s at i ve p lu ral, an d -u m in t h e
ge n it ive p lu ral F or fi b e r, se e 119 . .

e A fe w adj e t ive s of o n e t e rm i n at ion ’

. c 4
u se d as n ou n s, h ave a f e m in in e
form i n -a : as, c li en t s , h osp it a, wi t h t h e ap p e llat ive li mb S bsp it a .

I fregu larit ies an d S pec ial Uses of Ad j ect ives

122 . Th e followi n g sp ec ial p oin t s re qu i re n ot ic e

a. S e veral ad e j ct i ve s vary c
in d e le n sion as, g ra cili s -u s
) , hilari s -u s
) ,

i n erm i s -u s
) ,c bi
olo r -
6rus ) .

w adj c t i c ‘
b . A fe e ve s are i n de lin ab le : as, dam n i s, frfi gi ( re ally a dat ive
of se rvi e , se e c 382 l . . N . n é qu am ( origi n ally an ad ve rb
) , c
n e esse , an d t he

p ron om i n al form s t ot , qu ot , ali qu ot , t oti de m P o t i s i s O f te n . u se d as an i n de

c
c li n ab le adje t i ve , b u t s om e t i m e s h as p ot e in t h e n e u t e r .

0. S e veral ad j ct i
e ve s are d e fe t ivec as, exsp é s ( on ly exlex ( e xlégem )
( o n ly n om . an d ac c .
p ern ox ( p e rn oc t e ) ( o n ly n om an d . ab l sin g ;
.
)
an d p rim Ori s , s ém in e c i , e t c .
, c c
wh i h la k t h e n om in at ive s in gu lar .

d . Man y ad e j cti ve s, from t h e ir s ign ifi c at i on , c an be u se d only in t he

m as c u li n e an d fe m i n i n e . Th e se m ay b e c all d e ad ec t ive s o
j f c om m on g en d e r .

S u h are c ad u lé s c é n s , y ou th u l; f [fdé s e s ] ,
- i dis , sloth u l; f p i s , p oor ;
i n op s , ~0

sos p e s , -i ti s , sa e f . S im ilarly , se nex , old m an , an d i nveni s , y ou n g m an , are som e

t im es c alle d m as c u lin e adj e t i ves c .

For A d j ct i e ve s u se d as NO u n s , se e 288 , 289 ; for N ou n s u se d as A dj c ti e ve s , see

532 1 . c ; f A dj ct i
or e ve s u se d as A
d ve rb s , se e § 214 ; f or d ve rb s u se d A A dj c t i
as e ves.

se e 3 21 d . .

1 F orm s in -u m som e t im e s o cc u r in a f ew ot h e rs.

 12 3 - 12 7] C OMPA RI SON OF A D JEC TI VES 55

COMPAR I S ON OF AD ECTI VES J

123 . I n Lat in , in En glish , t h e r e are t h r e e d e gre e s of c om
as

p a r
is on : t h e P osit ive , t h e C om arat ive , an d t h e S up e rlat i ve
p .

124 . Th e C om p ar at iv e is r eg u larly for m e d by addin g -ior ( n eu

- 1
r
t e r iu s) , t h e S u p e lat i e by addin g -i ss im u s v -
a, -u m ) , t o t he st e m of

v
t h e Posit i e , wh ic h loses it s fi n al ow el v .

ca ru s , d ear ( st e m caro c ari o r, d earer c ari e s i m u s, d eares t .

le vis , lig ht ( st e m le vi le vi o r, lighter ; levi s si m u s , lightest .

f elix , hap p y ( st e m f eli c f elic i or, hap p i er ; f eli c i s s im u s , hap p i est .

h e b es , d u ll (st e m h ebe t h e b e t i o r, du ller ; h e b e t i s sim u s, d u llest .

N O TE —A f orm ofd i m in u t i ve i s m ad e u po n t h e st e m of som e c om p arat i ves : as ,

—
.

gran d iu s c u lu s, a li t t le larg er ( s ee

a. c
Part i ip le s wh en us e d as ad e j cti ve s are re gularly c om p are d

p at iens , p at i en t ; p at ien t i o r, p at ie n ti ss im u s .

ap e rt us , op e n ; ape rt i o r, ap e rt i s si m u s .

12 5 . A dj e c t iv e s i n -e r form t h e S u p e rlat iv e by addin g -

rim u s to
the n om in at i ve . Th e c om p ar at i v e i s r e gu lar

a c ke en ; ac rlo r, ac e rri m u s
er, .

m ise r, wretc hed ; m ise ri o r, m is erri m u s .

a. So vet u s ( ge n . ve t e ris ) h as su p e rlat iv e vet erri m u s , f rom t h e old f orm

vet e r ; an d m at hru s , b e si d e s i t s re g u lar s u p e rlat i ve
( m at uri ssi m u s , h as a rare
)
f orm m atfi rri m u s .

F or t h e c o m p arat ive o f vet u s , vet u st ior

( f rom vet u st u s ) is u se d .

126 . Six j
ad e c t i es in v li s fo m t h e
-
r Su p e rlat iv e by ad din g -lim u s
to t he s t e m c li
p p e d of it s fi n al i The se are fac ili s , difi ic ili s , s im i
li s , di s s im ili s, g rac ili s, h u m ili s .

fac ilis (st em fac ili easy ; f ac ili or, f ac illim us .

12 7 C om p ou n ds in — say in g ) an d (wi llin g t ake i n

. dicu s ( -
volu s
)
t hei r c om p arison th e fo m s r of t he corre sp on di n g p art ic ip le s dice ns

an d volé n s , whi c h we re an c i e n t l
y u se d as adj ec t iv e s

m ale di c u s , slan d erous ; m ale d ic e n t i o r, m ale d i c e n t i s sim u s .

m ale v o lu s , sp itef u l; m ale vole n t i or, m ale vole n t i s sim u s .

1 Th e c om i s ak in t o t h e Greek -lwv, or t h e S an sk rit -i y an s

p arat iv e su fii x ( e arli e r .

Th at o f t h e s u p e rlat ive -i ssi m u s) i s a d ou ble form of u n ertain origi n I t ap p e ars t o c .

c on t ai n t h e i s o f th e O ld s u fli x -i s-t o-s se e n i n i d—
( j w r o—s an d En g lish swee t es t ) an d also
t h e o ld -m o-s ( se en in p ri -m u s , m i n i-m u s , e t c ) Th e e n d in gs -lim u s an d -ri m u s are form e d
.

b y as sim ilat io n 15 6 ) f ro m -s im u s
. . c
Th e o m p arat i ve an d s u p e rlat i ve are re ally n ew
y c
st e m s , an d are n o t st ri t l to b e re ard e d as fo rm s o f i n fl e t ion
g c .
56 C OMPA R I S ON OF A DJEC TI VES 12 7- 13 0

a. S o, b y an alogy, c om p o u n ds i n -fi c u s
m agn ifi c u s , gran d ; m agn ifi c e n t i o r, m ag n ifi c e n t i s s im us .

12 8 . S om e j v
ad e c t i e s are c o m p a e d r by m e an s of t h e ad v e rbs
m agi s , m ore , an d m axim e, m ost .

So e sp e c ially adj c t i e ve s in -n a
p re c e de d by e or 1

id On eu s , fi t ; m agis id On e u S , m axim e id On e us .

N O TE — Bu t p i u s h as p ii ssim u s i n t h e s u p e rlati v e ,
. a f orm Con d e m n e d b y C i e ro , c
c c c
b u t om m on i n in s rip t ion s ; e qu ally om m on , h o we ve r, i s t h e i rre g u lar p i en t i ssim u s .

I rregu la r Com parison

129 . S e v e r al j
ad e c t i ves h av e i n t h e ir c om p a rison irre gu lar
fo rm s :
b on us , g ood ; op t im u s , best .

malus , bad ; p e ss i m u s , worst .

m agn u s, great ; m axi m u s , greatest .

p arvu s , s mall; m in im u s , le ast .

m u lt u s , m u h ; c m ore ; p lurim u s , m ost .

m ult i , m an y ; p lurim i , m ost .

n é qu am
( in d e c l .
,
122 b) , . n eq u i s s i m u s .

worthless ;
frfi gi ( in d e l , c
1 22 b) , u se
. . frugali o r ; frug ali s si m u s .

f u l, wort hy ;
d e xt e r, on the right , h an d y d e x t e ri o r ; d e xt i m u s .

N O T E — Th ese i rre g u lari ti e s arise f rom t h e u se of di ffe re n t st e m s ( c f Th u s .

f rfi g fi li or an d f rugali ss i m u s are form e d f rom t h e s t e m f rugali b u t are u sed as t h e c om

p arat i ve an d su p e rlat ive o f t h e i n d e li n ab le i rugi c .

De fec t ive Com p arison

13 0 Som e C om p a
. rat iv e s an d S u p e rlat i ve s a
pp e a r w it h ou t a

Posit iv e :

Oc i o r, swi f ter ; Oc i s s i m u s , s wi f te st .

1
p ot i o r, p ref erable p ot i s si m u s, m ost i m p ortan t .

a. Th e f ollowi n g are f orm e d f ro m st e m s n ot u se d as ad e j ct i ve s :

9

1 cc
Th e old p osit ive p ot i s o u rs in t h e se n s e of able , p ossi ble .

2 Th e f orm s i n -t ri an d -t eru s w e re ori i n all

g y om p arat i ve ( c f alt e r) , so t h at t h e c .

c om p arat i ves in -t eri or are d ou ble om p arat i ve s c

I n t e rn s an d su p eru s are om p arat ive s . c
of a st ill m o re p rim it iv e f orm (c f . the En glish c om p arat i v e i n e r)
- .

Th e su p e rlat i ve s i n -t im u s -
t u m us) are re lics o f old f o rm s O f c
om p arison ; t h ose i n
-m u s
lik e i m u s , su m m u s , p ri m u s , are st ill m ore p rim it i ve F orm s lik e e xt rem as are
.

s u pe rlat i ves of a o m p arat ive c . c c

I n f a t , om p ari son h as alway s b een t re at e d wi t h an
cc c
a u m u lat ion of e n din gs, as h ild ren s ay f u rt h e rer an d f u rt h eres t .
 13 0, 1 3 1] D EF EC TI VE C OMP A R I SON 57

c is , c it ra ad v ( .
, on t his si de : ) c it e ri o r, hither ; c it i m u s ,
hitherm ost .

d e ( p re p , d own ) . d et e ri o r, worse ; d et e rri m u s , worst .

i n , i n t ra ( p re p , i n , wi th i n ) . i n t e ri o r, i n n er ; in t im u s, in m ost .

p rae , p ro ( pre p .
,
bef ore) :

p ri o r, f orm er ; p rim us, fi rst .

p rOp e ( ad v , n ear) .
p rop i o r, n earer ; p rox i m u s , n ext .

u lt ra ( ad v , bey on d ) . u lt e ri o r, f arther ; u lt i m u s , f arthest .

b Of t he follow in g t h e p osit ive form s

. are rare , e x e p t c wh e n u se d as

n o u n s ge n e rally i n t h e p lu ral :
( )
e x t e rn s, ou tward e x t e ri o r, ou ter ;
; e x t rem u s
( e xt i m u s ) ou tm ost , .

i n fe rus , be low (se e 1 1 1 b). i n fe ri o r, lower ; i n fi m u s ( i m u s ) lowest , .

p ost ern s , f ollowin g , p os t e ri o r, latter ; p ost rem u s (p ost u m u s ) last , .

su p e ru s , above ; su p eri o r, higher ; s u p rem u s or su m m u s, hig hest .

B u t t h e p lu rals , e xt e ri , f ore ign ers ; in f eri , t he g od s below ; pos t e ri , p oste rity ;

s u p e ri , t he he aven ly g ods , are o m m on c .

N O TE . Th e su p e rlat i ve post u m u s h as th e spe i al se n se c of las t-born, an d was a we ll

kn own s u rn am e .

13 1 . S e v e ral ad e c t i j v es lac k t h e C om p ar at ive or t h e S u p e rla

a. Th e C om p arat ive is rare or wan t in g i n t h e f ollow1n g

b e llu s , i n c lu t u s ( or in c lit u s) , n ov u s ,

c ae s iu s , c
i n vi t as ,
f als u s , i n vit u s ,
fi du s ( wi t h it s c om p oun d s ) , m e rit u s ,

b . Th e Su p e rlat iv e i s wan t in g i n m an y adj e t ive s c in ilis

-
or -bilis
( as ,

agilis, p rob i b ili s) , an d in t h e f ollo win g :

ac t u bs u s e xili s

agre s t i s

alac e r

arc an u s

vi c in u s

s upin u s

a. From iu ve n is , you th, se n ex, old m an ( c f 12 2 d ) , are f orm e d t h e c om . .

p arat ive s ifm ior, y o u n g e r, se n i or, old e r F or t h e se , h ow e v e r, m in or wi t h an d .

m aior nat fi are s om e t im e s u se d ( wi t h b e in g o ft e n o m it t e d ) .

Th e pe rlat ive is
su re gu larl
y e xp re s se d b y m in i m u s an d m axim u s , w it h
or wit h o u t natfi .

N O TE .
~ - I n t h ese p h rase s wi t h is ab lat i ve of sp e cifi c at ion ( se e
d . Man y adj e c t ive s ( as au reu s , gold e n ) are f ro m t h e ir m e an in g i n c ap ab le

of c om p arison .

N O TE -B u t e a h l
. c
an gu ag e h as i t s ow n u sage in t hi s re spe t Th us , n ig er, g lossy c .

c c c
bla k, an d an d i d u s , shi n i n g wh i t e , are om p are d ; b u t n o t at e r o r alb u s , m e an in g abso
c
lu t e d ead bla k or wh it e ( ex ep t t h at Plau t u s on e h as at ri or) c c .
58 NU MER A LS 13 2 , 133

N UMERALS

132 . Th e Lat in N u m e r als m ay b e c las sifi e d as follows

I . N U M ER A L A D J E C TI V E S '

1 . C ard in al N u m b e rs , an swe ri n g t h e qu e s t ion how m an y ? as, un u s, on e ;

d u o, t wo, etc .

2 . Ord i n al N u m b e rs, 1 ad e j ct i ve s d e ri ve d ( in m ost ca se s

) fro m t h e C ard i
n als, an d an swe ri n g t h e q u e st ion whic h in ord e r ? as , p ri m u s , f irst ; se c u n

du s , se c on d , e t c .

3 . D ist rib u t ive N u m e rals, an s we rin g

t h e q u e st ion how m an y at a tim e ?
as, s in gu li, on e at a t im e b in i , t wo by t wo, e t c .

II . N U M ER A L A D V ERB S , an sw e ri n g t h e q u e st ion how of te n ? as, se m el,

on c e ; b i s , t wic e , etc .

Cardin als an d Ordin als

133 . Th es e t wo se rie s are as follows

C A RDI N A L OR D I N A L ROM AN N U M ER A LS

u n u m , on e p rim u s , m fi rst
’

im u s, fi n a, -a
,
-u
,

d u o, d u a c ,
d u o, two c
s e u n d us ( alt e r) , c
s e on d

t res , t ria, three t e rt iu s , third

q u at t u or qu art us I I I I or TV

q u i n qu e qu i n t u s
se x s ext u s

se p t e m se p t im us

oc t O
'
c
o t avu s

n ove m n On u s v a n or 1 x

de c em c
d e im us
un d ec i m fi n d ec im u s

d u od e c im d u od e c im u s
t re de c im ( de c em ( )
et t res) c
t e rt ius d e im us ( d e c im u s ( e t ) t e rt iu s ) xI I I

qu att u ord e c im q u art u s d e im us c m m or x 1v

qu i n de i m c q u i n t us d e im us c
sed e c im se x t u s c
d e im us
se p t e n d e c i m se p t im u s c
d e im us xvi r

d u od evigin t i ( oc t Od e c im ) d u od evi c en sim u s ( oc t avus c

d e im u s) xvm

1 c c
Th e O rd in als ( ex ep t se u n du s , t ert i u s , oc t avu s, n bn u s) are form ed b y m e an s o f s u f
fi xe s re lat e d t o t h ose u se d i n t h e su p e rlat iv e an d i n p art id e n t i al w i t h t h e m Th u s , c .

c
d ec i m u s ( om p are t h e form i n fi m u s) m a b e re ard ed as t h e last O f a se ri e s o f t e n ; p ri
y g
m u s is a su p e rlat i ve of a st e m a k i n t o p r6 t h e form s i n -t u s ( quart u s , q u i n t u s , sext u s) m ay
c c
b e om p are d w it h t h e orre s p on d i n g Gre e k f orm s in -ros, an d w it h s u pe rlat i ves in
-w -r o— s, wh ile t h e ot h e rs h ave t h e s u e rlat iv e e n d in g -t i m u s ( h an ed t o -s im as)
p g Of t h e c
c c
e x e p t io n s , se u n d u s is a p art i ip le o f se qu or ; alt e r i s a c o m p arat i v e f orm ( o m p are c c
-r e o s in Gre e k
p ) , an d mi n u s is on t ra t ed f rom T n oven os c c
Th e ard i n al m u lt ip le s of t en . c
are c om p ou n d s o f g i n t - ‘
t en
’
( a f ragm e n t Of a d e rivat ive f rom d ec e m ) .
 133 , 134] C A R D I N A LS A N D OR D I N A LS 59

C A R DI N A L O RDI N A L ROM A N N UM ER A LS

un d evigin t i ( n ove n d ec im ) fi n d é vi c é n sim u s n t c

b n u s d e i m u s) x v rI I I or x i x

vi gin t i v i c en si m u s ( vigen sim u s)

vig in t i fi n us vi c en sim u s p ri m u s xx i

( or fi rm s e t vigin t i , et c .
) ( un u s e t vic en si m u s , etc .
)
t ri gin t a t ri c en sim u s x xx

q u ad ragin t a q u adragé n sim u s

qu i n q u agin t a qu i n q u agen si m us
se x agin t a se x ag en sim u s

se p t u ag in t a agen s im u s
se p t u Lxx

oc tOgi n t a oc t Ogen s im u s Lx x x

n On agin t a n On ag en s im us Lx xx x or x c

c en t u m c e n t en sim u s

c en t u m ( et ) u n u s , etc . c e n t en sim u s p ri m us , etc .

d u c en t i , -ae
,
-a d u c e n t é ns im u s
t rec en ti t rec en t en s im u s

q u ad rin gen t i qu adrin ge n t en sim u s CCCC

qu in ge n t i qu i n ge n t en si m u s
sesc en t i se sc e n t en sim us

se p ti n g e n t i se p t in ge n t en sim u s D CC

oc t in ge n t i oc t in ge n t en sim us DC CC

n On ge n t i n On ge n t en si m u s Dc c c c

m i lle m illen s im u s 00 (c m ) or M
“

q u i n qu e m i lia ( m i llia) q u i n qu len s m illen s im u s

c
d e e m m i lia ( m i llia) d ec ien s m illen sim u s c o roo

c en tu m m i lia ( m lllia)
“

c e n t i en s m illen si m u s c c c rooo

N O TE 1 Th e fo rm s in -én sim u s are ofte n writ t en wit h ou t t h e n : as , vi c é si m u s , e tc

. .

- Th e f orm s oc t 6d ec i m noven d ec im are rare d u od é vi gi n t i t wo rom t wen t

N O TE 2 .
, , ( f y) ,
fi n d évi gin ti ( on e f rom t wen t y) , b e in g u s ed in s t e ad S O 28 , 29 ; 38 , 39 ; e t c m ay b e
’

. .

c
e x p res s ed e it h e r b y t h e su b t ra t i on of t wo an d on e o r b y t h e ad d it ion o f e ig h t an d

n i ne res p e t ive ly c .

Dec len s ion of r

Ca di n als an d Ordin als

13 4 . Of t h e C ar din als on l
y onu s, du o, t ré s , t h e hu n dre d s abo ve
on e h u n d re d , an d m ine w h en u se d as a n ou n , are d e c lin able .

a. F or t h e d e le n sio n c of fi n u s, se c 1 13 . It oft e n h as t h e m e an i n
g of

sam e o r on ly Th e p lu ral i s u se d i n t h i s se n se ; b u t also, as a si m p le n u

.

m e ral, t o agre e wit h a p lu ral n o u n o f a sin g ular m e an i n g : as , !I n a ast ra, c

on e c
am p
( cf 1 3 7 b) T h.e p lu ral o u rs also in t he p h rase un i e t alt e ri , on e
. . cc
p arty an d the other ( t h e o n e s an d t h e ot h e rs) .

b Du o, t wo, an d t rés , three , are t h u s d e li n e d

.
’
'

c
1 Th e form in -o is a rem n an t o f t h e c
d u al n u m ber, wh i h w as lo st in Lat in , b u t i s
fou n d i n c
o gn at e lan gu ages . c
S o in am b b , b ot h , w h i h p res e rve s -6 ( c f 61513 an d 6 29 b) . . .
60 N UMER AL S 134, 135

E M E

NO M . du o d u ae
GE N . d u Oru m d u aru m
DA T . d u Ob u s d u ab u s
ACC . d u Os ( d u o ) d u as
AR I d u Ob u s -
d u ab u s

N O TE — Am b 6, both , i s d e li n ed lik e d u o
. c .

c . Th e h u n d re d s, u
p t o 1 000, are adj e t i ve s o f t h e Fi rst an d S e c c on d

c
D e le n sion s, an d are g y c
re u larl d e li n e d lik e t h e p lu ral o f b on u s .

( 1. Mille, a t hou s an d , i s in t h e si n gu lar an c

i n d e lin ab le adj e t ivec
m i lle m od is , i n a t hou san d way s .

c um m i lle h om in ib u s , with a thou san d m en .

m ille t rab en s varies c olOres (A e n . iv . drawin g ou t a th ou san d variou s

c olors .

I n t h e p lu ral it is u se d as a n e u t e r n o u n , an d c
is d e lin e d like t h e p lu ral
o f se dile m ilia, m ili u m , m ilib u s , et c .

N O T E — Th e sin gular mille i s som e t im e s fou n d as a n ou n in t h e n om i n at i ve an d

.

cc
a u sat ive : as, m i lle h om i nu m m i sit , he sen t a t h ou s an d ( of) m en ; in t h e ot h e r ase s c
rare ly , e x e p t in c c c
o n n e t ion w it h t h e sam e c
ase o f m i li a : as , c u m oc t o m i li b u s pe d i t um ,
m i lle equ it um , wi th e i gh t t h ou san d f oot an d a t h ou s an d h orse .

6 . Th e ordi n als are ad e j ct i

ve s of t h e F irst an d S e c on c
d D e le n sion s, an d

are re g u larly c
d e lin e d like bon u s .

13 5 . C ar din als an d O r din als h av e t h e followin g u s es

a. In num b e rs b e low 100, if u n i ts c

p re e de t e n s, et is ge n e rally in se rt e d
d u o et vi gin t i ; o t he rwi se at is o m it t e d : vigin t i du o .

b I n n u m b e rs ab ove 100 t h e h ighe st d e n o m in at ion ge n e rally st an d s

.

c
fi rs t , t h e n e x t s e on d , e t c , as i n En glish Et is e i t h e r om it t e d e n t ire ly, or
. .

s t an dsb e t we e n t h e t wo h igh e st d e n o m in at i o n s z — m ille ( )

et se p t i n ge n t i

sexagin ta qu att u or, 1 7 64 .

N O TE . O b se rve t h e follo win g c om b i n at ion s o f n u m e rals w it h su b st an t ives

un u s e t vi g i n t i m i li t es , or vi gi n t i m i li t es ( et ) ii n u s , 2 1 sold i ers .

d u o m i lia qu in g en t i m i li t es, o r d u o mi li a m i li t am et q u i n g en t i , 2 5 00 s old iers .

m i lit es m i lle d u c en t i t ri g i n t a un u s , 123 1 soldi ers .

0. A f t e r m ilia t h e n am e o f t he ob ej ct s e n u m e rat e d is in t h e ge n it ive

d u o m i lia h om in u m , t wo t hou san d m e n 1 .

c u m t ri b us m i lib u s m ilit am , with t hree t h ou san d sold i ers .

m ilia p as s u u m t ria, t hree thou san d p a es t h re e m iles

( ) c .

d . F or m illion , billion , trillion , etc t h e R o m an s h ad n o sp e c ial w ords,

bu t t h e se num b e rs we re e xp re sse d by m u lt ip li c at i on
( cf . 13 8 . a
) .

1 O r, i n p oe t ry , b i s m ille h om i n es, t wi c e a th ou s an d m en .
62 N UM ER A LS 1 3 8 , 13 9

r
Nu m e al Adve b s r
13 8 . Th e N u m e r al A d v e rbs an s we r the q u est ion qu ot i ens

( qu ot i es) , how m an y t im e s ? how of t en ?

se m e l, onc e d u od ec ien s
b is , t wi c e t erd e c ien s
t e r, t hr ic e qu at e rd e c ien s
qu at e r qu in d e c ien s
-es 1 s ed e c ien s
q u i n qu i en s )
s ex ien s se p t iesd e c ien s

s e p t iens du od evi c i en s
oc t i en s un d evi c ien s
n ovi ens vi c ien s
d ec iens se m e l vi c iens , 2 etc .

un d e c iens t ri c iens

a. N u m e ral A d ve rb s are u se d wit h m ille t o e xp re ss t h e h igh er num b ers

t e r e t t ri c ié n s ( c e n t en a m ili a) s es t e rt i u m , 3 , 3 00, 000 sest er c es ( t h ree an d t hirt y
t im es a h u n d re d t h ou san d seste r es c ) .

vi cie s ac s e p ti é s m ili es ( c e n t en a m i lia) s est e rt i u m , c

sest er es

( t w e n t y -se ve n t h ous an d t im es a h u n d re d t h ou san d

) .

N O T E — Th e se larg e n u m b e rs are u s e d alm os t e x cl

u s ive ly in re ck on in g m on ey ,
an d c e n t en a m ilia is re gu larly om i t t e d ( see

r Nu m erals
Ot he

13 9 Th e follow in g adj ec t i v es are c alle d M u lt i lic at i v es

.
p
s im ple x, s in g le ; d u p le x , dou ble , twof old ; t rip lex , t rip le, threef old ; qu adru p le x,
c
qu in qu ip le x , s ep t e m plex , de em p le x , c e n t u p le x, s é s qu iplex m u lti ple x

( m an if old ) .

a. Prop ort ion als are : du p lu s , t rip lu s, qu adru p lu s , ct

o u p las , e t c .
, t wic e as

great , thric e as great, e t c .

b Te m p orals : b im u s , t rim u s , f
’
. o t wo or thre e ye ars age ; b ie n n is , t rie n n is ,
lasti n g two or t hree years ; b im é st ris , t ri m ést ri s , of t wo or three m on ths b i du um ,

a p e riod of t wo d ays ; b ie nn iu m , a p eriod of t wo ye ars .

c . Part it ive s : b i ni riu s , t ern ariu s , of two o r three p arts .

d . O t h e r d e ri vat ive s are : un ib, u n it

y ; b i n iO, the two ( of d i e ) ; p ri m an u s, c
f the fi rst legion ; p rim ariu s of the f irs t ran k ; dént i ri u s , a s u m of 1 0 asse s ;
'

o ,

b i nu s di st rib u t iv e d ou ble e t c
( ) , ,
.

1 F orm s i n -a
s are o f t e n w ri tt e n wi t h o u t t h e n.
2 Al so wri tt e n vi c i é n s e t se m e l or vi c i é n s sem el e tc
, .
 140- 143 ] PER S ON AL PR ON OUN S 63

PR ON OU N S

140 P . r on ou n s are u s e d as N ou n s or as A d j e c t iv e s .

div id e d in t o t h e followin g se ve n c las se s

1 . Pe rson al Pro n oun s as , e go, I .

2 . Re fle x ive Pron ou n s : as, 8 5,

f
him se l .

3 . Posse ssive Pron o u n s : as, m eus , m y .

4 . De m on st rat iv e Pron ou n s : as, hi c , this ; ille , t hat .

5 . R e lat iv e Pron ou n s : qu i , who

as, .

6 . I n t e rrogat ive Pro n ou n s : as, q u is , who ?

7 . I n de fi n it e Pron o u n s : as, ali qu is , s om e on e .

14 1 . Pr on ou n s h av e sp e c ial fo r m s of d e c le n sion .

N O TE — Th es e sp e ci
f orm s are , in g en e ral,
al surv ivals of a. ve ry an cien t f orm of
c
d e lens ion ’
d fl e ri n g from th at o f n oun s
i .

Pers on al P ron ou n s

142 . Th e Pe rson al p r on ou n s of t h e first

p erson are ego, I, 1168 ,

we ; of t he se c on d
p erson , t u, t han or y ou , ves ,
y e o r
you . Th e
r
p e s on al p r on ou n s of t h e t hird p erson — he, she , i t , are t hey —
wan t in g in Lat in , 3 r v
d e m on s t at i e b e in g s om e t i m e s u se d in s t e ad .

143 . Ego an d t i: are d e c lin ed as follow s :

F I R S T PER S O N
S in gu lar P lu ral

e go, I n ds , we
m ei , f
o me n ost ru m , n os t ri , of us

n Ob is
m ih i ( m i) ,
to m e to us

m é,
m é , by m e n Ob is , by us

S EC O N D PE R S O N

t it , thou or you v 6s , ye or you

t ui , o f t hee or you ve s t ru m , ve s t ri ; vos t ru m -
t ri)
t ib i v is
té
té v is

a. Th e p lu ral n bs i s o ft e n u se d f o r t h e s in gu lar e go ; t h e p lu ral vbs is

n e ve r so u s e d f or t h e si n g u lar tu .
64 P R ON O UN S 144

N O TE — Old f orm s are g e n it ive m i s, t i s ; a cc u sat ive an d ab lat ive m éd , t éd (cf .

§ 43 N l)
. . .

b . Th e f orm s n ost ru m , ve st ru m ,
e tc .
, are u se d p artitive ly
fi n u s qu i s qu e n os t ru m , ea ch on e o f us .

v e s t ru m om n i u m , o f all of y ou .

N O TE — Th e f o rm s of t h e gen it i ve of t h e p e rson al p ron o un s are re ally t h e gen it ive s

.

of t h e p o ssess i ve s : m ei t ui , su i , n ost ri , v est ri , g e n it i ve S i n g u lar n e u t e r : n ost ru m , ve s

,

c
t ru m , g e n it i ve p lu ral m as u lin e or n e u t e r S O in early an d lat e r Lat in we fi n d ( me . .

v e st raru m , on e of y ou ( wom en ) .

0. Th e ge n it ive s m ei, t u i, s u i, n ost ri , ve st ri , are chi e fly u se d ob ec t ive ly

j
3 47 )
m e m ot s i s n os t ri , be m in df u l of us ( m e) .

m e t u i p ade t , I am asham ed of y ou .

d . Em p h at i c f orm s of t u are t ii t e an d t fi t e m e t ( t fi t im et ) . Th e ot h er

c t he p e rs o n al p ron ou n s, e x e p t i n g t h e ge n i t ive p lu ral, are m ad e

as e s o f c
e m p h at i b y addin g — c
m et : as , e gom et , vosm e t .

N O TE . Early e m p h at i cf orm s are m é p t e an d t ep t e .

e. R e d u p li
'
c at e d form s are f ou n d i n t h e a cc u s at ive an d ab lat iv e sin u
g
lar : as, m é m é , t ét é .

f . Th e p re p osit ion cum , with, is j oi n e d e n c lit ic ally wit h t h e ab lat ive as,

t é c u m loqu it u r, he talks with you .

R eflexiv e Pron ou n s

144 . R e fle x iv e Pr on ou n s are u se d in t h e Obliqu e C ase s t o r e fe r

t o t he s u b ec t o f j t he se n t e n c e or c lau s e in w h ic h t h e y s t an d s e e
(
as, sé m
a t,
a he love s him self .

a. I n t he fi rst an d se on d c p e rson s t he ob liqu e case s of t h e Pe rson al p ro

n ou n s are u se d as R e fi e x ive s : as , m é vide o, I see
f;
m yse l t é lau das , y ou

p raise you rs elf ; n ob is p ers u é dé m u s , we p e rsu ade ou rse lves .

b Th e R e fle xi ve p ron ou n of t h e third p e rson h as a sp e i al f orm u se d

. c
o n ly i n t h is s e n s e , t h e s am e for b ot h s in gu lar an d p lu ral I t is t hu s .

c
d e lin e d
s u i, o f him se l
f , he rself , itself ; them s elves
s ib i , t o him se l f; f ; itself , the m selves
herse l
86 him sel
f , he rse l
f ; its f, them se lves
el

86
[ by] him sel
f, herse lf, itself , them selves
N O TE 1 c c
Em p h at i an d re d u pli at ed form s of 8 6 are m ad e as in t h e p e rson als ( see
.

5 1 43 d , e) Th e p re p os it ion c u m is add e d e n lit i ally : as , sé c u m , wi th h i m self , e tc

. . c c .

N O T E 2 — An old f orm sé d o u rs in t h e a u s at ive an d ab lat ive

. cc cc .
 14 5 , 146 ] D EMON S TR A TI VE P R ON O UN S 65

Pos ses s ive Pronou n s

Th e Posse ssive p ron ou n s are

F I R ST P ER SO N . m eus , m y
S E C O N D P ER SO N . t u u s , thy, you r
TH I R D PER SO N . s u us , h is, her, its

Th e se are re ally ad e j cti ve s of t h e F irst an d Se c on d c

De le n sion s, an d are

so c
d e li n e d ( se e 11 0 Bu t m e u s h as re u larl
g y mi ( rare ly m eu s ) i n
t he c
v o at ive si n g u lar m as c ulin e .

N OT E .
—S u u 8 is u sed on ly as a re fl e xi ve , re fe rrin g t o t h e su b j e t c . F or a po sse ss ive
p ron oun of t h e c
t h i rd p e rs on n ot re fe rri n g t o t h e s u b j e t , t h e g en it i ve of a d e m ons t rat i ve
m ust be used . Th u s , pat rem su u m oc c i di t , h e kille d h i s ( own ) f athe r ; b u t pat re m é iu s
he ki lled h i s ( som e body ) f at he r
’
oc c i d i t , e ls e s

a . c
Em p h at i form s i n -p t e are fou n d i n t h e ab lat i ve S in gu lar : s u bp t e .

b . A rarep o sse ssive cui us

( qu oin s ) , a,
- -
um ,
whose , is form e d f ro m t h e

ge n it ive si n gu lar of t he re lat iv e i n t e rrogat ive p ro n ou n ( q u i , qu is )

or It .

m ay b e e it h e r i n t e rrogat ive or re lat iv e i n f o r e a ordi n c cc

g t o i t s d e riv at ion,
b u t is u su all
y t he f orm e r .

c Th e re c ip c
ro als on e an ot he r an d ea ch othe r are e xp e sse d r b y in t er 3 6 or

alt e ru m

alt e r alt e ri u s ov a fran git , t hey break ea ch . oth er s eggs

’
( on e of the ot h e r ) .

in t er s é they love one an ot her h lo ve am on g t h e m se lves )

am an t , ( t e y

rat i ve P onou Dem on st r ns

146 Th e D e m on s t rat iv e Pr on o u ns are u s e d t o p oin t ou t or

.

d es ig n at e a p e rson or t h in g for sp e c ial at t e n t ion e it h e r wit h n ou n s ,

as A d j e c t iv e s or alon e as P r on ou n s Th ey are — h ic t hi s ; i . z , s,

ille i st e t hat ; wi t h t h e I n t e n siv e i p se s e l 1

, , f an d i dem sam e ; an d , , ,

are t h u s de c lin e d °

h i c , th is
SI NGUL A R PL U R A L

h ae h ae c
h aru m h Oru m
h is h is
has h ae c
hi s his

1 Th ese d e m on s t rat ive s are c o m b in at ion s o f o an d i st e m s, wh i h c are n ot clearly

dist in g u ish able .

66 P R ON OU N S 146

c
N O TE 1 — Hi c is a o m poun d of t h e st e m no w it h t h e d em on strat ive e n lit i -c c
. c c .

c
I n m ost o f t h e ase s fi n al e is d ropp ed , in som e t h e wh ole t e rm in at ion B u t i n t h es e
lat t e r i t i s som e t im e s re t ain e d for e m p h as is as , h ii i u s-c c , hi s—
.

cc I n e arly Lat in -c alon e .

is re t ain e d i n som e of t h e se ( h é ru n c ) Th e v ow e l i n hi c , 1160, w as o rig in ally sh ort , an d

.

pe rh ap s t his q u an t it y w as alway s ret ain e d I lle an d i st e are som e t im e s f ou n d w it h

.

c c
t h e s am e e n li t i : i lli o, i llaec , i llu c ; also i lloc S e e a, p 67. . .

N O TE 2 — F or t h e d at ive an d ab lat ive p lu ral o f h i c t h e old f orm hi b u s is som e t im es

.

cc
f ou n d ; haec o u rs ( rarely) f or hae .

is , t hat
SI N G U L A R PL U R A L

is ea id ei ii ( i) ea

é iu s é iu s é iu s caru m e bru m

ci ei iis i
eis, i i s ( is ) e is , i is ( is ) e i s, ( s)
ea

e is , iis ( is) e is , iis ( is ) ei s , iis ( is )

N O TE 3 — Ob sole t e f orm s are eae (d at

. . an d eab u s or i b u s (d at . F or
d at i ve c i are f ou n d also éi an d él ( m on osyllab i c) ; 3, 66 8 , e t c
6 .
, also o cc ur i n t h e p lu ral .

ille , that
SI N GUL A R PL U R A L

illi illae illa

‘

illbru m illaru m illci rum

illi s

I st e , ist a, i st u d, t hat ( y ) c
on d e r , i s d e li n e d like ille .

N O TE 4 c
I lls rep la e s an earlier ollu s ( one) , of wh i h se ve ral form s o ur c cc
w
. .

N OT E 5 — I st e is som e t im es f ou n d in e arly
. ri t e rs i n t h e f orm st e e t c Th e fi rst .

syllab le o f i lle an d i p se i s v e ry O ft e n u s e d as s h ort in e arly p oe t ry .

N O TE 6 — Th e f orm s i lli , i st i (g e n ) , an d i llae , i st ae

. are som e t im e s f ou n d ;
also t h e n om i n at ive p lu ral i st aec e , i uaec e ( for i st ae, i nae) S ee a, p 67 . .

ip se , sel f
SI N G U L A R PL U R A L

ip se i p sa ip su m ip si i p sae ip sa
ip siu s ip siu s i p si u s ip sfi ru m i p saru m i ps fi rum
i p si ip s i ip si ip si s ip si s ip sis
i p su m i p sam ip su m ip sbs i p si s ip sa
ip se i p sa ip si) ipsis ip sis
'

i p s is
 D EMON S TRA TI VE PR ON OU N S
‘

g 146] 67

c
N O TE 7 — I p se is om p ou n d ed of i s an d -p se ( a p ron om i n al p art i le of u n e rt ain c c
o rig in : c f § 145 a) , m e an in g se l
. .
f Th e f orm e r p art was origin ally d e lin ed , as in
. c
rea p se ( for re eap se ) , i n f a t c
An O ld form i p su s o urs , wit h su p e rlat ive ip si ss i m u s,
. cc
own sel f , u se d f or om i e ff ec t c c .

N O T E 8 — Th e in t e n si ve -pse is foun d i n th e f orm s sap se ( n om in at ive) , sam p se ,

.

eam pse , ebpse , eap se ( ab lat ive) .

ide m , the s am e

S I N GU L A R PL U R A L

ei de m ide m id e m
i de m ( ei e aede m ei de m
é iu s de m é iu sdem éiu sde m e bru n dem earu n de m e oru n de m

eide m e i de m e i de m e i s d e m or is de m
c an de m i de m e bs de m ei s de m ei de m
ei de m eodem e i sd e m or is d e m

N O TE 9 — id em is t h e d e m on st rat ive i s wi t h t h e in de lin ab le su fi ix -d em

. Th e m as c .

culin e i d e m is f or fi sd em ; t h e n e u t e r i d em , h owe ve r, i s n ot for Ti ddem , b u t is a reli of c

an o ld e r f orm at ion c
A fi n al m O f i s is h an g ed t o 11 b e fore d : as , eu n d e m for eu m d em ,
.

etc . Th e p lu ral f orm s i d em , i sd em , are ofte n wri t t e n i i d em , ii sd em .

a . Ille an d ist e app e ar i n c

bin at io n wit h t h e de m on st rat ive p art i le
om c -c
,

sh ort e n e d from -
c e, in t h e followin g f orm s

SI NGU L A R

i s ti c i s t aec i st u c ( ist ec )
i st u n c is t an c i s t u c (let co)
i st oc ist i c i s t dc

PLU R A L

N Ac c . illae c i st ae c

N O TE 1 — Th e ap p en d ed -c e is also foun d wit h p ron oun S in n u m erou s om b in at ion s :

. c
as , h fi iu sc e , h un c e , h dru n c e , haru n c e , h asce , hi sc e ( c f § 146 N i lli u sc e , i sc e also wit h t h e
. . .

in t e rrog at i ve -n e , i n h a c in e , hdsc i n e , i st u c in e , illi c i n e , e t c .

N O TE 2 —By c om p osit ion w ith e c e or e m , beh old ! are form ed ec oam ( for ec ce c
c cc
.

c um ) , e c oam , ec c os , e c as ; ec c i llu m ( f or e e i llum ) ; e llu m ( for em i llu m ) , e llam , en ds ,

end s ; ec ci st am Th e se form s are d ram at i an d olloq u i al
. c c .

b . Th e c om b in at ion s h u m s m od i ( h diu sce m odi ) , ei u sm od i , e t c .

, are u se d as

c
i n d e li n ab le ad ej cti ve s, e qu ivalen t t o ti lis , su c h : as, ré s éiu sm od i, su c h a

thin g t hi n g of t h at sort : c f § 3 45 )
( a . . a .

F or u se s o f t h e D e m on st rat iv e Pr on ou n s , se e 2 96 fl .
 PR ON OUN S 14 7- 149

R elat ive Pronou n s

147 . Th e R e lat iv e Pr on ou n qu i , who, whi c h, is t hu s d ec lin e d

SI N G U L A R PL U R A L

NO M .
qu i
GEN . c fi iu s

DAT .

Ac c .
qu em q u am qu od
AB L .
qu d qua qu b

rrogat ive a d I n defi n it e Pron ou n

I nt e n s

148 Th e S u b st an t iv e I n t e rr og at iv e Pron ou n
.
qu is , who? qu id,
what ? is d e c lin e d in t h e S in g u lar as f ollo ws :

M O
,
F .

Th e Plu ral i s t h e s am e as t h at o f t h e R e lat ive , q u i , qu ae , quae .

a . c
The s in g u lar qu is i s e it h e r m as u lin e or o f in de t e rm in at e ge n d e r,
b u t in old writ e rs i t is som e t i m e s d i st in t ly fe m in i n e c .

c
b Th e Adj e t ive I n t e rrog at ive Pron ou n , qu i , q u ae , qu od , what kin d of 9’
.

what ? whi h c c
i s d e lin e d t h rou gh ou t like t h e R e lat ive
S U B ST A N TI VE A D JEC TI VE

qu is vo at , c who alls c c
qu i h om d v o at , wh at m an alls c
qu id vi dES , what d o y ou see qu od t e m p lu m vidé s , what t em p le d o y ou see

N O TE .
—B u t wit h ou t an y app are n t ad j e t ive for e ; an d q u i s i s
qu i i s O ft en u sed c c
c c c
ve ry om m on as an ad j e t iv e , e sp e i ally w it h word s d e n ot in g a p e rson : as , q u i n ami
n at m e c
wh o alls m y n am e qu i s d ié s f u i t wh at d ay was i t 9 q u i s h om d wh at m an
b u t ofte n q u i b om b ? wh at ki n d of m an ? n e sc i o q u i si s , I kn ow n ot wh o y ou are .

c .
Q u isn am , p ray , who ? is an e m p h at i c in t e rro gat iv e . I t h as b ot h su b

s t an t i ve an d ad e j ct ive f orm s like qu is , qu i .

149 Th e I n d e fi n it e Pr on ou n s qu is , an y on e , an d qu i , an y , are
.

de c lin e d lik e t h e c orr e sp on din g I n te rr ogat iv e s, b u t qu a is c om

m on ly u se d for quae e xc e p t in t h e n o m in at i v e plu ral fe m in in e
 70 PR ON OUN S 151

The i n de fi n it e p ron ou n s qu i dam , a c e rtain qu ivis , qu ilib e t , any

c .
( on e)
you p le ase , are u s e d b ot h as su b st an t i ve s an d as ad e j c t i ve s
. Th e fi rst p art
c
i s de lin e d lik e t he re lat ive qu i , b u t t h e n e u te r h as b o t h qu id ( su b st an t ive
)
an d q u od ( adj e t ive
) c
qu i dam gu iddam ( qu oddam )
qu ivi s qui dvis ( qu odvi s )

Q u i d am ch a n ge s m to 11 b e fore d i n t h e
( q u e n dam , M ; a cc u sat ive S in gu lar .

qu an d am , F ) an d t h e ge n i t ive p lu ral ( qu bm n dam , M , N ; q u aru n dam ,

. . .

d Th e in de fi n it e p ron ou n s qu is p iam , som e , an y, an d qui s qu am , an y at all,

.

are u se d b ot h as s u b s t an t i ve s an d as ad j e t i ve s Qu isp iam h as fe m in in e qu ae c .

c
p iam ( adje t ive ) , n e u t e r qu idp iam ( su b st an t ive ) an d qu odp iam ( adje t ive ) ; c
t he p lu ral i s ve ry rare Qu is qu am i s b ot h m as ulin e an d fe m i n i n e ; t h e
. c
n e u te r i s qu idqu am u i c qu am , su bst an t i ve o n ly ; t he re i s p lu ral Ullu s,
( q ) no .

-a
,
-
um ,
is c om m o n ly u se d as t h e ad j e t ive c c orre sp on din g to qu is qu am .

e. Th e i n d e fi n i t e p ro n ou n ali qu is ( su b st an t i ve ) , som e on e , aliqu i ( adje c «

c
t ive ) , som e , is de li n e d like qu is an d q u i , b u t aliqu a i s u se d in st e ad of aliqu ae
c
e x ep t in t h e n om i n at ive
p lu ral fe m in in e

SI N GU L A R

PL U R A
L

N O TE — Aliqu i is
. som e t im e s u sed s u b st an t i ve l an d aliq u i s as an ad e
y j cti ve .

f The in de fi n ite p ron o u n e c qu is su b st an t ive , whethe r an

.
( ) y on e , c equ i

j c c
( ad e t ive ) , whe ther an y, i s d e li n e d lik e aliqu ie , b u t h as e it h e r e c qu ae or
e c qu a in t h e n o m i n at ive si n u lar fe m in in e of t h e ad j e t ive f orm
g c .

N OTE -Ec u i s
q .
( e cq u i ) h as no g e n it ive sin g u lar, an d i n t h e p lu ral o cc u rs i n th e
n om in at ive an d a cc us at ive on ly .

9 . Th e en c lit i c p a t icl
r e -
qu e adde d t o t h e in t e rrogat i ve gi ve s a u n iversal
as, qui s qu e, e ve ry on e ; u t erqu e , e ac h of t wo, or both
Quis que is de lin e d
. c
 15 1 , 152] C ORR ELA TI VES 71

lik e t h e in t e rrogat ive qu is, qu i — s u b s t an t ive , qu isq u e , qu idqu e ; ad j e ct i ve ,

qu iqu e , quae qu e , qu od qu e .

I n the c p ou n d i mu s qu is qu e , e ve ry sin gle o n e , b ot h p art s are de lin e d

om c
e n i t ive un iu s c fi iu s qu e , an d t h e y are s om e t im e s writ t e n se p arate ly an d e ve n
( g )
s e p arat e d b y o t h er word s :
n o in fi nd qu id em qu oqu e ( Lael . n ot eve n i n a si n gle on e .

h . The re lat iv e an d i n t e rrogat i ve h ave rare l

y a p osse ssive ad e j ct iv e

O ld e r qu oxu s , whose ; an d
c fi iu s ) p at ri al c fi ias
( c fi iat f what
-
a, -u m a
, o

c ou n try .

i . how gre at, q u alis , of what sort, are d e rivat i ve ad j e t ive s from
Qu an t u s , c
t he in t e rrogat ive Th e y are e it he r i n t e rrogat ive or re lat ive , orre sp on din g
. c
re sp e c t iv y t o t h e d e m o n st rat ive s t an t u s , t ali s
el I n de fi n it e c om

p ou n ds are qu ant u scu m qu e' an d qu aliscu m qu e se e

( 151 . a
) .

r
Cor elat ives

152 . M an y Pr on o u n s , Pr on om in al A dj e c t iv e s, an d A dv e rbs
h av e rresp on din g d em on st rative re lative i n te rrogat ive an d
’

co , , ,

in defin i t e form s S u c h p aralle l form s are c alle d C orr e lat iv e s

. .

Th ey are s h own in t h e followin g t able :

D EM O N . I N TE R R O G . I N D EF R E L
. . I N D EF .

is qu i
t hat who
t an t u s qu an t u s
so great how ( as) great
qu ah s
72 C ONJU GA TI ON OF TH E VER B 153 —155

VER B S

J
CON UGATI ON OF THE VERB

153 . Th e infl e c t ion of t he Ve rb is c alle d it s C on j u g at ion .

Voice, Mood, Ten se , Person , Nu m ber

1 54 . Th rou gh it s c on u j g at i on t h e Ve rb r
e x p e s se s Voic e M ood , ,

Te n se , Pe rson , an d N u m be r .

a. Th e Vo i e s c are t wo : A t ive c an d Passi ve .

b . Th e Moods are f ou r : I n d i c at i ve , c
S u b j u n t ive , I m p erat ive , an d In
l
fi n i t ive .

. c
N O TE —Th e I n d i at ive , S u b j u n t i ve , c an d I m p erat iv e are c alled F in i te Moods in
c
dis t in t ion from t h e I n fi n it ive .

c . Th e Te n se s are si x , vi z

I . F or c on t in u e d a cti on , Pre s e n t , I m pe rfe t , F u t u re c .

2 . F or c p le t e
om d ac t i
o n , Pe rfe t , Plu p e r e , F
c
u t u re Pe rfe t f ct c .
“

Th e c
I n di at ive Mood h as all six t e n se s, b u t t h e S u b j u n t ive c
fu t u re or c
f u t u re p e rfe t , an d t h e I m p e rat ive h as o n ly t h e p re s e n t
fu t ure . Th e I n fi n it ive h as t h e p re se n t , p erfe t , an d f u t ure c .

d . Th e Pe rs o n s are t h ree : First , S e c o n d , an d Th ird .

e. Th e N u m b e rs are t wo : S i n g u lar an d Plu ral .

Nou n an d Adjec t ive Fo m s r

155 . The followin g N ou n an d A dj e c t iv e for m s are also in c lu de d
in t h e in flec t ion O f t h e Lat in Ve rb :
a F
. ou r P art i i p le s ,
2
VI Z c
c
A tive : t h e Pre se n t an d F u t u re Part i ip le s c .

c
P assive t h e Pe rfe t Part i ip le an d t h e Ge ru n d ive c fi

b The Ge ru n d : t his is i n form a n e u t e r n o u n

. of the se c on c
d de le n sion ,
u se d on ly i n t h e ob liqu e c
ase s of t h e s in g u lar .

c Th e Su p i n e : t h i s i s i n f o rm a v e rb al n ou n
. of t h e f o u rt h d e le n si on c
in t h e a cc u sat i ve -u m ) an d d at ive or ab lat i ve i1)
-
‘
t
s in gu lar .

1 c c c
Th e I n fi n it i ve i s st ri t ly t h e lo at i ve ase of an ab stra t n ou n , e xp re ssi n g t h e c
c
a t ion of t h e v e rb
c c
2 Th e Part i i le s are ad j e t iv e s i n in fl e t i on an d m e an in
p c
g , b u t h ave t h e p o wer o f
ve rb s in c c
on st ru t ion an d i n di st in g u i sh i n g t im e .

3 Th e Ge ru n d ive i s als o u se d as an ad j e t iv e o f n e essi t

y , d u ty , e tc c
158 d) In c . . .

c
lat e us e it b e am e a F u t u re Pas sive P art i ip le 4 O ri in all lo at iv e
g y c . c .
 156 , 157 ] VOI C ES A N D MOOD S 73

S I GN IF I C A TI O N OF TH E FO R M S OF TH E VER B

156 . Th e A c t iv e an d P as siv e Voic e s in Lat in g e n e rally c or

r e s p on d t o t h e ac t i ve an d p ass iv e i n En glish ; bu t

a. Th e p as sive vo ic e o ft e n h as a re fle x ive m e an in g

f e rro ac c in g or, I g ird m y s elf with m y s word .

Tu m u s ve rt i t u r, Tu rn u s tu rn s ( him se lf ) .

in d u it u r ve s t e m , h e p u ts on hi s ( own ) c lothes .

N OTE —This u se
. c orres p on d s v e ry n e arly t o t h e Gree k Mid d le voi c e , an d is d ou b t
les s a s u rvi val of t h e ori g in al m e an in g of t h e p assi ve (p . 7 6 , f oo t n ote

b . Man y ve rb s are p as sive i n f orm ,

bu t a cti ve or re fle x ive i n m e an i n g .

Th e se are c all d
e De p o n e n t s 1
as, h ort or, I exhort ; s e qu or, I f ollow .

6. S om e ve rb s w it h act i ve h av e t h e p assiv e f orm in t h e p e rfe t

m e an i n g c
t e n se s ; t h e se are c alle d S e m i-D e p o n e n t s : as , au de o, au dére , au sus su m , d are .

Moods
15 7 . Th e M oods are u se d as follows :
a. Th e I n di c at i ve Mood is u sed for m ost d ire t c asse rt ions an d in terroga
tion s : as, — valé sne ? val co a
,
re
you well? I am we ll .

b . c
Th e S u b j u n t ive Moo d h as m an y i d iom at i u se s, as in c om m an ds, on di c c
t ion s, an d v ari o u s d ep e n d e n t lau ses c
I t i s of t e n t ran slat e d b y t h e En glish
.

I n di c at i
; f re qve
u e n t l b
y y m e an s of t h e au x i li ari e s m ay, m i ht
g , w o u ld , sh ou ld ;
2

som e t im e s b y t h e ( rare
) S u b j u n t ive ; s om e t i m e s b
y t h c
e I n fi n it ive ; an d

of t e n b y t h e I m p e rat ive , e sp e c ially i n p rohibition s . A fe w ch a ac t

r e ri st i c
e x am ples of i ts u se are t h e f ollo win g :

cam us, let us go ; n é s he at , let him n ot dep art .

adsu m u t vi de am , I am here t o see ( t h at I m ay se e ) .

qu ae sie ri s , d o n ot t hou i n qu ire

'

t 11 né .

b e at us si s , m ay y ou be blessed .

qu id m orer, why sh ou ld I d elay

c ‘
n es i o q u id sc n bam , I kn ow n ot what t o write .

si m on e am , au diat , if I shou ld warn , -

h e wou ld hear .

1 c
Th at is , ve rb s wh i h h av e laid asid e ( d e’p on e ref t h e p ass ive m e an in g
‘

2 Th e L at in u ses t h e su b j u n t i ve in m an c c
y ase s w h e re w e u se t h e i n d i at ive ; an d c
c c
w e u se a olorle ss au xi li ary i n m an y ase s wh e re t h e Lat i n e m p loy s a sep arat e ve rb
wi t h m ore d e fi n it e m e an in g Th us , I m ay wri t e is of t e n n ot sc rib am ( su b j un t iv e) , b u t
. c
li c et m i hi sc ri b e re ; I c an wri t e i s p ossu m sc ri b e rs ; I wou ld wri t e is sc ribam , sc ri berem ,
or sc ri b e rs v eli m ( v ellem ) I sh ou ld wri t e , ( if, sc ri b e rem ( si) or ( im p ly i n g d u ty )

oport e t m e sc ri be re .
74 C ON JUGA TI ON OF THE VER B 15s

0. Th e I m p e rat ive i s u se d for e r hortation , en tre aty, or c om m an d ; b u t t he

Su b j cti
un ve is Of t e n u se d i n st e ad 4 3 9,
lib e r e s t o, he shall be f ree .

n é os s a logit o, do n ot gather t he bon es .

d . Th e I n fi n i t ive is u se d c hi e fly as an in d e lin ab le c n ou n , as t he su b ej ct
or c o m p le m e n t of an ot h er v e rb 4 52 , 4 5 6 . In sp e c ial c o n st ru cti on s it
t ake s t h e p la c e of t h e I n di c at i ve , an d m ay b e t ran slat e d b y t h at m ood in
En glish ( se e I n dire t D is c c ou rse , 5 80

N O TE .
— F or th e S yn tax of th e Moods , see § 436 if .

r
Pa t ic ip les

158 . Th e Par t ic ip les are u se d as follows :

a. Th e Pr e se n t P art ic ip le ( e n d in g in —
n s h as
) c om m on ly t h e sam e

m e an in g an d u s e as the En glish p art ic iple in -i n g ; as, voc ans, c a ll

in g re a d i n g. or it s i n fle c t ion ,
legen t es, ( F se e egen s,

Th e F u t u re P art i c ip le ( e n d in g in ) is of t e n e st u se d to
'

b . 11ru s
-
ex

p re s s W h at i s li kely or a bou t t o h ap p e n : as, rec t fi ru s, a bou t t o ru le ;

au dit fi ru s, abou t t o h e ar .

NO TE — . W it h t h e t e n se s of e ss e , t o be , i t form s t h e First Pe rip h rast i cC j

on u gat ion

( see as , u rb s e st ca t s ra, th e ci t y i s abou t t o f all; m an suru s c ram , I was g oi n g

to s t ay .

0. Th e Pe r f e c t P ar t ic ip le ( e n d in g in -t u s, -su s
) h as t wo u ses

1 I t is
. som e t i m e s e q u iv ale n t t o t h e En glish p e rfe t p assive p art i ip le c c
as, t éct us , s he lte re d ac c e p t u s , a c c
c ep te d ; i t u s , havin g be e n s tru c k ; an d of t e n

h as sim p ly an ad e j ct i ve m e an in g : as, ac c ep t u s , a c ep table . c

2 . I t is u se d wi t h t h e v e rb t o be ( es se
) t o form c e rt ai n t e n se s of t h e p as
sive : as, voc a he was has bee n c alle d
t u s e st , ( ) .

N O T E — Th ere i s n o Pe rfe t
. c Act i v e or Pre se n t Passive Part i ip le in Lat i n c . F or
su b st it u t e s s e e 492, 493 .

d . Th e Ge ru n d iv e ( e n d in g in -
n du s
) ,
h as t wo u se s

1 . I t is oft e n u se d as an ad e j ct i ve im p lyi n g ob lig at io n , ne c e s sit y, or

p rop rie t y ( ou ght o r m us t ) : as, au die n du s e s t , he m us t be he ard .

N O T E — W h e n t h u s u se d w it h t h e t e n ses o f t h e ve rb t o be ( esse) it form s t h e S e

. c on d

c
Pe rip h ras t i C on j u g at ion : d éli g en d u s erat , h e ou g h t t o h ave bee n h ose n c
2 . I n the O b liq u e ca se s t h e Ge ru n dive c om m on ly h as t h e s am e m e an i n g

as t h e Ge ru n d ( cf . 1 59 . a ) , t h ou gh i t s c on st ru ct i on is d iff e re n t .
( F or

p le s, 5 03 fi
e x am se e .

)
 159- 162] TEN SES OF TH E FIN I TE VER B 75

Ge ru n d an d S u pine

159 . Th e Ge r u n d an d S u p in e are u se d as follows

a. Th e Ge ru n d is a verb al n ou n , c i n m e an i n g t o t h e En glish
orresp on d in g

ve rb al n ou n in -in g as, i , f or the sake of sp e akin g

loqu en di c au se .

N O T E — Th e Ge ru n d i s f ou n d only in t h e obliq u e ase s -A orre sp on d i n g n om i

. c . c
n at ive is su p p li e d b y t h e I n fi n i t i ve : t h u s , sc ri be re e st ut ile , wri t i n g ( t o writ e) i s u se

f u l b u t , ars sc ri be n di , t h e art of wri t i n g .

b . Th e S u p in e is in form a n ou n of t he fou rt h de len sion c 94 b) ,

.

f ou n d on ly in t h e a cc u sat ive e n d in
g i n -t u m , s um ,
an d t h e d at ive or ab la

t i ve en di n g i n -ti1 ,
-
sii .

Th e S u p in e in um is u s e d af t e r ve rb s an d t h e S u p in e in aft e r ad e c j
'

- -ii

t ive s 5 09,
ven it s pe c t at u m , he cam e to s ee c
m i rab ile di t u, won d erf u l to tell .

Ten ses of t h e Fin it e Verb

160 The Te ns e s
. of t he I n dic at ive h a ve in g e n e r al,
, s am e

m e an in g as t h e rre sp on din g t e n se s in
co En glish :
a. Of c on t in u e d ac t i on ,

1 . PR ES EN T : s r c ibe I w it I am w iti g I d
, r e, r n , o wri te .

2 I MP E R F E C I bé b am , I wrot e, I was writi n g , I d i d write

’
‘ ‘

sc n
'
. : .

3 . F U TU R E : s c rib am ,
I shall write .

b . Of c om p le t e d c
a t io n ,

4 . PE R F E C T : s c ri p s i , I h ave written , I wrote .

5 . P LU P E R F E C T : s c ri p s e ram , I had written .

6 . F U TU R E P E R F E C T : s c rip s e ro, I sh all h ave written .

161 Th e Pe rfe c t I n dic at iv e h as t wo s e p arat e u ses ,

. t h e Pe r
fe c t De fi n it e an d t h e Pe rfe c t H ist oric al ( or I n de fi n it e ) .

I . c
Th e Pe rf e t D e fi n it e re p re se n t s t he a ct i on of t h e ve rb as c om p le t e d
i n p re s e n t t im e , an d c orre sp on ds t o t h e En gli sh p e rf e t wi t h have c : as ,

s cri p si , I h ave wri t te n .

2 . Th e Pe rf e t H ist ori c c al n arrate s a S im p le ac t or st at e i n p ast t i m e

wit h o u t re p re se n t in
g i t as i n p rog re ss o r c on t in u in g . It c orre sp on d s t o t h e

En gli sh p ast or p re t e rit e an d t h e Gre e k aori st : as, s rip sit , c he wrot e .

162 . Th e Te n se s of t he S u bj u n c t iv e are c h ie fly u s e d in de p e n d
e n t c lau s e s ,follo win g t he ru le for t h e S e q u e n c e of Te n se s ; bu t
hav e als o s e c i al
p idiom at ic u se s s e e S yn t ax )
( .

F or t h e u se of Te n ses i n t h e I m p erat ive , se e 448 , 44 9 .

76 C ONJU GA TI ON O F THE VER B [g 163

PER S ON A L EN D I N G S

163 . Ve rbs h av e
re g ular t e rm for e ac h of t h e t h r e e in at io n s 1

Pe rs on s bo t h sin g ular an d plu r al ac t iv e an d p assiv e

,
2
Th e se are ,
.

A C TI VE o P A S SI VE
SI N GUL A R

am -
O, I love .
-I '
-or
)
'
am o-r, I am loved .

am a-s , thou lovest . am a-ri s , thou art love d .

am a t , he love s . am at u r, he is lo ved .

PL U R A L

am a-m u s , we lo ve .
-m u r : am a-m ur, we are love d .

am a-t is , you love .

-m in i : am a-m in i, y ou are loved .

am a-n t , they lo ve .
-
n t ur : am a—u t u r, t hey are loved .

a. Th e Pe rfe t I n d i c c at i ve a ct i ve h as t h e sp e c ial t e rm in at ion s

3

SI N G . l .
-I am av-i , I loved .

2 .
-i s- t i am aV-i s -t i , t h ou lovedst .

3 .
- -
i t am av-i-t , h e loved .

P LU R . l .
- - i m us am aV—
i-m u s , we loved .

2 .
- i s-t i s am av- i s -t is , y ou loved .

3 .
-é t an t ere )
- am av-é ru n t - é re ) , they loved .

b . Th e I m p e rat ive h as t h e followin g t e rm i n at io n s

PR ES EN T A C T I V E
S in gu lar P lu ral
am a, love thou . am a-t e , love ye .

F U TU R E A C TI V E
am a-t o, thou sh alt love . am a-t ot e , y e shall love .

am a-t o, h e shall love . am a—

n t o, t he y sh all love .

1 Most of t h e se see m t o b e f rag m e n t s

p ron ou n s , wh ose sig n ifi ati on is t h u s o f Old c
add ed t o t h at of t h e v e rb -st e m ( c f B u t t h e e n di n g -m ini i n t h e se on d pe rso n
. c
p lu ral of t h e p ass ive i s p erh ap s a re m n an t o f t h e p art i ip ial form fou n d i n t h e Greek c
we t/ 09, an d h as s u p p lan t e d t h e p rope r f orm , w h i h d oes n ot app e ar i n Lat in Th e p e r c .

son al e n d i n g -n t is p rob ably c

on n e t e d w i t h t h e p art i ip i al n t c
( n o m i n at i ve -n
s) c .

2 Th e Pa
ss iv e i s an old M id dle Voi e , p e u liar t o t h e I t ali c
an d C e lt i lan gu ag e s , c c c
c
an d of un e rt ai n orig i n .

8 O f t h e se t e rm i n at i on s -i is n ot a p e rson al e n di n g , b u t app e ars t o re p rese n t an

I n do— Europe an t e n se -sig n -ai of t h e Pe rfe t Midd le I n -i s-t i an d -i s-t i s , -t i an d -t i s are c .

p e rs on a l e n di n s
g ; f o r -i s
s e e 1 69 N I n -i -t
an d - -m u
i s ,
-t
an d -m u s
. c
are p e rs on al
. .

e n d in g s , an d i is of u n e rt ain o rig i n c
B ot h -5ru n t an d -é re are also of d ou b t f u l origin ,
.

c
b u t t h e form e r on t ain s t h e p e rsonal e n din g -n t .
78 CONJUGA TI ON on THE VER R 166

VERB—ENDI NGS

165 . Ev e ry form of t he fi n it e v e rb is m ade u p of t wo p a ts r

1 . Th e S TEM ( se e Thi s is e it h e r t he roo t or a c
m odifi at ion or
d e ve lo p m en t of it .

2 . The EN D I N G , c o n sis t i n g of

1 . t h e S ign s of Mood an d Te n se (see 168 ,

2 . t h e Pe rson al En d in g ( see
Th u s in t h e ve rb voc a-b a-s , c
y ou were allin g , t h e root is v oc , m od ifi e d in t o t h e
verb -s t e m voc a w h i h b y t h e add it ion of t h e e n din g -b as b e omes t h e i m p e rfe t
c c c
t e ns e voc ab as c
an d t h is e n d in g on sis ts of t h e t en se -s ig n hé an d t h e p e rson al

e n d in g -
s ) of the se on d c p e rson sin g ular .

166 . Th e Ve rb-e n din gs , as form e d by t h e

t h ey are si
g ns for
m ood an d t e n s e c om bin e d w it h p e rs on al e n din gs , are

A C TI VE PA SSI VE
IN DI C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE I N D I CA TI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE

PR ES EN T PR ES EN T

-r is -
te )
-m us
-mj n i
-n t u1' -n
t ur

I M P ER F EC T I M P ER F EC T
SI NG . 1 . b a-m
- -t e -m -t e -r

2 . -ré -I i s -
te )
3 .

P LU R . 1 .
-
b a-m u s -r - é m us -ré-m u r

2 .
-
hé - t i s
3 .
- b a—
nt ba-n t u r —
t e n t ur

I N DI C ATI VE IND I C ATI VE

F U TU R E F U TUR E
I II 1 I I I , IV II I , IV 1

-a-r

-e -n t

1 Th e se nu m e rals re fe r t o t h e f ou r c j
o n u g at io n s g ive n lat e r ( se e
g 166 ] VER R EN D I N GS
-
79

Ac t i ve P assi ve
I N DI C ATI VE S UB JUN C TI VE I N DI C ATI VE S U B UN CTI VE J
PER F EC T PE R F E C T
S I NG . 1 .
-i -e ri —
m sum

2 .

3 .
—
-e ri
t
P LU R l - - i m us -eri—
m us
. .
si m n a

2
'

.
- i s-t 1 s
3 .
- é ru -n t -é re
) -e ri -n t

PL U P E R F EC T PL U P ER F EC T
SI N G . 1 .
-e I
a-m -i sse - m e ram e s se m

2 .
-e r5. - s -i s s e-s e s s es

3 .
-era- t - i s s e—
t e s s et

PL U R 1 . . a
-e r -m u s -i s s e-m u s eram u s e s sém u s

2 .
-e ra-ti s e ss é t i s

3 .
-e ra-n t
e s se nt

F U T U R E PER F E C T F U T U R E PE R F EC T
SI N G . 1 .
-e r —
6
2 .

3 .
-e r - i t
PLU R 1 . .
-e ri -m u s

2 .
-e ri -ti s

3 .

I M PER ATI VE
PR ES E N T PR E S EN T
SI N G 2 . . P LU R 2 . .
-te SI N G 2. .
-t e PLU R 2 . . mi ni

F U TU R E

3 .
-n t or

For v e n ie n c e a t able
c on of t h e N o u n an d A d j e c t iv e fo rm s of

th e v e rb is h e r e ad de d .

I N FIN I TI VE
( Pres st e m ) 1 1 , I V. -r1
-t I III -1
e .
, ; .

-i s s e
( Pe rf . st e m ) -t u s - t a, - t um ) e sse

-
‘

t t1rus -a
,
—
um ) e s se

P AR TI CI PLES -t um
-as
,
-E ti s -t us , -t a,

GER UN D S UP I N E
—
n di —
.n d6 ,
-n d u m
,
-n d6 -t u m
,
-t
fi
80 C ON JU GA TI ON OF THE VERB 168

16 7 . A lon g v owe l is sh o rt e n e d be for e t h e p e rson al e n din gs

) f old e r am é—t ) , habe-t (for habé-t )
-m -
r , t,
- -
nt ut ur
-
) as , m e t
( or

m on e-n t , m on e-u t u r .

Th e t en se s of t h e P r e se n t Syst em
1 68 . are m ad e fr om t h e Pr es
1
e n t S t e m as f l
o ows
l -

a. I n t h e Pre se n t I n di c at i vet h e p erson al e n di n gs are add e d dire t ly t o c

t h e p re se n t st e m Th u s, - re se n t st e m ara- z ara -
s e ra-
m a i —
t is
.
p , u s , r .

b I n t h e I m p e rfe t I n di at ive t h e
. c c su ffi x —
b am , -b as, e t c ( origin ally a c o m .

p le t e ve rb
) is adde d t o t h e p re s e n t st e m : as, ara-b am , arab as , ara-h amu s -
.

N O TE Th e f orm T b am was ap p are n t ly an ao rist Of t h e I n d o-Eu rop e an ro ot B H U

.
-

( c f f ui , f u t fi ru s , (paw, En g lish be , bee n ) , an d m e an t I was Th is w as add ed t o a c om

. .

p l e t e w or d , o rig i n ally a ase of a v e rb a l n o u n , as i n I w as a c

f see i n
g; h e n e v i d é -bam c .

Th e f orm p rob ab ly b e gan i n t h e S e o n d o r Th ird C on j u gat ion an d was e x t e n d e d t o t h e c

ot h e rs Th e a was at fi rst lon g , b u t was sh ort e n e d in e rt ai n fo rm s
. c
c . I n t h e Fu t u re I n d i c at i ve of t h e F irs t an d S e c on d C o n j u g at io n s a s im ilar
su ffi x , - b6, -b is , etc .
, is ad d e d t o t h e p re se n t st e m as , are -b f) , ara-
b is, m on é-b b .

N O TE .
— Th e f orm 1176 w as p rob ab ly p re se n t t e n se of t h e
a root B H U , w it h a f u t u re
m e an i n g , an d w as affi x e d t o a n ou n -f orm as d e s rib e d i n b N c . .

d . I n t h e F u t u re I n di c at i v e of t h e Third and F o u rt h C on j u g at ion s t h e

t e rm i n at i on s -am , -é s , —é s ) are re ally su b
et c .
(as , t e g
-
e m , t e g
-
é s , au d i- m
a , au d i
j u n ct i ve en d i n gs u se d in a f u t u re se n s e
( se e e
) T h e vowe l w as origi n all
.
y
lo n g t h rou gh ou t .
F or sh ort e n in g, se e 1 67 .

I n t h e Pre se n t S u b j u n t i ve t h e p e rson al e n din gs we re add e d t o a

e. c
f orm of t h e p re se n t st e m e n din g in 6 or a, wh i h was sh ort e n e d i n e rt ain c c
f orm s 1 67 Th u s, am e-m , am é—
s, t ega-m u s , t e ga-n t .

N O T E 1 — Th e vowel é ( se e n i n t h e Fi rst C on j u gat ion : as, am -é-s) i s an i n h e ri t ed

.

c
s u b j u n t ive m ood-s ig n I t app e ars t o b e t h e t h e m at i v owel e. 1) le n gt h e n e d c .

c
Th e 5 o f t h e o t h e r on j u gat ion s ( m on e-a-s , reg -a-s , au d i-a-s ) is o f u n e rt ain orig i n
. c .

N O T E 2 —I n a f e w irreg u lar v e rb s a P re se n t S u b j u n t iv e i n -i m , -i s e t c o u rs :
. c , . cc
as , sim , si s, si m as , v elim , v eli s , e t c Th i s is an O ld op t at iv e , i b e in g a f orm o f t h e I n d o
.

Eu rop e an O p t at ive m ood-s ign y é ( c f s iem , s ies , s ie t , § 17 0 b Th e vowe l h as . . .

b een sh o rt e n e d i n t h e fi rst an d t h i rd p e rso n s s i n g u lar an d t h e t h ird p e rson p lu ral .

f . I n t he I m p e rfe t S u b j u n t iv e t h e c c su ffi x -
I em ,
-I és , etc . is ad de d t o t he
p re se n t s t e m : as , am are m ,
-
am a-ré s , m on é—
re m , t e ge—
re m , au di—re m .

N O TE — Th e st e m e le m e n t -ré i s o f u n e rt ai n o rig in an d is n o t fou n d

. c ou t s id e o f

I t ali cTh e r i s d ou b t le ss t h e aorist s ign 5 ( c f os-se —

. m , e s-sé -s) h an g e d t o . c r b et wee n
t wo vowe ls 15 Th e 6 i s p rob ably t h e s u b j u n ti ve m ood-sig n ( se e e)
. c .

1 Th e c j
on u g at ion form at ion s f rom a root , g rad
of a v e rb c on s ist s of se p arat e

n ally grou p e d t o g e t h e r, sy st e m at iz e d , an d su p p le m e n t e d b y n e w form at ion s m ad e on

Old li n es t o su p p ly d e fi ien i es c c
S om e of t h e form s w e re i n h e rit ed f rom t h e p are n t
.

c
s p e e h ; ot h e rs w e re d e v e lop e d in t h e ou rse of t h e h i st ory o f t h e I t ali diale t s or of c c c
th e Lat in lan g u ag e it s e lf .
 169, 170] VER B—END IN GS 81

169 . Th e t en s e s of r
t h e Pe fe c t Syst e m in t h e ac t i v e v oic e are

m ade f rom t h e Pe fe c t S t e m r as follows

a. I n t h e Pe rfe t I n di c c at i ve t he en din gs ist i,
-
et c . are add e d d ire t ly c
t o t h e p e rfe t s t e m c
as , am aV-i st i, t éx-ist is .

b I n t h e Plu pe rfe t I n d i at ive t h e s u ffi x

. c c -e ram
,
-
e ras, e t c . is ad d e d t o t he
p e rf e ct st e m : as, am aV-e ram ,
m en u -e ras , t ex-e rat .

N O TE — Th ls s ee m s to Ti s—
am e tc form e d
re p rese n t a n Old e r -
on t h e an alogy of

Pe rfe t in -e r6 ( old e r Ti s—
. .

t h e F u t u re c fi : se e 0 b e low) an d in fl u e n e d
-
c by e ram ( im p e rfe ct
of su m ) in c o m p ari son wi t h e re ( f u t u re of sum ) .

0. I n t h e F u t u re Pe rfe t t h e c su ffi x —
e rb ,
-
e ris, e t c . is ad d e d t o t h e p e rfe t c
st e m : as, am aV m on u -eris , t éx-e rit .

N O TE - This f orm at ion w as o rig in ally a su b j u n t ive of t h e s-aorist , e n din g p rob

. c
ab ly i h i -i s Th e -i s i s d ou b t le ss t h e sam e as t h at see n i n t h e se on d p e rson s in g u lar of c
c c
t h e p e rfe t i n d i at ive (vi d -i s-t i ) , i n th e p e rf e t in fi n i t i ve ( vi d -i s-se ) , an d i n t h e p lu c
p e rf e ct su b u n j ct i ve ( vi d-i ss e m
), 5 b e in g t h e ao ris t S ign an d 1 p rob ably an old st em

vowe l .

d . I n t h e Pe rfe t S u b c j cti
un ve t he suffi x -e ri m ,
-e ri s
, et c . is adde d to t he
p e rfe ct st e m : as , amaV-e ri m , m on u -e ri s , t éx-erit .

N O TE .
- Th is form at ion w as orig in ally an Op t at iv e of f or old e r
t he s-aori st -e r

-i s
in t h e f u t u re pe rf e t , se e
as ab ov e) c c . Th e 1 aft e r r i s t h e Op tat ive m oo d-sign i
sh orte n ed ( s e e 168 e N F orm s i n -i s ,
. . .
-i t -i m u s -i t i s are
, , , som e t im es f ou n d Th e .

sh ort e n in g in -i s , -i m u s , -i t i s , i s d u e t o o n fu s ion w i t h t h e f u t u re p e rf e t c c .

e. I n t h e Plu p e rfe t S u b j u n t ive t h e c c su ffi x i s se m , -is sé s ,

- etc . is ad d e d to
t h e p e rfe t c st e m : as, am aV-i sse m , m e n u -i s sé s , t éx -is se t .

N O TE A
pp are n t ly t h is t en se w as f orm e d on th e an alogy of th e p lu p e rfe t i n di a
. c c
i m ( lat e r -s r-am , se e b) , an d i n flu e n e d b y essem ( e arlie r t e ss em ) in i t s
t ive in b i s-a c
relat ion t o c ram ( e arlier T esa m) 1 .

Th e Verb S u m

17 0 Th e . v e rb su m , be , is b ot h irr e gu lar an d d e fec t iv e , h av in g

no
g e un r d or s u p in e , an d n o p a rt ic ip le b u t t h e fu t u r e .

is giv e n t he on ac c ou n t of it s im p or
'

I ts c on j u
g at ion at ou t se t ,
t an c e for t h e in fle c t ion of ot h e r v e rbs .

1 Th e sig n s of m ood an d t e n se are oft e n s aid t o b e i n sert e d b et we en t h e roo t ( or

ve rb -st e m ) an d t h e p e rso n al e n d in g N o su h i n se rt ion i s p oss ible i n a lan gu age . c
d e veloped lik e t h e Lat in A ll t ru e v e rb -form s are t h e re s u lt , as s h ow n ab ove , o f c om
.

p osi t i on ; t h at is, O f ad d in g t o t h e roo t o r t h e s t e m e i t h e r p e rson al e n d in g s or f u lly

c
d e velope d au xiliarie s ( t h e m se lve s on t ain i n g t h e p e rso n al t e rm in at ion s) , or of im it a
t ion of s u h p ro es s e s c c
Th u s vi d ébam u s is m ad e b y ad d in g t o vi d é orig in ally a s ig n ifi
.

c an t word or a fo rm c c
on e ived as su h , a f u ll v e rb al f orm T ham u s, n ot b y in se rt in g c
-b5
be t wee n Vi d é an d m us
-
168 b) . .
82 C ON JU GA TI ON OF THE VERB [g 170

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS : Pre se n t I n di c at i ve su m , Pre se n t I n fi n it ive esse ,

Pe rfe t I n d i c c at iv
e c
fu i, F u t u re Part i ip le fu t fi ru s .

PR ES EN T S TEM as PE R F EC T S TEM f u S U P I N E S TEM f ut

I N DI C ATI VE J
S UB U N C TI VE
PRE S EN T
SING . 1 . su m , I am

2 . Es, thou art( you are

)
3 . e st , he ( she , it) is
PL U R . 1 . su m u s, we are si m u s

2 . e st i s , you are
3 . su n t , they are

I M P ER F EC T
SI N G . H e ram , I was e ss e m

O
R e ras , you were e ss é s
D
C e rat , he ( she , it ) was e ss e t

PL U R . H e ram u s , we were

you we re
J

N e rat i s ,
D
C e ran t, they were

F U TU R E
SI N G . u e r5 , I shall be
w e ri s , you will be
h e will be
o
o e ri t ,

PL U R . w e ri m u s we shall be ,

w e ri tis yo u will be ,

t , they will be
o
o e ru n

PER F EC T
SI N G f u i , I was ( have bee n )
'

f ui s ti , you were
’

f u i t , he was
P LU R . f u i mu s , we were
f u i s t i s , you were
f u é ru n t , fu é re , t hey we re

PLU P ER F EC T
SI N G . l . f u e ram , I had bee n
2 . f u e ras , you had be en
3 . fu e rat , he had been

1All tran slat io n s of c

th e Su b j un ti ve are m isle adi n g, an d h en c e n on e is gi ven ;
5157 b . .
 THE VER B S UM

PLU R . l . f u e ram u s, we had bee n

2 . f u e ri t i s , you had bee n
3 . f u e ran t , they had be e n

F U T U R E PE R F EC T
SI N G l f u e rb , I shall ha ve bee n l f u e ri m we shall have been
’

. . PLU R . . u s,

2 . f u e ri s , you will have be e n 2 . fu e ri ti s , y ou will have be en

3 . f u e ri t , he will have be e n 3 . f u e ri n t , they will have be e n

I MPER A TI VE
SING . 2 . es, be thou PL U R . 2 . s et s , be y e
2 . thou s h all be at e , ye s hall be
e st

3 . he shall be 3 . su n t é , they shall be

PR ES EN T e ss e , to be
P ER F EC T f u i s s e , t o have been
F U TU R E fu t fi ru s e s s e o r fore , to be abou t to be

P AR TI C IP LE
F U TU R E fu t fi ru s , -
a, -u m , abou t to be

a. For e sse m , e ssés , e t c .

, fore m , foré s , foret , f oren t , are oft e n u se d ; s o fore
for fu tfi rus e ss e .

b c
Th e Pre se n t Part i ip le , whi h wou ld re gu larly b e j e an s , 1 app e ars in
. c
c
t h e adj e t ive i n — c
sbn s , in n o e n t, an d i n a m odifi e d f o rm in ab s én s , p rae sé n s - -
.

The sim ple form én s is som e t im e s f ou n d i n lat e o r p hilos op hi al Lat in as a c

c
p art i ip le or ab st ra ct n ou n ,
i n t h e form s én s, bein g ; e n t ia, thin gs whic h are .

N O TE .
— O ld c
form s are : — I n d i at i ve : F u t ure , e sc it , e sc au t ( st ri t ly an i n c h oa c
t ive p rese n t , see 263 .

S u b j un t ive : c Pres e n t , si em , si é s, si et , si en t ; fuam , f ui s, fu at , t u ant ; Perf e t , t r

i vi c
m u s ; Plu pe rfe t , ffi vi sset c .

Th e root of t h e ve rb su m i s E s , wh i h in t h e im p erfe t is h an ged to ER ( se e § 15 c c c .

an d in m an y form s is sh ort e n ed t o 8 S om e of i t s m od i fi at ion s, as f ou n d i n se v e ral

. c
c
lan gu ag es m ore or less lose ly relat e d t o Lat in , m ay b e see n i n t h e followin g t able ,
c
t h e S an sk rit sy am orresp on d in g t o t h e Lat in S im ( si em )
'

S A N SKR I T GR EEK L A TI N LI TH U A A
NI N

i sy ii m ( Op tati ve ) t uut 2 s-u m si m ( st e m )

’
as-m
as-i sy ds find 2 es s i s ( si es)
’
as-t i sy dt e ar t e s-t si t ( si e t )
’
s-m as sy d m a e o ué v
'
s -u m u s s im u s

sy at a
’
es-t i s si tie
'

s-t h a e ar é

s-an t i sy u s s-u n t si n t ( si en t)
Th e Pe rf e t c an d S u p in e ste m s , fu fut are kin dred wit h t h e Gree k ec/ m. and wit h
'

t h e En glish be .

2
1 C om pare S an k rit c an t, Greek a7m Old form .
 C ONJU GA TI ON OF THE VERB 1 7 1- 1 73

Th e Fou r Co j u gat io
n ns

17 1 . Ve rbs are c lass e d in F ou r R e g u lar C on j u g at io n s, d is t in

st e m -v o we l wh ic h ap p e ar s be fore -t e in t h e P r e s e n t
g u ish e d by t h e
I n fi n it iv e A c t iv e

C ON JU G A TI O N I N F I N I TI VE EN D I N G S TEM

Th e P i n c ipal Pa t sr r
172 . The Pr in c ip al P ar ts of a v e rb sh owin g t h e
, th re e st e m s

w h ic h de t e rm in e it s j
c on u g at ion t h ro u gh ou t are ,

1 . Th e Pre se n t I n d i c at i ve
( as , am b ) Pre se n t St e m
Th e Pre se n t I n fi n it ive
.

2 .
( as, am i -I e
)
3 . Th e Pe rf e t c I n d i c at ive ( as , am av i
) -
,
sh owin g t h e Pe rfe t S t e m c .

4 . Th e n e u t e r of c
t h e Pe rfe t Part i ip le c ( as, am at -u m ) , o r, if t h at f orm
is n ot in u se , c
t h e Fu t u re A t ive Part i ip le c ( am at -i ru s ) ,
s h owin g t h e S u p in e
St e m .

17 3 . The re gu lar for m s Of t h e F ou r C on j u gat ion s are s e e n in

t h e followin g

First C on j u gat ion

c
A t ive , am b, am are , am avi , am at u m , love .

Passive , am or, am ari , am at u s .

Pre se n t S t e m am a c
P e rfe t St e m am aV S u p in e S t e m am en .

Se c dC j on on u g at i on

A ct i dé l t ve , e , delere , dé lé vi , d é lét u m , blot ou t .

Pass ive , dé le or, deleri , délé t u s .

Presen t S t e m dé lé c
Pe rfe t S t e m d é lé V S u p in e S t e in delet

I n t he S e con d c on u g at io n
j ,
h ow e ve r, t h e c h ct ara e rist i cé rare l
y app e ars
i n t h e p e rfe ct an d c
p e rfe t p art i ip le c . Th e c mmo on t yp e i s, t h e re fore

c
A t ive , m on e b, m on é re , m on u i , m on it u m , warn .

Pass ive , m on c or, m on é ri , m oni t u s .

Pre se n t S te m m on é Pe rf e t S t e m m on u c S u p in e S t e m m oni t
86 C ONJU GA TI ON OF THE VER B 17 4- 1 7 6

j c
ad e t iv e-st e m s Th is c am e t o b e t he re g u lar way of form i n g n e w v e rb s, j u st in
as

c
.

b orrow edi b
s u ffi x d d d t n ou n s an d ad j e t i ve s t o m ak e
E n g lish t he z e c a n e a e- o

Ve rb s : as, m a ad a m i ze , m od e rn i ze c .

c c
Th e m at i ve rb s of t h e se on d lass in wh i h a o n son an t or 11 am e I n t o on t a tc c c c c c
w i t h t h e s u ffi x y /o
°
s u ff e re d v a r i o u s p h o n e t i h a n ge s S cc
u h v e rb s f all p art ly i n t o . c
d C j i i i i t i la f m f i t a n d p art ly in t o t h e F ou rt h ,
the T h i r o n u g a t o n , g v n g r s e o a n rr e g u r o r o ,

E sp i c ére ) f or TS p e k y O; v en ie
an d som e h a v e f o rm s o f b o t h x a m p le s a r e :
. ( )
c en sp i c 1 6 -

v e n i re for T 6 é b t u p i vi ; ori or, ori t u r, b u t ori ri N o t e , h owe ve r,

( )(g v e m -
y ; ) c u p r e ,
u c .

p lu b ( plu ere) f or Tp lu y O; an d h e n e , b y an alogy ,

-
( ) f o r j ac u c
- b
y a ub c ac u e re .

c c
I n all t h e s e ases m an y ross-an alog i es an d e rrors as w e ll as p h on e t i h an g e s h ave cc
b e en at w ork t o p rod u e i rreg u lari t i es c
H e n e h as arise n t h e t radit ion al sy st e m wh i h . c c
is p ra t i ally c c re p resen t ed in 17 5 , 17 6 .

17 5 . The Pr e se n t S t e m m ay b e fou n d by dr op p in g -
re in t h e
P r e sen t I n fi n it iv e
am a -I e
, st e rn am a m on é -I e , st e m m on é t e ge—
t e, st e m t e ge au di —
t e , st e m

au di

17 6 Th e Pr e se n t S t e m is for m e d fr om t h e R oot i n
. all r eg u
lar v e rbs in on e of t h e followin g ways
a. I n t h e First , S e c on d, an d F o u rt h c on u gat i on s ,
j by addin g a. lon g
vowe l
( E
b , é i t o t he ro ot , wh ose vo we l is s o m e t im e s ch a n ge d : as, vocal te
-

l
c f.
( VO C ) , m on e re ( M EN , m e m in i ) , s op i re -
( S O P) .

N OT E .
— Verb-st em s of t h ese c j
on u gat ion s are alm ost all re ally f orm ed from n ou n

st em s on t h e p at t e rn of old er f orm at ion s ( see

b . I n t h e Third C on j u gat i on , by add in g a short vowe l t o t he root .

I n Lat in t his /
e i s p re se rve d i n s om e f orm s
0 u su ally app e ars as 1/u , bu t e .

Th u s, t e gi—
s root TEG , ali— b u t t e g e-ri s t e ge re , alé—
ri s
( ) t i ( ) (
s A L , re gu -n t R EG
) ( ) .

l . Th e st e m -vowel e/o ( i/u ) m ay b e p re c e de d by n, t, or s o 3 as , t e m —

u i -ti s ,

t e m -n u-n t , t e m -n é -ri s ( TE M ) ple c ti- -

s ( P LE C ) ( O R E)
c ré -s c i-t i s .

2 Ve rb s in 4 6 of t h e Th ird C on j u gat ion

.
(as capie, capére) sh ow in som e form s
,

an 1 b e fore t h e fi n al vowe l of t h e s t e m : as , c ap-i u n t ( C A P) , f u g i u n t ( F U G)

- - - .

c . Th e root m ay b e ch a n
ge d
1 . By t h e rep e t it ion of a p art of it ( redup li ati on c ) as , gi -gn -e-t e ( G EN ) .

2 . B y t h e in se rt ion of a n asal ( m or n ) as , fi n d-e -t e ( FI D ) , t an g-e -re ( TA G) .

1 Most ve rb s of t h e F irst , S e c
F ou rth C on j u g at ion s form t h e p rese n t st e m b y
on d , an d

ad d in g t h e s u ffi x t o a n ou n -st em Th e aof t h e F irst C on j u g at ion i s t h e ste m -e n d in g

.

o f t h e n ou n ( as , p lan ti I e , f rom p lan t a st e m o f p lan t a)

-
Th e 6 of t h e S e on d an d t h e i
‘
. c
o f t h e F ou rt h C on j u g at i on are d u e t o o n t ra t ion o f t h e sho rt v ow e l of t h e n ou n -st e m c c
w it h t h e e n d in g Th u s alb ere is f rom s t e m of alb u s ; f i n i re i s f rom fi n i

s t e m of fi n i s . c
S om e ve rb s of t h e se las se s , h owe ve r, om e f rom roo t s e n din g in a vow el c .

2 Th is i s t h e s o—alle d t h em at i v owe lc”

c .

3 I n t h ese v erb s t h e st e m -en d in

g add ed t o t h e root i s re sp e t ively c
 17 6, 17 7 ] PERFEC T STEM 87

d . In so m e ve rb s t h e p re se n t st e m i s f orm e d f rom a n ou n -st e m in u

e—
st at u — st at u — — cf
‘
1
as, re
( s
) , s est u zi -t e
( s e st u -s
); . ac u O, ac u e re .

N O TE 1A fe w i s olat ed f orm s u s e t h e S im p le root as a p re s en t st e m : as, fer-t e ,

.
-

f er-t ; es-se ; vel-le , vu l-t Th ese are ou n t ed as i rre gu lar . c .

N O T E 2 — I n so m e v e rb s t h e fi n al o n son an t o f t h e root is d ou ble d b e fore t h e st e m

. c
Vow e l : as, p en-i -t i s ( P E L) , m i t t -i -t i s ( M I T) .

6 . S om e Ve rb s h ave ro ot s e n d i n g in a vowe l . I n t h e se t h e p re se n t st e m

c
i s g e n e rally i d e n t i al wit h t h e root : as, da-m u s ( D A ) , flé—
m u s ( st e m flé ro o t

f orm u n k n own ) 2 B u t o t h e rs, as ru i-m u s ( R U ) , are f orm e d w i t h an

. ad d i

t ion al vo we l a cc ord i n g t o t h e an alogy of t he ve rb s de s c rib e d in d .

N O TE — S om e ve rb s of t h is cl c
ass re d u p li at e t h e root : as, si -st -e -I e ( S TA , cf . st are ) .

r
Pe f ect S t em

17 7 ; Th e Pe fe c t S t e m i s fo m e d r r as follo ws
a. Th e su ffi x V ( )
u is adde d t o the v e rb -st e m : as, vo caV i - -
'

, au di—
v-i ; or

to t he root : as, s on -u -i
( s ons-t e , ro o t S ON
) , m on -u -i ( m on e re , M O N t re at e d

as a root 8
) .

N O TE .
— In a f ew ve rb s t h e vow e l of t h e root i s t ran sp osed an d len g t h en ed : as,
st I a
'

I -v-i ( st c rab, S T
-
A R ), S p re-V-i ( spern e ,
SP A R ) .

b . Th e su ffi x s is add e d t o t he ro ot as, ca p r s—
-
i ( C A RP
) , tEX i for t eg
( - -
s -i ,
fi
TEG
)
N OT E .
— Th e m odifi c at ion s of
t h e p rese n t st e m som e t i m e s ap p e ar in t h e p e rf e t c :

as, n u x-i ( F I G , p re sen t s t e m ti n g e ) , sa

i n z -i ( S A C , p re se n t s t e m san c i

c . Th e ro o t is re d up li c ate d b y p re fi x in g t h e fi rst c o n s on an t
g e n erally
wi t h e, som e t i m e s wi t h t h e ro ot -vowe l : as, ce -c id i -
( c adO, C A D , t o-t on d-i
)
( t e n ded , TO N D
) .

N O TE .
— In fi d -i ( f or f fe -na-
i, fi nd s ci d i ( f
-
or f sc i -s ci d i c i
-
,
s n dé
), the re d u p li at ionc
h as b e en lost , le avin g m e rely th e roo t .

d . Th e root v owe l i s le n gt h e n e d , so m e t im e s wi t h v o we l cha n

ge as, leg i -

I g-i—
’

e e Vi d-i ( Vi d-e -O ffi g-i ( fi i ( fi

“

l
( g cam -i ( m ) , O ) ,
é g
-
g
6 . S om e t i m es t h e p e rf e t st e m h as c t h e sam e f orm at ion t h at app e ars in
t h e p re se n t t e n se s olv— l —i
( O) : as, ve rt -i
( ve rt -b
) , s o v .

f So m e t im e s t h e p e rf e t i s f orm e d f rom a lost

. c or im agin ary st e m : as,

p e ti-
V-
i ( as if f ro m jp et i-
O, fp e t i-
t e , P ET
) .

1 Th ese form at ion s in

are e it h e r old i n wh i h t h e y h as d isapp e are d aft e r t h e c
u ( as , st at u b f or Tst at u—y b) or lat e r i m it at ion s o f su h f orm s c .

2 In
som e o f t h e v e rb s o f t h is c
lass t h e p rese n t s t e m w as o rigi n ally i d e n t i al w it h c
t h e root ; i n ot h e rs t h e e n d i n g w as add e d , b u t h as b e e n ab sorb e d b y on t ra t ion c c .

3 Th e v- e rf e t i s a f orm of u n e rt ain ori in

p c g p e u liar t o t h e Lat in c c .

4 Th e s- e rf e t is i n ori i n an aorist
p g c T h us ,
d i x-i
( f or T
d i c s-
i ) orre sp on ds to t h e . c
Gre ek aorist z-Eet f-a (for T é-Gem a-a) .
 88 C ONJUGA TI ON OF THE VER B 17 9

S u p in e St em

17 8 . Th e S u p in e S t e m m ay b e fou n d by dr op p in g -u m from t h e
S u p in e . I t is for m e d by addin g t ( or, by a p h on et ic c h an g e , 6 )
a. To t h e p re se n t s t e m as, am a t u m , d é lé t —
um , - - -
au di—
t—um .

b . To t h e root , wit h o r wi t h ou t 1 : as , c ap—t um -

CAP
) , m on i-t -u m

( m on ee, M O N u se d as ro ot
) , c as-u m ( f or j cad-t -u m , C AD
) , lé c -t -u m ( L EG
) .

N O TE 1 — By p h on et i . h an cc e at an d t t b e c om e s ( d éf én su m , v ersu m for T d é f en d
-

t -Um , t ve rt -t -u m ) ; b t b e om e s 1) c ( sc ri p -t -u m f or f sc ri b -t -u m ) ; gt b e c om es c t ( ré-
c t —
um

for r re g -t -u m ) 1
'

N O T E 2 —Th e m od ifi at i on s
. c t h e p re se n t st e m so m e t im e s app e ar in t h e
of s u p in e

as , t i n c -t -u m ( t in g e , T I G) , t én -s-u m f or T t—
t e n d— u m (t e n -d -O, T E N ) .

N O TE 3 Th e s u p in e is som e t im e s f rom a lost or i m ag in ary ve rb-s t e m : as, pe t i -t -u m

.

T —
, fp )
( as i f f rom p e t i-
O e t i re , P ET .

N O TE 4 — A f e w ve rb s f orm t h e s u p in e st e m i n s aft er t h e an alogy of ve rb s in d

.

an d t : as , f al-s-u m (f allo) , p u l— s-u m (p elle) .

Form s of Con j u gat ion

17 9Th e for m s of t h e se v e ral c on j u gat ion s fr om w hic h , by

.

add in g t h e v e r b—
e n din s in
g 1 6 6 ,
all t h e m ood s an d t e n ses c an

be m ade are as follo w s :

a. Th e F irst C on j u gat ion in c lu de s all v e rb s wh i c h add a t o the

root t o f orm t h e p re se n t s t e m
2
as, am a-re ; w it h a f e w W h ose root

e n d s in a T
( for, fa-ri fl O ,
fla -
re ; 116, n a-
re ; st d
,
et a-t e
) .

1 . Th e st e m -v owe l a i s lost b e fore -6 : as, am b T

am é and in t he
p re se n t s u b j u n ct ive i t i s ch an g e d to e s , am é—
as , am é— m us .

2 . Th e p e rfe t c g ularly ad d s V, t h e s u p in e st e rn t , t o t h e p re se n t
st e m re

s t e m : as, am a-V-i , am a-t -u m F or e x e p t i o n s, se e

. 2 09 a c . .

b . Th e S e c on d C on j u gat ion in c lu de s all v e rb s whic h add 6 t o t he

root t o f orm t h e p re s en t s t e m : as , m on é —t e ; w it h a fe w wh ose ro ot

e n d s in e ; as , fle e, fle—te ne-O, n é -re ; re-or, ré ri

( c f 17 6 e -
. .

) .

1 I n t h e p re s e n t s u b j u n t ive a i s
. c ad d e d t o t he —
ve rb st e m : as, m on e—
fi—S,

m on e-a-m u s ( c f 1 68 e ) . . .

2 . A fe wf orm t h e p e rfe t st e m b y add in g V

ve rb s c an d t he su p in e

s t e m b y addin g t , t o t h e p re se n t s t e m : as, dé lé -V-i , d élé t - -

um . B u t m ost
c
form t h e p erfe t st e m b y addin g V ( 11) t o t h e roo t , an d t h e s u p in e s t e m by
ad d i n g we ak e r f o rm of t h e p rese n t e n d in
t to a st e m , g in i : as, m on -u -i,
m on i -t -u m . For lis t s , Se e 2 10 .

1 c
For t h ese m od ifi at ion s of t h e su p i n e st e m , s e e 15 5 , 6 , 10 . .

2 Th e p re sen t st e m i s t h us t h e ve rb -st e m F or e x ep t ion s, se e . c 209 a . .

90 C ON JU GATI ON OF TH E VERB 180

S yn op s is of t h e Verb

18 0 Th e follo win g
. s
y no
p s is s h ows t h e fo m s r of t he v e rb ar
ran ge d ac c ordin g t o t h e t h re e st e m s Am b, a re g u lar v e rb

of t h e fi r st c on j u g at ion , i s t ake n as a t yp e .

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS A c tive , am b, am are , am avi , am at u m .

P assive , am or, am ari , am é t u s su m .

PR ES EN T S TE M am i PER F EC T S TEM am av S U PI N E S T EM am at

A C TI VE PA SSI VE
P resen t s t em , am a

I N DI C ATI VE

J
S UB U N C TI VE

I MPER A TI VE

I N F I NI TI VE
P R ES . am a-xc am a-ri

P A RTI CI PLE
PR ES . am e
i -n s GER U N D I VE am a-n d u s
'

am a-n di

Perfec t st e m, am av S u p in e st em , am at
I N DI C ATI VE

J
S U B UN C TI VE
am fi v —
e ri m —
am fi t n a S i m
am av -i s s e m am fi t -u s e s s e m

I N FI N I TI VE
PE R F . am é v -i s s e

S u p ine st em , am at

I N FI N I TI VE
am at -u s e s s e
am é t —
fi ru s e s se am at -u m i ri

P A R TI CI PLE
am at -fi ru s PER F . am at -u s
S UPI N E am at -u m am é t -ii
55 18 1-
183 ] PECUL I A R I TI ES OF C ON JUGATI ON 91

Pecu lia it ies r of Conju gat ion

I n t e n se s form e d u p on t he Pe rfe c t S t e m ,
18 1 . v be t we e n t wo
v owels is oft e n lost an d c on t rac t ion t akes p lac e .

a. c
Pe rfe ts i n -5 Vi, 6 Vi,
- O fte n c o n t ra ct t h e t wo vowe ls i n t o 5, 6, 6,
re sp e ct i ve ly : as , am ass e for ; am i rim f o r am ave rim ; am asse m for
am avi sse

am avis se m ; c 6n su érat f or c 6n su é verat ; flé st is f or flévist i s ; n 6sse f or n 6vi sse .

S O i n p e rf e t s in c Vi ,
- wh e re t h e V is a p art of t h e p re se n t ste m : as , c omm 6rat

for c om m 6verat .

N O TE .
— Th e fi rst p e rson of c c
t h e p e rfe t in di at iv e ( as, amavi) is n ever c on tra ct d
e ,

t h e t hi rd ve ry rare ly .

b . Pe rf e t s i n c - ivi
'

re gu larl
y om i t V, b u t rare ly c on t ra ct t he v owe ls e x

c ep t b e f ore st an d ss , an d ve ry rare ly i n t h e t h ird p e rson p e rfe t c

au die ram for au di veram ; au di s se f or au di vis s e s u di s t i f or au di vi s ti s hift for
s hi vit ; abieru n t for abi vé ru n t .

N O TE 1 . Th e form s si ri s , si rit , si ri t is, si ri nt , for si veri s e t c ( from si ver6 or si v erim ) , .

are ar h ai c c .

N O TE 2 . c
I n m an y form s f rom t h e p e rfe t st e m i s , 193 , si s , are lost i n lik e m an n e r,
wh e n 8 wou ld b e rep e at e d if t h ey w e re re tain ed : as, d i xt i f or di xi st i t raz e
for t raxi sse ; Evast i f or é vasi st i ; vi xet f or Vi xi sse t ; Erép sem u s f or eré ps i ssé m u s ; d éc esse
'

f or d écessi sse . Th e se f orm s b elon g t o ar c h ic

a an d c olloq u ial u s age .

182 Fou r v e rbs, — dic 6, dfi co, fac io, fer6, — wit h t h e ir c om p ou n ds,
.

d r op t h e v owel-t e r m in at ion o f t h e I m p e r at iv e , m akin g dic ,

fer ; bu t c om p ou n ds in -fi c i6 re t ain it , as , c 6nfi ce .

N OTE .
— Th e i m pe rat ive f orm s dic dfie, f c e, ac e ( n eve r f ere) , o cc ur in e arly Lat in .

a . F or t h e im p e rat ive of sc i6, t h e fu t u re form s cit6 i s always u se d in t h e

gular, an d s eif6t e u su ally i n t h e p lu ral .

18 3 . The followin g an c ie n t form s are fou n d c h ie fly in p oe t ry

1 I n t he fourt h
. c o n u at i on ,
gj -
ib am , -ih 6, for -iéb am , -iam ( fu t u re ) . Th e se
f orm s are re g u lar in e6 , go
2 I n t h e p re se n t su b j u n t iv e , —
. im : c as i n d u im , p erdu im , re t ain e d in
re ligi ou s f orm u las an d of t e n i n om e d
y c . Thi s f orm is re g u lar in su m an d
V016 an d t h e ir p ou n ds 17 0,c om

c c
3 I n t h e pe rfe t s u b j u n t ive an d fu t u re p e rf e t i n d i at ive , -sim ,
. c c -
s6 : as,

faxim , fax6, in s e6, re c é p s6 fec eri m au su s

4 . I n t h e p assive in fi n it i ve , -ie r : as, vocarie r for vocfi ri agier for agi .

5 . A form i n 471 8 3 6, -assere is fou n d u se d as a f u t ure p e rfe t : as, am i ss is , c

from am 6 ; levase 6, from lev6 im pe t ri sse re , f rom im pet rb ; ifi di cass it , from
ifi dic 6 cf 2 63 2 b
( .
§ . . .
92 C ONJU GA TI ON OF THE VER B [g 184

FI RS T C ON UGATI ON J ( d -
S TEMS ) — ACTI VE VOI CE

184 . The Fi rs t C on j u gat ion in c lu de s all v e rbs wh ic h ad d a t o

the root t o form t h e p re se n t st e m , wit h a fe w wh ose root e n ds
in a Th e v e rb am o , love , is j
c on u gat e d as follows :

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS : Prese n t I n d i c at i ve am 6, Pre se n t I n fi n it ive am are ,

c
Pe rf e t I n d i c at i ve am i vi , Su p i n e am atu m .

PR ES EN T S TEM am a P E R F EC T S TE M am av SU PI N E S TEM am at

I N DI C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE
PR ES EN T

l 2
a 6 , I love , am lo vin g , d o love
m am e m

as , thou lovest ou love

am ( y ) am é s

am at , he ( she , it) loves am e t

am am u s, we lo ve
am at i s , you love
am an t , they love

I M P ER F EC T

am fi b am ,
I love d , was lovin g , d id love
am ab as , you love d
am é b at , he love d

am ab fi m u s, we love d
am ab at i s , you loved
am é b an t , t h ey love d

F U TU R E

am ab é , I shall love

am ab i s , you will love

am ah i t , he will love

am i b im u s, we shall love

am ab i t i s , you will love

am ab u n t , they will love

1 Th e st em -vowel i i s lost b e f ore -6 , an d in t h e Prese n t S u b j u n t ive b e om e s é c c

2 c cc
Th e t ran slat ion of t h e S u b j u n t iv e v ari e s wi d ely a ordin g t o t h e on st ru t i on c c .

H en c e no t ran slat ion of t h is m ood i s given in t h e p arad ig m s .

94 C ON JU GA TI ON O F THE VER R [s 184

J d -S TEMS — PAS S I VE VOI CE

FI R S T C ON U GATI ON ( )
PR I N C I P A L PA R TS Pre se n t I n di c at i ve am or, Pre se n t I n fi n iti ve am ari,

c
Pe rfe t I n di c at iv e am at us sum .
l

PR ES EN T S T EM am a S U PI N E S TEM am i t

IN D I C ATI VE S U B JUM TI VE
PR E S EN T
3
am o r,
2
I am love d, be in g love d am er

ou are love d
am ari s -re
) y ,

am at u r, he is love d

am am u r, we are loved
am am i n i , you are loved
am an t u r, t hey are love d

I M P ER F EC T

am ab ar, I was loved , be in g love d

ab ari s ou we re love d
am -
)
t e y ,

am ab at u r, he was love d

am ab am u r, we we re loved
am i bam i n i , you were loved
am ab an t u r, th ey were love d

F U TU R E

am ah o r, I shall be loved
ab ou will be love d
am e ri s
)
’ -r
e , y
am i b i t u r, he wi ll be loved

am éib i m u r, we shall be loved

you will be love d
am fi b i m i n i ,

am fi b u n t u r, they will be love d

1 Fui , fu i st i , e tc . in ste ad Of su m , e s , e tc
are som e t im es u sed so also fu eram i n ste ad .
,

of eram an d fu er6 in st e ad of c r6 c
S im ilarly in t h e Pe rf e t an d Plu p e rfe t S u b j u n t ive
. c c
fu erim , fu e ri s , e t c are som e t im e s u sed in st e ad of S i m , si s, e tc , an d fu i s sem i n st e ad of
. .

e ssem .

2 Th e st e m -v owe l 5 i s lost b e fore -or, an d i n t h e Prese n t S u b j u n c t i ve be c om e s é

8 c cc
Th e t ran slat ion of t h e S u b j u n t ive vari es w id e ly a ord in g t o th e ons t ru t ion c c .

H en c
e n o t ran slat ion o f t h is m ood i s gi ve n in t h e p aradi gm s .
5 184] FI R ST C O N JU GA TI ON 95

IN D I C A TI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE
PER F EC T
1
am at u s su m , I was loved
am at u s e s, you we re loved
am at u s e s t , he was love d

am ati su m u s , we were love d

am at i e s ti s , you we re love d
am ati sun t, they were loved

PL U P ER F EC T
1 1
am at u s e xam ,
I had bee n love d am at u s e sse m

am at u s e ras , y ou had be e n loved am at u s ess é s

am at u s e rat , he had bee n love d am at u s e ss e t

am ati et am u e, we had bee n love d

am at i at fa, you had be e n love d
at

am at i aran t , they had been love d

F U TU R E PE R F EC T
S in gu lar P lu ral

am at u s I s hall have bee n loved am at i s t i m u s, we shall have , etc .

am at u s e ri s , you will have, e t c . am at i you will have , e t c

e ri t i s , .

am atu s e ri t , he will have , e tc . am at i e ru n t , they wi ll have , e t c .

I M PER ATI VE
PR ESEN T am are , be thou love d am am i n i , be ye love d
F U TU R E am at o r, t hou s halt be loved
am at o r, he shall be love d am an t o r, the y s hall be loved

IN FI N I TI VE

ari , to be love d
''

am

am at u s e ss e , to h ave been loved

am at u m i ri , t o be abou t t o be love d
'

P AR TI C I PLES
PER F EC T am at u s , -a
, 4 1 111 , love d ( be love d , or havin g bee n loved)
F UTU R E ( GER U N D I VE) am an d u s , -a, -u m ,
to-be-love d ( lovely)

1 Se e p ag e 94, foo tn ote 1 .

96 C ONJUGA TI ON OF THE VER R [5 185

J
S ECON D CON UGATI ON ( é -S TEMS )

18 5 . The S e c on d C on j u g at ion in c lu des all v e rbs wh ic h add 6

t o t he root t o form t h e p resen t st em , wit h a fe w wh ose root en ds
in e

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS c
A t ive , m on e6, m on ére , m on u i , m on itu m ;
P assi ve , m on e or, m on et i , m on it u s su m .

PR ES EN T S T EM m on é P ER F EC T S T EM m on u SU P I N E S TEM m on it

A C TI VE VOI C E PA SSI VE VOI C E

I N D I C A TI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE I N DI C ATI VE S U B JUN C TI VE

P R ES E N T PR ES E N T
l
m on e O, I warn m on e am I n on e o r m on e ar 1

m on é s , you warn m on e és m on é ri s -
re
) m on e é ri s -
re
)
m on e t , he warn s m on e at m on é t u r m on e at u r

m on e n t u r

I M P ER F E C T I M P ER F EC T

m on eb ar m on é re r
m on é b fi ri s -
I e
) m on eré ri s -
re
)
m o n eb étur m on é ré t u r

F U TU R E F U TUR E
m on é b o r

m on é b e ri s -
re
)
m on é b it u r

1 S ee b 1
§ 17 9
. . .
98 C ON JU GA TI ON OF TH E VER B 186

THI R D CON JUGATI ON ( e-S TEMS )

18 6 . Th e Thir d C on j u g at ion in c lu de s all v e rbs ( n ot irr egu lar,

se e 1 97 ) w hic h add 6 t o t he r oot t o for m t h e p r ese n t s t e m , wit h
.

a fe w W h ose root e n ds in e

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS A c t ive , t e g6, t egere , t éxi , t é ct u m

P assive, t egor, t e gi , t é ct u s su m .

PR ES EN T S TEM t e ge PER F EC T S TEM t éx 1 SU P I N E S TEM t éct

A C TI VE VOI C E PA SS I VE VOI C E

IN D I C ATI VE J
S U B U N C TI VE I N DI C A TI VE J
S U B UN CTI VE

PR ES EN T PR ES EN T
2 1
t e go r t e gar
t e ge ri s -r
e
) t e gé ri s -
re
)
t e gi t u r t e gi t u r

I M PE R F EC T I M P E R F EC T

t e gé b ar t e ge re r
t e gé b ari s -
t e
) t e ge ré ri s -
re
)
te gé b a t e ge ret u r
'

it u r

F U TU R E F U TU R E

1 Th e p erf e t c st em in t his c j
on u gat ion is alw ay s f orm ed f rom t h e root ; t éx is for
t eg-s ( 8 6 8 5 15 .
2 S ee 17 9 . c . 1 .
g 186 ] TH I R D C ON JUGA TI ON 99

Ac t ive Voi c e P ass i ve Vo ic e

I N D I C A TI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE IN D I C ATI VE J
S U B UN CTI VE

PE R F E C T

t é xi t

t exi m us t ex e ri m us

té xis t i s t ex e ri t i s
t é x é ru n t -
t e
) t é x e ri n t

PLU P ER F EC T PL U P E R F EC T

F U T U R E PER F EC T F U TU R E PER F E C T
1
t exe ré
t é x e ri s
t ex e ri t

I MP ER ATI VE
S in g u lar Plu ral S in g u lar P lural
t e ge t e gi t e t e ge re
t e gi t c) t e gi t Ot e t e gi t o r
'

t e gi t 6 t e gu n t c) t e gi t o r t e gu n t o r
'

IN FIN I TI VE

P RE S EN T t e ge re t e gi
P E R F EC T t é xi s s e t ec t u s eSS e

F U TU R E t ec t ii ru s e as e c
t e t u m f ri
“

A
P R TI C IP LES
PR ES EN T t e gé n s , -e n t ie P ER F EC T t ec t u s , -
a, -u m
F UTU RE té c t fi ru s , -a
,
-
u m GER U N D I VE t e ge n d u s -
un d u s)

GER UN D S U P IN E
t e ge n di , dum
-
, 4 16 té c tu m , t é c tfi

pag e 94
1 S ee foot n ote 1 on .
1 00 C ON JU GA TI ON OF THE VER B [g 187

FOUR TH CON UGATI ON J —

( S TEMS )
i

18 7 . Th e F ou r t h C on j u g at ion in c lu de s all v e rbs whic h add i

t o t he root r
t o fo m t he p re sen t st em .

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS A c tive , au di6, au dire , au divi, au dit u m ;

P assive , au dior, au diri , au dit u s su m .

PR ES EN T S T EM au di PER F EC T S TEM au di v SU P I N E STEM au dit

A C TI VE VOI C E PA SS I VE VOI C E

I N DI C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE I N DI C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE

PR ES EN T P R ES EN T

au di m u s

au di u n t

I M P ER F EC T I M P E R F EC T

1
au di é b ar au dire r

au di é b ari s au di r é ri s
-
I e
) re
-
)
au di é b at u r au di ré t u r

F U TU R E F U TU R E

1 Se e 17 9 d
. .
1 02 C ON JUGA TI ON OF TH E VERB [ g 188

VERBS IN 4 5 OF THE THI RD CONJUGATI ON

18 8 Ve rbs of t h e Thir d C on j u g at ion in io hav e c e rt ain fo rm s

.
-

of t h e p r e se n t s t e m lik e t h e fou rt h c on j u g at ion The y lose t h e .

i o f t h e st e m b e fore a c on son an t an d also be for e i an d 5 (e x c e p t ,

in t h e fu t u r e t h e p ar t ic ip e t h e g e r u n d an d t h e ge ru n div e )
,
l ,
1
, .

Ve rbs of t his c lass are c on j u g at e d as follo ws :

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS : A c t ive , cap i6 apé , c re , Cep i, cap t u m ;

P assive , c ap ior, cap i capt
, u s su m .

PR ES EN T S TEM c ap ie ( c ap e ) PER F EC T S T EM c é p S U PIN E S TEM capt

A C TI VE VOI C E PA SS I VE V OI C E

I N D I CA TI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE IN D I C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE

PR ES EN T PR E S EN T
I take
c api s, you t ake
c pit
a , he t akes

c ap i m u s

c api t i s

c ap i u n t

I M P ER F E C T I M P E R F EC T
c api é b am c ap e re m c ap i é b ar c ap e re r

F U TU R E FU T UR E

PE R F EC T PE R F EC T
C é p e ri m c ap t u s su m c ap t u s S im

PLU P ER F EC T PL U P ER F EC T
c é p e ram c é pi s s e m c ap t u s e ram c ap t u s e ssem

F U TU R E PER F EC T F U T U R E PE R F E C T
cé
pe ré c ap t u s S H?)

1 This is a c c
p ra t i al w ork in g ru le . The c
a t u al explan at ion of t he forms of su ch
verb s is n ot f ully u nd erstood .
 188 —190] D EPONENT VER B S 1 03

Ac t i ve Voic e P as si ve Voic e

PR ES E N T PR E S EN T

S in gu lar P lu ral P lu ral

c ap e c api t e

. F U TU R E F U TU R E

ot e
'

c ap i t c) c ap i t

c ap i t 6 c ap i u n to c ap i u n t or

P AR TI CI P LES
c ap i é n s , -i e n t iS c ap t u s , -a, -u m
c ap t fi ru s , —
a ,
-
u m c ap i e n d u s, -
a, -
u m

GER U N D S UP I N E

dé c ap t u
’

c ap i e n di, -d u
'

m ,
- m ,
-
tii

Parallel Fo m s r
189 . M an y v e rbs h av e m o re t h an on e se t of for m s, W h ic h
on ly on e is g en e r ally fou n d in c las si c u se :

lave, lavare or lavere , was h ( se e 2 11 .

)
e .

‘
s e at e d , s c at é re or s c at ere , gu sh f orth .

lfi difi c o, -are
, or lfi difi c or, —
ari , m oc k .

f u lgd, f u lgé re , or f u lge ii , fu lg é re , sh ine .

DEPONEN T VERBS

190 D e p on e n t
. Ve rbs h av e t h e form s of t h e Passi ve Voic e ,

W it h an ac t i e or v re fle xi v e s ign ifi c at ion :
Fi t c
rs j gat i
on u mi m on m i at ror, u an , r us , ad m i re .

PR I N C I P A L S c e d c
on j g ti on u aé i onit v e re or, v e r r , ve r u s, f ear .

P A R TS Th i d c j gat i
r on u q q i on fit se u or, s e u , sec u s, f ollow .

F th c
our j gat i p ti
on u p a ti i p t i t
on : ar e r, r t , ar u s , share .
1 04 C ONJU GA TI ON OF TH E VERB 190

I ND I C ATI VE
PR ES . m i ro r
m irfi ri s -re
)
m irfi t u r

I M PF
'

. m i rei b ar
F UT . m irfi b o r
PE R F . m i rat u s su m

PL U P . m i rat u s e ram

F P
. . m i rat u s e ra

J
S UR U N C TI VE

PR ES . m it e r p arti ar
I MFF . m irfi re r
PE R F . m i rat u s Sim p art i t u s S im

PL U P . m i rat u s e sse m p art it u s as se m

PR E S . m i rare
m i rfi t o r

I NFIN I TI VE

PR ES . m iré ri soq u i p art i ri

PE R F . m irat u s e sse se c ut u s e s s e p art i t u s e s s e
F UT . m irat fi ru s e s s e se c ut fi ru s e as e p art it ii ru s e as e

P AR TI C I PLES
PR ES . m i ran s
F UT . m i rat fi ru s

PER F .

GER . m i ran d u s

GER U N D

m iran di , -6 , e tc . ve re n di , et c . s e qu en d i , e tc .
p arti e n di , e tc .

S UPI N E

m irfi t u m ,
-t u ve ri t u m ,
-tu se c fi tu m , tu
-
p art i t u m t 1i
-
'

,
1 06 CON JU GA TI ON OF THE VER B 191- 194

a. Th e f ollowi n g d e p on e n t s h ave no su p i n e st e m
dé vert or, -ti
, t u rn aside ( t o lod ge ) . m e de or, Jeri , heal .

di ffi t e or, -é ri , d en y . re m in i s c or, -i , c all t o m i n d .

fati s c or, -i , g ap e . ve sc or, —

i f e ed,
u p on .

liqu or, -i , m elt ( in t rans ) .

N O TE — D ep o n e n t s
p assive ( or m iddle) are re ally v e rb s wh ose c
a t ive voi e h as c
d isap p eared Th e re i s h ardly o n e t h at d oes n ot S h ow
. s ig n s o f h avin g b e e n u sed in
c
t h e a t iv e at som e pe riod of t h e lan gu ag e .

Sem i-Depon en t s

192 . A fe w v e rbs h avin g n o p e rfe c t st e m are re g u lar in t he

p re s e n t , bu t ap p e ar in t h e t e n se s of c om p le t e d ac t ion as d e p on e n t s .

Th e se are c alle d Se m i d ep on e n t s -
. Th e y are

au de d, au dé re , au su s , d are .
g au de d, gau dé re , g avi s u s , rej oi e c .

f i db, fi dé re , fi su s , t ru st . s ole d, solere , solit u s , be wont .

a. Fro m s u deb t h e re is an old c

p e rfe t su b j u n t iv e au s im c Th e form sbd é s .

( for si au dé s ) , an thou wilt , i s fre q u e n t i n t h e d ram at i st s an d rare e lse wh e re .

b . The c
a t ive f orm s vap u lo, vap u lat e , be fl ogge d , an d vé neb, vé n ire , be s old

( c o n t rac t e d from ire , go to sale ) , h ave a p ass ive m e an in g, an d are

''

ve nu m
s o m e t i m es c alle d n e u tral p assi ves To t h e se m ay b e adde d fi e ri , t o be m ad e
.

an d exs u lare , to be ban ishe d li ve i n e x ile c f . ac c é d ere , t o be ad de d

( ) ; .

N O TE —Th e f ollowin g v e rb s are som e t im e s fou n d as se m i-d e p o n e n t s :

. int ara,
i fi rat u s, swe ar ; n ub o, n ube re , s upt s , m arry p la ed, p lac ére , p lacit u s , p le ase c .

THE PER IPHRAS TI C CON JUGATI ON S

193 A c
Pe rip h rast i f orm , as t h e n am e i n d i at e s , i s a rou n d abo u t w ay of S pe ak
. c
ing . I n t h e wid est se n se , all ve rb-p h rase s on s ist in g o f p art i ip le s an d s u m are Pe ri c c
p h rast ic F orm s c
Th e P re se n t Part i ip le is , h ow e ve r, rare ly S O u se d , an d t h e P e rfe t
. c
c c
P art i ip le w it h su m i s i n lu d ed in t h e reg u lar on j u g at i on (am at u s su m , eram c ,

c c
H en e t h e t e rm Pe rip h rast i C on j u g at ion i s u su ally rest ri t ed t o ve rb-p h rases c on c
s ist in g of t h e F u t u re Ac
t i ve P art i ip le or t h e Ge ru n di ve w i t h su m c .

N OTE Th e F u t u re Passiv e I n fi n i t ive , as am at u m i ri , form ed f rom t h e i n fi n it i v e

.
-

p assive of e d, g o, u se d i m p e rs on all w it h t h e s u i n e i n -u m , m a
y p y also b e lassed as a c
p e rip h rast i form c
203 a) . .

194 . Th e r e are t wo Pe iph as t ic C on r r j u g at ion s , kn own res p e c

t ive ly as t he Fi rst (or A c t iv e ) an d t h e Sec on d ( or Passiv e ) .

a. Th e First P ip h a t i c C
er j gat ir c m bi
s on u on o n es t he F u t u re A t ive c
c
Part i ip le w i t h t h e fo rm s o f su m , an d d e n ot e s a f u tu re or i n te n d e d a cti on .

b . Th e S e c on d Pe rip h rast i cC on u j gat i on c om b i n e s t h e Ge ru n d ive w it h

t h e f orm s of s u m an d d e n ot e s obligat ion , n e c ess ity, or
, p rop rie ty .

c . The p e rip h rast i f orm s are i n fle c c t e d re gu larly t h rou gh o u t t h e I n di ca

t ive j c
an d S u b u n t ive an d i n t h e Pre se n t an d c
Pe rfe t I n fi n it i ve .
195, 196 ] TH E PERI PH R A STI C C ON JUGA TI ON 1 07

195 . The Fi rs t Pe r ip h ras t ic C on j u g at ion

I N DI C A TI VE
P R ES E N T am atfi ru s s u m ,
1 am abou t t o love
I M P E R F EC T am at fi ru s e ram ,
I was abo u t to love
F U TU R E am atii ru s e ro, I shall be abou t to love
PE R F EC T am at fi ru s f u i , I have bee n , was, abo u t to love
P L U P ER F E C T an i at fi ru s fu e ram , I had be e n abou t t o love
F U T U R E PE R F E C T am at fi ru s f u e rO, I shall have be e n abou t to lo ve

J
S UB U N C TI VE
am at fi ru s S im

am at fi ru s e ss e m

am at ii ru s f u eri m
am at ii ru s f u isse m

‘
I N FI N I I I VE
'

am at fi ru s e sse , t o be a bou t t o love

am at fi ru s f u isse , to have be e n abou t t o love

S o i n t he ot h e r c o n u gat ion s
j
Se c on d m on itfi ru s s u m , I am abou t to ad vise .

Th ird : t é c t uru s sum , I am abou t to c over .

F ou rt h : au di t fi ru s s u m , I am abou t to hear .

Th ird ( in -i6) : c ap t fi ru s s u m , I am abou t to take .

196 . Th e S e c on d Pe ri ph rast ic C on j u gat ion

I N DI C ATI VE
P R E S EN T am an d u s su m , 1 am t o be , m u st be , loved
I M P ER F E C T am an du s e ram , I was to be , had t o be , loved
F U TU R E am an d u s e rO, I shall have t be love d o

P ER F EC T am an d u s fu i I was t o be had to be love d

, , ,

P L U P E R F EC T am an d u s f u e ram I had had t o be love d

,

F UT U R E PE R F EC T am an d u s fu e ro I sh all have had to be loved

,

J
S UB UN C TI VE

am an d u s S i m

am an d u s e s se m

am an d u s f u e rim
am an d u s f u isse m

IN F I N I TI VE

am an d u s e sse , to have to be lo ved

am an d u s fu isse , to have had to be loved
1 08 C ONJU GA TI ON OF THE VERB M 196—198

S o i n t he o t h er c j
on u gat io n s

Se c on d : m on e n du s sum , I am t o be , m u st be , ad vised .

Third : t e g e n du s su m , I am t o be , m u st be , c overed .

F ou rt h : au di e n du s s um , I am to be, m ust be , heard .

Th ird ( in -i6) : c api e n du s s u m , I am t o be , m ust be, t ake n .

I RREGULAR VERBS

1 97 . S e v e ral
v e rbs add so m e of t h e p e rs on al e n din gs of t h e
p r e s e n t s st e m di r ec t ly t o t h e r oot
y
1
or c om b in e t wo v e rbs i n ,

t h e ir in fle c t ion Th e se are c alle d I rr e g ular Ve rbs

. Th ey are .

su m ,vole fet e edO do ed qu ed £ 6 an d t h e i r c om p ou n ds

, , , , , ,
1 , .

Su m h as alr e ady b e e n in flec t e d in 17 0 .

198 . S u m is c om p ou n d e d wit h ou t an
y c h an
g e of in fle c t ion wit h
t he prep osit ion s ab ad , , dé, in , in t er, ob , p rae , p ro (e a lie r r form prdd) ,
su b su per
,
.

a I . th c m p
n d p e o ou n rbsu m
( hel
p ) , p rO re t ain s it s ori gin al d b e f ore e

PR I N C I P A L A
P R TS : p res u m , prbde s s e , p rbf u i , p rbf u t uru s

I N DI C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE

S in gu lar P lu ral S in gu lar P lu ral

PR E S EN T

p rOde ram p rod eram u s p rod e sse m p rOd eS S em u s

p rOd erO p rod e rim u s
p rOfu i p rofu im u s p rof u e rim p rofu e ri m u s
p rOf u eram p rOfu eram u S p rofu iss e m p rofu is s em u s
p rOfu e rO p rofu e rim u s

I MPER TI VE A
PR ES EN T p rOd eS , p rOd e st e F U TU R E p rOd est O, p rOd e st Ot e

I N FI NI TI VE

PR E S EN T p rOd e sse PER F E C T p rOf u isse

F U TU R E p rofu t urus esse

P AR TI CIP LE
F U T UR E p rof u t ii ru s
'

1 Th ese are at h e m at i c v e rb s, se e 174 2 . .

110 C ON JU GA TI ON OF TH E VERB 199 , 2 00

J
S U B UN C TI VE

PR E S EN T ve lim ,
-i s, -i t , n d li m m alim
ve li m u s , -i t i s, -i n t
I M P ER F E C T ve lle m ,
1 -
é s ,
-e t
,
n dlle m lle m
ma
v e llem u s, -e t is , -e n t

v olu e ri m

volu isse m

I M PER A TI VE
n d li , n d li t e

n dli t d , et c .

I N FI N I TI VE

n dlle

n dlu isse

P AR TI C I PLES
PR E S EN T v olen s, -c u t is n d lé n s, -e n t is

N O T E — Th e form s si s f or Si vi s , sult i s for si vu lt i s , an d t h e form s n evi s ( n e-vi s

)t
’

n evelt , mav old, m av olu n t , m i veli m , m avelle m , e t c , . occ ur in e arly w rit e rs .

Ferd, bear, carr

y, en du re
2

PR I N C I P A L P A R TS :
3
fe rd, f e rre , t u li, lat u m

PR ES EN T S T EM f er PER F EC T S TEM t ul S U PI N E S TEM lat

A C TI VE PA SSI VE

PR E SEN T

I M P E R F EC T
F U TU R E
PE R F EC T
P L U P ER F EC T
F UTU R E P ER F E C T

1 Vellem i s for I vel-sem , an d v elle for j vel-se (c f es-se) , t h e 8 b e in g assim ilate d t o

.

c
th e l p re ed in g .

2 F e rd h as t w o in d
e p e n d e n t st e m s : f er i n t h e p re s e n t sy st e m , an d t u l ( for t ol in
c
t h e p e rfe t f rom TO L , root of t olld c
Th e p e rf e t t et u li o u rs i n Plau t u s
. cc I n t h e p art i .

c ip le t h e roo t i s we ak e n e d t o t 1 lat u m st an d in g f or T ms)

t lat u m ( c f T iny- . .

T , T
8 F erre f e rrem are f or f er-se f sem ) , 8 b e i n g assi m ilat ed t o
, ,
f e r-
s em ( c es - e
s ,
es
.
-
p re
c e d in g r ; or f erre , f e rrem , m a
y b e f or T i erese , T i ere sé m ( see 15 .
g, 200] IR R EGULA R VER B S 111

A c t ive P ass ive

J
S U B UN C TI VE

P R E S EN T fe rarn
I M P ER F E C T fe rre m 1

P ER F E C T t u le rim
PL U P E R F E C T t u lisse m

f e rim i n i

f e ru n t o r

I N F I N I TI VE

P AR TI CI PLES

GER UN D S U PI N E
‘

fe re n di , -d d , -d u m ,
-d d lat um , latii

a. Th e c o m p ou n d s of c on u gat e d
j lik e t h e S im p le ve rb , are the
f ollowi n g

c
N O T E — I n t h ese om p ou n d s t h e p h on e t i
’

. cc
h an g e s in t h e p re p os it ion are e sp e i ally c
t o b e n ot ed ab an d as are t wo d i st in t
. c
p repositi ons wit h t h e sam e m e an in g .

1 See n ot e 3 , p ag e 110 .

3 Sust uli an d subli t um also su pp ly c c

t h e pe rfe t and parti iple of t he verb t ellé .
1 12 C ONJU GA TI ON OF THE VER B [g 201

201 . Edd, edere, edi, esu m , r eg u lar of t h e t h ird c on j u ga

e at , is
t ion , bu t h as also an ar c h aic p re s e n t s u bj u n c t iv e an d s om e alt e r

n at i ve fo r m s d ire c t ly from t h e r oot ( ED ) wi t h ou t t he t h e m at ic ,

v ow e l . Th ese are in fu ll-fac e d t yp e .

A C TI VE

I ND I C ATI VE
e dO, e dis e dit
P R E S EN T ( ést )
e dim u s, e d it i S
( é st is ) e d u n t
,

I M PER F EC T e dé b am , e dé b as, e t c .

J
S UB UN C TI VE

e dam
PR E SEN T ( e dim ) e das ( e dis) e dat ( e dit )
, ,

e d am u s ed im u s e d at is e dit is e d an t
( ) , ( ) ( e d int
) ,

I MP E R F E C T e d e re m e d e ré s ds sds e d e re t de set
, ( ) ( , )
e de ré m u s é ssé m u s e d e ret is é ssdt is e d e re n t
( ) ,( ) ( é sse n t ) ,

I N FIN I TI VE A
P R TI C I PLES

GER UN D

e d e n di , -d d , -d u m , dd
-

S U PIN E

2
esu m , dsfi

a. I n t h e Pas sive t h e followi n g i rre gu lar f orm s occ i

ur n t h e t h ird p e r
son sin gu lar : Pre se n t I n di c at i ve é st u r, I m p e rf e t S u c bj ct i
un ve dssé t ur.

1 I n 68 e tc t h e e i s lon g
. c
I n t h e orresp on d in g form s of su m , e i s S h ort
. Th e diff er .

en c
e in qu an t it y b e t we e n Ed d an d 58 e tc d e pe n d s u p on in h e ri t ed vowel variat i on ( 517 a)
. . .

2 O ld f orm s are é ss fi ru s an d su é ssu m

i
‘

p
p g .
1 14 C ONJU GA TI ON OF TH E VER B 203

Ed, go l . PR I N C I P A L P A R T S : e d, ire , ii i
( )
vi ,
i t um

I N DI C ATI VE J
S U B UN C TI VE

PR E S E N T e d, i s, i t e am , e as , e at

i m u s, i t is, e u n t e am u s , e at i s, e an t

I M P E RF EC T i b am ,
i b as, i hat i re m ,
i res, i re t
i b am u s, i b at is, i b an t i rem u s , i ré t is , i re n t

F UT U R E i b d , i b i s, i b it
ib i m u s, i b i t i s, i b n u t
P ER F EC T ii ( )
i vi i e rim ( i ve rim
)
P LU P E R F E C T ie ram ( i veram
) i s se m ( i vi sse m )
F U T U R E PE R F E C T ie rd ( i ve rd )

I MPER ATI VE
P R E S EN T F UT U R E

I N FI N I TI VE

PR ES EN T i re P ER F E C T i sse ( i visse
) F U TU R E i t ilru s e sse

P A R TI C I PLES
i é n s, g e n e u n t is i t llru s e u n du m
'

PR ES EN T . F U TUR E G ER U N D I V E

GER UN D e u n d i , -dd , -d u m ,
-d d S UP IN E i t u m , it ii

a. Th e c p ou n ds ade d, app roac h, in e d, e n te r, an d

om som e ot h e rs, are t ran
S i t ivo . c
Th e y are i n fle t e d as f ollows i n t h e p assive
I N DI C ATI VE J
S UB UN C TI VE

I MF F . ad ib ar PR ES . ad oar

F UT . ad i b or I MF F . adirer
PE R F . ad it u s su m P ER F . adit u s S im

P LU F . ad it u s e ram PL U F . ad it u s essom

F P . . ad it u s e rd

I N FI N . adi ri adit us esse A

P RT . ad it us ad e u n dus

c
Thu s in fle t e d, t h e f orm s o f ed are u se d im p e rson ally in t h e t h ird pe rson
s in gular of t h e p assi ve as, it u m e st 2 08 d) Th e in fi n it ive iri i s u se d wit h . .

t h e su p in e in -u m t o m ak e t h e fu t u re i n fi n it ive p assive 1 93 Th e ve rb .

vé n ed, be s old ( i e vén u m e d, g o to sale ) , h as also se v e ral f orm s i n t h e p assive

. . .

b . c
I n t h e p e rf e t syst e m of e d t h e f orm s wi t h v are ve ry rare i n t he S im p le
ve rb an d u n u su al i n t h e om p ou n ds c .

0. 11 b e fore 3 is re
g ularl y c on t ra ct ed to i : as , i sse .

1 Th e root of ed is El (w e ak form I ) c
Thi s ei b e om e s i e x e p t b e fore a, o, an d u ,
. c
wh e re i t b e om es c e ( cf ed, ear
n , eu nt )
. Th e st ron g form of th e root , i , is Sh ort e n ed
.

b efore a vowel or fi n al -t ; t h e weak f orm , 1, ap pears in it u m an d i t dru s .

 203 , 2 04] I RR EGULA R VER BS 1 15

d . The c om c
po u n d am b id is in fle te d re gu larly lik e a ve rb of t h e f ou rt h
c o n u gat i on
j . B u t it h as also am b ib at i n t h e i m p e rfe t in d i at ive c c .

e. Prd wit h ed re t ain s i ts ori

gin al d : as, p rdd e d, p rddis, p rdd it .

204 . r egu lar Bu t it has im

Fac io, facere, i dei , fact u m , m ake , is .

p e rat ive fe e in t h e ac t iv e an d b e side s t h e re g u lar for m s t h e fu t u r e

, , ,

p e rfe c t faxd p e rfe c t su b j u n c t iv e fax im

,
Th e p assiv e of fac id is .

fi d fi é i f ct,
m b m d
r , a b c m
us su , e a e or e o e .

Th e p r e se n t syst em of fi d is r eg u lar of t h e fou rt h c on j u gat ion ,

bu t t h e su bj u n c t iv e im p e rfe c t is fi erem an d t h e in fi n it iv e neri , .

N — Th f m i b ck t
O TE . o t
or d i g d p
s n ra e s are n o u se n oo rose .

I N DI C A TI VE S UB J UN C TI VE
f i d , fi s, fi t f i am , fi zi S , f i at
'

PR ES EN T
i t is , f i u n t fi am u s, fi at is, f i an t
[ fi m u s ] , [ f ]
I M PE R F E C T fi é b am , f i é b as, e tc . fi e re m , fi e rés , e tc .

F U TUR E f i am , fies, et c .

PE R F E C T c
fa t u s su m

P L U P E R F EC T f cta u s e ram

F U TU R E PER F EC T f ac t u s e rd

I MP ER A TI VE
f
[ i , f i t e , fi t d ,
I N F I N I TI VE
PR ES EN T fi eri PE R F EC T fa tus c e ss e F U TU R E c
f a t u m i ri

A
P R TI C I P LES
PER F EC T c
f a t us GER UN D I VE f ac ie n d u s

a. Most c om p ou n ds fac id wi t h p re p osit ion s we ak e n 5 t o i in t h e p re se n t

of

s t e m an d t o e in c
t h e s u p in e st e m , an d are i n fle t e d re g u larly lik e ve rb s i n -id °

c dn fi c id, c dn fi c é re , c dn f é c i , c dn f e c t u m , fi n ish .

c dn fi c ior, c dnfi c i , c dnf ec t u s .

b . Ot h er c om h ave -fid in t h e p assive : as, be n e fac id,

p ou n ds re t ain a, an d
-
fa e re, -féc i, -fa t u m ; p as sive b en efid, —
c c fi e ri, -fa t us , ben efi t Th es e re t ain t h e c .

a e n t of t h e S im p le v e rb : as, be n e—
cc t ci s ( 5 12 a, Es )
’
ra . .

c . A fe w i solat e d f orm s of fio o cc ur in o t h er c om p ou n ds

c dnfi t , it happ e ns, c dn fi u n t ; c dn fi at ; c dufi ere t , c dnfi ere n t c dnfi e ri .

c
défl t , i t la ks , dé fi u n t ; dé fi et ddfi at ddfle ri .

efi i eri , t o be j
e ec t ed .

i nfi d, beg i n ( t o sp e ak ) , i n fi t .

int erfi at , let h im p eri sh ; in t erfi eri , t o p erish .

s u perfi t , it re m ai ns over ; s u p e rfi at , s u pe rfi e ri .

1 Th e im pe rati ve is rarely fou n d , an d t h e n on ly in early wri t e rs .

116 C ON JUGA TI ON OF TH E VER B [g 2 05

DEFEC TI VE VERBS

205 . S om e v erbs h av e lost t h e Pr e s e n t Syst em , an d u se on ly

t e n se s of t h e P e r fe c t , in w hic h t h e y are in fle c t e d r e g u larly .

The se are

coe p i , 1 I began dd i , 2
I hate m e m ini ,3 I re m e m ber

IN D I C ATI VE
PER F EC T m e m in i
P L U P ER F EC T m e m l n e ram

F U TU R E P E R F E C T m e m i n e rd

J
S UB U N C TI VE
m em i n eri m
m e m in isse m

I M P ER A TI VE

I N FI N I TI VE

m em in i sse

P AR TI CI PLES
d su s, h at in g or hate d
d sfi ru s, like ly t o h ate

Th e p as sive of is of t en u se dwit h t h e p assive i n fi n it ive :

’

a. c oe p i as ,

coe pt u s su m I began t o be
vocd ri , c alle d , b u t coe p i voci re , I beg an t o c all .

F or t h e p re se n t syst e m in c ip id is u se d .

N O TE .
— Early an d rare f orm s are c oep id, c oep iam , c oe pe ret ,
c oepe re .

b . c
Th e Perfe t , Plu p e rf e t , c an d F u t u re Pe rfe t c of ddi an d m e m in i h ave
t he m e an in gs o f a Pre se n t , I m p e rfe t , c an d F u t u re re spe ct ive ly :

ddi , I h ate ; dde ram , I hate d ( was h at in g ) dd e rd, I shall hate .

N O TE 1 . c
— A p re se n t p art i ip le m em i n é n s i s e arly an d lat e .

N O TE 2 .
— N dvi an d c dn su évi ( u su ally re ferre d t o n dsc d an d c dn su dsc d) are oft e n u se d
i n t h e se n se of I k n ow ( h ave le arn e d) an d I am a cc t
u s om e d ( h ave be c om e a cc u st om ed )
as p re te rit ive ve rb s Man y ot h e r ve rb s are o
. cc i
as on ally u sed in t h e sam e way ( see
47 6.

1 Root in api sc or) wit h

AP ( as co n(
2 R oot 8
0D , as in dd i u m . R oot M EN , as in m i n e .
11 8 C ON JU GA TI ON OF TH E VER B [g 2 06

d .
Q u ed, I c an , n e qu ed, I c an n ot , are c o n u gat e d
j lik e ed . Th e y are rare ly

u se d e x e p t c i n t h e p re se n t .
Qu ed i s re gu larl
y a cc m p a i
o n ed by a n e gat ive .

The f o rm s give n b e low o cc u r, t h o se i n f u ll-f a c d t yp

e e in c la ic
ss p rose .

Th e I m p e rat ive , Ge ru n d, an d S upi n e are wan t in g .

I N D I C A TI VE J
S UB U N C TI VE IN D I C ATI VE J
S UB UN C TI VE

PR E S EN T P R ES E N T

n e qu e d
( n dn qu e d)
n e qu i s

n e qu i t

qu e am u s n e qu e am u s

qu e an t n e qu e an t

I M P ER F EC T I M PE R F EC T

F U TU R E F U TU RE

PE R F EC T PER F EC T
n eq u i vi n e qu i ve ri m

n e q u is ti

qu ivit qu i verit ierit ) n e q u i vi t (n e qu u t ) n eq u ive rit

-

qu i vé ru n t
—
é re ) qu ie rin t n e q u i veru n t —
q ui ere ) n e qui verin t

P L U P ER F EC T P L U P ER F E C T
n eq u i v e rat -ie rat ) n e qu i vis s e t - ui s s e t
q )
q u iviss e n t n e qu i ve ran t ieran t )
- n e qu isse n t

m FIN I TI VE

qu isse n e qu i t e n eq ui vis s e - u is se
q )

P AR TI CI PLES
q ui é n s n e qu ié n s , n e qu e u n t é s

N OT E .
Af wp e assive form s are u se d w it h p assive in fi n it iv es : as , q u i t ur, q u eu n t u r,
q u i t u s S l m , q u ei t u r, q u ean t u r, n e q u i t u r, n e q u i t u m
i but n on e o f t h e se o cc u rs i n cl
ass i cp ro se .
 206 , 2 07 ] I MPER S ONA L VER B S 11 9

e. Quaesd , I as k, beg ( origin al f orm of qu aerd) , h as

IN D I C . P RE S .
q u ae s d , q u aesfi m u s
N O TE . O t h er f orm s of q uae sd arefoun d o as ion ally incc e arly Lat in .

fe c t s y ste m ( qu ae si vi , se e q uaerd 2 11 d) . .

f . Ovdre , to triu mp h, h as t he f ollowi n g :

m o re . PR E S . ovas , o vat

S UBJV . PR E S . ovot

IM F F . ovare t

PA R T . ovans , o vat uru s , o vat us

G ER . ovan di

fe w ve rb s are f ou n d c hi efl
y i n t h e I m e rati ve
p
sin gular s alve, p lu ral s alvet e , FUT . s alvé t d, hai l! ( from sal
vu s , sa e an d sound
f ) . A n in fi n it ive e s lvé re an d t h e in d i a c
t ive f orm s s alved, s alvé ti s , s alvé bi s , are rare .

PR E S . sin gu lar avé ( or h avé ) , p lu ral avet e , F U T . avé t d, hai l or f are

well A h in fi n it ive
. avere als o o cc
u rs .

s in gu lar c edo, p lu ral eddi t e

( ce tt e ) , g ive, te ll .

s in gular ap age , beg one p rop e rly a Gree k word

( ) .

I MP ER S ONAL VERB S

207 . Man y v e rbs fr om , thei r m e an in g , ap

p e a r only in t h e t hird

p e rson sing u lar, fi n i t ive an d t h e

g t h e in
e ru n d T h e s e are c alle d, .

I m p e rs on al Ve rbs as h av in g n o p e rson al s u b j e c t
,
1
Th e p assiv e .

o f m an y in t rans it i v e v e rbs is u se d i n t h e s am e w a
y .

1 W it h im p e rson al v e rb s t h e w ord i t is u s ed in En gli sh , h av i n g us u ally n o rep ro~

se n t at ive in Lat in , t h ou gh i d , h dc , i llu d , are o f te n u sed n early in t h e sam e way .

1 20 C ONJU GATI ON O F THE VER B 2 08

2 08 . I m p e rson al Ve rb s m ay b e c lass ifi e d as follows

a. Ve rb s e xp re ssin g t he op erat ion s o f n at u re an d t h e ti m e o f d ay
v e s p eras c it ( in c e pt ive , 2 63 . i t grows late . nin git , it sn ows .

ld c i s c it b de , i t is g etting lig ht . f u lg u rat , it lig hte ns .

gran din at , i t h ails . t on at , it thu n de rs .

plu it , it rai n s . t erat , t he d ew f alls .

N O TE . c
I n t h e se n o su b j e t is d is t in t ly t h ou gh t of S om et im e s, h owe ve r, t h e ve rb c .

i s u sed p e rson ally w i t h t h e n am e of a d ivi n i ty as t h e su b j e t : as, lu pp i t er t on at , Jup i t e r c

t h u n d ers c
I n p oe t ry ot h e r su b j e t s are o asion ally u s e d : as , f u n dao saxa plu u n t , t h e
. cc
s li n gs rai n st on es .

b . Ve rb s of f ee lin g wh e re t h e p e rson wh o is t h e p rop e r

, su b e j ct b c e om e s

the Ob e j ct , as b e i n g h im s e lf aff e ct ed b y t h e f e e lin g e xp re sse d in t h e v e rb

35 4 b) .

m i s e ret , it gri eves .

p ae ni t e t it rep en ts .

sh am es
piget , it d isg u sts .
p u dot , i t .

t ae det , it weari es .

m i s e re t m e, I p ity ( it di st resses m e ) p u dot m e, I am asham ed .

N O TE .
— Su ch v e rb s of t e n
h av e also a p assive form : as, m i sereor, I p i t y ( am m oved
to p i ty ) ; cc
an d o as i on ally ot h er p art s : as , p aen i t uru s ( as from f p ae n i d) , p ae n i t en d u s ,

pu d en d u s, p ert aesu m e st , p i gi t u m e st .

c . Ve rb s whic h h ave a p hrase or cla u se as t h e ir su b e j ct ( of . 454 ,

569 .

ac c idit , c ont i n git , dven it , obti n gi t , ob ve ni t , fi t , it happ e n s .

lib e t , it p leas es . dé lec t at , i u vat , i t d e lights .

c
li e t , it i s p erm i tted . op ort e t , i t i s fi tt in g , ou ght .

ce rt u m e s t , it is resolved . c
n e e s se e s t , it is n eed u l f .

c dn s t at , it is cl ear .
p rae s t at , it i s bett er .

c
pla e t , it see m s g ood (p le ase s) . i n t e re st , ré f e rt , i t on c c erns .

vi det u r, it seem s, seem s g ood . vac at , there i s leisu re .

de c e t , it is be c om in g . re st at , s u p e re st , it rem ai n s .

N O TE — Man y of t h e se ve rb s m ay b e u se d p e rson ally ; as , vaed, I h ave leisu re .

c
Li b et an d li et h ave also t h e p assive f orm s li b i t u m (li c it u m ) e st e tc . Th e p art i ip le s c
li b en s an d li c eu s are u se d as ad j e t ives c .

d Th e p as sive
.
f
o in tran sitive verbs is ve ry oft e n u se d im p erson ally ( se e
syn op si s in 2 07 )
1

( t h ere was c omi n g)c am

,
‘

ve n t u m e st , t hey e .

p fi gn d t u r t here is fi g ht in g ( it is f ou gh t )
, .

it u r som e on e g oes ( it is gon e )

, .

p arc it u r m ihi I am sp ared ( it i s sp are d t o m e

, , see

N O TE — Th e im p e rson al u se O f t h e p assive p ro e e d s f rom i t s orig in al refl e xi ve (or

. c
m iddle) m e an in g , t h e ac t ion b e in g regard e d as a comp lis h i n g i t se lf ( om p are t h e c c
c c
Fren h ela se f ai t) .
122 C ONJUGA TI ON OF TH E VERR 2 10, 2 1 1

a. Most ve rb s of t he se c on d c on u g at ion
j are c
in fle t e d like m on ed, b u t
m an y la k t h e c su p i n e
( as ,
ar e d, c ward of ; ca re d, lac k ; ogod, n ee d ; t im ed ,

f e ar) ,
an d a num b er h ave n e it h e r c
p e rfe t n or su p in e ( as, m ae t ed, be s ad
) .

b . Th e follo wi n g ke e p 6 i n all t h e syst e m s

dé le d, d estroy ddlé re
fle d, weep flére
n e d, sew n é re

v ie d,p lai t vi dre

c om -ple d, fi ll up 1

c . Th e follo win g Sh ow Spe ial irre gu larit ie s c

alge d, alsi , be c old . m u lc e d, m n i si , m u lS soothe .

arded, arsi , ars fi ru s , bu rn . m u lg e d, m u lsi , m u ls m ilk .

au de d, au s u s s u m , d are .
( )
c d ni ve d, -ni vi -n ixi ) , win k .

s u god, au xi , au ct in c re ase .
(ab ) oled ,
-oldvi -olit
, d estroy .

c ave d, c avi , p au t ca re .
p en de d, p p
e e n di ,
- én s
p han g .

ce n se d, c én s u i , c en s valu e .
pran de d, pran di , p ran s d in e .

c i e d, ci vi , c it ex c it e . ride d, ri s i , -ri s lau gh .

dec e d, d oc u i , doot t ea h c . s e de d, s edi , s ess sit .

f ave d, f avi , fau t f avor . sole d, s olit u s s u m , be won t .

f e rve d, f e rvi (f e rb u i ) , g low . sorb e d, sorb u i ( sorp si ) , su ck .

i ove d, f dvi , t dt ch eris h . s p on de d, S p op on di , s pdn s p ledg e .

f u lge d, f u ls i , s hin e . s t ri de d, s t ridi , whiz .

gau ded, gavi s u s s u m , rej oi c e . s ad de d, su asi , su as u rge .

nac re d, h ae si , h ae s lin g c . t en e d t in e d) , t en u i , —
-
t en t hold .

in du lge d, i n du lsi , i n du lt i n du lge . t erg e d, t ersi , t ers wip e .

i u b e d, i u s si , i n e s ord er t en de d, —
t ot on di -
t on di ) , t dn s shear .

li qu e d, li c u i ( liqu i ) , t orqu e d, t orsi , t ort t wist .

luc e d, lfi xi , shin e . t on e d, t orru i , t ost roast .

lfi g e d, lfi xi , m ou rn . t arg e d, t u rsi , swell .

m an ed, m an si , m an s wait . u rg e d, u rsi , u rge .

m i sc e d, -c u i
, m ix t ( m i st m ice . vi de d, vi di , vi s see

m orde d, m om ordi , m ors bit e . vove d, vdvi , vdt vow .

m ove d, m dvi , m dt m ove .

Th i d Con r j u gat ion

2 11 Th e followin g list s in c lu de m ost S im p le v e rbs of t h e
.

Th ir d C on j u gat ion , c lasse d ac c or din g t o t h e form at ion of t h e P e r

foot S t e m
a. F orm i n g t h e p e rfe t c st e m in s
( x) 177 b . an d n ot e
)
an gd, an xi , ch oke . c lau dd, cla u s i , c lau s shu t .

c arp d , c arp s i , c arpt p lu k c . c dm d, c dm p s i , c dm p t c om b, de kc .

c é dd , c e s si , c ess y ield . c oq u d, c oxi , c oc t c ook .

c in gd, c in xi , c in c t bin d .
-c u t id -c u s s i
, ,
-
cuSS shake .

1 An d ot h e r c om pou n d s of -p 1ed.
 5 2 11] THI R D C ON JU GA TI ON 1 23

dé m d, dé m p si , dem pt take away .

qu at i d, -
c u ss i ) , qu as s shake .

di e d, dixi , di t c say . radd, rasi , ras c

s rap e .

divi dd, di vi si , di vi s d ivid e . re g d, ré xi , ré c t ru le .

d d ed, dfi xi , du t gu id e c . ré p d, rep s i , c reep .

é m u n gd, -m 11nxi , -m 11n c t

’ '

cl a e n ou t . rddd, rdsi , rds g naw .

fi g d, fi x i , fi x fi at .
c
s alp a, s c alp s i , s c alp t c
s rap e .

fi n gd [n o ] ,
fi nxi , net f ashion . s c ri bd, s c ri p s i , s ri p t c wri te .

flec t d, fl e xi , fle x ben d . s c u lp d, s c u lp s i , s u lp t c c arve .

- fli gd, 4 1m ,
-fli c t sm ite . s e rp d, s e rp s i , c rawl .

fl u d, fl fi xi , flu x flow . s p arg d, s p ars i , s p ars c

s atter .

f ren dd, fré s ( fres s g n as h .

-s
p i c id,
p e z i , -s p e t
-s
view c .

fri gd, frixi , fri ot f ry .

-s t in u d - s in x i
g , t ,
-s t in c t
qu e n h c .

gerd, ges si , ge s t ca rry . s t rin gd, s t rin xi , s t ri t bin d c .

i u n gd, i fi nx i , i fi n ct j oin . s t ru d, s t rii xi , s t rfi c t bu ild .

lae d d, lae si , lae s hu rt . sfi g d, s fi xi , s d ot su k c .

- 1i c id, -lexi , -le ct e nti e c ( eli on i , ~li it c s fi m d, s fi m p s i , s fi m p t take .

ld do, ld si , ld s p lay . s u rgd, s urré xi , s u rré c t ris e .

m ergd, m ers i , m e rs p lu ng e . t e gd, t é xi , t ec t she lter .

m i tt d, m i si , m is s s en d . t e m n d, -
t e m p si , t em pt
-
d esp ise .

n ec t d [N EG] , n e xi (n e x n i ) , n ez weave . t ergd, t e rsi , t ers wip e .

n fi b d, n d p s i, n fi pt m arry . t in gd, t inx i , t i n t c stai n .

pe c t d, pe z i , pe z c om b . t rand, t ri xi , t r act drag .

p ergd, p erréxi , p e rré c t g o on . t rfi dd, t rfi si , t rus t hru st .

p in gd [P I G ] , p in xi , pi t p ain t c . u n gu d
( u n gd) , fi nx i , fi nct an oint .

A
p lan g d [F L G ] , p ldnxi , p lan et , beat . fi rd, u s si, u st burn .

p lau dd, plau s i , plau s ap p lau d

'

. v é dd, -ve i si , -v ds go .

p le c t d, p le xi , ple x braid . ve h d, vé xi , ve c t draw .

pre m d, p re s si , p ress p ress . vi vd, viz i , vi ct live .

p rdm d,
-m s
p , i -m
pt bri ng out .

b . R e du pli c at ed in t h e pe rfe t c 17 7 . c)
f all ( parit fi ru s) bring
0

c add, c e c i di , cd s .
p atni o, p ep e ri , part ,

c ae dd, c e ci di c , ae s c ut .
f orth .

c an d, c ci
e ni , sin g .
pe lld, p e p u li , p u ls dri ve .

c u rrd, c u c u rri , c u rs run .

p e n dd, p e p en di , p en s we igh .

di sod [m o ] , di di c i , learn .
pos e d, pop os c i , dem and .

-dd
[ DHA
] ,
-di di
,
—
dit ( as in ah-dd, e t c .
, p u n gd [P UG ] , p u p u gi p fi nc t
wit h c ré dd, v é n dd ) , put .
p ri k c .

f alld, f efe lli , f als de c

ei ve . s is t d [S TA ] e t it i s t at stop
, , .

pan g ?) [F A G ] , pe ri gi p i c t wf asten . t an gd [TA G ] t e t i gi t ac t tou c h

, , , .

fi x, barg ain . t e n dd [TEN ] t et e n di t e n di) t e n t

,
-
, st ret c h .

p ared, p e p erei (parsi) ( pars dru s ), , sp are . t u n dd [TU D ] t u t u di t fi n s —

,tds , beat .

0. A d d in g u
( ) v t o t he ve rb -ro o t 17 7 . a
)
ald, alu i , alt ( alit n ou rish c om p é s c d, c om p é s c u i , restrai n
’

. .

ce rn d, c ré vi , —
c ré t de c ree . c dn s u ld, 1u i ,
- c dn s u lt c onsu lt .

c old, cli
o u , c u lt d well, t i ll . c ré sc d, c ré vi , c ré t in c rease .
 24 C ONJU GA TI ON OF THE VE RB 2 11

lie d own se ize

'

rap i d
0, t ap u i , rap t
-c u m b d
[ C UB ] ,
-c u b u i , -c u b i t . .

de p s d, d ep s u i , de p s t kn ead . s e i s ed, s c i vi , s cit de c ree .

f re m d, fre m u i , roar . s erd, s é vi , s at sow .

d, g em u i , groan s e rd, s e ru i , s e rt e nt win e

gem . .

gi gn d [G EN ] , g e n u i , ge n it beget . s in d, s i vi , s it p erm it .

m e t d, m e s s u i , -m e s s reap . s p e rn d, s pré vi , s p ret sc orn .

m old, m olu i , m olit g rin d s t ern d, s t i vi , s t rat strew

.
r .

oc c u ld, oc c u lu i , o cc u lt hid e . s t ert d, -

s t e rt u i , sn ore .

( )
ad olé sc d, -dvi , -u 1t grow up . s t re p d, s t re p u i , sou n d .

p as c d, p avi , p as t f eed . s u é s c d, s u é vi , s u é t be won t .

p erc elld,
-c u 1i , -c u Is up set . t e xd, t exu i , t ext weave .

p dn d [P 08 ] , p os u i , p os it p u t . t re m d, t re m u i , t rem ble .

qu ies c d, qu ié vi , qu iet rest . v om d, v om u i , vom it .

d . A d din g iv t o t h e v e rb -roo t 177 f)

arc e s s d,
1 -i vi , arc e s si t su m m on .
p e t d, p et ivi , p e t i t seek .

c ap e s s d, c ap e s si vi , u n d ert ake .
q u aerd, qu ae si vi , qu ae sit seek .

c u p id, c api vi , c u pit d esi re . ru d d, ru divi , bray .

in c e s sd, in c e ssivi , att a ck .

‘

s apid, s apivi , be wi se .

lac e ss d, lac e s si vi , 1ac es s it p rovoke . t e rd, t ri vi , t ri t ru b .

e. Le n gt h e n i n g t h e v ow e l of the root ( of . 177 d) .

e gd, é gi , d ot drive . lavd, lavi , ldt (lau t wash ( als o regu ‘

c api d, c ep i , c apt t ake . lar of fi rst c j

on u gat i on ) .

e dd, é di , es u m , eat ( see le g d, 2 ldgi , lé c t g ather .

e m d, em i , em p t bu y . lin d [LI ] , lé vi ( livi ) , lit sm ear .

f ac id, f é c i , f a t c m ake ( se e lin q u d [ ]

c , li q ui ,
- - li c t leave .

fodi d, f ddi , f os s dig . n ds c d [G N o ] ,

n dvi , n dt
( c d—g n i t 5—
gn it
fran g d [ FR A G ] , f ré gi , fra t c break . ad—
g n it kn ow .

f u gid, f ugi , (f u g it fi ru s) , flee . ru m p d [R U P ] , rfi pi , ru p t bu rst .

f u n dd [F U D ] , f fi di , f d s p ou r . s c abd, s c abi , c ch
s rat .

i ac i d, i é c i , i ac t t hrow -
i c id, - iec t vi n c d [Vi c ] , vi ci , v ic t c q on u er .

f R e t ai n i n g t h e p re sen t
. st e m or v e rb-roo t
( cf . 17 7 . e
) :

sharp en
‘

aou d, - u i , -ti t im b u d, g ive a t aste f

’

.
-u i, -
ti t o .

arg u d, -u i,
'

-11 t acc u se . lu d, lu i , - 111t

°

wash .

bib d, bibi , ( p dt u s ) , d ri n k . m an dd, m an di , m an s ch w e .

-c e n dd ~c en di -c é n s ki ndle m e t u d, i, f ear
'

, , .
-u -
11 t .

( ) gru d, ui , m i n u d, ui , 11t lessen

'

c on - agree .
- - .

od dd, -c fi di , -c d s
f orge .
-n u d, -n u i, n od .

fac e s s d, -ii (fa c e s si , ) f ac e s s it c

exe u te .
p an d d, p an di , p an s ( p as s op en .

-f en dd
,
- en f di , —
fé n s ward p i n s d,
—
si , p in s ( p i ast pi s t bru is e .

fi n dd [ FID
] , fi di , 3 fi ss sp lit .
p re h e n d d,
-h e n di
,
—
h én s se iz e .

i c d, i c i , i et h it . ru d, ru i , ru t ( ru it fi ru s ) f all
, .

1 Som et im e s ac c ersd, e t c .

2
c
Th e f ollow in g o m p ou n d s of leg d h ave -ldxi : di li g d, i n t elle g d, n e g leg d .

8 c
I n t h is t h e p e rf e t st e m is t h e sam e as t h e v erb-root , h avi n g lost t h e re d u p li ac
t i on c .
126 PA R TI C LES 2 13 , 2 14

PAR TI C LES

2 13 . A dv e rbs, P re p osit ion s, C on j u n c t ion s, an d I n t e rj e c t ion s

are c alle d Part ic le s .

I n t h e ir o rigin A dv e rbs, Pre p osit ion s , an d C on j u n c t ion s are

e it h e r ( 1) c ase f orm s, ac t u al or e x t in c t , or 2
( ) c om
p ou n d s an d

p hrase s .

Part i le s c ca n n ot always c c
b e d ist in t ly lassifi e d , for m an y ad ve rb s are

u se d also as p re p osit io n s an d m an y as on ju n t i on s c
2 19 an d c

ADVERBS

D ER I VA TI O N OF A D VER B S

2 14 . A dv e rbs are regu larly form e d from A dj e c t iv e s as follows

a. From ad e j ct i ve s of t he fi rst an d se c on d d ec le n sion s b y h an gi n g t h e c
c h a ac t
r e rist i c v owe l of t he st e m to —
E as , c ard, d e arly, from irru s d ear ( st e m c
cd ro am i c é , like a f rie n d , f rom am i u s, c f rien dly ( st e m am ic o

N OT E .
— Th e e n d in g -6 is a re li c of an old ab lat ive i n -da (c f . 43 . N .

b . F rom ad e j ct i ve s of c
t h e third d e le n s ion b y addin g -t e r t o t h e ste m .

St e m s i n nt ( n om .
-n s
) lose t h e t A ll ot h e rs are t re at e d as i—st e m s

f ort it e r, brave ly , f ro m f orti s ( st e m f ort i brave .

ac rit er, e agerly , f rom a er (st e m a ri ce ag er c .

vig ilan t e r, watc hf u lly , f ro m vi g ilan s ( st e m vi gilan t

p rd de n t er, p ru d en t ly , f ro m p ruden s ( st e m p rd d e n t
ali t er, oth erwise , fro m ali u s ( old st em ali
0

N O TE —Th i s su ffi x i s p e rh ap s t h e sam e as -t e r i n t h e Greek -r ep os an d i n u t er, alt er

. .

I f so, t h e se ad ve rb s are i n orig in e it h e r n e u t e r a u s at ive s ( c f d) or m as u lin e n om i n at ives cc . c .

6 . S om e ad e j cti ve s of t h e fi rst an d se o n d c c
d e le n si on s h ave ad ve rb s of

b ot h f orm d an d t e r) Th U S d11ru s , hard, h as b ot h dd ré an d dd rit e r ;

'

- -
s . f

c
m iser, wre t he d , h as b o t h m 1se ré an d m i se rit e r .

d . Th e n e u t e r ac c u sative o f c
ad j e t iv e s an dp ro n oun s is oft e n u se d as an
‘
ad ve rb : as, m u lt u m ,
much fac i j é, e as ily ; q u id , why .

Th is is t h e origi n of t he e n d in g -iu s i n t h e c o n ip arat i v e d e gre e of ad

l

v e rb s as, i c riu s, m ore ke en ly ( p os i t i ve i c rit e r

) ; f ac iliu s , m ore e as ily

( p os i t ive fa ile
) c .

N O TE .
— Th e se adv e rb s are s t ri t ly c c og n at e a cc u sat i ve s

e. Th e ablati ve s in g u lar n e u te r or
( le ss c om m on ly
) f e m in in e o f ad e j ct ive s,

an d m ay b e u se d ad ve rb ially : f alsd, alse ly ;

p ron ou n s, n ou n s as, f c it d,
 2 14—2 16] D ER I VA TI ON OF A D VER B S 12 7

qu ic kly ( wit h sh ort e n e d récti (vii ), s trai

g ht ( st raig htway
); c réb rd, f re
qu e n tly ; volgd, c om m on ly ; f ort e, by han c c e ; s pon t é, o f on e s own ac
’
c o rd .

N O TE — S om e ad ve rb s are d e rive d f rom ad j e t i ves n ot i n u se : as ,

. c ab u n d é ,
p le n t i
f u lly ( as if from j ab u n d u s ; c f ab u n d d, abou n d ) ; saep d, of t e n ( as if f rom
.
Tsae p i s , d en se ,
c c
lose-p a ked ; c f saepé s, h edg e, an d saep i d, h e d ge i n )
. .

2 15 . F u rt h e r e x am p le s of A d ve rb s an d o t h e r Par t ic le s whic h
are in o rigin c as e-fo rm s of n ou n s or p r on ou n s are i v
g e n be lo w .

In som e t he c as e is n ot Ob v io u s , an d in s om e i t is d ou bt fu l .

1 N eu t e r
. Acc
u sat ive form s : n dn ( for n d-oi n om , lat e r fi n u m ) , n ot ; i t e m m ( om p ara c
c
t i ve of i ste m of i s) , a se on d t i m e ; d ém u m ( s u p e rlat ive of d d , d own ) , at las t .

2 F e m i n in e
. Acc
u sat iv e s : pa rt im , p art ly S O st at im , on t h e sp ot ; salt im , at le as t .

(g e n e rally sa lt e m ), fr om lo st n ou n s i n -
t i s (g e n i t i ve - is
t ) T h u s - im
t b e am e a regu lar . c
adve rb i al t e rm in at ion ; an d b y m e an s o f i t ad ve rb s we re m ad e f rom m an y n ou n an d
v e rb-st e m s i m m ed iat e ly , wit h ou t t h e i n t e rv e n t ion of an y f orm wh i h ou ld h av e an c c
cc
a u sat ive in -t i m : as , s éparat im , sep ara t e ly , f rom sdp arat u s , sep arat e S om e ad verb s .

cc
t h at ap p e ar t o b e f em in in e a u sat i v e are p ossib ly in st ru m e n t al : as , palam , op e nly ;
p erp e ram , wron g ly ; t am , so ; qu am , as .

3 Plu ral
. Acc
u s at ives : as , ali as , e lse wh e re f oras , ou t of d oors ( as e n d of m ot ion ) .

So p e rh ap s q u i a, be au se c .

4 . Abl t i a ve or I n st ru m wh e re ; i n t ra wi t h i n ; ext ra, ou t si d e ; q u i ,

e n t al f orm s : q u a, ,

h ow ; aliqu i , som e h ow ; f ori s , ou t of d oors ; qu d, wh i th er ; ad e d, t o th at d eg re e ; u lt rd,

beyon d ; c it rd, t h is si d e ( as e n d of m ot ion ) ret rd, ba k ; 11160 ( for j i lld— c e ) , w e ak e n ed t o c
i lld c , t hi th er Th os e i n -t rd are f rom om p arat ive st e m s ( of iils , c i s , t e
. c .

c
5 Lo at ive form s : i b i , th e re ; u b i , wh e re ; illi , i lli -c , t h e re ; p e re gri ( pe re grd) , abroad ;
.

hi c ( f or h i —
t c e) , he re . Al so the c om p ou n d s h od i e ( p rob ab ly for t h dd i d) to-d ay ; p eren d i d,
d ay af t e r t o-m orrow .

c
6 Of u n e rt ain form at ion : ( 1) t h ose in -t u s ( u su ally p re ed ed b y i ) , wit h an ab la
. c
t ive m ean in g : as , f u n d i t u s , f rom t h e bot t om , u t t erly ; d i vi n i t u s , f rom above , p rovi
den t i ally ; in t u s , wi t hi n ; p en i t u s , wi t h i n ; ( 2 ) t h ose in -d em , -d am , — d d : as , q u i d em ,
c
i n d e e d ; q u on d am , on e ; q u an d d ( c f d dn ec ) , wh en ; ( 3 ) d u m ( p rob ab ly a u sat i ve of
. cc
t im e) , while ; iam , n ow .

2 16 . A p h ras e or sh or t s e n t e n c e h as s om e t im e s g row n t oge t he r

in t o an ad v e rb ( of n ot wi thst an di ng , n e ve rt he less, besid es) :
.

p os t m odo, p re sen tly ( a sh ort t im e aft e r) .

d é n u d ( f or as n ovd ) ,
ane w .

vi deli e t c ( for vi dé li c t) e , to wit y ou m ay )

( se e , .

nihildm i n u s , n e vert heless (b y n ot h in g t h e less) .

N O T E —O t h e r e x am p le s are z— an t ea, old an t i d e a, bef ore ( an t e ed , p rob ab ly ab la

.

t ive or in st ru m e n t al) fli ed ( i n on the sp o t , i m m e di a t e ly ; p rdrsu s , a bsolu t e ly ( p rd

q u ot an n i s , y e arly ( q u ot an ni s , as m an y
’

vorsu s , s trai g h t ahe ad) rd rsu s ( re-v orsu s) ag ai n

-oh — rem , wh e ref ore c dmi n u s , h an d t o h an d (c on m a u s) ; dm i n u s ,
y e ars as t h ere ar e) q u a m n
at lon g ran g e ( e x m an u s ); n im i ru m w i t h ou t d o u b t ( n i m i t d m ); oh -vi am
( as in i re ob vi am ,
t o g o t o m ee t ) p ri d em ( c f p rae an d d e m in i — —
,

d em ) , f or som e t i m e ; f orsan ( f ors an ) , p e r

c c c
.

hap s ( i t s a h an e w h e t h e r) ; f orsi t an ( f ors si t an ) , p e rh ap s ( it w ou ld b e a h an c e

’
.

wh e t h e r) sc ili c e t ( Tsc i , li ce t ) , t ha t is t o say ( k n ow , y o u m ay; c f i -li c e

t , y ou m ay g o) .

i ct dt u m ( detd , on t h e ac t , an d t u m , t he n ) .
1 28 PA R TI C LES [ g 2 17

C L A S S I F I C A TI ON OF A D VER B S

2 17 . Th e c lasse s of A dv e rbs , w it h e x am p le s , are as follows :

1
a. Adverbs of Place

h i c , here . b d e , h it her . hi n c , he n e c . hac , by t hi s way .

i bi , t here . ed , t h it her . in de , t hen c e . e d , by th at way .

i s t i c , t here . i st d c , t hit her . i s tin c , t hen e c . is t a, by t hat way .

illi c , t here . illfi c , t hither . i llin c , t hen c e . illi ( illi c ) ,

u b i, where .
qu d, whit her . u n de , when c e .
qu a, by what way .

alic u bi , som ewhere . aliqu d, som ewh ither f

ali c u n de , rom som e ali qu a, by som e way .

som e where where

(t o) . .

ibi de m , i n t he sam e e dde m ,

t o t he sam e in di de m , f rom t he e ade m ,
by t he sam e

p la e c .
p la c e . sam e p la c e . way
ali bi , else where, i n alid, elsewhere , to ali u n de , f rom an an other

an other p la e c . an other p la e c . other p la c e . way .

u b iu bi , wherever .
qu dqu d, whi therso u n de c u n q ue , when c e qu aqu a, i n what ever
ever . soever . way .

ub ivi s , an ywhere, qu dvi s , an y where, u n di que , f rom every qu avi s , by what ever
where y ou wi ll . whit her y ou wi ll .
qu art er .

si c u bi , if a n y wh ere . si q u d, if an y where s i c u n de , iff rom an y s i qu a, if an y where .

( an ywhit h er) . where .

n é c u bi , lest an y n é q u d, lest an y n ec u n de , lest f rom n é qu a, lest an y

where . whit her . any where . where .

N O TE
i
Th e d em on st rat iv e ad ve rb s h s , i b i , i st i c , i lli , illi c , an d t h e i r o rrelat iv es ,
. c
c c
orre sp on d in sign ifi at i on wi t h t h e p ron ou n s h i c , i s , i st e, i lle ( see an d are o ft e n
e qu iv ale n t t o t h es e p ron ou n s w it h a p re p o sit ion as , i n d e ab e d, e t c S o t h e relat ive or .

c
in t e rrogat ive u b i orre sp on d s w i t h q u i ( qu i s) , ali -c u b i wi t h ali q u i s , u b iu b i w it h q u i sq u i s ,
c
si - u b i wit h si qu i s ( se e 147—15 1, w it h t h e t ab le o f o rrelat i v es in c
d e qu e , all the way t o ; u s qu am , an y whe re ; n u s quam , n owhe re
; c it rd, t o this s id e ;
int rd, i n ward ly ; u lt rd, bey on d ( or f reely , i . e . b e y on d wh at is re q u ire d ) ;
porrd, f u rther on .

qu drs um ( for qu d vors u m , whit her t u r ned i ) , to what en d ? h drsum , t his way ;
p rdrs u m , f orward ( p rdrs u s , u t t erly) ; i n t rdrs u m , i n wardly ; ret rdrs u m , ba k c
ward ; s fi rs u m , up ward ; de ors u m , d own ward ; s e ors u m , ap art ; alidrs u m ,
an other way .

b . Adve bs r of Ti m e

qu an dd, when ( in t e rrogat ive) ; c u m ( qu om ) when ( relat i ve ) ; u t when as ; n u n c , , , ,

n ow ; t u n c (t u m ) then ; m ox p resent ly ; iam already ; d u m while ; iam did

, , , , ,

i am d fi du m , iam pride m , long ag o, lon g sin e c .

All t h es e ad ve rb s we re orig in ally ase-form s of p ron ou n s

1
Th e form s in 4 11 an d c .

-1c
c
are lo at ive , t h ose in -d an d -ii c , an d -5 c , ab lat ive ( see § 215) t h ose in -i n c are .

c
from 4 111 ( of u n e rt ain origin ) wi t h t h e p art i le -c c add ed ( t h u s illim , i lli n -c ) c .
13 0 PA RTI CLE S 2 18—22 0

caré , dearly ( from é

c a ms , d ear) ca ir u s , c ari s si m .

m ise re ( m ise rit e r) , wretc hedly ( from m i s er, wretc hed ) ; m is eri u s , m is e rri m é .

le vit e r ( from le vi s , light ) ; le vi u s , le vi s s i m é .

au d ac t e r ( au d ac it e r) ( from au d i x , bold) ; au d ac i u s , au d ac i s sim é .

b e n é , well ( from b on u s , g ood ) m e li u s , op t i m é .

m ale, i ll ( from m alu s , bad ) ; p éi u s , p e s si m é .

a. Th e followin g are irre gu lar or de f e t ive c

di n, long ( in t im e) d iut i u s , d ifi t i s si m é .

pot i n s , p ot i s s i m u m , fi rst of all, i n p ref eren c e t o all

rather ; .

s ae p e , of t en ; saep iu s , of ten er, ag ain ; sae p i s s i m é .

s at i s , en ou gh ; s at iu s , p ref erable .

s e c u s , otherwise ; s et iu s , wors e .

m u lt u m ( m u lt o) ,
m agi s , m ax i m e, m u h, m ore , m ost c .

paru m , n ot en ou gh ; m i n u s , less ; m in i m é , least .

mi p er, n ewly ; n up erri m é .

t em p eré , season ably ; t e m p e ri u s .

NO TE .
—In p oet ry t h e c om p arat i ve m ags i s s om e t im es u s ed in st e ad of magi s .

PREPOS I TI ON S

2 19 . Prep osi t ion s we re n ot orig in ally d ist i n gu i sh ed from Adve rb s in form or m ean
c
in g , b u t h av e b e om e sp e iali z ed i n u se c
Th e y d e velop e d om p arat ively lat e i n t h e
. c
h ist o ry of lan g u ag e I n t h e e arly st age s of lan g u ag e d e velop m e n t t h e ases alon e
. c
c c
we re su ffi ie n t t o in d i at e t h e se n se , b u t , as t h e f or e of t h e ase-en d in gs w e ak e n ed , c c
c
.

ad ve rb s w e re u sed for g re at e r p re isi on ( c f 5 Th e se ad ve rb s, f rom t h e ir h ab it u al

.

c c c c
asso iat ion wit h p art i u lar ases , b e am e Pre p osit ion s ; b u t m an y re t ai n e d also t h e i r
in d epe n d e n t f un t i on as adve rb s c .

c
Most p rep osit ion s are t ru e ase-form s as, t h e om p arat ive ablat ives e xt ra, i n f ra, su p ra c
( for Text era, T cc
i n fera, t su p e ra) , an d t h e a u sat i ve s i rc u m , c bram , c u m ( c f C i rc i t er c .

i s an adve rbi al form at i on f rom c i rc u m ( c f § 214 b p raet er is t h e om p arat i ve of

. . . c
p r a e , p
r op t e r o f p rop e l Of t h e re m ai n d e r, ve rsu s i s a p e t ri fi ed n om in at ive ( p art i ip le
. c
of v e rt b) c
adversu s i s a om p ou n d of v e rsu s ; t ran s i s p rob ably an old p res e n t p art i ip le c
( c f. i n -
t ra -t e
) ; wh ile t h e orig in of t h e b rie f form s ab , ad , d é , ex , ob , is ob s ure an d c
d ou b t fu l .

2 20 P . r e p osit ion s are

“

re gu larly u se d e it h e r wit h t h e A c c u sa~

ti ve or w it h t h e A blat iv e .

a. Th e follo win g p re p osit io n s are u s e d wi t h t he A cc u sat ive

ad, to . ci r cit e r, about . in t ra, i ns id e .

adve rs u s , again st . c s,i cit ra, this s ide . i fi xt a, n e ar .

advers u m , t owards . c on t ra, ag ainst . ob , on a cc ou n t o f .

ant e , before . e rg a, t owards .

p en e s , i n the p ower o f .

ap u d , at , n ear . e xt ra, ou ts id e .
pe r, t hrou gh .

ci ca a
r , rou n d . in fra, below .
p on e , behi n d .

ci c m
r u , arou n d . in t e r, am ong .
p os t , af ter .

1 Th e ca
se-form of t h ese p reposit ion s in -t er is dou b tf ul .
 2 2 0, 2 2 1] PR EPOS I TI ON S 131

praet e r, bey on d . c
s e u n du m , n ext to . u lt ra, on the f u rth er s id e .

p rope , n ear . s u p ra, above . v ersu s , towards .

p ropt e r, on ac c ou nt o f . t ran s , a c ross .

b . Th e followi n g p re p osi t ion s are u se d wit h t h e Ab lat ive :

a, ab , ab s , away f rom , by . 6, e x , ou t o f .

ab s qu e , withou t , bu t f or . c
p rae , i n omp ari son with .

co ram ,
i n p rese n c e o f .
p ro, i n f ron t of , f or .

c um , wit h . s in e , wit hou t .

dé , f rom . t enu s , up to , as f ar as .

c . Th e f ollowin g m ay b e u se d wit h e it h e r t h e A cc u sat ive or t h e Ab la

t iv e , b u t wit h a d iffe re n e i n m e an in g : c
i n , i n t o, i n . s u b , u nder .

s u b t e r, ben eat h . s u pe r, above .

I n an d wh e n f ollowe d b y t h e
su b , acc u sat ive , in d i c at e m otion t o, wh e n b y
th e ablat ive , rest in , a p la e : c
ven it i n ae di s , c
he am e i n to the hou se ; e rat in ae di b u s , he was i n the hou se .

c
d is ip lin a in Bri t an n ia re p e rt a at q u e in d e i n Galli arn t ran slat e e ss e e xi st i .

m at u r, t he syste m i s t hou ght to h ave been d is overed i n Great Britai n an d c

c
th en e brou ght over to Gau l .

su b ili ce c On s ed e rat , h e had se ated h im sel

f u n d er an ilex .

s ub leges m it t e re orh e m , to subj ec t the world t o laws ( t o se n d t h e world un d e r

laws) .

22 1 . Th e u ses of t he P rep osit ion s are as follows

"
1 . A, ab, a w ay f rom ,
2
f rom , f
o
) f rom , w it h t h e ablat iv e .

a . c
Of p la e : as , — ah u rb e p rofe c t us es t , h e set ou t f rom the i ty c .

b O f t i m e : ( 1) f rom
. as , ab h Ora t e rt ia ad vesp eram , f rom t h e t hird h our
t ill even i n g ; ( 2 ) j u st after : as , - ah e o m agist rat u, af ter [h old in g] t hat ofi ic e .

c c
I d io m at i u se s : a re liqu i s diffe ru n t , t h ey d iffer f rom the oth ers ; a p arvu lis ,
.

c
f rom early hildhood ; p rop e ab u rb e , n ear ( n ot f ar fro m ) the it y ; li b erat e ab , c
cc
t o set f re e f rom ; o is as ab h ost e ( p e rn t ab h ost e ) , slain by an e n e m y ; ab h ac
p art e , on this s id e ; ab re éius , to hi s ad van tage ; 5 . re c
p ub li a, f or the i n terest f
o

t he state .

2 . Ad, t o, t oward s, a t , n e a r, wi t h t h e ac c u sat iv e ( of . i n , i n t o) .

a . O f p la c e : as , ad u rb e m ven it , he c am e t o t he c ity ad m e ri d ie m , towards

t he sout h ; ad e xerc it u m , to the arm y ; ad b ost e m , toward the en em y ; ad u rb e m ,

n ear t he ci ty .

b Of t im e
. : as , - ad n bn am h eram , t ill the n in th ho ur .

0 . Wit h p e rson s : as , ad eu m ven it , he c am e to him .

1
F or palam e tc , se e § 432 . .

2 Ab s i n ifi es d ire t ion
g f rom t h e c ob ecj t , b u t oft e n t owards t h e sp eak e r ; c om pare d é,
down f rom , an d ex, ou t of .
132 PA R TI C LES 22 1

c
I di om at i u ses : ad su pp li ia d esc e n du n t , t hey resort to p u n ishm e n t ; ad
d .
c
c
h ae re sp on d it , to t his he an s wered ; ad t e m p u s , at t he [fi t ] t i m e ; ad i re ad rem
p ub li a m , t o g o icnt o p u bli life ; ad p c
e t en dam p a e m , t o seek p ea e ; ad lat e ra, c c
on the flan k ad arm a, t o arm s ; ad h u n c m od u m , i n t his way ; qu e m ad m od u m ,
c
how, as ; ad e n t u m , n early a hu n dred ; ad h oc , bes id es ; o m n es ad ii n u m , all to
a m an ; ad d ie m , on the d ay .

3 . An t e, i n f ron t o , f bef ore, w it h t h e ac c u sat i ve ( of .

pos t , a
f t er) .

a . Of p la c e as , an t e p ort am , i n f ron t of the gat e ; an t e e x e rc it u m , in ad van e c

of the arm y .

b . Of t im e : as , an t e b e llu m before the war

, .

c . I diom at i c u s e s : an t e u rb e m c
ap t ai n , bef ore the c ity w as t aken ; an t e d ie m

q u in t u m Kal , the fi f th d ay bef ore t he C alen d s ;

. an te q u adrie n n iu m , f ou r
y ears bef ore or ago ; an t e t e m p u s , t oo soon (b e fore t h e t im e ) .

4 . Ap u d, at , by, a m on g, wit h t h e ac c u sat i ve .

a . Of p la c e ( rare an d ar ch aic ) : as, ap u d f oru m ,

at th e f oru m ( in t h e m ark e t

p la c e ) .

b . Wit h re fere n c
t o p e rson s or om m u n it ie s : as , — ap u d H elvet ios , am on g
e c
t he H e lveti an s ap u d p op u lu m , bef ore t he p eop le ; ap u d aliq u e m , at on e s h ou se ;
’

ap u d s e, at hom e or i n h is sen ses ; ap u d C ic e ron e m , i n [t h e works o f ] C i ero c .

5 . Circa, a bou t , a rou n d , w it h t h e ac c u s at ive

( cf . c i rc u m , c irc i t e r
) .

Of p la e
a . c c c
t e m p la ir af oru m , t he t e mp les abou t t he f oru m ; ci car 86 h ab e t ,
he has wit h h im (of p e rson s) .

b O f t im e
. or n u m b e r ( in p oe t ry an d lat e r writ e rs ) ci ca r e an d e m h Oram ,
abou t the sam e hou r ; c i c a i du
r s O c t ob ris , abou t t h e fi f t e en t h o f Oc t ober ; ci ca
r

de c em m ilia, abou t t en t hou s an d .

c . F igu rat ive ly ( in lat e r writ ers) , abou t , in regard to ( of . dé ) ci c a q m

r ue

p fi gn a est , with reg ard t o whom , et c . c i c ad

r e b s n e gle ge n t ior, rather ne gl c tf l f
e u o

( i e in worsh ipp in g) t he gods

. . .

6 . Ci rc it er ,
a bou t , wit h t h e ac c u sat i e v .

a . Of t im e or n u m b e r : c i c it
r er i d ne N ove m b ris , abou t t he t hirtee n th of N ovem
ber c i c itr er m e ri die m , abou t n oon .

7 . Circ u m , a bou t , a rou n d , wit h t h e ac c u sat iv e .

a . Of p la c e : ci cr um h ae c l ca h o , ere abou t ; c c
ir u m C ap u am , rou n d C ap u a
ci cr um illu m , with him ; lé g at ib c i c r u m i n su las m iss a, an e m bassy s e n t t o t he

i slan ds rou n d abou t ; ir c c u m am i c Os , t o h is f ri en d s rou n d ab ou t .

8 . r
Con t a, op p os i t e, aga i n s t , wi t h t h e ac c u s at ive .

c on tra It aliam , over again st I t aly c on t ra h ae c , in an s wer t o t his .

Oft e n as ad verb : as , — 11ae c on t ra, this i n rep ly ;

a . c c on t ra au t e m , bu t on
the oth er hand ; q u od on t ra, whereas , on the other h an d c .

9 . Cu m , w i t h , t oget h e r wi t h , wit h t h e ablat i ve .

13 4 PA R TI C LES 22 1

in p e rp e t u u m , f orever ; in p é ius , f or the worse ; in die m

C ati lin e vi ve re , t o live
f rom hand to m ou th ( for t h e d ay ) .

2 . Wit h t h e ablat i ve , i n , on , a m on g .

In ve ry variou s c on n e ct i on s : as , in c ast ris , c

i n t he amp ( c f ad ast ra, t o, at ,
. c
or n ear t he c am p ) ; i n m ari , on th e sea ; in u rb e e ss e , to be i n t own ; in t e m p ore ,

in season ; in s c ri b e n d o, while writ in g ; es t m ih i in an im o, I have i t in m i n d , I

i n te n d ; in an c oris , at an c hor ; in 11 6 0 h o m i n e , i n th e ca se o f t hi s m an ; i n d u b io
e sse , t o be i n d ou bt .

13 . I n fra, be low, w it h t h e ac c u sat iv e .

a . c
Of p la e : as , — ad m are in fra op p id u m , by the se a below the town ; i nfra
caelu m , u n der the sky .

b F igu rat ive ly o r less e xa t ly : as , —in f ra H o m eru m , later than H om er ;

. c
in fra t res p e d es , less than three f eet ; i n fra e lep h an t b s , sm aller than elep han ts ;
in fra i n fi m bs om n is , the lowest of t he low .

14 . I n t er, be t w e e n , a m on g, wit h t h e ac c u sat i e v .

in t er m e e t Sc i p ion e m , bet ween m yself an d S ip i o ; in t e r OS of offam , between c .

the c up an d the lip ( t h e m ou t h an d t h e m orse l) in t e r h ost iu m t ela, am i d

t he weap on s ; i n t e r om n is p ri m u s , fi rst of all; in t e r b ib en
f th e
o e n em y

du m , while dri n king ; in t er S e loq u u n t u r, they talk t ogether .

15 . 0b, t owards, on a c c ou n t o
f; w it h t h e ac c u s at iv e .

a . L it e rally : ( l) of m ot ion ( arc h aic ) as , ob R om am , towards R om e

( En n iu s) o b viam , t o the road (p re s e rve d as ad ve rb , i n the way of ) .
(2) Of p la c e

i n wh i h , bef ore, in c fe w p h ras e s : as , a ob O C lLlOS , bef ore the ey es .

b
'

. F ig u rat ive ly , i n retu rn f or ( m os t ly

p rob ab ly a w ord of a ou n t , ar c h ic a , cc
b alan c
in g on e t h in g agai n st an ot h e r) as ,
ob m u lie re m , in p ay f or the wom an
;
ob re m , f or gain c
He n e app lie d t o re ason , au s e , an d t h e like , on a ou n t of
. c cc
( a s im i lar m er an t ile i d e a) , f or as , c
— oh e am au s am
, f or t hat reas on ; q u am ob
c
re m
( qu am ob re m ) ,
wheref ore , why .

Per, t h rou g h , w it h t h e ac c u s at iv e
‘
16 . ove r, .

a Of m ot ion : as , — p e r u rb e m i re , t o g o t hrou g h the ity ; p er m uros , over

. c
th e walls .

b Of t im e : as , - p e r h ie m e m , t hrou ghou t the win t er

. .

6 .F ig u rat ive ly , of p e rson s as m e an s or in s t ru m e n t s : as , —p e r h om in es id b

n e b s , throu gh t he instru m e n ta lit y of su itable p erson s ; li e t p e r 111 6 ,
y ou ( e t c ) m ay c .

c
f or all m e H e n e , s t at p e r m e, it is throu g h m y i nstru m en tali ty so , p e r S e, i n
.

an d of f
itsel .

11
. W e ak e n ed , in m an y ad ve rb ial e xp ression s : as , — p er ioc u m , in j est ; p er
sp ec ie m , in show, osten tatiou sly .

17 . Prae, i n f ron t of , w it h t h e ab lat i e v .

a. Li t e rally , of p la c e ( in a fe w c on n e ct i on s ) : as , — p rae p ort are , to arry

se c
in on e s arm s ; p rae s e fe rre , t o arry bef ore
’
c on e , (h en c e fi gu rat ive ly ) exhibit , p ro
c lai m oste n tat i ou sly , m ake kn own .
g 22 1] PR EP OS I TI ON S 135

b F igu rat ively , of h in dran e , as b y an ob st a le in f ron t ( om p are En glish

. c c c
—
f )
or as , p rae gau d io c on t ic u i t , he was s ilen t f or j oy .

c c
Of om p arison : as , - p rae m agn it fi d in e orp oru m sn oru m , i n omp arison
. c c
with t heir own great s iz e .

18 . Praet er, a lon g by, by , w it h t h e ac c u sat ive .

a . Lit e rally as , p rae t e r c as t r aby the c am p ( alon g b y

, ,
in f ron t of ) p rae t e r
oc u lOs , before t he ey es .

b F igu rat i ve ly , bey on d , be s id es , m ore tha n , i n add it i on to, exc ep t as , —p rae te r

.

S p e m , bey on d hop e ; p rae t e r alib s , m ore t ha n ot hers ; p rae t e r p au c b s , with t he

exc ep tion o f a f ew .

19 . Prb, i n f ron t o , f w it h t h e ablat iv e .

se d an s p ro ae d e C ast oris , s it t ing i n f ront of t he te m p le of C as tor ; p ro p op u lo,

c
i n p res e n e of t he p eop le S o p ro rbst ris , on [t h e fron t o f] the rostra ;
.

p ro c on t ib n e , bef ore the as sem bly ( in a sp e e h ) c .

a . In variou s id iom at i c u s es : p ro lege , i n d ef en c e of t he law ; p ro vit u la,

in st ead f
o a he if er ; p r o c e n t u m m i lib us , as g ood as a h u n d red t hou san d ; p ro

rat a p art e , i n d u e p rop ortion ; p ro h ac vi e , f or t his on e ; p ro c on su le , in p la e c c c

of con s u l ; p ro vi ribu s , c
on sid erin g h is stren gth ; p ro vi ri li p art e , t o the bes t of

on e s ab ility ; p ro t u a p rd d e n t i a, i n a ord an e with y ou r wisdom

’
cc c .

20 P . ropt e r
,
n e a r, by, w i t h t h e ac c u sat iv e .

p rop t e r t e se d e t , he s it s n ext y ou . H en c e , on a cc ou n t o f ( of . all along of )

as , — p rop t e r m etu m ,
t hrou gh f e ar .

21 . Sec u n du m , 1
j u st be h i n d , f ollo wi n g , wit h t h e ac c u sat i e v .

a . Lite rally : as , — it e c
se u n d u m m e ( Plan t ) go beh in d m e ; se u n d u m li t u s ,
, c
n ear the shore ; se c un dum fi fi m en , alo n g t he stream ( c f s e u n d o flfi m in e , d own
. c
stre am ) .

b . F igu rat ively , ac c ord i n g to : as , — se un c du m n at fi ram , acc ord i n g to n atu re .

22 . S u b, u n d er, u p t o, w it h t h e ac c u sat iv e or t h e ablat iv e .

1 Of m oti on , wit h t h e a u sat ive : as ,

.
su b m on t e m su cc
ed e re , t o om e lose cc c c
to the h ill .

c
a I dio m at i ally : su b n oc t e m , t owards n ig ht ; su b lfi c e m , n ear d ay light ; su b
.

c c
h ae di t a, at ( followin g) these words .

2 Of re st , wit h t h e ab lat i ve as , — su b love , i n t he op en air ( u n d er t h e h e ave n ,

.

fi J u b m on t e , at th e f oot of th e h i l
l
p ers on i e d as o ve ) s .

. c
a I d iom at i ally : s u b e od e m t e m p ore , abou t t he sam e t im e (j u st aft e r i t ) .

ac c u s at iv e s om e t im e s, in p oe t ry ,
23 . S ubt er, u n d er, be low, w it h t h e (
t h e ablat i ve ) .

su b t e r t ogam u n der h is m a ntle ; b u t , — su b t e r li tore below

the shore .

24 . S u per, w it h t h e ac c u s at i
2
ve or t he ab lat i ve .

1 O ld p art i iple c of se qu or .
2 C om p arat ive of su b .
1 36 PA R TI C LES 22 1

1 . Wit h t he a cc u sat ive , above , over, on , beyon d , up on .

a . c
Of p la e : su p e r vallu m p raec ip it ari ( I u g to be hu rled over the ram .

p art ; su p e r lat e res oria i n d fi c u n t u r ( B C i i c

hi d es are d rawn over the bric ks ; . . .

su p e r t e rrae t u m u lu m st at u i ( L e gg ii t o be p la ed on t he m ou n d of earth ; . . c
su p e r N u m id i am ( I u g bey on d N u m idia . .

c
b I d iom at i ally or le ss e x a t ly : vu ln u s su p e r vu ln u s , wou n d up on wou n d ;
. c .

su p e r vin u m ( Q C viii over h is win e . . . .

2 . Wit h t h e ab lat ive , c on c e rn in

g, abou t
( t he on ly u se w it h t h i s ca se in

p ros e ) .

h ac su p er re, c c on ern i n g t hi s t hin g ; su p e r t ali re, abou t su ch a n aflair ; lit

'

t e ras su p er t an t a re e xs p e c t are , t o wait f or a letter i n a m att er

. o f su c h

i mp ortan c e .

a . c
P oe t i ally , i n ot h er sen se s : lign a su p e r c
f o o large rep on en s ( Hor O d i . . .

9 .
p i li ng logs gene rou sly on t he fi re ; no ct e su p e r m e d ia ( A e n . ix af t er
.

m id n ight .

25 . S u p a, r on t op o , a bove,
f w it h t h e ac c u sat i e v .

su p ra t e rram , on th e f
su r a e oc f the earth S o also figu rat i vely : as s u p ra
.
,

h an c m e m oriam , bef ore ou r rem em bran e ; su p ra m ore m , m ore t han c

u su al; su p ra qu od , besi des .

26 . Te n u s ( p ost p os it i ve) ,
as f a r a s , up t o, re gu larl
y w i t h t h e abla

t ive, som e t im e s wi t h t h e ge n i t i ve ( of . 3 59 b) . .

1 . Wit h t h e ablat ive Tau ro t e n u s , as f ar as Tau ru s ; c ap u lo t en u s , u p t o t he

hilt .

2 . Wit h t h e ge n it ive C u m aru m t e n u s ( Fam . vi ii . l . as f ar as C u m ae .

N O TE 1 . Ten u s i s f re qu e n t ly c on n e ct ed wit h t h e fem in in e of j c

an ad e t ive p ron ou n ,
m ak in g an ad ve rb ial p h rase : as , b ac t e n u s ,
h i t h e rt o ; q u at e n u s, so f ar as ; d é sac re
bac t enu s , c
so m u h f or t h at ( ab ou t t h is m at t e r so f ar) .

NO TE 2 . Ten u s w as orig in ally a n e u t e r n ou n , m e an in g li n e or ext e n t

m
I n i t s u se .

wi t h t h e c
g en i t ive ( m ost ly p oe t i al) it m ay b e re gard e d as an ad ve rb ial a u sat ive cc
397 a) . .

27 . T ran s ,
a c ross , o ve r, t h rou g h , by, wit h t h e ac c u sat i ve .

a . Of m ot ion : as , — t ran s m are c u rran t , t hey ru n a ross c the se a ; t ran s flu

m e n ferre , to ca rry over a ri ver ; t ran s ae t h e ra, t hrou gh t h e shy ; t ran s c ap u t i ac e ,
t hrow over y ou r head .

b . Of rest : as , — t ran s R h en u m in c olu n t , t hey live a

'

c ross the R h in e .

28 . Ult ra, beyon d ( on t h e fu t h e r r s i de

) , w it h t h e ac c u s at i e v .

c is Pad u m u lt raqu e , on t hi s sid e o f t he P o an d bey on d ; u lt rae u m n u m e ru m ,

m ore t h an t hat n u m ber ; u lt ra fi d e m , in c red i ble ; u lt ra m od u m ,

i m m od~
crate .

N O TE S om e ad verb s ap p e ar as p rep osit i on s :

. as, i n t u s, i n su pe r ( see
F or Prep o sit ion s in C om p ou n d s, see 267 .
13 8 PA R TI C LES 224

qu a, on t he on e han d on the other hand .

m odo, now n ow .

au t v el ve l -
ve ) , e ither

si v e , whether or .

ne c
( n e qu e ) n ec
( n e qu e ) ; n eq u e ne e ; ne c n e qu e( rare ) , n e ither n or.

et n e qu e , both an d not .

ne c et ; n ec ( ne qu e ) - ue
q , ne ither ( both n ot ) an d .

b . Adve rsat ive

s e d , au t e m , veru m , v erb, at , at qu i , bu t .

t am e n , att am e n , s ed t am su , v eru m t am e n , bu t y et , n e vertheless .

ni h ilbm in u s , n on e t he less .

at v é rb, bu t in tru th ; e n i m v é rb, f or i n t ru th .

c et e ru m , on t he oth er han d , bu t .

6 . Cau sal
nam , n am qu e , en im , e t en i m , f or .

qu aprop t er, qu aré , qu am ob re m , qu bc irc a, u n de , wheref ore , when c e .

d . I llat ive

e rg b, igit u r, it aqu e , i de b, idc i rc é , in de , p roi n d e , theref ore , a cc ord in gly .

S U B OR D I N A TE
a. Con dit ional

si , if ; s in , but if ; n isi
( u i) , u n less, if n ot ; qu od si , bu t if .

m odo, du m , du m m odo, sim odo, if only , p rovid ed .

d u mm odo né
( du m né, m odo n é ) , p rovid ed only n ot .

Com parat ive

n t , u t i , si c u t , j u st as ; ve lu t , as , so as ; p rou t , p re c u t , c eu , like as , a cc ord in g as .

t am qu am ( t an qu am ) qu as i , , u t s i , ac s i , ve lu t , v e lu t i , v e lu t s i , as if .

qu am , at qu e ( ac ) , as , th an .

0. Con ce ssive

e t s i , e ti am s i , t am e t si , even if ; q u am qu am ( qu an qu am ) , althou gh .

q u am vi s , qu an t u m vi s , qu am llb e t , qu an t u m lib e t , however m u h c .

c
li e t ( p rop e rly a ve rb ) , nt , cum ( qu om ) , t h ou g h , su pp ose , whereas .

d . Tem p oral

c um ( qu om ) qu an db, whe n ; u b i , u t , whe n , as ; c u m p rim u m , u t p rim u m , u b i p ri m um ,

,

s im u l, s im u l ac , s im u l at qu e , as s oon as ; p os t qn am ( p os t e aqu am ) , af ter .

p ri u s qu am , an t e qu am , bef ore ; n 6n an t e q u am , n ot u n t il .

du m , d e qu e d u m , dbn e c , q u oad , u n til, as long as , while .

 2 24—2 2 6] I N TERJEC TI ON S 13 9

e. Con sec u t ive an d Final

ut ( u ti qu a, so that
) ,
in or er d t hat .

n é , u t n e, lest ( th at n ot , in ord er th at n ot ) n é ve ( n e u) , that n ot , nor .

qu in ( af t er n egat ive s ) , qu om in u s , bu t that ( so as t o p re ven t ) , that n ot .

f . Cau sal

qu ia, qu od , qu oni am (T q u om -
iam ) , qu an do, be au s e c .

c um ( gn om ) , s in e c .

qu an doqui de m , s i qu id em , qui p p e , u t p ot e , s i n c e i n d eed , i n as m u h c as .

p ropt ere a q u od , f or t h is re ason t hat .

On t h e u s e of C on j u n t i on s , c s ee 3 23 , 3 24 .

I N TER EC TI ON S J
2 25 . S om e I n te rj e t i on s c are m e re n at u ral e x cl ma at ion s o f fee lin g ; o t h ers are
c
d e rived f rom in fl e ted p art s of sp e e h , e g t h e im p e rat ive s em , c . . lo ( p rob ably for em c ,
c
t ake ) ; ag e , om e , e t c N am es o f d e i t i es o u r i n h e rc lé , p ol ( from Pollu x) ,
. cc e tc . Man y
Lat in i n t erj ee t i on s are b orrowed f rom t h e Gree k , as eu g e , eu h oe , etc .

226 . Th e follo win g lis t c om p r i ses m os t of the I n t e rj e c t ion s in

c om m on u se

6 , 611 , e cc e , e he m , p ap ae , v ah ( of aston ishm en t ) .

é vae , evoe , eu h oe ( of j oy ) .

h en , éh eu , ( of sorrow)
vae , alas .

h e n s e h o e h od n m ho ( of c alli n g) ; s t hist
, , , ,
.

éia e u g e ( of p raise)
, .

pro ( of att estat ion ) : as pro p udor sham e ! , ,

140 F OR MA TI ON or W OR D S 2 2 7- 2 3 0

FOR MATI ON OF WORDS

22 7 All form at ion of w ord s i s o rig in ally a p ro e ss o f o m po sit i on
. An e le m e n t c c .

c c
s ign i fi an t i n i t s e lf i s ad d e d t o an o t h er sig ni fi an t e le m e n t , an d t h u s t h e m e an i n g o f

t h e t wo i s om b in e d c c
N o o t h e r om b in at i on i s p ossib le f or t h e f orm at io n e i t h e r of
.

c
i n fl e t ion s o r of s t e m s c
Th u s , i n f a t , word s ( si n e ro ot s an d s te m s are s ign ifi an t
. c c
c
e le m e n t s , an d s o w o rd s) are fi rs t p la e d s id e b y s id e , t h e n b rou g h t u n d e r on e a en t , cc
an d fi n ally f e lt as on e w ord c
Th e g rad u al p ro e ss is se en i n se a voy ag e , s e a-n y m p h ,
.

se asid e c
B u t as all d e ri vat ion , p rop e rly so alle d , app e ars as a o m b in at ion of u n in
. c
fl e c t ed st e m s, ev e ry t y p e of f orm at ion i n u se m u st an t ed at e i n fle t ion H e n e w ord s c . c
c
w e re n ot i n st ri t n e ss d e ri ve d e i t h e r f rom n ou n s or f rom v e rb s , b u t f rom s t e m s wh i h c
c c
w e re n e i t h er, b e au se t h e y w e re i n fa t b ot h ; f or t h e d ist in t ion b et we e n n ou n -ste m s c
an d ve rb -s t e m s h ad n ot y e t b e e n m ad e .

A f te r t h e d e v elop m en t of I n fl ec t i on , h ow e v e r, t h at on e of se v e ral k in d re d w ord s

c
wh i h see m ed t h e s im p le st w as re g ard ed as t h e p ri m it ive f orm , an d f ro m t h is t h e ot h e r
w ord s of t h e g rou p w e re t h ou gh t t o b e d e ri ve d S u h su p p os e d p ro e sse s of f orm at ion
. c c
w e re t h e n i m i t at e d , O ft e n e rron e ou sly , an d in t h is way n e w m odes of d e ri vat i o n aros e .

c
Th u s n e w ad j e t ive s we re f orm e d f rom n ou n s, n e w n ou n s f rom ad j e t ives, n e w ad j oe c
t i ve s f rom v e rb s, an d n ew ve rb s f ro m ad j e t iv es an d n ou n s c .

c
I n ou rse of t i m e t h e re al or ap p are n t re lat ion s o f m an y word s b e am e on fu sed , c c
c c
so t h at n ou n s an d ad j e t ives on e su p p ose d t o om e f rom n ou n s w e re of t e n ass ig n e d c
c c
t o v e rb s , an d ot h e rs on e su p p ose d t o om e f rom v e rb s w e re ass ig n e d t o n ou n s .

c c c
F u rt h e r, s in e t h e lan g u ag e w as on st an t ly h an g in g , m an y w o rd s w e n t ou t of u s e ,
cc
an d d o n ot o u r i n t h e lit e rat u re as we h ave i t Th u s m an y D e rivat i ve s su rvi ve of .

c
whi h t h e Prim it iv e is los t .

c c c
F in ally , sin e all on s iou s w ord-f orm at i on i s im i tat i ve , i n t e rm e diat e st e p s i n d e ri va
cc
t i on w e re s om e t im e s om i tt e d , an d o asion ally ap p are n t D e ri vat i ves o u r f or wh i h cc c
n o p rop e r Prim it ive e ve r e x ist e d .

R OOTS A N D S TEMS

1
22 8 . R o ot s are of t w o ki n d s

1 . Ve rbal, e x p re ss i n g i de as of a ct ion or c o n dit ion

( se n sib le p h e n om e n a) .

2 . P ron om in al, e x p re ssi n g i d e as of

p o s i t io n an d c
dire t i o n .

F ro m v e rb al root s c om e all p art s o f sp e e h c ex c e

p t p ron o u n s an d c e rt ai n

p art i cl es d e rive d f ro m p ron o m i n al root s .

229 S t e m s are e it h e r id e n t ic alwit h r oot s or de riv e d f r om t h e m

. .

Th e y are of t wo c lasse s : ( 1) N ou n s t e m s ( in c lu d in g A dj e c t iv e -

s t e m s) an d 2 ) Ve rb-s t e m s
( .

N O TE N ou n -st e m s an d ve rb-st em s w e re n ot o rig in ally d iff e re n t ( se e p

. an d .

c c
i n t h e on s iou sn e ss of t h e R om an s w e re oft e n on fou n d e d ; b u t i n g e n e ral t h ey w e re c
t re at e d as d ist in t c .

230 . W ords
for m e d by in fle c t ion are :
( 1 ) fro m r o ot s i n fle c t e d
as s te m s ; 2
( ) f r om d e r iv e d s t e m s s e e
(
1 c
For t h e d ist in t ion b e t we en R oo t s an d St e m s, see 24 , 25 .
 ‘
14 2 F OR MA TI ON OE W OR D S 2 3 3 , 2 34

A word like m én s , m e n ti s , b y t h e su ffi x 6n (n om .
gave m e n t io, an d t h is ,
b e in g d ivid e d i n t o m e n t i o, gave rise t o a n e w t y p e c
of ab st ra t n ou n s in -ti6

as , leg a-ti o, em bassy .

A word lik e au di t or, by t he su ffi x io ( n om . i u s ) , gave ris e t o ad j e t ive s lik e

- c
au di t or-i n s , of c
wh i h t h e n eu t er ( au dit orium ) is u s e d t o d e n o t e t h e p la e where c
c
t h e a t ion of t h e ve rb is p e rform e d . H e n c e t ori o ( n om .
- t 6ri u m ) , N .
, b c e om es a

reg ular n ou n -su ffi x 2 5 0 a) . .

S O in En glish su h a w ord as c su fl
'

oc ati on gi ves a su f
fi x -ati n
o , an d wit h t h is is
m ad e starvat ion , t h ou g h t h e re is n o su c h word as starvat e .

23 4 . Ex am p les of p r im ary s t e m -s u ffi x e s are

I . Vowe l suffi x e s
1 . o (M .
, a ( )
E , fou n d in n oun s an d ad e j ct i ve s of the fi rst t wo d eele n
s ion s : as , s en n s , lfi d u s , v ag n s , t og a ( root TE G ) .

2 . i as in ov i s , avi s i n Lat in f re q u e n t ly ch an ge d , as in rop es , or lost , as i n

s cob s ( s c obis ,
root S C A B
) .

3 . u disgu ise d in m os t ad e j cti ves by an add it ion al i , as in s n a-vi s ( for Ts u ad

vi s , in st e ad of Ts u i -d u s , of set s) , . t e n -ui s ( root TE N in t en do) , an d re m ai n in g alon e

on ly in n ou n s of t h e f ou rt h de clen sion , as a u s c ( root A K , s harp ,

in at er, c
a ies ,
exes) , p ec fi , g e n fi .

II . Su ffixe s wit h a c on son an t

1 . to (M .
, ta in t h e re gu lar c
p e rf e t p as sive p art i ip le , as t ec t o s , c
c
t e t um som e t im e s w it h an c
a t i ve se n s e , as i n pot u s , p ran s u s an d f ou n d i n a
f e w word s n ot re c
p art i ip le s , as p ut u s ( c f p fi ru s) , alt u s ( alo)
ogn i z e d as c . .

2 . c
t i in ab st ra t s an d rare ly in n ou n s of age n y , as m es s i s , v e st i s , p ars , c
m éns . B u t in m an y t h e i is lost .

3 . tu in ab st ra t s c c
( in lu d in g s u p in es ) , som e t im e s be c om in g c c on re t es , as

c
a t u s , lfi c t u s .

4 . no
(M .
, 115 (R ) ,
c
f orm in g p e rf e t p art i ip le s in ot h e r lan gu ages , an d in c
Lat in m ak in g j c
ad e t ives c
of lik e p art i ip ial m e an in g , wh i h Oft e n b e om e n ou n s , c c
as m agn u s , plen o s , regn u m .

5 . ui in n ou n s of age n cy j c
an d ad e t ive s , as i gn i s , s é gni s .

6 . nu rare , as in m an u s , pi n u s , c orn fi .

7 . mo (m a wit h variou s m e an in gs , as in an im u s , alm u s , fi rm u s , form a .

8 . v0 ( va (c om m on ly no ua wit h an a t ive or c p as sive m e an in

g, as in
e qu u s
( e qu es ) , arvu m , co c
n s p i u u s , e xi g u o s , vac i vu s ( v ac u u s ) .

9 in ( cf c
i n t a t os) , c le i — (c f
. r0
( ré as ag e r ( ste m ag- ro in t e g e r . s a e r, p x qu e .

plé n u s , p lét u s) .

10 10 ( la . as ( f in
or T eace d-lu m ) , c hi sel, e xe m p lu m , s e lla ( f or T
aelu m se dla) .

11 a f i d i i n ot h e r lan gu age s , an d i n Lat in m akin g

.
yo (y or m n g g e ru n ve s

c
ad j e t ive s c c
an d ab st ra t s , in lu d in g m an y of t h e fi rs t an d fi ft h d e le n s ion s , as c
e xim i o s , au da i a, c
F loren ti a, p e rn i c ié s .

12 . k0 ( ka som e t im es p rim ary , as in p au i ( c f 1ra0pos) , lo c . c us ( for s tloc u s ) .

I n m an y c as e s t h e vowe l of t h is t erm in at ion is lost , le avin g a c on son an t st e m

as , ape x, cort e x , loqu ax .

 2 34—2 36] OUN S 143

13 . en ( on én 6n in n ou n s an d ab st ra ts c : as , asp e rgo, c om p ag o
-i ni s ) , g e ro - bni s ) .

14 m en . e xp ress in g m eans , oft en p assin g in t o t h e a t ion it s e lf c : as , agm e n ,

flfi m en , f u lm e n .

15 . t er (t or t er t 6r tr form in g n ou n s of age n cy as , p at e r (i . e .
p rote tor) ,c
frat e r ( i . e . supp ort er ) , orat or .

16 . t ro form i n g n o un s of m eans : as , c lau s t ru m ( C LAU D ) ,

m fi lc t rum ( n u ns ) .

17 . es
( os form in g n am es of c
a t ion s , c c
p ass in g i n t o on re t es : as , ge n u s
( gene ri s ) , t em p u s ( se e 15 . Th e in fi n it ive in -ere ( as in re g-e re ) is a lo at ive O f c
t hi s st e m f or T-e s-i
) -e r-e .

18 n t ( on t
. e nt form in g p rese n t a t ive p arti ip les c c : as , le gé n s , wit h s om e

c
adj e t ives from root s u n k n own : as , freq u é ns , re c é n s .

Th e ab ove , wit h so m e s u ffi x e s i n b e lOw b l t t h I d -Eu r

op e an
g ve , e o n
g o e n o

p are n t sp e e ch ,
an d m o st of t h e m we re n ot f e lt as livi n g f orm at ion s in t h e
Lat in .

S ign ifi can t En din gs

235Bot h p rim ary an d se con dary su ffi x es, esp e c i ally in t h e

.

for m of c om p o u n d s u ffi x e s , we r e u se d i n Lat in wi t h m or e o r le ss
c on s c iou sn e ss of t hei r m e an in g . Th e y m ay t h e r e for e be c alle d

S ign ifi c an t En d in g s .

Th ey for m :
( 1 ) N ou n s of Ag en c y ; ( ) A bs t rac t N ou ns
2 ( ih

c lu d in
g N am e s of A c t ion s ) ; 3
( ) A d j e c t i ve s ( ac t i e or v p ass iv e ) .

N OTE — Th e re is re ally n o c
d i ff ere n e i n e t y m olog y b e t we e n an ad j e t ive an d a c
n ou n , ex e p t c t h at s om e form at ions are h ab it u ally us ed as ad j e t i ves an d ot h e rs as c
n oun s 20 b . . N .

DERI VATI ON OF N OUN S

Nou n s of Agen c y

236 . N ou n s Age n c y p r op e rly d e n ot e t h e ag en t or d oe r of an

of

ac t ion . Bu t t h e y in c lu d e m an y wor ds i n wh ic h t h e ide a of age n c y

h as e n t i e ly r fad e d ou t , an d also m an y w o rd s u se d as ad e c t i j v es .

a . N ou n s de n o t in g t h e age n t or d oer f an ac t ion are form e d from roo t s

“

or v e rb -s te m s b y m e an s of t he su ffi x e s

-
t or -s
or
) , M ;
.
—
t ri x
’

,
F .

c an - t or, c an - t ri x , sin ger ; c an -e re ( root ) to si n g

“

CAN , .

vi e-t or, vi c -t ri x , c on qu eror

( vi ct ori ou s ); vin e -e re to c on qu er .

f or T
t on -se t ( t on d -t or
), t on s-
t ri x ( for
Tt on d-t rix) , hair-c u tt er t oad-ere ( TO N D as root ) , to she ar .

p e ti -
t or, c an d id ate ; p et
—
ere ( P ET ; pe ti as st e m ) , to s eek .
1 44 F OR MATI ON OF W ORD S 2 3 6-2 38

By an alogy -t or is som e t im e s ad de d t o n ou n s t e m s, b u t t h e se m ay b e st e m s -

o f lost v e rb s : as , via-
t or, travelle r, f ro m via , way ( b u t of t h e ve rb in vio) . .

N O T E l —Th e t e rm i n at io n -t or -sor) h as t h e s am e p h o n e t i
. h an g e as t h e s u p in e cc
e n d i n g -t u m — su m ) , an d i s add e d t o t h e s am e fo rm o f roo t o r ve rb-s te m as t h at e n d in g .

Th e s t e m -e n d in g is t br 2 34 I I wh i h is s h ort e n e d i n t h e n om i n at i ve
. . c .

N O T E 2 — Th e f e m i n i n e fo rm i s alway s -t ri x Mas u lin es in -sor la k t h e fe m in in e , . c c

c
.

e x e p t e xp u lsor ( e xp u lt ri x) an d t on sor ( t bn s t ri x) .

b . t M . or F .
,
ad d e d to v e rb -st e m s m ake s n ou n s in -
es -
it is, -e t is ; st e m

it et de s c ri
p t ive of a c h a ac tr er

p rae at e s ,
— -s t i ti s , ( ve rb -s t e m f rom root S TA , s t are , st an d ) gu ardi an
, .

t eges , -e t is (ve rb -st e m t e ge cf . t e gb, c ove r ) ,

a c overe r, a m at .

p e de s ,
-it is
(pé s , p e d-
is , f oot , an d 1 , root o f ire , g o ) f oot -s old ie r , .

c
( g
.e n it ive
b
-
st e m tin M ,
. adde d t o ve rb —
1
s t e m s i n d i at e s a
p e rson c
e m p lo e d i n so m e sp e ifi
y art o r t rad e c c
c om -
b ib b ( B I B as ro o t in bib o, bibe re , drin k) , a
p ot-c omp an i on .

g e ro,
-6 n i s
( 0 13 8 in g e re re , ca rry ) , a c arrier .

N O TE — Th is t e rm i n at ion is
. also u se d t o fo rm m an y n ou n s des c rip ti ve of p e rson al
c c
h ara t e rist i s ( of c .

Nam es of Act ion s an d Abst ract Nou n s

23 7 . N am e s of A c t ion s are c on fu s e d, t h ou gh r t h ei r r
t e m in a
t ion s, wi t h re al abst r ac t n ou n s
( n am e s o f
q u a li t i es
) , an d wit h c on

c re t e n ou n s de n ot in g m e an s an d in st ru m en t .

Th ey are als o u se d to e xp e s s r the c on c re t e resu lt o f an ac t ion

( as O ft e n i n En glis h) .

Th u s le gib is lit e rally t he ac t of olle t ing , b u t c c c o m es t o m e an leg ion h

( e b od y
t
o f sold iers c
olle t e d ) c
of levy i n En glish . .

23 8 Abs t rac t N ou n s an d N am e s of A c t ion s

. are form e d fr om
root s an d v e rb st e m s by m e an s o f t h e e n din gs -

a Ad d d t
. t f m c c i da
e t o ro o s o r or s on e ve s roo s

NOM .
-
o r, M .
-
é s, F. -
u s, N .

GEN .
- 6 ri s -e ri s or -
o ri s

S T EM e arlie r e arlie r
6r ( ar
( e
/ oB
'

)
ti m -or, f ear ; t im é re , t o f ear .

am -or, love ; w i re , to love .

s ed—
é s , seat s e dé re , to s it .

c ae d-é s , sla u ghter ; c ae dere , t o ki ll .

g e n u s , birth , ra e c ; G EN , t o be born ( root of gi g n b , be ar) .

1 So c c
on e i ved , b u t p e rh aps t h is t e rm in at ion was orig in ally ad d ed to n ou n -ste m s .
14 6 F OR MA TI ON OF WOR D S 2 39, 2 41

( st e m alm o f os t e ri n g ; Alm bn , a ri ve r n e ar R om e ; ali m bn i a, supp ort B u t t h e last .

was f orm ed d ire c t ly f rom alb wh en -m 6n ia h ad b e om e e st ab lis h ed as a su p p ose d c

p ri m ary s u ffi x .

240 N ou n s de n otin g m e an s or in st ru m en t
. are for m e d from r o ot s
an d v e rb—
st e m s ( r are ly f r o m n ou n -s t e m s
) by m e ans of the n eu t e r

su ffi x e s
~
b u lu m ,
-
on lu m , b
-
ru m ,
—
c ru m ,
—
t ru m

p i -b
u lu m , f odder ; c
p as ere , to f eed .

st a-b u lum ,
st all s t are , t o s tan d .

ve hi -c u lu m , wagon ; v e h ere , to c arry .

c an dé li —
b ru m , c an d lest i ck c an dela, ca n d le ( a se c on d ary form at ion ) .

s e p u l- ru m c , t om b ; s e p e lire , t o bu ry .

Clau s-t ram ( Tc lau d —

t ru m ) , bar ; cl au det e , t o s hu t .

ara-t rum , p lou gh ; arare , to p lou gh .

N O TE .
-t ru m
( st e m t ro w as an old f orm at ion f rom t or 234 I I . . wit h t h e
st e rn su ffi x o~ , an d lu m ( st e m c lo f or t lo be re lat e d -c u lu m is t h e s am e
-c
app e ars t o ;
as -c lu m -b u 1u m c on t ain s 10 234 I I 9 , 10) an d 4 3m m is
. . cl os ely relat e d .

a. A fe w m as c u lin e s f e m i n i n e s of t h e sam e form at ion o cc ur n ou n s

an d ad e j cti ve s

f a-b u la, t ale f ari , t o sp eak .

ri di-c u lu s , lau gh able ; ri d ere , t o lau gh .

f a-b er, sm i t h ; fa c ere , t o m ake .

lat e -bra, hid i n g-p la c e lat ere , t o hi de .

t e re -b ra, au g er ; t e re re , t o bore .

m n lc -t ra, m i lk-p ail m u lg é re , t o m ilk .

2 41 . A bst r ac t N ou n s , m ost ly fr om j
ad e c t i v e st e m s r are ly fro m
-
,

n ou n -st e m s , are for m e d by m e an s of the s e c on d ar

y f e m in in e s u f

fi xes
i es ) , -t i a t i es ) t 1i d 6
' '

-
ia - - -t 1i s -

au di o-iii , boldn ess ;

p overt y ;
-i
au
p p e r es ,
t ri s t i-tia, s adn ess ;
s é gni -t i es , lazi n ess ;
bon i-t as , good n ess ;
c
s e n e - tus , ag e ;

m agn i-t uda, g reatn ess ;

1 . I n st e m s e n d in g i n 0 or a t he s te m -vo we l is lost b e f ore -ia ( as su pe rb-is ) .

an d app e ars as i b e fore -téis , -t ii s , -t ia in bon i-t as , ab ove

( as
) .

2 . C o n son an t st e m s of t e n i n se rt i b e f ore as, loqu i x ( st e r

n logn a c
c
loqua i-t zi s ;
'

b u t b on es t it s , m aie s-t as ( as if f rom

-
old ad e j ct i ve s in -
t as ,
—
t as 0 af t e r i is ch an ge d to e p in s p io ci ci —t a
volu p . : as ,
( st em p i e-tit s
; so u s , so e s.
5 2 4 1] NEUTER A B STR A CTS 147

I n like m an d — form ab st rac t n ou n s, bu t

a. an n e r g6 (F ) . are asso
c i at e d wi t h v e rb s an d app are n t ly ad de d to ve rb-s t e m s

c u pi —
db , d es i re , fro m c u p ere , t o d esi re ( as if from st e m c u pi

d u lc é -do, sweet n ess (of . c

du l i s , swe et ) , as if from a st e m dulc é cf . d u lcé—
sc b .

lam bs- go, lu m bago ( cf . lum b u s , loin ) , as if f rom t lu m bb , -are .

N O TE — Oi t h es e , -ia is in h e rite d as se o n d ary ( c f

. 2 34 I I c
-t i a is form ed b
y . . .

add in g -i a t o s te m s wi t h a t -s u fli x : as , m ili t ia, f rom m ile s ( s t e m m i li t m ole st ia

f rom m olest as ; c lém en t ia f rom c lem en s wh en e b y an alog y , m ali-t i a, avari-t i a c .

c
i s in h e rit e d , b u t it s om po n en t p art s , t a ti are fo u n d as s u ffi xe s in t h e sam e se n se :
as , se n ec ta from se n e x ; sé m e n -t i s f rom sem en 4 11 8 i s t u t i c f se rv i t u-d b -d b an d . . .

- 6 a
g pp e a r o n ly w i t h lon g v ow e ls , as f rom v e r b -st e m s b
, y a false an alogy ; b u t «16 is
do as , c u p i d u s, c u p i do; g rav i d as , grav ed b ( c f grav e-sob) ; alb i d u s , albed o ( c f al . .

besc o) ; f orm i d u s , h ot , f ormi d b (c f form i d u lbsu s) , ( h ot fl ash ? ) f e ar ; -g 6 is po ss ib ly co

.

ou c f v ora . x, v orag b, b u t c f C et h egu s -t i i d 6 i s . .

‘

o m p o u n d ed of «16 w i t h t il-s t e m s, c
c c
whi h a qu ire a lon g vowel f rom asso iat ion w it h ve rb-st e m s in u ( c f v olfi m en , f ro m c .

v olvb ) : as , c bn su ét fi -d b ,
valet u -d b, h ab i t u-d b ,
‘
solh c i t fi —
d b ; wh e n c e se rvi t fi d b (c f . servi t fi s ,

b . N e u t e r Ab st ra t s, whi h c c e as il
y p as s i n t o o n re t es de n ot in g ofi c es c c
an d roup s , are f orm e d f ro m n ou n - st e m s an d p e rh ap s f ro m ve rb-st e m s b y
g
m e an s o f t he s u ffi x e s

-
iu m ,
-
tiu m

h ospit —i u m , ho sp itality , an i n n ; 1 h os pe s ( gen . h os pit -i s) , a gu est .

c ollé g-iu m , c
olleag u esh ip , a ollege ; c c olleg a, a c olleag u e .

au s pic —i u m , soothsay in g , an om e n ; au s pe x ( gen . au s pic - is ) , a soothsayer .

g au d
—
i u m , j oy ; gau dé re , to rej oic e .

e ffu g-i u m , es ap e c ; e ffu g e re , t o es ap e c .

be n efi c -i u m , a ki n dn ess be n efac e re , t o ben efi t ; cf f b e n efi c u s .

dé sider—
i um , lon g i ng ; dé si d erare , to m i ss , from Tde sides , ou t
-

of p lac e , of m iss in g soldiers .

adv erb-ium , ad verb ; ad v erb u m , [ad d e d ] to a verb .

i nt erlfi n -i u m , t i m e f o n ew m oon ; in t e r lfi n as , between m oon s .

, fl ig ht o th e
gii n g
-i u m
f kin gs ; ré g i s f u ga, fl ig ht o f a ki ng .

se rvi-ti um , s lavery , t he slave cla ss ; s e rv u s , a slave .

Vowel st e m s lose t h e ir vowe l b e fore -iu m as , collé g-iu m , f rom collega .

N O TE -i u m i
. s t h e n e u t e r of t h e ad j e t ive su ffi x -i u s c
I t i s an in h erit e d p rim ary .

s u ffi x , b u t is u se d w i t h g re at f ree d om as s e on d ary -t i u m i
s f orm ed lik e -t i a, b y add c .

i n g -i um t o st e m s w it h t : as , e xi t -i u m , e qu it -i u m ( c f e xi t u s, e qu i t es) so , b y an alogy , .

c alvi t i u m , s ervi ti u m ( from alvu s , se rv u s) c .

0. Le ss c om m on ly, ab st ra t c n ou n s
( w h i h c u su all
y be c om e c c on re t e
) are

f orm e d f rom n ou n -st e m s

( c on fu se d w it h ve rb -st e m s
) b y m e an s of the
s u ffix es

1 Th e c
abs t ra t m ean in g is p u t fi rs t .
148 F OR MA TI ON OF W ORD S 2 4 1- 2 43

'
-m a, F .
;
-
n iu m , li n m
-
,
-C in iu m , N .

pe c fi n ia,
— m one y ( c hat te ls) ; p e afi , at tle c .

c on ti c i-ni u m , t he hu sh of n i ght ; c on fi c é s c e re , t o be c om e st i ll .

au xi-li um help ; ,
au gere , to i n c re ase .

lat rb—
c in i u m , robbery ; robber ( c f lat rci c in or rob im
'

.
, ,

p ly in g an ad j e c t ive T latrbc i n u s ) .

F or Dim in u t ive s an d P at ron y m ic s, see 2 43 , 244 .

DER I VATI ON OF AD EC TI VES J

242 . D e riv at iv e A d j e c t iv e s, w h ic h O ft e n b e c om e n ou n s , are

r N om in al ( from
e it h e n o u n s or ad e c j ti v e s) or Ve rbal ( as from root s
or v e rb s t e m s ) - .

N om i n al Ad j ec t ive s

2 43 . D im in u t iv e A d j e c t iv e s are u su ally c on fi n e d to on e
g en

d e r, t h at of r v
t h e p im i t i e , an d are u se d as D im in u t ive N ou n s .

Th e y are r
fo m e d by m e an s of t h e s u ffi x e s

af te r a v owe l
-
u lu s -
a, -u m ) , o lu s
-
( ) ,
-
Cu lu s , -allu s , illu s
-

ri v- u lu s , a st ream let ri v u s , a brook .

g ladi -olu s
, a sm a
ll s word ; g ladi u s , a s word .

fi li—
olu s , a little ; s on fi li u s , a s on .

fi li—
ola, a litt le d au ghter ; f i lia, a d au ghter .

at ii -olu m , a li tt le hall; atri u m , a hall .

h om u n - c u lu s , a dwarf ; h om e, a m an .

au ri -c u la, a litt le ear ; au ri s , an ear .

m fi n u s- u lom c
litt le g if t ;
, a m nn u s , N .
,g ift
a .

C odi e-illi , wri t in g-table ts ; cod ex , a blo k c .

m i s -c llu s , wret c hed ;

rather m iser, wretc hed .

lib-c llu s , a lit t le book ; lib e r, a book .

au re-olu s -a, -u m ) , golden ; au re u s -

a, -u m ) , g olden .

l r p arv- u lu s) , very s m all; m ) , litt le

p arv-olu s
( at e p arv u s
-a
,
-u .

i n s-c u ms , s om e what larger ;

ma m ai or ( old m aios ) , greater .

N O T E 1 - Th e se d im i n u t i ve e n d in g s are all form e d b y ad d i n g 4 118 t o various st e m s

. .

Th e form at io n i s t h e sam e as t hat o f -u lu s i n 251 B u t t h e s e w ord s b e am e se t . c

t led as d im i n u t ives, an d re t ain e d t h e i r o n n e t i on w it h n ou n s c
S o i n En g li sh t h e c .

di m in u t ives wh i t i sh , re dd ish , are o f t h e s am e form at i on as book ish an d s n ap p i sh .

-c u 1u s
c om e s f ro m -1u s
add ed t o ad e t ive s j c in -c u s f orm ed f rom st e m s in n an d s as ,
i u ven -c u s, Au run -c u s ( f A u ru n c u lé i u s) , p ri s-c u s , w h e n e t h e c u b e om es a p art o f t h e
c . c c
t e rm in at ion , an d t h e w h ole e n d in g — c u 1u s is u se d e lse w h e re , b u t m os t l w it h n an d s
) y
ste m s , i n a cc
ord an e wit h it s o rigi nc .

N O T E 2 — D im i n u t i ves are Ofte n u se d t o e xp ress aff e t ion , p ity , or on te m pt : as ,

. c c
d éli c i olae , li t t le p e t ; m u li ercu la, a p oor ( we ak) wom an ; Grae u lu s , a m ise rable Gree k c .
15 0 F OR MA TI ON OF W ORD S 2 47- 2 49

247 . A dj e c t iv e s of v ariou s m e an in gs, b u t g in

y g in
g e n si n if

r
e al m ade of or be long i ng t o, are form e d fr om n ou n s by m e an s of
t he su ffi x e s
-e n s
,
-
i u s , -ac en e, - an e u s -
n eu s
) ,
-t ic us

ant -e n s , gold en ; auru m , gold .

, p a e n al ; a f ather
p at r-i u s t r p at er, .

u xor-i u s , u xori ou s ux or, a wife .

ros-ac e u s , o f roses ; ros a, a rose .

lat e r-i c iu s , of bric k ; lat e r, a bri k c .

-an e u s , op erat i n g i n stan tly ;

praes en t p rae s en s , p resent .

e xt r-an e n s , exte rn al; e xt ra, wit hou t .

sn bt e rr- an e u s , su bterran ean ; su b t et ra, u n d ergrou nd .

sali g-n eu s , o f willow salix , willow .

vole-ti on s , wi n ged ( volat u s , a fl ig ht ) v olare , to fly .

dom e s-ti on s , of the hou se, d om esti ; c dom u s , a house .

S ilva-ti on s , sy lvan silva, a wood .

N O TE -i u s i
. s origi n ally p rim it ive 234 I I 11) -eu s orrespon ds t o Greek « nos,
. . c
-eos an d h as lost a d f I d -ac eu s are f orm e d b
( 2 34 I 11 ) y add
- -i c i u s
, y sou n c y o . an . .

in g -i n s an d -e n s t o st e m s i n i -c a-c ( su ffi x k o § 234 I I -n
en s i s n o -e n s . .

234 I I 4) -i n c u s i s f orm ed b y ad din g -n eu s t o a-st e m s ; -t i c n s i s a form at ion wit h

. .

-c u s
( c f h os.t i -c u s
w i t h S i lv a-t i on s
c
) , an d h as b ee n affe te d b y t h e an alog y of p art i ip ial c
st e m s i n t o ( n om in at ive -t u s) .

248 . A dj e c t iv es de n ot in g p e rt ain ing t o are fo rm e d fr om n ou n

ste m s wi t h t h e su ffi xe s
«ali s , A xi s , -é li s , -i1i s ,
ni tfi r-ali s , n at u ral; né t fi ra, n at u re .

o
p p u l-ari s , f c
ellow- ou nt ry m an ; popu lu s , a p eop le .

p at ru -é li s
, c ous i n pat ro n s , u nc le .

h ost -Hi s , host ile ; h os ti s , an e n em y .

c ur-ulis , c u ru le c urrn s , a c ha i r ot .

N O TE — Th e from ad din g -1i s ( st e m H t o vario u s vow el st e m s

su ffi xe s arise Th e .

c
lon g vowe ls are d u e p art ly t o on fu s ion b e t ween ste m an d su ffi x ( c f vi t a-li s, f rom .

wit h ré g— c A ‘

vi t a ali s) , p art ly t o on fu sion wit h v e rb-st e m s : c f prili s ( ape ri re) , c anns .

( M e n ), w i t h s e n ili s ( se n e x ) -ri s
i s an in h e ri t e d su ffi x , b u t in m ost of t h es e f orm at ion s
.

«i ri s ari ses b
y d i ff e re n t i at i o n f o r c
4111 s i n w ord s on t ain in g an 1 ( as m i lit -ari s)
'

2 49 . A dj e c t iv e s wit h t h e se n se o f be long ing t o are form e d by

m e an s of the su ffi x e s
i n n s , -é n u s , in u s ;
- -
as , é n s is ;
-c u s , -ac u s -5 c u s
) ,
-ic u s ; -e u s
,

- é i u s , -i c i u s
1 . S o from c om m on n ou n s

m oat -an u s , of t he m ou n t ai n s mans

( st e m m onti m ou ntain .

vot e r-i n n s ; veteran ; ve t u s ( s t e m v e t er old .

an t e lfi c -an u s, before daylig ht ; an t e lfi ce m , bef ore light .

 249, 2 50] NOMI NA L A D JEC TI VES 1 51

t err—
é nus, e art hly t e rra, e arth
—
.

se r é u calmn s, ( of e ve n in g st illn e ss ) s eru s , late .

c ll i
o -
n n s, o f a hi ll c olli s , hi ll .

di v-i n n s , di vin e ; di v n s , god .

Ebert -in n s , of t he lass of f reedm en c libe rt as , on e ’s f reedm an .

c fi i-as , of what ou n try c

qu i s , who
i n fi m -as , of the lowest ran k ; i n fi m u s ; lowest .

for-en sis , of a m arket-p la e , or t he F oru m ; foru m , a m arket -p la c c e

.

c c c
i vi-c u s , ivi , of a itizen ; c
c i vi s , a i t i ze n c .

f u llon -i c u s , f
o a f u ller f u llo, a f u ller .

c
m e t -a n e , p u re ; m ernm , p u re wi n e .

f é m i n -e u s , of a wom an , f e m in in e ; f em in a, a wom an .

la t —
c e n s , m i lky ; lac , m ilk ( st e m laati
p lé b-é i n s
, of t he c om m on s, p lebei an p lebes , t he om m ons c .

p at r-ic iu s
, p at ric ian pat er, f ather .

2 . Bu t e sp e c ially f rom
p rop e r n o u n s t o de n ot e belon g in g to or c om in g f rom
R om -i R om an ;
n ns , R om a, R om e .

— n l
S u ll a i , S u l a s vet eran s ;
’
S u lla .

Cy zic -eni , C yzi en es , p eop le c f C y z i cu s

o Cy zi u s c .

Lig nr-in u s , of Ligu ri a ; Lig u ria .

Arp in -as , o f A rp in u m ; Arpin nm .

c
S i ili-en si s , S i i li an ; c c
S i ili a, S i ily c .

c
Ili-a u s , Troj an ( a Gre ek form ) Ili u m , Troy .

Plat bn -i c u s , P laton i ; c Plat o .

Aqu il—e i n s , a R om an n am e
Aqu ila
A qu il e ia , a t own in I t aly
.
-

(1. Man y d e rivat ive ad e j c t iv es w i t h t h e se e n d i n gs h av e b y u sage be c om e

n ou n s

S llv-
an n s , M .
, a g od of t he woods ; silva, a wood .

m em br-an a, F .
,
ski n ; m em brum ,
li m b .

Ae mili -ann s , M .
, n am e of c
S ip io A fri ca nus A e m i li a
( gen s) .

lani -é na, F .
, a butc her s st all; ’
lani n s , bu t her c .

Au fi di-é n n s , M .
, a R o m an n am e 1An fi di n s ( An fi dn s) .

in quil-i n u s , M .
, a lodger in c ola, an i n habitan t .

Cae ci - n a, u s e d as M .
, a R om an n am e c ae u s ,c blin d .

ru o, f all ( n o n ou n

d oc t r—
i n a, F .
, learn in g ; d oc t or, t ea her c .

N O TE O f t h e se t e rm in at ion s, i nn s , -é n u s, -i n n s are om p ou n d ed from -n u s add ed

. c
t o a st e m -vowel : as , area, arc an u s ; olli s , c olli n n s c
Th e lon g v ow els om e f rom a c on . c
f u sion wit h verb— st e m s ( as in plé-n u s , fi n i -t u s , t ri b u-t u s) , an d f rom t h e n ou n -st e m i n i

as , arc an n s A cc
f e w n ou n s o u r o f si m ilar form at ion , as if f rom v e rb-s t e m s i n 6 an d
.

u . c
as , c olon u s ( c olb, c f i n ola) , pat rbn n s ( c f p at ro, fi re) , t ri b un as ( c f t ri b u o, t rib u s) ,. .

Port un u s ( c f p ort u s) , Vac fi n a ( c f vac o, vac u u s)

. . .

2 50 O t h e r
. j
ad e c t i e s m e an in g v in g a e n e al r way be longing t o
form e d wit h t he
'

e spe c iall of an d t im e s su fii x es
( y p lac es ) are
15 2 F OR MA TI ON OF WOR DS 2 50, 2 5 1

t ri s ) , e st e r -e s t r s i ) tim u s , -n u s , -o rn u s , t e rn u s t u rn u s )
- - - - - -
,
u rn u s ,

i f the m arshes ; p ai ns , a m arsh

-t e r o
p a ns ,
.

pe d e s -t er
, of t he f oob sold i ers ; p e de s , a f ootm an .

s ém é s-t ri s , last in g six m on ths ; s ex m en s es , s ix m on t hs .

wood y ;
sllv-e s t e r, silv-e s t ri s , silv a, a wood .

fi ni -t im u s , n e ighborin g , on t he borders ; fi n is , an en d .

m ari-tim u s , of t he sea ; m are , s ea .

v et -n u s , vern al ; vé r, sp rin g .

h odi—
e rn u s , of t o- d ay h odié , t o- day .

di -u rn u s , d ai ly ; di es , d ay .

h e s-t e rn u s , of y e sterd ay ; h e ri ( old h e si ) , y e st erday .

di n-t u rn n s , last i n g ; di n, lon g ( in t im e ) .

N O TE — O f t h e se , ~e s t e r i s f o rm ed b y addin g t ri ( c f t ro § 2 34 I I 16) t o st e m s in
. . . .

t or d Th u s T p e d e t -
t ri b e o m es p e d e s t ri ac
n d o t h e rs f ollow t h e a n a lo gy
-
n n s is an .

-orn u s an d -u rn u s ar f orm e d b
i n h e rit e d su ffi x 2 34 I I . . e y add i n g
-n u s
t o s-
st e m s

as , d i n r-n u s ( f or T c
d iu s-n u s) , an d h e n e , b y an alogy , h od iern n s ( h od i e) B y an e xt e n s ion .

c
o f t h e sam e p rin ip le w e re f orm e d t h e su ffi x e s -t e rn as an d -t u rn u s f rom word s lik e

pat ern n s an d n oc t u rn u s .

a. Ad j cti
e ve s m e an i n g be lon g in g t o are f orm e d from n ou n s b y m e an s of

t he su ffi x e s
-
ari u s , -t 6 ri u s -8
6 ri u s )

brain-ari as , reg u lar ; ord o, ran k, ord er .

arg e n t -ari u s , o f s ilver o r m on ey ; arg e n t u m ,

s i lver .

e xt r-ari u s , st ran ge r ; e xt ra, o u t si d e .

m e ri -t ori n s , p rof it able ; m erit u s , e arn ed .

dr
i ve son u s , o f in n (c f § 2 54 dé v orsu s , t u rn ed asid e
‘
r- an . . .

N O T E 1 — H e re -i u s
. 2 34 i s add e d t o sh ort e r f orm s i n -ari s
. an d -or
liari n s ( from p ec uli ari s) , b e lli t bri u s ( f rom b ellat or) .

N O T E 2 — Th ese ad j e t ives are Of t en fi x e d as n ou ns ( se e

. c

Verbal Adject ive s

251 . A dj e c t iv e s e x p e ss in r g t h e ac t ion v e rb as a qu ality

of t he
or t en d en c y are fo m e d f r rom re al or app are n t v erb s t e m s w it h t he -

su ffi x e s

id u s, 1u s , —
-5 x ivu s t iv u )
- -u -v u s -
u u s, - s
, ,

-§ x de n ot e s a f au lty or aggressive c
t e n de n y ; -
'

t iv u s is of t e n e r p assive .

n
p g n -ax , p u gn a i ou s c p ii gn are , t o fi ght .

an d- ax, bold ; au d ére , t o d are .

c u p -i du s , eag er ; c u p ere , t o d esire .

b ib-n ln s , t hirst y ( as d ry e art h e t c .

) bib ere , to d rin k .

p rot e r-vu s i
, v olen t , wan t on ; p rot ere re , t o tram p le .
154 F OR MA TI ON OF W OR D S [ gg 2 53 , 2 54

b .
- bun du s, —
cn n dn s ,
d en ot e a c on t in u an c e of t he ac t or q u ality e xp re sse d
t he verb :

vi t a-b u n d u s , avoid i n g ; vi t are , t o shu n .

t re m e -b un du s , trem blin g , t rem ere , t o trem ble .

m ori-b un du s , d yi n g , at t he p oi n t of d eath ; m oriri , t o di e .

f a-c n n du s , eloqu en t ; f ari , t o sp eak .

f é -c n n dn s , f ru itf u l root F E, n ou rish .

ira- c u n dn s , i ras i ble c Cf . iras c i , t o be an gry .

N O TE — Th e se m u st h ave b een origin ally n om in al : as in t h e series, ru b n s , re d

b u sh ; ru b i d n s ( b u t n o frn b i c u s) , ru d dy ; R u b i on , R e d R i ver ( c f Min i o, a riv e r o f c .

Et ru ri a ; Min i n s , a rive r of Lu sit an ia) ; ru b ic u n d u s ( as i n averru n c n s, h om u n -c u lu s) .

c
S o t u rb a, om m ot i on ; t urbo, a t ap ; t u rb i d u s , roi tz e tc C f ap exabo, lon gabo, grav ed o, . .

d u lc é d b .

0. H e re b e lon g also c
t h e p art i ip i al su ffi x e s -m in u s , -m n u s ( c f Gre e k .

from whi h c are f orm e d a f e w n ou n s i n wh i h t h e p art i ip i al f or e i s c c c

st ill di s c e rn ib le :
1

fé -m i n a, wom an (the n ou rish er ) root F E, n ou rish .

aln-m n u s , a f oster-c hi ld , n u rsli n g alere , to n ou rish .

Nou n s wit h Ad j ec t ive S n fli xes

2 54 . M an y fi x e d form s of t h e N om i n al A d j e c t iv e su ffi x es m e n
ti on e d in t h e p r e c e din g s e c t ion s, m ake N ou n s m or e or le ss r egu
larly u se d in p ar t ic u lar se n ses

1 —
§ riu s, emp loyed abou t an yt h in g
.
p erson
arg en t -ari u s , M .
, silversm i th , broker, f ro m arge n t u m ,
s ilver .

Corin t h i-ari u s , M . worker in C orin t hian bron z e ( sar c ast i c ic k

n n am e of Au gu st u s) ,
from (ae s) Corin t h iu m , C orin thi an bron ze .

c e n t on -ariu s , M .
, rag m an , f rom c en t o, p atc hwork .

2 .
-5 ri a
, thin g c on n ec te d with som e t hi n g :

argen t -ari a, F .
, ban k, f rom arge n t u m , si lver .

aren -i ri ae , F .
p lu ral, san dp its , from aré n a, san d .

As in—
i ri a, F .
,
n am e of a p lay , from as ian s , ass 2 .

3 . é riu m , p lac e o
f a t h in g ( w i t h a few of m ore ge n e ral m e an i n g)

i t i am
ae r-s , N .
,
treasu ry , from ae s , c pp
o er .

t ep id-ari n m , N .
,warm bath , from t e p idu s , warm .

s ud- at i um , N .
, a t owel of s oda, -are , sweat
, . .

c al-ariu m ,
N .
, s alt m on ey , salary , f rom s al, s alt .

c ale n d- arlu m , N .
, a n ote-book, f rom c ale n dae , cal en ds .

1 Cf 163 foot n ot e 1
. . .

2
c
Prob ab ly an ad j e t ive wi t h fi b u la, p lay , u n d e rst ood .
5 2 54 ] N OUNS WI TH A D JEC TI VE SUF F I XES 1 55

4 . t bria
- -
sbria
)
Agit a-toria, F .
p lay of Plau t u s , The C art er, f rom
,
a ag it at or .

v or-soria, F .
, c
a t ac k ( n au t i al) , f rom v ors u s , a t u rn .

5 . t 6rin m
- -
sbri n m
) , p la c e o
f c
a t ion ( wi t h a fe w of m ore
ge n e ral m e an in g)
dé vor-c ori um , N .
, i n n , as from dé vort o, tu rn asid e
an .

au di -t ori um , N .
, c
a le tu re-room , as f rom au dio, h ear .

t en-t ori u m , N , . a t ent , as f rom t en d o, stret ch .

t é c -t brin m , N .
, p last er, as f rom t e go, t é ct u s , over c .

por-t bri nm
,
N .
,
t oll, c f p ort o, arry , an d p ort u s , harbor
. c .

an im al-s tall
'

6 .
-
ile ,
bov-ile , N .
, c att le-st all, from bbs , bovi s , c ow .

ov-ile , N .
, sheep f old , from ovi s , st e m ovi sheep .

7 .
-al for -5 1e , thin g c on n ec te d with t h e p ri m it ive
c apit -al, N . headd ress , cap it l c a rim e , from c ap u t , h ead .

p e n e t r-ale ( e sp e ci ally in p lural) , N , i n n er ap art m en t , . cf p en e t ro, en ter

. .

S at urn - alia, N .
p lu ral ( t h e re gu lar f orm for n am es of f est ivals) , f east of S at
u rn , f rom s at urn u s .

8 . i t um , N .
( of -at u s , . fi t u s,
-
se e 246 .
- t u m , p la c e o
f a t h i n g, e sp e c ially

wi th n am es of t re e s an d p lan t s t o d e sig n at e wh e re t h e se grow

i
( n ert -5 mm , N .
, oak grove, f rom qn e rc n s , oak .

oli v-et u m , N .
, oli ve grove, f rom oli va, an olive tree .

sali ct
-
nm ,
N .
, a c
wi llow t hi ket , f rom s ali x , a willow tree .

Argil-et um , N .
,
Th e C lay P it , f rom argi lla, lay c .

9 m m ( so m e t im wit h in se rt e d i , -icn s) , -ic u s, i n of t h e ge n

‘

. es an y o n e

de rs, Wit h v ari ou s m e an in

gs
vili -c u s , M .
, a st eward , viii - c a, F .
, a ste wardess , from villa, f arm -hou s
e .

fahr-ic a, F. , a works hop , from fab er, workm an .

am -i en e , M .
, am —
i c a, F , f ri end , of am are , to love
. . .

b fi bn l—
c u s, M .
, ov —
te n der, from b ub-u ln a, dim in u t ive , cf . bbs , ox .

c an t -i ou m , N .
, son g , f rom c an t n s , ac t o f s in g i n g .

rnb r-i ca, F .

, red p ain t , from ru b e r, red .

'

10 .
-e u s
,
-e a
,
-e u m
,
wi t h v ari ou s m e an i n gs
:

alv-e n s , M .
, a trou gh , from alvu s , t he belly .

c apt -e a, F .
, a wi ld she goat , f ro m ap e r, h e—
-
g oat c .

nam m —
ec m , N .
, a
brid al ve il, f rom nam m a, flam e, f rom i ts c olor .

11 .
- t er ( st e m t ri -as
t er, -e s t er :

eq u e s -t e r, kn i ht
g , for Te qu eMt -t er

—
.
, .

se q n e s t e r, M , a stake hold er, from d e rivat ive of .

-
se qu or, f ollow .

ole-ast er, M , wild olive, f rom ole a, an olive tree

. .
156 F ORMA TI ON OF W OR D S 2 55- 2 59

I RREGUL R DERI V TI VES A A

2 55 . Th e su ffi x -
6 (g e n it i ve -On i s
, st e m vn u su all
y a dde d t o
v e rb st e ms (se e 23 6 c ) is som e t im es u se d wi t h n ou n st e m s t o
- .
,
-

form n ou n s d en ot in g p osse sse d of Th ese w e re orig in ally adje c .

t ive s e xp re s sin g qu ali ty or c harac t er an d h e n c e O ft e n ap p e ar as ,

e r n am e s
p ro
p
e p u lae , a f east ; e p u l-fi , a f east er .

n asu s, a n ose ; 115 8 -5 , with a large n ose ( als o as a p rop e r n am e ) .

v olu s ( in b e n e -volu s ) , wish in g ; v ol- on es ( p lu ral) , volu n t eers .

frbn s , f orehe ad ; f ron t -5 , big- h ead

( als o as a p rop e r n am e ) .

cu ir a, a c u ri a c ud -6 , h ead of a c u ria ( also as a p rop e r n am e ) .

t es ti s , a rop e ; re sti-O, a rop e-m aker .

a. R arely su ffi xe s are add e d to c omp ou n d s t e m s im agin e d , b u t n ot u se d

in t h e ir c om p ou n d f orm
ad-v erb i u m — , ad verb ; ad , t o, an d v e rbu m , verb, b u t wit h ou t t h e in t e rve n in g
Tadverb u s .

lat i-f u n d-i um , large est ate ; lat u s , wide, f u n du s , est ate , b u t w it h ou t t h e in t e r
ven in g t lati fu n d u s .

s u -ove -t au r-i li a, a sa rifi c c e o f a s wi n e , a sheep , an d a bu ll ; s us , s wi n e , ovi s ,

sheep t au ru s , bu ll, w h e re t h e p rim it i ve wou ld b e i m p ossib le in Lat in ,

,

c
t h ou gh su h form at ion s are om m on in San sk rit c .

A
DERI V TI ON OF VERBS

256 . Ve rbs m ay be c lasse d as P rim itive or D e rivative .

l . Pri m it ive Ve rb s are t h ose in h e rit e d b y t h e Lat in fro m t h e p are n t sp e e h c .

2 . D e rivat ive Ve rb s are t h o se f o rm e d i n t h e d e v e lop m e n t of t h e Lat i n

as a se p arat e lan gu age .

2 57 . D e riv at iv e Ve rbs are of t wo m ain c lasse s

1 . D e n om in at iv e Ve rb s, f orm e d f rom n ou n s or ad e c t i jv es .

2 . Verbs ap p are n t ly de riv e d from t he st e m s O f ot h e r v e r bs .

Denom in at ive Ve bs r
258 . Ve rbs we re form e d in Lat in fr om alm ost e v e ry form Of

n ou n -st e m v e st em
an d ad ec t i j - .

2 59 1 Ve rbs O f t h e Fi rst
. . C on j u gat ion are for m e d direc t ly
fr om a s t e m s r egu larly w it h
-
,
a t ran sit iv e m e an in g : as , fu ga,

fl ig h t ; f u gar e
p u t to
fl ig ht , .
158 F ORMA TI O N OF W OR D S [ gg 2 62 , 25 3

2 62 . M an y i v e rb s -
or v erbs of t h e F ou t h C on r j u g at ion
form e d from i st e m s -

m bli or, - iri , t o t oi l, f rom m ales - is ) , m ass .

fi n ib , ~ire , t o bou nd , from fi n i s , en d .

sitio, -ire , to th irst , f rom siti s , t hirst .

st abilib, - ire , to est ablish , f rom s t abili s , st able .

a. S om e ari se by c on fu si on f rom ot h er st e m s t re ate d as i-st e m s

b u llio, ire , t o boi l, f rom b ulla

-
( st e m b u lla bu bble .

con di o, -ire , t o p reserve, from éon du s ( st e m c on do storekeep er .

i n s ani b, - i re , t o rave, f rom i n s an u s ( st e m in sana ) , m ad .

g e s ti b ,
-ire
, t o show wild lon gin g , from ge st u s ( st e m g e st a g estu re .

N or m — S om e of t h is form are of dou b t fu l origin : as , 6rd i or, be g i n , c f 6rd?) an d .

e xord i u m c
Th e f orm at ion is los e ly ak in t o t h at of ve rb s in -i6 of t h e t h ird on j u g a
. c
t ion ( p .

b . S om e are f orm e d wit h i5 f rom

- c on so n an t st e m s

cu todio
s ,
-ire
, t o gu ard , from c fi st bs (st e m c fi s t 6d gu ard i an .

f ulgu rio, -ire , t o lighte n , from f u lg u r, lig ht n in g .

N O TE .
— H ere p rob ably b e lon g t h e so —
calle d d esideratives in u ri5
-
( se e 263 4 . .

Verb s from Ot h er Verbs

263 . Th e follo win g fou r c lass es Of v e rbs regu larly d e r iv e d

fr o m ot h e r v e rbs h av e sp e c ial m e an in gs c on n e c t e d wit h t h e ir
r
t e m in at ion s .

N O TE .
—Th ese cl
d en om in at ive i n t h e ir orig in , b u t t h e form a
ass e s are all re ally
c c
t ions h ad b e om e so as so i at ed w it h a t u al v e rb s t h at n ew d e ri vat ives we re Of t e n c
c
f orm ed d ire t ly f rom ve rb s wit h ou t t h e i n t e rve n t ion Of a n ou n -ste m .

1 . I n c ep t i ve s or I n c h oat ive s ad d -s c 6 1
t o t h e p re se n t s t em Of ve b s
r .

Th ey d e n ot e t h e beg in n i n g Of an ac t ion an d are of t h e Th ird C on j u ga

t i on Of som e t h ere i s n o s im p le ve rb i n
. e x ist en ce

grow warm , from ale b , be warm

c alé-s c o, c .

lab a-sc b, beg in t o tott er, f rom labb, t ott er .

s c i-sc i) , determ in e , from s ci o , kn ow .

c
c on - u pi-ec b, c con e ive a d esire f or, fro m c u p ib, d esire .

ale-s ob, grow, fro m alb, f eed .

SO c
iri -s ot , get an gry ; cf . ira-t u s .

iu ve n é— s c b, grow y ou n g ; of i u v e n i s , y ou n g m an . .

m i t e-s ob, grow m i ld ; c f m it is , m i ld . .

v es pe ri -s ci t , it is g et ti n g late ; cf . ve sp e r, even in g .

1 F or in p rim ary form at ion , see 17 6 b 1 . . .

§ 2 63 ] VER B S F ROM OTHER VER B S 159

c
N O TE — I n e p t i ves p rope rly h ave on ly t h e p re se n t ste rn , b u t m an y u se t h e pe rfe t
. c
an d s u p in e s y ste m s o f si m p le v e rb s : as , c alé sc b , g row warm , alu i ; ard ésc b , blaze c
f orth , arsi ; p rofi c i sc or, se t ou t , p rofec t u s .

2 I n t e n sives or I t e rat ive s are f orm e d f rom t h e S u p in e st e m an d en d

.

i h -t oor ( rarel s o
y ) Th ey d e n ot e a orc ible or re e at e d ac t ion bu t
f .
p ,

t h is sp e c ial s e n s e O f t e n d is ap p e ars . Th ose d e rive d f rom ve rb s of

t h e F irst C on j u gat ion e n d in -it o ( n ot -at o) .

iac -t o, hu rl, from iac io, throw .

dorm i-t o, be sleepy , fro m d orm io, s leep .

vol- it b, flit , f rom v olb, fly .

vé n di-t o, try to se ll, from v é n d o, se ll .

, shatter,
qu as-s b f rom qu ati o, shake .

Th ey are O f t h e fi rst j
c on u gat ion , an d are r
p po e rl
y d e n om in at iv e .

a. C om p ou n d su ffi x e s -
t it 5 , -
s it 6, are f orm e d wi t h a fe w ve rb s . Th e se
are p rob ab ly de rive d f rom ot h er I t e rat ive s ; t h us , c an t it b m ay om e from c
c an t b, i t e rat ive o f si n
g .

b An ot h e r form Of I n t e n sive s — s om e t im e s alle d Me d it at ive s, or ve rb s

. c
Of p rac t i e — c e n ds in -e s s o
( rare l
y i ssb)
- Th e se de n ot e
. a c e rt ain e n e rgy or

e age rn ess o f a ct i on rat h e r t h an it s re p e t it ion

c ap-e s s o, lay hold on , f rom t ake .

f ac-e s sb , do (wit h e n e rgy ) ,

from f a io, d o c .

seek e agerly f rom p e t b, seek

p e t -e s
s o, p e t -i 8 8 6
, ( ) , .

The se are of t h e t h ird c j on u gat ion , u su ally h avi ng t h e p e rfe t c an d

su p in e O f t he f ou rt h
arc e s s b, arc es s é re , arc e s sivi , arce s sit u m , su m m on .

lac e ssb, lac e ssé re , lac e ssivi , iac e s sit u m , p rovoke .

N O TE . Th e v e rb s in 4 53 5 , 4 55 6 , s h ow th e sam e form at ion as levassb , i m pet ri sse re ,

i fi di c i ss i t , e tc . 183 . b u t its origin is n ot fu lly exp lain ed .

3 . D im in u t iv e s en d in 4 115, an d d e n ot e a f ee ble or p e t t y ac t ion

c av-illor, j est , cf . c avilla , rai llery .

c an t -i116, c hirp or warble , f rom c an t o, si n g .

N O TE — D im in u t iv e s are f orm ed f rom v e rb -s te m s d e riv ed f rom real or su p p osed

di m i n u t ive n ou n s .

4 . D e s id e rat ive s en d in -t u ri 6 -s u r i6) , an d e x p re ss lon g i n g or w i s h

in g . Th ey are of t h e f ou t h r j
c on u gat ion , an d on ly t wo are i n c om ,

m on u se 2

p ar be i n labor, from brin g f orth .

é— enrib ( for T e d-t u ri b) , be hu n g ry , f rom c a b, eat .

O t h e rs are u se d b y t h e d ram at ist s .

N O TE .
—D e sid e rat ive s are p rob ab ly d e rive d f rom som e n ou n Of ag e n y : as , i m p c .

t u rio, wish t o bu y , f rom Em pt or, bu ye r . Vi so, g o t o see , i s an i n h erite d d e sid erat iv e Of

a. diff e ren t f orm at ion .
16 0 F ORMA TI O N OF W ORD S 2 64, 265

COMPOUN D W ORDS
264 . A C om p ou n d Word is on e wh ose s t e m is m ade u
p Of t wo
or mo re s im ple s t e m s .

a. A fi n al st e m -v
o we l o f t h e fi r st m e m b e r Of p ou n d u su ally d is
th e c om

app e ars b e fo re a vo we l, an d u s u ally t ake s t h e form O f i b e fore a ons on an t c .

c
O n ly t h e se on d m e m b e r re e ive s c c
i n fle t io n .
1

b O n ly n ou n -st e m s c an b e t h u s
. c om p ou n de d . A p re p osit ion h ow e ve r, ,

c
O f t e n b e om e s at t a h e d t o a ve rb c .

265 . New st e m s are for m e d by C o m p osit ion in t h r e e ways

1 Th e s e c on d art is s im p ly add e d t o t h e fi rs t :
.
p
e u -ove -t aurilia ( s fi s ovi s t au ru s ) t he sacrifi c e of
, , ,
a s win e, a sheep ,
an d a bu ll
( c f 2 55
. a ) . .

s e pt e n -d e c im ( s e p t e m d e c e m ) se ven t een , , .

2 Th e fi r st p ar t m od ifi e s t h e
. se c on d as an j v
ad e c t i e or adv e rb

e t e rm i n at i ve Co mp ou n ds
( D )
lati -f u n di am ( lat u s , f u n du s ) , a large lan d ed e stat e .

om ni-p ot é n s ( om n is , p ot é n s) , om n ip ot en t .

Th e fi r st pa t ve
'

3 . r h as t h e f orc e Of a c as e , an d t he se c on d a rb al

f orc e ( j
Ob e c t i ve C om p ou n d s
)
agri - c ola ( ager fi eld f c ola akin t o 0016 c u lt ivate) a f arm er
, , , ,
.

arm i ge r ( arm a arm s T

-
ge r akin t o
, carry ) arm or bearer
, ,
- .

c orn i c en ( corn u horn

-
i cen ak in t o ,
s in g ) horn blower
, ,
- .

carni fex (carb flesh i fe x ak in t o f acio m ake) execu ti on er

-
, , , , .

a. C om p ou n d s of t he ab ov e k in ds , i n w h i h t h e last w ord i s c a n ou n ,

m ay b e c om e ad e j ct i ve s , m e an in g p ossesse d o f t h e q u alit y d e n ot e d :

ali-p é s ( ala, win g , p é s , f oot ) , win g-f ooted .

m eg a-anim im ( g
m a n u s , g
re at , an im u s , sou l), g reat -sou led .

c
an - e p s ( am b at both en ds , c ap u t , head) , d ou ble .

N O TE — Man y om po u n d s c of t he ab ove cl asse s ap p e ar on ly i n t h e f orm O f som e

f u rt h er d erivat i ve , t h e p rope r c om p ou n d n ot b e in g f oun d in Lat i n .

1 Th e c p tg
se on d lly h
ar it l i fl ct i ; b t
e n e ra thi k i d f c m p i
as s u su a n e on u , as s n O o os
t ion i s i f c t ld
n a th Oi fl ctier th c m p an d d t m m t im
n e h i fl ct i
on , e o ou n e s e so e es as an n e on

Ofi ts o w ( n as, c orn c e n , -c n s

i i i ; lfi if J i ; iud di i ) f m t m t cc ci g i e r, er ex , - c s , ro s e s no o u rr n n

Lat in . E p c i lly d c m p
s e a d dj cti i L t i t k th f m
o o ou n f i t m a e ves n a n a e e or O -
s e s: as ,
an i m u s , e xan im i ; b m b Omi (
s n r I c m p it i t m g l ly h
a, a n r s se e n o os on , s e s re u ar ave
t h e ir u n in fl ec t e d form : as , i gn i -s p i c i u m , d i vi n i n g by fi re B u t i n o an d é -st e m s t h e .

fi n al vow el O f t h e st e m app e ars as i as in ali-p es ( from 5 1a, s t e m a ) an d i is so w

c om m on a te rm in at ion Of c om p o u n d e d st e m s , t h at i t is O ft e n add e d to w h i h do
st e m s c
n ot p rop e rly h ave it : as , fi bri -c om u s, fl owe r- c rown e d ( from flbs ,
fl at -i s
, an d c om , h ai r) .
 1 62 F OR MA TI ON OF W OR D S

c c
N O TE 1 — I n su h om p ou n d s , h owe ve r, t h e p reposit ion s som e t im es h ave t h e i r
.

c
ordin ary f or e as p rep o s it ion s , e sp e i ally ad , i n , c i rc u m , t ran s , an d gove rn t h e ase o f c c
a n ou n : as , t ran si re fl ii m en , t o ross a ri ver ( se e 388 b) c . .

N O T E 2 — S h ort a O f t h e ro ot i s w e ak e n ed t O i b e fore on e o n so n an t , t o e b e f ore

. c
t wo : as, fac i a, c on fi c iO, c On fec t u s ; i ac i o, é i c i o, é i ec t u s B u t lon g a i s re t ai n ed : as , .

p erac t u s .

b . VER B S are also c o m p ou n d e d wit h t h e f ollowin g in sep arable p art i les, c

c
wh i h d o n ot ap p e ar as p re po sit io n s in Lat i n
am b ( am an A R O U N D : am b-i re , t o g o abou t ( c f angfi l, abou t ) . .

di s di AA
P RT : dis-c éde re , t o d ep art ( c f d uo, t wo) ; di -vi d Ere , t o .

d ivide .

por FORW A RD : p or-t e n de re

, to h old f orth , p red i t ( c f c .
f orth) .

re d t e B A CK, AA G IN : re d-ire , t o ret u rn ; t e -elude re , t o op en

( f rom c lau db,

shu t ) t e -fi c e re , to rep air ( m ak e again ) .

sed sé AA P RT : sé to sep arat e ; cf . s ed-it ib , a going c

ap art , se ess ion

( eb , ire , to g o) .

6 . Man y Ve rb als are f ou n d c om p o u n d e d wit h a p re p osi t ion ,

ve rb s t o wh i h t h e y c c orre sp on d

pe r-f u
ga, d esert er; cf .
p e r-
fu gib.
t I a-d u x , vin e-bran h ; c f t ra-d fi c b c .
( tran s
ad-ven a, st rang er ; c f ad-v e nio . .

con -i u x ( c on -ifi n x ) , sp ou se ; of . c on -i u n go .

ih —
d ex, p oin t er ou t cf . i a-dic b .

p rae -s e s
, gu ard i an ; cf .
p rae -
s ide b .

c om -bibd, boon c omp an i on ; cf . c om -bib d, -2

5re .

d . An Ad j c t iv
e e is som e t im e s m o difi ed by an adve rb ial p re fi x .

1 O f t h e se , p er ( le ss om m on ly p rae
. ve ry ; Su b c . som e what ; i n

re u lar, an d are ver

g y fre e ly p re fi xe d t o adj e t iv e s : c
p er-m a n u s
g , very large . i n -n oc u u s , harm less .

p er-
p au ci , very f ew . in —
im i c u s , u n rie n dly
f .

s u b-r s u t ic u s , rat h er cl w o n ish . i n - s an u s , i n s an e .

sub —
fusc u s , d arkish . in -fi n it u s , bou n d less .

p rae -
lon gu s , very lon g . i m -p fi ru s , i m p u re .

N O TE .
— Peran d su b , i n t h e se se n se s, are also p re fi xed t o v e rb s as , pe r-t erreb, t e rrif y ;
su b -ri d e b, sm i le . I n i gn bsc o, p ard on , i a ap p ears t o b e t h e n e g at i ve p refi x .

2 . Th e n e gat iv e in som e t im e s ap pe ars in c om b in at i on wit h an ad e j ct i ve

t hat d oe s n ot o cc u r alon e

in-e rm i s , ( c f arm a arm s)

u n arm ed .
,
.

im b elli s u n warli ke ( c f be llu m war)

-
, .
,
.

im -p fi n is wi thou t p u n ishm ent ( c f p oe n a p u n ishm ent )

,
.
, .

ia t e g er u ntou c hed who le ( c f t an g o to t ou c h root TA G)

-
, , .
, , .

in -vit u s , u n wi lli ng ( p rob ab ly from root se en in vi-s , thou wishest) .

 P ART S EC ON D —
SYN TAX

I N TR ODUC TOR Y N OTE

2 68 . Th e st u dy O f
form al g ram m ar aros e at a lat e p e riod in t h e hist o ry O f lan
g u ag e , an d d e alt wit h lan gu ag e as a f u lly d e v e lop e d p rod u t ord in g ly t h e t e rm s c . Acc
O f S y n t ax c c
orre spo n d t o t h e logi al h ab i t s of t h ou gh t an d f orm s O f C X re S S lOD t h at
p
c
h ad g rown u p at su h a p e riod , an d h av e a log i al as we ll as a m e re ly g ram m at i a l c c
m e an i n g c c c
B u t a d e v e lop e d sy n t a t i al st ru t ure is n ot e ssen t ial t o t h e e xp re ssion of
.

t h ou g h t . A
form o f word s — lik e 6 p u eru m p u lc h ru m l oh ! beau t ifu l boy — e x p resse s
a t h ou g h t an d m i g h t e ve n b e alle d a se n te n e c c
t h ou gh it d oe s n o t log i ally d e lare an y c c
c
t h in g , an d d oe s n ot , st ri t ly sp e aki n g , m ak e wh at i s u s u ally alle d a s e n t e n e at all c c
c
.

A t a v e ry e arly p e ri od o f sp ok e n lan g u ag e , word -f orm s w e re n o d ou b t s ign ifi an t

c c
i n t h e m s e lve s , wit h ou t i n fl e t ion s, an d on st it u t e d t h e wh ole of lan gu ag e , j u st as t o
c
a h ild t h e n am e of som e f am iliar O b j e t w ill st an d for all h e c an s ay ab ou t it c At a .

c
so m e wh at late r st ag e , s u h un in fl e c t e d word s p u t s id e b y s id e m ad e a ru d im e n t ar
y
c
form of p rop osit i on : as a hi ld m ig h t say fire bri g h t ; h orse ru n Wit h t h i s b e g an t h e .

c c
fi rst form O f logi al dis t in t ion , t h at O f S u b j e t an d Pre d i at e ; b u t as y e t t h e re was n oc c
c
dist in t ion in f orm b e t we e n n ou n an d ve rb , an d n o fi xe d d ist in t ion i n f u n t i on At a c c .

lat e r st age f orm s we re d i ff e re n t iat e d i n f un t ion an d — b y various p ro ess e s Of c om c c

c c
po sit ion wh i h an n ot b e f ully t ra e d c
I n flec t ion s w e re d e v elop e d Th e se s erv e d t o .

e x p res s p erson , t ens e , c

as e, an d ot h e r g ram m at i al re lat i on s, an d w e h ave t ru e Part sc
O f Sp e e h c .

c
N ot u n t il lan gu ag e re a h e d t h is last st ag e w as t h e re an y fi xe d li m it t o t h e asso
c
c iat ion of word s , or an y ru le p re s rib in g t h e m an n e r i n whi h t h e y sh ou ld b e om b in e d c c .

c c
B u t grad u ally , b y u sage , p art i u lar f orm s am e t o b e lim it e d t o sp e i al f u n t i on s ( as c c
c
n o u n s , v e rb s , ad j e t iv e s) , an d fi x e d u st om s arose O f c
om b in i n g w ord s i n t o wh at w e c
c
n ow all S e n t e n e s c c
Th e se u st om s are in p art t h e re su lt of g e n e ral laws o r m od e s of
.

c
t h ou gh t ( logi ) , re sult in g f rom ou r h ab it s of m in d ( Gen eral Gram m ar) ; an d in p art
c
are wh at m ay b e alle d B y-Law s , e st ablish e d b y u s t om i n a gi v e n lan g u ag e ( P art i a c c
lar Gram m ar) , an d m ak i n g wh at i s alle d t h e Sy n t ax Of t h at lan gu age c .

I n t h e f u lly d e v elop e d m e t h od s of e xp re ss ion t o wh i h we are alm ost e x lu sively c c

cc
a u st om e d , t h e u n it O f e xp re ssion i s t h e S e n t e n e c
t h at is , t h e om p le t e d s t at e m e n t , c
c
w it h i t s d ist in t S u b j e t an d Pre di at e c c
O rigi n ally sen t e n e s w e re sim p le
. B u t t wo c .

c
s i m p le se n t en e -f orm s m ay b e u se d t og e t h e r, w it h ou t t h e gram m at i al s u b ord i n at ion c
O f e it h e r, t o e xp re ss a m ore c
om p le x f orm o f t h ou gh t t h an ou ld b e d e n ot e d b y on e c
alon e . Th is is p arat azvi s ( arran g e m e n t sid e b y s id e ) S in e , h ow e ve r, t h e t wo sen . c
c
t e n c e s , in d e p e n d e n t in f orm , w e re i n fa t u se d t o e xp re ss p art s O f a om p lex wh ole c
an d w e re t h e re fore m u t u ally d e p e n d e n t , t h e s e n se o f u n it y f ou n d e xp ression i n c on
c c c
j u n t ion s , wh i h d en ot e d t h e g ram m at i al su b ord in at ion O i t h e on e t o t h e ot h e r Th is .

is h yp ot amis ( arran g e m e n t u n d e r, su b ord in at ion ) I n t h is w ay , t hrou g h vari ou s st ag e s

.

o f d e ve lop m e n t , whi h c c
orre sp on d t o ou r h ab it u al m od es o f t h ou gh t , t h e re w e re p ro

c c
d u c e d v ari ou s form s O f om p le x sen t en es Th u s , t o ex p re ss t h e o m p le x id e a I besee h
. c c
y ou t o p a rd on m e , t h e t w o si m p l e se n t en e c
-form s q u ae so an d i gmi sc as we re u se d s id e b
y
s id e , quaesb i gn bsc as ; t h e n t h e f e e lin g of g ram m at i al s u b ord i n at ion f ou n d e xp ress ion c
c c
in a on j un t ion , q u ae so u t i gn bsc as, form i n g a om p le x sen t e n e c
Th e result s of t h e se c .

p ro cess e s o n s t c
i t u t e t h e su b j e t yc
-m at t e r of S n t ax .

163
1 64 S Y N TA X : TH E S EN TEN C E 2 69—
2 72

THE S ENTENCE

Kinds of S ent en ces

269 . A S e n t e n c e is a fo rm Of wor ds wh ic h c on t ain s a S t at e

m en t , a Q u e st ion , an Ex c lam at ion , or a C om m an d .

a. A se n t e n c e in t h e f o m r Of a S t at em e n t i s c alled a D e clar at ive

S e n t en c e : as, c an i s c u rri t , t h e d og ru n s .

b . A in t h e f orm Of a Qu e st ion is c alle d an I n t e roga

se n t e n c e r
ti ve S e n t e n c e : as, — can isn e cu rrit ? d oes t h e d og ru n ?
0. A se n t en c e in t h e f orm Of an Ex c lam at ion i s c alle d an Exc lam a
t ory S e n t en c e : as — qu am c elerit er c u rrit can is ! h ow as t t h e d og ru n s
, f
d . A s en t e n c e in t h e f orm Of a C om m an d, an Exh ort at ion , o r an

En t re at y i s c alle d an I m p e r at ive S e n t e n c e as, i, cu r re per Alp i s, go,

ru n ac ross t h e A lp s cu rrat c an i s, let t h e d og ru n .

S u bjec t an d Predicat e

270 Ev e ry . se n t e n c e c on sis t s O f a S u bj e c t an d a Pre dic at e .

The S u bj ec t of a se n t e n c e is t h e p erson or t hin g sp oken of .

Th e Pre dic at e is t hat whic h is sai d of t h e S u bj e c t .

Th u s in ca i n s c urri t , the d og ru n s , c ani s is t h e sub e j ct , an d c urri t t h e p re d i at ec .

27 1 . Th e S u b j ec t O f a se n t e n c e is u su all
y a N ou n or Pr on ou n ,
o r s om e wor d or g r ou p Of w o r ds u se d as a N ou n

equ it es ad C aesare m ven eru n t , t he ca al y cam

v r e t o C aesar .

h um an u m est errare , to err is hu m an .

q u aerit u r n u m m ore m alu m s it , t he qu est i on i s whether de ath is an evi l

.

a. Bu t in Lat in t h e j
su b e c t is Of t e n im p lie d in t h e t e rm in at ion of

th e v e rb :

Be d e-m u s , we s it . c u rri-t i s , y ou ru n . in qu i-t , s ay s he .

2 72 . Th e Pr e dic at e Of a s en t en c e m ay be a Ve rb ( as in c an i s

cu rri t , t he d og ru n s
) , or it m ay c on s ist Of s om e form of su m an d
a N oun or A dj e c t i v e wh ic h de s c ribes or d efin e s t h e su bj e c t (as in
Caesa r c on su l erat , Ces sar was c onsu l) .

Su c h a n ou n or ad e c t i ve j is c alle d a Pre d ic at e N ou n or Ad j e c t ive ,

an d the ve rb s u m is c alle d t h e C op u la ( i . e . the c on n ec t ive

) .

Thu s in t h e e xam p le gi ve n , Cae s ar is t h e su b e j ct , c on s u l t h e p re di c at e n oun , and

c
‘

e rat t h e op u la ( se e
1 66 S YN TAX : TH E S ENTENC E 2 7 4- 2 7 7

b . Man y - v e rb s r
t an sit iv e i n Lat in are ren d e re d i n t o En glish
in t ran s it ive ve rb wi t h a p re
p osit ion
p e t it apru m h e ai m s at t he boar
,
.

lau de m affe c t at , he st rive s af t er p rais e .

c arat valét fi di n e m , he t akes are of his h ealth c .

m e u m cas u m d olu eru n t , they grieved at m y m isf ortu n e .

ri d e t n ost ram am e n t i am ( Qu in c t . he lau ghs at ou r stu p i dit y .

2 75Wh e n
. r
v v e rb is c h an ge d from t h e A c t iv e t o t h e
a t an sit i e

P assiv e v oic e t h e D ir e c t Ob j e c t be c om e s t h e S u bj e c t an d is p u t
,

in t h e Nom i n at iv e c ase
A ct i p t
ve fi li m c t th f th c all hi
a er u vo a , e a er s s son .

Pa i f li
ss ve ap t i atus th i c all d by hi f at h
a re voc u r, e son s e s er .

A ct i lu m t t lla
ve na id em w e th ms e a d ths v ta u s, e see e oon n e s rs .

P assive lf ma e t s t e llae vid en t u r, t he m oon an d st ars are seen ( appe ar) .

Modifi cat ion

276 . A Su bj e c t or a P e dic at e r m ay b e m odi fie d by a S in gle w or d ,

or by a gr o u p Of w or ds ( a p hrase or a c lau se) .

The m odify in g wor d or g r ou p of words m ay it se lf be m odi fi e d in

t he sam e way .

a.A sin gle m od if y in g w or d m ay be an ad j e c t ive , an ad ve rb, an

O r t h e Ob li qu e c ase of a n ou n
‘

app os it i ve .

c
Th u s in t h e sen t e n e vir f orti s p ati e n t er f ert , a brave m an en du res p ati en t ly ,
c c
t h e ad j e t i ve f ort i s , brave, m od ifi es t h e su b j e t vir, m an , an d t h e ad ve rb p at ien t e r,
c
p at i en t ly , m od ifi es t h e p re di at e f e rt , en du res .

b Th e
. m od ify in g wor d i s in som e c ase s s aid t o lim i t t h e w ord
to w h ic h it b elon g s .

Th u s in t h e se n t e n c e p u eri
‘

p e t rem vi de o, I see t he boy ’

s f ather, t h e gen it ive
p u et i li m it s pe t re m ( by ex cl
u din g an y ot h e r f at h e r) .

2 77 . A Phr as e i s a g r ou p O f w or ds , Wit h ou t j
su b ec t or p e dic at er
Of it s own , wh ic h m ay be u s e d as an A dj e c t iv e or an A d v e rb .

c
T hu s in t h e sen t e n e vir fu it sum m a n bbilit at e , he was a m an of t he h ighes t
s

n obi lit y , t h e word s s u m m a n obili t at e , of t he hig hest n obi lity , are u se d f or t h e

c
ad j e t ive n obili s , n oble ( or n obili s s im u s , very n oble) , an d are alle d an A dj e t ive c c
Ph rase .

c
SO in t h e se n t e n e m agma c e lerit at e v en it , h e am e wit h great sp eed , t h e words c
m ag n a c e le rit at e , with great sp eed , are u se d f or t h e ad ve rb c e lerit er, qu i kly ( or c
c e le rrim é , very qu i kly) , an d are c alle d an A d ve rb ial Phrase c .
 2 7 8 , 2 7 9] C LA U S ES A ND SEN TEN C ES 1 67

Clau ses an d Se n t en ce s

2 78 . Se n t e n c e s are e it h e r Sim p le or C om p ou n d .

1 . A se n t e n c e c on t ain in g a S in
gle st at e m e n t is c alle d a Sim p le
Se n t e n c e .

2 . A se n t e n c e c on t ain in g mo re t han on e s t at e m e n t is c alle d

a C om p ou n d S e n t e n c e, an d e ac h s in gle s t at e m e n t in i t is c alle d

a C lau s e .

a. If on e s t at e m e n t is S im l
p y add e d t o an ot h e r, t h e c lau ses are

said t o b e C oordin at e . Th ey are u su ally c on n e c t e d by a C oord in at e

C on j u n c t i on 22 3 . a
) ; bu t t h is i s som e t im e s om i t t ed :

d ivid e et im p e ra, d ivide an d c on trol . B ut ,

v en i , vi d i , vi ci ,
I c am e, I saw, I c on qu ered .

b . If on e st at e m e n t m od ifi e s an ot h e r in an y w ay , t h e m od ify in g
c lau se is s aid t o b e S u b o d in at e , an d t h e r c lau s e m od i fi e d i s c alle d

t he Main Clau se .

Th is su b o rd in at ion is in d ic at ed by som e c on n e c t i n g w ord , e it h e r

a Su b o din r at e C on j n c t ion 2 2 3 b) o a R e lat ive
u . r :

Od e rin t d u m m e t u an t , let t hem hat e so lon g as t hey f ear .

s e rvu m m i s it qu e m se u mc h ab eb at , he sen t t he slave whom he h ad wit h hi m .

A sen t e n c e c on t ain in g on e or m ore su b ord in at e c lau s e s is s om e

t im e s c alle d C om p le x .

N OTE . A su b ord i n at e cl au se m ay it se lf b e m od ifi e d b y ot h er su b ordin at e cl au se s .

279 . S u b or din at e C lau ses v ari ou s kin ds

are Of .

a. A c lau se in t rod u c e d b y a R elat ive P o o n o R elat iv e A dv erb r n u r

is c alle d a R elat iv e C lau se

Mosa p rOfl u it ex m on t e Vos e g o, q u i e st in fi nib u s Lin gon u m (B . G iv
. .

t he Meu se rises i n t he Vosges m ou nt ai n s , whic h are on t he borders of t he

Lin gon es .

F or Re lat i v e Pron oun s ( or R elat ive Ad v e rb s ) se rv in g to c on n e ct i n d ep e n d e n t se n

t e n c es , se e 308 f . .

b . A c lau se in t rodu c e d by an Ad ve rb Of Tim e i s c alled a Te m

p oral C lau se
cum t ac e n t , clam a nt ( C at . i . wh ile t hey are si len t , th ey c ry alou d .

h o m in es s e gri m orb o gravi , c um i ac t an t u r ae s t d f eb ri qu e , si aq u am geli d am

‘

b ibe rin t , p rim e rele vari v id e n t u r ( id . i . m en su eri n g

fi with a severe

si ck n ess , when t hey are tossin g wit h the h eat of f ever, if t hey dri n k c old

water, s eem at fi rst t o be relieved .

1 68 S Y NTA X : A GR EEMENT [5g 2 7 9—2 8 1

0. A c lau se c on t ain i n g a r
C on dit ion , in t od u c e d by ei, if ( or som e

e qu iv ale n t e xp re ssion is c alle d a C on d it ion al C lau se A

) ,
. se n t e n c e

c on t ain in g a c on d it ion al c lau se is c alle d a C on dit ion al S e n t e n c e .

Th u s , s i aq u am g e li dam bibe rin t , prim e re levari vi deat u r ( in b, ab ove ) is a C on

c
d it ion al Sen t e n e , an d si bibe rin t is a C on d it ion al C lau se .

d . A c lau s e e xp e ssin gr t h e P u rp os e Of an ac t ion is c alle d a F in al

C lau se :

e d O u t vi vam to live ( t h at I m ay live )

,
I eat .

m i sit legat os qui di c e re n t , he sen t am bassad ors t o say ( wh o sh ou ld say ) .

e. A c lau se e xp ess i n g r t h e R e su lt of an ac t i on is c alle d a C on

se c u t iv e Clau se
1

t ain lon ge ab eram ut nan vi dé re m ,

I was t oo f ar away t o see ( SO far away t h at
I d id n ot se e ) .

A GR EEMEN T

2 80 A wor d is
. r wh e n it is r e qu ire d
s aid t o ag ree w it h an ot h e

by u s age t o be in t he sam e Ge n de r Nu m be r C ase or Pe r son , , ,

.

The followin g are t h e ge n e ral form s O f agree m e n t som e t im e s ,

c alle d t h e Fou r C on c or ds
"

1 Th e agr ee m en t Of t h e N ou n in App osit ion o as P e d ic at e

. r r

2 81
2 . Th e r
ag ee m e n t of t h e Ad j e c t iv e w i t h i t s N ou n
3 . Th e agr ee m e n t Of t h e R e lat ive w it h it s A n t e c e d e n t
4 . Th e agre e m e n t O f t h e F in i t e Ve rb w it h i t s Su b j ec t
a. A word t ake s t h e gen d e r or n u m b e r, n ot O f t h e w ord
som e t im e s

wit h whic h i t S h ou ld re gularly agre e , bu t O f s om e ot h e word i mp li ed r

in t h at w ord .

Th is u se is c alle d Sy n e s is, or c on s t ruc t i o ad s é n su m

( c on st ru c t ion

ac c o r d i n g t o se n s e ) .

AGREEMEN T OF N OUN S

28 1 . A n ou n u s e d t o d esc ri be an ot h e r , an d d e n ot in g t h e s am e

p e rs on or t hin g, ag e es r wit h i t in C ase .

Th e d e sc rip t iv e n ou n m ay be e it h e r an Ap p osit iv e or a

P re dic at e n ou n

1 Ob s erv e t h at t h e cl —
in a e are n ot m u t u ally e x lu siv e , b u t t h at a
ass e s d efi n ed c
sin gle c
lau se m ay b e lon g t o se v e ral of t h e m at on e Th u s a re lat ive lau se i s c . c
u s u ally su b ord in at e , an d m a
y b e at t h e s am e t im e t e m poral or on dit ion al ; an d c
su b ordin at e c
lau se s m ay b e c oOrdin at e wi t h e a h ot h er c .
17 0 S YN TA X : A GR EEMEN T 2 83-285

Predi cat e Nou n or Adject ive

2 83 . Wit h su m an d a fe w ot h e r in t r an sit iv e or p as si e v v e r bs , a

n ou n or an ad e c t i j v e de sc ribin g or d efin ing t h e s u bj e c t m ay st an d in

t he p r e dic at e . Th is i s c alle d a P re dic at e N ou n or A dj e c t iv e .

Th e v e rb su m i s e sp e c ially c om m on in t hi s c on st ru c t ion , an d wh e n
s o u se d is c alle d t h e c op u la ( i e c on n e c t iv e ) . . .

O t h e r ve rb s wh ic h t ak e a p re dic at e n ou n or adj e c t iv e are t h e S O

c alle d c op u la t i ve ve rbs s ign ify in g t o bec om e, t o be m ad e, t o be n am ed,

t o app e ar, an d t h e lik e .

2 84 . A P r e di c at e N ou n r t he c op u la su m or a or A dj ec t iv e aft e

c op u lat iv e v e rb is in t h e s am e c ase as t h e S u bj ec t

p ac i mp ct f i ( Lig
s se er au I ha lway b
or u ad i f p ac . ve a s een an v ser o e e .

q a p t i aci q ib d m
u e er n d m alii
a d t
u ti id e i p t t ( Ma c
us a ,
ea e s c n s an a v r o es r .

what m ay m b t i ac y t m m ay
s ee m t th o s c i t cy n o so e, s ee o o e rs ons s en .

eiu s m ort is se d et is u it dré s ( Mil .

y ou si t as aven gers o f his d eath .

h ab e at u r vir egre gias Pau lu s ( C at . iv . let P au lu s be regard ed as an

extraord i n ary m an .

e go p at rbn u s e x st it i ( R os c A m I have om e f orward as an advo at e

. . c c .

c
d i it n On om n i s b on ds e sse be at os , h e says t hat n ot all good m e n are hap p y .

a. A p re di c at e n ou n r e f er ri n
g t o t wo or m ore S in gu lar n ou n s is
in t h e p lu ral
c 6n s u lé s c re an t u r C aesar e t S e rviliu s ( B 0 iii l ) , C aesar . . . an d S ervi li u s are
ele ct d c
e on su ls .

b . S u m in t h e se n se O f ex i s t m ake s a c om p le t e p re dic at e w it h ou t a

p re di c at e n ou n or ad e c t iv e j . I t is t h e n c alle d t h e s u bs t a n t i v e ve rb :
s un t viri f ort es , t here are ( e xis t ) brave m en [C f v ix ere fort es an t e A gam e m . .

n on a ( Hor Od iv 9 . brave m en lived bef ore A gam em non ]

. . . .

F or Predi at e c Acc u s at iv e an d Pre di at e c Abl t i a v e , s ee 3 92 , 415 . N .

AGREEMEN T OF AD ECTI VES J

r
redicat e Adj ec t ives
At t ibu t ive an d P

2 8 5 A dj ec t iv e s are e it h e r A t t r ibu t iv e or Pr e dic at e

. .

1 A n A t t r ibu t iv e A dj e c t iv e S im p ly q u alifi e s it s n ou n wit h ou t

.

t h e in t e rv e n t ion Of a v e rb or p ar t ic ip le e x p re s se d or i m p lie d : as , ,

— bon u s im perat or, ag ood c om m an der; s t ellae luc idae, brig ht s t ars ;

verbu m Graecu m , a Gre ek word .

 2 85, 2 86] A GR EEMEN T OF A D JEC TI VES 17 1

2 . A ll ot h e r j
ad e c t i ves are c alle d Pr e dic at e A dj e c t iv e s
st ellas luc idae were brig ht
e ran t , t he stars .

c
si t S ip i o laru s ( C at ivc let S ip i o be illu stri ou s
. . c .

h om in es m it i s re ddid it ( I n v i has ren d ered m e n m ild . . .

t ria p rae dia C ap it on i p rop ri a t radu n t u r ( R os c A m . . t hree f arm s are

han de d over t o C ap it o as h i s own .

c b n s iliu m sc e le ris
c ep é ru n t plen u m ( id . t h ey f orm ed a p lan f u ll of
villan y .

c c
N O TE — A p re d i at e ad j e t iv e m ay b e u se d w it h su m or a op u lat ive v e rb
. c 28 3) it
c c
m ay h av e t h e on st ru t ion of a p re d i at e a u sat i ve af t e r a v e rb of n am i n g , c cc c alli n g , or
t h e lik e 393 N ) or it m ay b e u se d in ap posit ion lik e a n oun
. . 282 b) . .

R u les of Agreem ent

28 6 . A dj e c t iv e s, A dj e c t iv e Pr on ou n s, an d P ar t ic ip les ag e e r
wit h t h e ir n ou n s in Gen d er, N u m be r, an d Case
vi r f ort i s , a brave m an .

illa m ulie r, t hat wom an .

u rb iu m m agn at u m , of gre at it ies c .

c u m du c e n t i s m i lit ib u s , wit h t wo hu n dred sold i ers .

im p erat or t he ge n eral was beat en

vic t u s e st , .

s ec fi t ae su n t t e m pe s t at es , storm s f ollowed .

N O TE . All ru le s f or t h e j
agre e m e n t of ad e t iv e s ap p ly als o t o ad e t i ve c j c p ron o u n s
an d t o p art i ip le s c .

a. W it h t wo or m ore n ou n s t h e ad j e c t iv e is re gu larl
y p lu ral, bu t
of t e n agre e s w it h t h e n e are st
( e sp e c i ally wh e n at t ribu t iv e
)
N isu s et Eu ryalu s p ri m i ( Ae n . v . N i su s an d Eu ryalu s fi rst .

C aesaris om ni e t grat is e t . op ib u s fru or ( F am . i 9

. . I e n oy all C a
j es ar s
’
f avor
an d resou r es c .

N O TE —An ad j e ct i
v e re fe rrin g t o t wo n ou n s on n e t e d b y t h e p re p os it ion c c cu m is
cc
.

-I u b a c u m Lab i é n o c a t i Ju ba
o asion ally p lu ral ( sy n e sis , § 280 a) : as , p ( B Af r . . .

an d Labi e n us were t aken .

b . A c olle c t iv e n ou n m ay t ak e an ad j e c t i ve
d iffe re n t ge n de r of a

an d n u m be r agre e in g wi t h t h e ge n de r an d n u m b e r of t h e in d iv id u als

im p lie d ( s yn es is , 2 8 0 a) .

p ars c e rt are p arati ( A en . v. a p art read y to c on t en d .

c olon ias aliqu ot d ed u c t ae , F ri sei Lat i n i app e llati ( L iv i . . several c olon i es

were p lan ted ( le d ou t ) [of m en ] alled Old Lat i n s c .

m u lt it ud e c on vi c t i s u n t ( Tac A n n x v a m u lti tu d e were . . . c on vi ct d e .

m agn a p ars rap t ae ( id i . . a large p art [of t he wom e n ] were sei zed .

N O TE A
su p e rlat iv e in t h e p re di at e rarely t ak es t h e g en d e r of c a p art i t i v e g en i
c
.

t i ve b y wh i h it i s lim it e d : as , vew c i s si m u m an i m ali u m d e lp h i n u s e st ( Plin . N H

. .

ix . th e d olp h i n is th e swif t est [ re at u re] of c re at u res c .

17 2 Y
S N TA X : AD JEC TI VES 2 8 7 , 2 88

2 87 . On e j
ad ec t i e m ay v b elon g in s e n se t o t wo or mo re n ou n s

diff e re n t g en de rs . In s u c h c as e s ,

1 . A n At t rib u t iv e A dj e c t ive agre e s w it h t he r

n e a e st n ou n

m u lt ae Op e rae ac lab Oris, o f c

m u h t rou ble an d t oil .

vit a m oresqu e m e i , m y lif e an d c h ara t er c .

s i res , s i vir, si t e m p u s ullu m d ig n u m f u it ( Mil . if an y th i n g , if an y

m an , if an y t i m e was fi t .

2 A P re di c at e A dj e c t iv e m ay
. agree w it h t h e r
n e a e s t n ou n , if t h e
n oun s f orm on e c on n e c t e d id e a :

f ac t u s e st st re p it u s e t ad m u rm u rat i b (Ve rr . i . a n oise of as sent was m ade

(n oise an d m u rm u r ) .

N O TE .
— Th is is on ly wh e n t h e c op u la ag re e s w it h t h e n e arest s u b e j ct 3 17 . c) .

3 r r
Bu t ge n e ally , a P e d ic at e A d e c t iv e w ill be m asc u lin e, i f n ou n s
. j
of d iffe re n t g e n d e rs m e an li vi n g be in g s n e u t e r, if t h i n gs w i t h ou t

e :

u xor d e in d e ac lib e ri am ple xi ( Liv . 11

. t hen hi s wif e an d hi ldren c em bra ed c
hi m .

labor ( N .
) volu p t as qu e ( E ) so ci
q u ad am in t e r s e n at urali su n t i fi n c t a ( N )
e t at e .

( id . v . labor an d d elight are bou n d t og ether by a ert ain n at u ral alli c

c
an e .

4 . If diffe re n t g e n d e rs in c lu d e b ot h livin g b e in gs an d
n ou n s of

r
t h in g s wit h ou t lif e , a P e d ic at e Ad e c t iv e i s som e t im e s m asc u lin e ( or j
r
f e m in in e ) , som e t im e s n e u t e , an d som et i m e s agre e s i n g e n de r wit h
t he r
n e a e st if t h at i s p lu ral :
rex regiaq u e cla ssis i n a p rof e c t i Li v x xi
T ( . . t he kin g an d t he roy al fleet set
ou t t ogether .

an d a kin g are host ile .

leg atb s sort esq u e Orac u li e x s p e c t an d as

( id . v . t h at the am bas sad ors an d
t he rep lies f t he
o ora cl e s hou ld be wait ed f or .

a. Two or mo re ab st rac t n ou n s of the s am e g en d e r m ay h av e a

P re dic at e Ad j e c t ive in t h e n eu t er p lu ral
( cf . 289 c ) :
.

s t u lt it ia e t t em eri t as et in iii st it i a su n t f u g ie n da (F in iii . .

f olly , rash
n ess , an d inj u st i c e are [t h i n gs] t o be shu n n ed .

Ad j ect ives u sed S u bst ant iv ely

2 88 . A d j e c t iv e s are oft e n u se d as N ou n s ( su bst an t ve l i

y) , t h e
m asc u lin e u s u all
y t o de n ot e m en or
p eo
p le in
g en e ral O f t h at kin d,

t h e fe m in in e wom en , an d the n eu te r t hing s

1 74 S YNTA X : A D JEC TI VES —
2 8 9 2 91

b . Th e n eu t er p lu ra l is u se d to s ign ify ob ec t s j in g en era l h a in g v

t h e q u alit y d e n ot e d , an d h e n c e m ay s t an d f or t h e ab st rac t id e a

h on e st a, hon orable d eeds ge n e ral)

( in p rae t e rit a, t he p ast .
( lit .
, b y gon e s) .

on m es forti a lan d amt , all m en p raise bravery ( b rave t h in gs) .

0. A n eu t e r ad e c t iv e j m ay be u s e d as an ap p osit iv e o r
p re dic at e
n ou n wit h a n ou n of d iffe re n t ge n de r ( cf . 287 . a
):
t ri s t e lu p u s st ab u li s ( Ee l iii t he wolf [is] a grie vou s t hin g f or t he f old
. . .

v ari u m e t m ut ab ile s e m p e r f em in a ( A e n iv wom an i s ever a han g in g . . c

an d fi ckl e t h in g .

m alu m m ih i vid et u r esse m ors ( Tu sc . i . d eat h seem s t o m e t o be an evil .

d . A n eu t e r adj e c t ive m ay b e u s e d as an at t ri b u t ive or a p re di c at e

j
ad e c t iv e w it h an in fi n it iv e or a s u b st an t iv e c lau s e :

”
i St u c ip su m n on e sse ( Tus c i t hat very . . n ot t o be .

h um an u m e st e rrare , t o err is hu m an .

aliu d e st e rrare C aesare m n olle , ali u d n olle m ise reri ( Lig . it is on e t h in g

to be u n willi n g t hat C aesar shou ld err, anoth er t o be u n wi lli n g t hat he
shou ld p ity .

j ec t ives wit h Adve bial Force

Ad r

290 A n adj ec t i ve ag r e e in g wit h t h e su b j ec t or obj e c t is oft e n

.
, ,

u s e d t o q u alify t h e ac t ion of t h e v e rb an d s o h as t h e for c e of an ,

ad v e rb

p im e it h wa t h fi
r us v n t t c m ( c am fi t )
, e s e rs o o e e rs .

n ullu s d u b it o, I n o way d ou bt .

laet i au d iere , t hey were g lad t o h ear

-

e rat R om ae f re qu é n s R osc A m
( . . he was f t en
o at R om e .

s eru s in ca l
e um re d e as
( H or 0d . . 1 2
. . m ay st t hou retu rn lat e t o heaven .

Com p arat ives an d Su perlat ives

291 . Be side s t h e ir r eg u lar g n ifi c at ion si

( as in En glish) , t h e
for m s of c om p aris on are u se d as follows :

a. Th e C om p ar at iv e d en ot e s a c on s i d e rable or ex c ess i ve d e gre e of

li — b revior ra t h er s h ort
a q u a t y : as, , ; au dac ior, t oo bold .

b . Th e S u p e rlat i v e ( of e m i n en c e) oft e n d e n ot e s a very h ig h d e gre e

of a q u alit y w i t h ou t i m l
p y gi n a d i st in c t c om p ari son : as ,
— m on s
alt i s si m u s, a v ery hi g h m ou n t ai n .

N O TE .
—Th e Su p e rlat ive of Em in e n c
i s m u h u s e d in om p lim en t ary
e c c re fe re n c es
t o p e rsons an d m ay of t e n be t ran slat e d b y t h e s im p le p osit i ve .
 2 91- 2 93 ] C OMPA R A TI VES A ND SUPERLA TI VES 175

0. Wit h qu am , v el, or un u s t h e S u p e rlat i ve d e n ot e s t h e hig h es t p os

sible d e gree
qu am p lurimi , as m an y as p ossi ble .

qu am m axim e p ot est ( m axi m e qu am p o te st ) , as m u h as c c an be .

ve l m in im u s , the very leas t .

vir fi n u s doc t i s sim u s , the on e m ost learn ed m an .

N O TE 1 . A h igh d e gre e of a q u alit y i s also d e n ot e d b y s u h ad v e rb s as adm od u m , c

v ald é , very , o r b y pe r or p rae i n c om p osit ion 2 67 d as , — va1d é m alu s , ve ry bad :
.

pe ss i m u s ; pe rm agn u s , very g re at ; p raealt u s, very h ig h ( or d e ep ) .

N O TE 2 . A
low d egre e o f a q u ali t y i s in d i at e d b y su b in om p osi t ion : as , su b c c
c
rust i u s , ra t h er lown is hc or b y mi n u s , n ot very ; m i n i m e, n o t at a ll; parum n ot e n ou h
g ;
c
,

n on sat i s , n o t m u h .

. c
N O TE 3 — Th e om p arat i ve m ai ores ( for m aiores n at fi , g re at e r by birth ) h as t h e s p e
'

c
c ial sig n ifi at i on of an e st ors c
s o m i n ores of t e n m e an s d es e n d an ts c .

F or t h e S u p e rlat iv e wi t h qu i sq u e , se e 3 13 b F or t h e on st ru t ion of a su b st an t iv e . . c c
a ft e r a C om p arat iv e , s e e 406 , 407 f or t h at of a lau se , se e § 5 35 , 57 1 a F or t h e c . c .

A c
.

b lat ive of D eg re e of D iff e re n e wi t h a C om p arat iv e ( m u lt b s e e § 414 .

2 92 . Whe n t wo qu alit ie s of an j
ob e c t are c om p a e d ,r bot h adje c
t ives are in t h e C om p a at i e r v
lon gior qu am lat ior a ies erat ( Liv xxvu c . . t he lin e was lon g er than it was
broad ( or, rath er long t han broad ) .

ven or q u am grati ot ( id xx ii . . m ore tru e t han agreeable .

N O TE — So also w it h ad v e rb s : as , — 1i be n t i u s u am
q v é ri n s ( Mil . wi th m ore
f re ed om th an tru t h .

a. Wh e re m agis is u se d , b ot h j
ad e c t iv e s are in t h e p os it iv e :

di se rt u s m ag is qu am s api en s ( A t t x 1 . . . e loqu en t rat her t han wise .

c lari m agis q u am h on e s t i ( I u g m ore . ren own ed t han h on orable .

N O TE — A om p arat ive an d a p osit iv e , or e ve n t wo p osi t iv e s , are som e t im es c on

. c
n e c t e d b y quam Th i s u se i s rare r an d le ss e le g an t t h an t h ose b e fore n ot i ed :
. c
c lari s m di b ri b u s
qu am v et u st i s ( Tac An n i v of a f am i ly m ore f a m ous t h an
. . .

old .

veh em en t i u s
qu am c au t é (Tac Agr . . wi t h m ore f u ry th an g ood h eed .

2 93 . S u p e rlat iv es ( an d m r rar ely

o e C om p arat iv es) d e n ot in g
o r de r an d su c c e ssio n — als o m edi u s , [
c et eru s
] , reli qu u s — us u ally

de sign at e n ot what ob e c t , j bu t what p art f

o i t, i s m e an t :

s u mm u s m eu s , the t op of t he h ill .

in u lti m a p lat e a, at t he en d of t he p la c e .

c
pri or a t io, t he earli er p art of an a t ion c .

re li qu i c
ap t i vi , t he rest of t he p rison ers .

in c e lls m e di a (B G . half way u p t he hill ( on t h e m id dle

. i . of t h e h ill) .

in t e r c é t e ram p lan it ie m ( I u g i n a reg i on e lsewhere level . .

N OTE . A
s i m ilar u s e is f ou n d i n sé ri (m u lt a) n oc t e , la t e a t n i g h t , an d t h e lik e . But
m e di um vis e , t h e m idd le of th e way ; m u lt um d i ei , m u h of t he d ay , also o u r c cc .
17 6 S N TA Y X : PR ON OUN S 2 94 , 2 95

PRON OUN S

294 . A Pron ou n in d i c
pe rson or t h in g wit h ou t e it h e r n am in g or d e sc rib
at e s som e
i n g it Pron o u n s are d e ri ve d from a d ist i n t lass of root s , wh i h see m t o h ave d e n ot e d
. cc c
on ly id e as of p la e an d d i re t i on c 228 c
an d f rom whi h n ou n s or v e rb s c an ve ry . c
rare ly b e f orm e d Th e y m ay t h e re fore s t an d for N ou n s wh en t h e p e rson or t h in g ,
.

b e i n g alre ad y p re se n t t o t h e sen se s or i m ag in at ion , n e e ds on ly t o b e p oi n t ed ou t , n ot

n am ed .

c
S om e p ron ou n s in d i at e t h e ob j e t in i t se lf , wi t h ou t re fe re n e t o it s lass, an d h av ec c c
c
n o dist i n t ion of g e n d e r Th e se are Pe rson al Pron ou n s
. Th ey st an d sy n t a t i ally . c c
for N ou n s , an d h ave t h e sam e on st ru t ion as n ou n s c c .

O t h e r p ron ou n s d e sign at e a p art i u lar ob j e t of a lass , an d t ak e t h e g e n d e r of t h e c c c

i n div id u als of t h at lass Th e se are alle d c d j e t ive Pron ou n s
. Th e y stan d f or c A c .

A cd j e t i ve s , an d h ave t h e sam e on st ru t i on as ad j e t i ve s c c c .

O t h e rs are u se d in b ot h w ay s ; an d , t h ou gh alle d ad j e t ive p ron ou n s , m ay also b e c c

t re at e d as p e rson al, t ak in g , h owe v e r, t h e g e n d er of t h e ob j e t in d i at e d c c .

cc c
I n a ord an e w it h t h e i r m e an in g s an d u se s , Pron ou n s are las sifi e d as f ollows : c
Pe rson al Pron ou n s I n t e rrog at i ve Pron o u n s
De m on s t rat i ve Pron oun s R e lat iv e Pron ou n s
Re fl e xi ve Pron o u n s I n de fi n it e Pron ou n s
Posse ss i ve Pron oun s

Pe r s on al P ron ou n s
2 95 . Th e Pe rson al Pr on ou n s h av e in , ge n e al, r the s am e c on

st ru c t ion s as n ou ns .

a.Th e p e r son al p r on ou n s r
are n ot e xp e s se d as su b e c t s, ex c ep t j f or
di st in c t ion or e m p h as is
t e vo o, c
call y I B t ou . u ,

qu s i me c at g t e O wh i c alli g m
vo e o voc , o s n e i? I (e m ph at ic) am calling y ou .

b . Th e p er son al p on o n s h av e t wo f o r u rm s f or t h e ge n i t ive p lu al, r

t h at in -u m b e in g u se d p a rt i t i ve ly an d t h at in i oft e n e s t -

j
ob ec t i ve ly 3 48 )
m aior v e s t ru m , the
y ou elder o f .

h ab et is d u c e m m e m ore m v e s t ri , ob lit u m su i ( C at . iv .
y ou have a lead er
who t hin ks ( is m in df u l) of y ou an d f orget s ( is f orge t fu l of ) h i m self .

p ars nos t ru m , a p art (i . e . som e ) of us .

N O TE 1 . Th e ge n it i ve s n ost ru m ,
v e st ru m , are o cc asion ally u se d ob e t iv e ly j c
as , c u p i d u s ve st ru m ( Ve rr . iii .
f on d of y ou c ust os v e st ru m ( C at . i ii . t h e g u ar
d i an o y ou ( y ou r g u ardian )
f .

N O TE 2 On e o f t h e m selve s
. is e xp res se d b y fi nus ex s ui s or i p si s ( rarely ex
or un u s sn oru m .

c . Th e Lat in h as no p e s on al r r
p o f t h e t h ird p e
n ou n s o r so e xc e p t
n

t he re fle xiv e Th e wan t i s su p p li e d by a D e m on st rat i ve or R ela

t iv e 2 96 2, 3 08
. .
f) .
17 8 S YNTA X : PRON OU NS 2 97 , 2 98

b . I lle is u s e d of wh at is re m ot e
( in t im e , e t c
) ; an d is h e n c e c alle d

t h e d e m o n s t ra t i v e of t h e t h ird p e rs on .

also
“
I t i s s om u se d t o m e an t h e f orm u su all f ollow
e t im es er
( y
in g i t s n ou n
) of wh at i s f a m ou s or w e ll-kn own of t e n
( e sp e c i ally th e
n e u t er illu d) t o m e an “
t h e f ollow in g .

o. I st e i s u se d of
wh at i s be t w e e n t h e t w o ot h ers in e m ot en e ss r
o f t e n in allu s ion t o t h e p e rs on addre ss e d , — h e n c e c alle d t h e d e m on

s t ra t i ve of t h e s e c on d p erson .

It e sp ec ially r efers to on e s
’
op p on e n t
( in c ou rt , an d f re
qu e n t ly im p li es an t agon ism or c on t em p t .

. r
d I s i s a we ak e d em on st rat iv e t h an t h e r
ot h e s an d is e spe c iall
y
c om m on as a p e rson al p ron ou n . I t d o es n ot d e n ot e an y sp e c i al ob e c t , j
bu t re f e rs to on e j u st m e n t ion e d , or t o b e af t e rward s e xp lain e d by a

re lat iv e . Oft e n i t i s m e re ly a c orrelat iv e t o the re lat iv e qu i

ven it t u n s p u e r, i s m ih i li t t e ras ab s t e re d d idi t
m ihi ob vi am (A t t . n . 1 1).

y ou r boy m et m e , he d elivered t o m e a lett er f rom y ou .

c u m qu e m , on e whom .

s u m c On su le m qu i n On d u bit e t ( C at . iv . a c on su l wh o will n ot hesit at e .

e.Th e p ron ou n s hi c , ille, an d i s are u sed t o p oin t in e it h er d ire c t ion ,

bac k t o som e t hin g j u s t m e n t i on e d or f orw ard t o som e t h in g ab ou t t o
be m e n t ion e d .

Th e n eu t er f orm s of t en r e fe r to a c lau se , p h rase , or id e a

est i llu d qu ide m ve l m axim u m , an im u m vid ere
( Tu sc . i . t hat is i n t ru t h
a very g re at t hi n g, t o see the sou l .

f . Th e d em on st rat ive s are som e t im e s u se d as p ron ou n s o f re e r f

e n c e, t o in dic at e wit h em p h asis a n ou n or p h ras e j u st m en t io ed n

nfi llam virt us aliam m d esid e rat p rae t e r an

e rc é d e m an h c l di ( A ch s r .

vi rt u e wan ts n o other c
reward ex ep t that [j u s t m e n t ion e d ] o f p raise .

N O TE -B
u t t h e ordin ary En glish u se of th at of is h ardly k n ow n i n Lat in
. C om .

c c c
m ou ly t h e g en i t i ve on st ru t ion i s on t in u ed wit h ou t a p ron ou n , or som e ot h er c on
c
st ru t io n i s p re fe rre d :

c um ei S i m on id es art e m m e m ori ae p ollic é ré t u r : ob li v i on i s , i n q u i t , m alle m ( Fin i i . .

“ "
wh en S i m on id e s p rom i sed hi m t h e art of m e m ory , I sh ou ld p ref er,
”
s ai d he, [t h at ] of f org etf u ln ess .

C aes aris e x e rc it u s Pom p eian os ad Ph ars alu m vi c i t , t h e arm y o f C aes ar d ef e ate d

th at of P om p ey ( t h e Po m p e ian s) at P h arsalus .

298 . The m ain u se s of idem an d ip se are as follo ws

a. Wh e n
q u alit y or ac t i s as c ibe d w it h e m p h asi s t o a p e son
a r r
or t h in g alre ad
y n am e d ,
i s or i dem
( of t e n w it h t h e c on c e ss i e qu idem
) v
is u s e d t o in d ic at e t h at p e rson or t h ing
 D EMONSTR A TI VE PR ON OUN S

p er fi n u m se rvu m et c um ex gladiat orio lud o ( A t t i 16 by m ea n s . . . o f a

s i n gle slave , an d th at t oo one f rom t he g lad iat orial s hool c .

v in c ula, e t e a se m p it e rn a
( C at . iv . i m p ris on m en t , a n d that p erp et u al .

Ti Gra
. cch u s regn u m o cc u p are c on at u s e st , ve l regn avi t i s qui d e m p e n os c
m en sis ( Lael . Tiberi u s Gra cch us tri ed t o u su rp roy al p ower, or

rat her he c
a tu ally re ign ed a f ew m ont hs .

N OTE . So rare ly wi t h i lle : as, — n u n cd e x t ra in g e m in an s c

i t us, n un c ille sin i st ra

( Ae n . v . n ow d e ali n g re d ou ble d blows wi t h h i s ri g h t h a n d , n ow ( h e ) wi t h h is lef t .

[I n i m it at ion of th e H om e ri c 67 6 : of A e n v 3 34 ; ix
. . . .

I dem , t h e s a m e, i s of t en u se d wh e re t h e En glish r e qu ire s

b . an

ad ve rb or ad ve rb ial p hr ase ( a lso, t oo, y e t , a t t h e s a m e t i m e

)
Orat io sp len d id a et gran d is e t e ade m in p ri m is fa et a ( B ru t c . an orat ion ,
bri lli an t , able , an d very wit ty too .

c
c u m [h ae ] d i c at , n e gat i de m e sse in D e c) grat iam ( N D i
“

. . . when h e
say s t his , he d en i es also t hat t here is m er y wit h God ( h e , t h e c s am e m an ) .

N O TE — Th is i s re ally t h e s am e u se as i n a abo ve , b u t i n t h is
. c as e t h e p ron ou n
c an n ot b e rep re se n t e d b y a p ron ou n in En gli sh .

Th e in t en sive ip se, s elf , is u s e d wit h an y of t h e ot h e r p ron oun

c . s,

wi t h a n ou n , or wit h a t e m p oral ad ve rb f or t h e sak e of e m p h asi s

t urp e m ih i ips i vid eb at u r ( Ph il i . . even t o m e ( t o m e m y se lf) i t see me d
disgrac efu l .

id ip sum , t hat very t hi n g ; q u od ip s u m , whi h c o f i tse lf alon e .

in c u m ip s u m lo u m , t o t hat very p la ec c .

t u m ip s u m at that very ti m e .

N O TE 1 Th e e m p h as is of i p se is oft e n e xp re sse d in En glish b y j u s t , very , m ere , e t c

. .

N O TE 2 — I a En glish , t h e p ron ou n s h i m se lf e t c are u se d b ot h i n t e n si ve ly ( as , h e

. .

c
will om e h im se lf ) an d re fl e xive ly ( as , h e wi llki llh i m se lf ) i n Lat in t h e form e r wou ld
b e t ran slat e d b y ip se , t h e latt er b y st: or 868 6 .

d . I p se i s oft en u se d alon e , su b st an t i v ely ,

as f ollow s
1 . As an e m p h at i cp ron ou n of t h e t hird p e rson
i d qu e re i c
p ub li ae p rae c laru m , i p si s glOri Osu m ( Ph il 11 . . an d t h is was
sp len d id f or t he st at e , g lori ou s f or t hem selve s .

om n es b on i qu an t u m in ip s i s f ui t ( i d i i all good m en . . so f ar as was in

t heir p ower ( in t h e m se lve s) .

di c ap i ti ip si u s ge n e ri q u e rese rve n t ( A en v ui . . m ay t he gods h old i n

[su c h a f at e ] t o f all on h is own an d hi s tu law s h ead ’

reserve son - - .

2 . To em p h asiz e an om i t t e d su b j e ct of t h e fi rst or s e c on d p e rson :

c
vob is u m i p si rec ord am i n i ( Phil i i I ), . . re m em ber i n y ou r own m i n ds ( y ou r

selves wit h y ou rse lve s) .

3 . To d ist in gu i sh t h e p rin ip al p e rs on age from c su b ordi n at e p e rson s

i p se d ix it ( cf . a irrbs
’
he (t h e Mas te r) said it .

N em e n t an u s e rat su p e r ip su m ( H or . S . n . 8 . N om ent an u s was above [t h e

h ost ] him self [at t ab le ] .
180 S Y NT A X : P R ON O U N S 2 9 8 —3 00

e. I p se is oft e n ( is r
arely
) u se d in st e ad o f a re fle x iv e
( s ee 3 00 .

f . I p se u s u ally agre e s w it h t h e j
su b e c t , e ve n wh e n t h e re al e m
p h ar
s is in En glish i s on a re fle x i ve in t h e p re dic at e
m e ip s e c en solor ( Lae l . I c on sole m y se lf .
[N ot m e ip s u m , as t h e En g
lish wou ld le ad us to ex p ct ]
e .

R eflexive P ron ou ns
299 Th e R e fle x iv e Pr on ou n (s e) an d u su ally it s c orr e sp on din g
.
,

ssi v e su n s , are u s e d i n t h e r e dic at e t o r e fe r t o t h e s u bj e c t

p oss e ( ) p
of t he se n t e n c e or c lau se :

s é e x n avip roiec it ( B G iv . . . h e t hrew him self f rom the ship .

D u m n orig e m ad s é vo at ( id i c . . he c alls D u m n orix t o hi m .

s es e c ast ri s t e n eb an t ( id . i ii . t hey kep t t he m s elves i n am p c .

p u t an t ( C at M
c on t e m n i s é . . t hey t hi n k th ey are d esp i sed .

c
C aesar s u as op ias su b d uc i t ( B . G i . . C aesar leads up his troop s .

C aesar st at u it sibi R h en u m e sse t ran se u n d u m ( id iv C azsar d e i ded t hat . . c

c
he m u st ross t he Rh in e ( t h e R hin e m u s t b e rosse d b y h im self) c .

a. For re fle x iv e s of t he fi rst an d se c on d p s on s
e r the ob liqu e c ase s

of t h e p e rson al p ron ou n s ( m ei , t u i , e t c .

) an d t h e c o rre sp on din g p os
s es s iv e s are u se d :
( m eu s, t u u s , e t c
) .

m ort i m e ob t u li ( Mil . I have exp osed m y self t o d eath .

h iu c t é lim in a p e rfe r ( A e n i
ré gi n ae ad d o y ou g o . .
( b e ar y ou rself)
tc
hen e t o he q e u e n
’
s t hreshold .

q u id e st qu od t an ti s n bs in lab Orib u s e x e rc e am u s ( A r h
‘

c . what reason is
t here why we shou ld exert ou rse lve s i n s o great t oi ls
sin gu lis vobi s n oven os e x t u rm i s m an ip u lis qu e v e s t ri S im iles elig it e ( Liv .

xx i .
f or ea ch o f y ou p i k c ou t f rom t he s qu ad ron s an d m an ip les n i n e

li ke y ou rselves .

3 00 I n
. a su b o rdi n at e c lau se of a c om p le x s e n t e n c e t he re is a

d ou ble u se of R e fle x ive s .

1 . Th e re fle x i ve m ay alway s b e u se d to r ef e r t o the j
S u b e c t of it s
c lau se
own
( D irec t R eflex i ve ) :

i nd ic ari p ot est qu an t u m h ab e at in s é b on i on st an t ia (B G i it c an be c . . .

c
d et erm i n ed h ow m u h g ood fi rm n ess p ossesses ( h as in it se lf) .

c
[C aes ar] n Olu it c u m lo u m va are , n e Ge rm an i e s u i s fin ib u s t ran si re n t c
( id i
. C aesar d id n ot wish t h is p lac e t o lie va an t , f or f ear t he Ger
. c
c
m an s wou ld ross over f rom t heir t errit ories .

si q u a si gn ifi c at io v irt ut is elfi c e at ad qu am s e s im ilis an i m u s adp lic e t e t

ad iu n gat ( Lae l if an y sign of virtu e shi n e f orth t o whi h a s i m ilar

. c
di sp os it i on m ay at t a h itself c .
1 82 S YN TA X : P RO N OUN S 3 00, 3 01

qu i s e ex h i s m in us t im id 6 s e xi s t im ari voleb an t , n On s é b ost e m veré ri , se d

an gu s t ia
s it in e ris et m ag n i t ud in e m s ilvaru m q u ae i n t e rc ed e re n t in t e r
i p s cs ( t h e p e rs on s re ferre d t o b y s é ab ove ) at qu e A rio vist u m t im ere
d i c eb an t ( B G i . . . t hose of t he m wh o wished to be t hou ght less t im id
s ai d f ear the en em y bu t were af rai d of the n arrows an d t he
t hey d id n ot ,

vast ext e n t of t he f orests wh ic h were bet ween t he m selves an d A ri ovist u s .

au d i st is h up e r d i c e re 16gat 6 s Ty n d arit an c s Me rc u ri u m q u i s ac ris an n iver

s arn s ap u d e bs c ole ret u r e sse s u blat u m ( Ve rr i v y ou have j u st heard . .

t he am bassad ors f rom Ty n d aris say that t he st at u e of Merc u ry wh ic h was

worship p ed wit h an n u alrit es am on g them was t aken away [ H ere C i e ro . c
wave rs b e t we e n ap u d e bs c olé bat u r, a re m ark of h is own , an d ap u d s é
c oleré t u r, t h e w ord s of t h e am b ass ad ors e bs d oe s n ot st ri t ly re fe r t o . c
t h e am b assad ors , b u t t o t h e p e op le — t h e Ty nd arit an i ] .

3 01 . Sp e c ial u se s of t h e R e fle x i ve are t h e followin g :

a. Th e re fle xiv e in a su b ord in at e c lau s e som e t im e s re f e s r to the
j
s u b e c t of a su p p e ss e d r m ain c lau se

Fa t u sc om n i s lib ros qu es f rat e r s u n s reli qu isse t m ih i d On avit ( At t n . .

P tetu s gave m e all t he books whi h ( as h e said i n t h e ac t of d on at i on ) c

his brother had lef t hi m .

b . Th e r efle xiv e m ay re f e r t o an y n ou n or p ron ou n in it s Own c lau se

whic h i s so e m p h asi z e d as t o b e c om e t he j
s u b ec t o f d is c ou rs e :
S bc rat e m ci ves s u i in t erf ec eru n t , S o c rate s was p u t t o death by his own f e llow
c iti zens .

qu i p ot erat sah i s s u a c u iqu am n On p rob ari ( Mil how c an an y on e f ai l

’

t o ap p rove h is ow n s af et y ? [I n t his an d t h e p re e d in g exam p le t h e c

e m p h asis is p res e rve d in En glish b y t h e h an ge of v oi e ] c c .

h unc si se c ut i e ru n t s ui c om it es ( C at . ii . t hi s m an , if his c omp an ions

f ollow h im .

N O TE cc c
O asion ally t h e lau se t o whi h t h e refl e xi ve re ally b elon gs is ab sorb e d :
. c
as , st u d e o s an are si b i i p sb s ( C at 11 I am an xi ous t o u re th ese m e n f or t h eir own
. . c
be n efi t ( i e u t san i si b i si n t )
. . .

u sed
’
c . S uu s i s f or on e s own as e m p h at ic ally Op p ose d t o t h at f
o

ot h e rs in an y p art of the se n t e n c e an d w it h r e fe r e n ce t o an y w o d r
in it
su i s flam m is d elet e F i d en as (Liv iv d estroy F id en te wit h its . . own fi res
( t h e fi re s kin dle d b y t h at it y , fi gu rat ively ) [C f C at i c . . . .

d . Th e re fle xiv e m ay d e p e n d u
p on a ve rbal n ou n or ad e c t ive j
s ui lau s , sel fp raise
-
.

h ab et is d u c e m m e m ore m ve st ri , ob li t u m s u i ( C at . iv .
y ou have a lead er
m in dfu l of y ou , f org etf u l of hi m se lf .

p e rd it i h o m in es c u m s u i sim ilib u s s e rvis ( Ph il . i . aban d on ed m en with

slaves like t hem selves .
 3 01, 3 02 ] P OSS ESS VE PR ON OUN S I 1 83

e. Th e re fle xive m ay re fe r t o t he su b e c t j im p lie d i n an i n fi n it iv e
or ve r b al ab st rac t u s ed in d e fi n it e ly :

c on t e n t um su i s reb us e ss e m ax im ae su n t d i vit iae ( Par . t he greatest

wealt h is t o be c ont en t wi th one s own
’
.

c u i p rb p osit a s it c onse rvat io s u i ( F in . v . one whose ai m i s self—

p reservat ion .

f . I nt e r 85
( n ds, vds
) ,
am on g t h em s e lves ( ou rs elves , y ou rselves) , i s
re gu larl
y u se d to e xp re ss r e c ip roc al ac t io o r elat io n r n

in t e r s é c On fli gu n t ( C at i . . c t d wi t h a h t h
on e n e c o er .

in t er s é c on t in e n t ur ( A rc h . are j oin ed to eac h oth er .

ron ou n s Pos se s sive P

3 02 Th e Poss essiv e Pr on ou n s are de riv at iv e adj e c t iv e s wh ic h

.
,

t ake t h e g e n de r n u m b e r an d c ase of t h e n o u n t o whi c h they

, ,

be long , n ot t h ose of t h e p ossessor

h ae c Orn am en t s . su n t m ea ( Val i v. . t hese are m y j ewels .
[m ea is n e u te r

p lural; t h ou gh t h e sp e ak e r is a w om an ]

m ei su n t Ord in es , m ea d i sc ri p t io ( C at M m i n e are t he rows, m in e t he . .

arrang em en t [m ea is fe m in in e , t h ou gh t h e sp e ak er is C y ru s ]
.

m u lt a in n os t ra c p rae c lara ( id
ollegio [t h ere are ] m an y fi n e t hin gs in
.

ou r c ollege .
[n ost rd is n e u t er sin gu lar, t h ou gh m en are re fe rre d t o ] .

Ge rm an i s u es c op ias c as t ris ed ux eru n t ( B G i t he Germ an s led t hei r . . .

troop s ou t o f t he camp .

a. To e xp es s r p os s e s s ion an d s im ila r i d e as t h e p osse ssiv e p ro

n ou n s are re g u larly u se d , n ot t h e g en it iv e of t h e p e rson al or re fl ex iv e

p ron ou n s 3 43 . a
):
d om us m ea, m y hou se .
[Not dom u s m ei ] .

p at e r n ost er, ou r f at her [Not p at er nos t ri ]

.

p at rim on iu m t u u m , y ou r in heri tan c e [N ot . t ui .

]
c
N O T E 1 — Ex e p t i on s are rare i n lassi L at in , om m on in lat e r writ e rs
. Forc c c .

t h e u se of a po ss e ssi ve p ron ou n in st e ad o f an O b j e t i v e Ge n i t i v e , se e 5 348 a c . .

N OT E 2 — Th e In t e rrogat i ve Poss e ss iv e ui u s , -a, -u m , o u rs i n p o e t ry an d e arly

. c cc
Lat i n : as , — c d i u m pec u s ( Eel i ii wh ose fl o k Th e g e n it iv e c hi n s i s g e n e rally u se d
. . c
in st e ad .

b . Th e p osse ssiv e s h av e of te n t h e ac q u ire d m e an in g of p ec u li ar t o,

f a vorable or p rop i t i o u s t owa rds , t h e p e rson or t h in g sp ok en of :

[p et ere ] u t s u d clem e n t i a ac m an su et fi din e fi t at u r ( B . G ii
. . t hey asked

( t h e y said ) that he wou ld show his [won t e d ] c l m cy

e en and hu m an it y .

i gn oran t i q u e m p ort u m p e tat n ullus s u n s ve n t us e st ( S en Ep 7 1 . . . to

hi m who kn ows n ot what p ort he is bou n d t o, n o wi nd is f air ( h is own ) .

t e m p ore t u b p ugn ast i ( Liv . xxx viii . 45 . d id y ou fi ght at a fi t t i m e

N OT E .
— Thi s u se is m e rely a n at u ral d e ve lop m e n t
. of t h e m e an in g of t h e p o sse ss
i ve , an d t h e p ron ou n m ay Oft e n b e re n d e re d li t e rally .
184 Y
S NTA X : PRONOUN S 3 02 , 3 03

c . Th e p osse ss ive s are re gu larly om it t e d l

( e
ik ot h e r p ron ou n s
)
wh e n t h e y are p lain ly i m p li e d in t h e c on t e xt
so c i u m f rau d avit , he h eated his p artn er c .
[s oc iu m wou ld b e d is t in t ive ,
su u m c
h is p art n er ( an d n ot an o t h e r s ) s u u m
’
s oc i u m , e m p h at i , hi s own p art n er
] c .

d . Posse s si ve p ron ou n s an d j
ad e c t ive s i m p ly in g p os session are

oft e n u s e d su b s t an t i ve ly t o d e n o te s om e sp e c i al c lass or e lat ion r :

n ost ri , ou r c ou n t ry m e n , or m en o f p art y
ou r .

s u ds c on t in eb at (B G i
. . . he held h is m e n in ch ec k .

flam m a e xt rem a m c cru m (Aen . n . last flam es o f my c ou n try m en .

S u llan i , t he vet eran s o f S u lla s arm y ; ’

Pom p eian i , t he p art isans of P om p ey .

N O TE —Th e re i s n o re ason t o
. s u p p ose an e llip s is h e re . Th e j
ad e t ive c be c om e s

a n ou n lik e o t h e r ad j e t i ves ( s e e c
e. A p osse s siv e p ron ou n or an ad e c t iv e im p ly in g p os se ss ion m ay j
t ake an ap p os it iv e i n t h e g en it i ve c as e agre e in g i n g e n d e r, n u m b e r,

an d c as e w it h an im p lie d n ou n o r p ron ou n :

m e a s bli u s c au s a ( Ter . H e au t .
f or m y s ake on ly .

in ( Mil
n os t ro om ni u m flet u . am id t he t e ars of u s all .

e x An n i an aMilOn is d o m o ( A t t . iv 3 . . ou t o f A n n i u s M ilo’s hou se .

[Eq u iva
le n t t o ex A nni Milbn is dom 6 .
]
n os t ra om ni u m p at ria, th e ou n t ry of u s c all .

su u m i p si u s regn u m , hi s own ki n gd om .

F or t h e Sp e ci al re fl e x iv e u se of t h e p os se ss iv e su n s , s e e 299 , 300 .

R elat ive Pron ou n s

3 03 . A R elat i ve P ron ou n ag re e s wi t h s om e w ord e xp re sse d or i m plie d e it h e r in

it s o wn c lau se , or ( O ft e n ) i n t h e c
an t e e d e n t
I n t h e f u lle st c on ( d e m on st rat i ve ) cl au s e .

c c
st ru t ion t h e an t e e d e n t i s e xp re s s e d i n b ot h lau se s , wit h m ore o m m on ly a orre c c c
c
sp on d i n g d e m on s t ra t i ve t o wh i h t h e relat i v e re f e rs : as , —i t e r i n e a loc a f a e re c oe p it , c
q ui b u s i n loc i s e sse Ge rm an os au d i é b at ( B G i v h e beg an t o m ar h i n t o t h ose . . . c
PL A C ES c
i n whi h P L C E S h e h eard t h e Germ a n s we re A B u t on e o f t h e se n ou n s is c om .

m on ly Om it t e d .

c
Th e an t e e d e n t is i n Lat i n ve ry f re qu e n t ly ( rarely in En glish ) fou n d in t h e re lat i v e
c c
lau se , b u t m ore o m m on ly i n t h e an t e e d e n t lau se c c .

Th u s re lat i ve s s e rve t wo u se s at the s am e t im e :

A c
A s N ou n s ( or d j e t i ve s) i n t h e i r o wn lau se : as , — c i q ui Ales i ae Ob si d é b an t u r
1 . c
( B G vii
. t h ose wh o were besi eg e d at A lesi a
. . .

. c
2 A s C on n e t iv es : as, — T B alve n t i us , q ui s u p e riore an n o p ri m u m p i lu m d fi x e rat
.

( id v . Tit u s B alve n t i u s , wh o t h e y e ar b ef ore h ad bee n a e n t u rio n of t h e fi rst ran k

. c .

Wh e n t h e an t e c e de n tis in a d i ffe re n t se n t e n c e, the re lat i v e is O ft e n e q u iv ale n t

t o a d e m on st rat i v e c c
w it h a on j u n t ion : as , — qu ae c um i t a sin t et c u m ea i t a s in t ) ,
[an d] s in c e thi s i s so .

Th e su b ord in at in g f or c did t b l
e no e on g to the re lat ive origi n ally , b u t w as d e velop ed
from an in t e rrogat ive or n e i d fi it m n e e an i n g s p e ci ali z e d by u se . B u t t h e s u b o rd i n at
i n g an d t h e lat e r on n e ve c ct i f c w or e e re a cq i u re d b y q u i at su c h an e arly p e ri od t h at
t h e st ep s of t h e p ro e ss an n o c c t wb no e t ra cd
e .
18 6 S YNTA X : P RON OUN S 3 06 , 3 07

a. A r elat ive oc c as ion ally ag e e s r w i t h it s an t e c e den t in c as e

a t t rac t i on
)
s i aliq u id ag as e dru m qu bru m c en su est i
( F am v . . if y ou s hou l
d do s om e
t h in g o f what y ou are u sed to d o .
[F or e bru m qu ae ]
N O TE .
—o cc asion ally t h e an t e e d e n t c is c
at t ra t e d in t o t h e c as e o f t h e re lat iv e
u rb e m
q u am st at u e v e st ra e s t ( Ae n . i . th e c
i t y wh i h c I am f ou n d i n g is y ou rs
c c
.

N au c rat em , q u e m o n ve n i re v olu i , in n avi n On e rat ( Pl A m . . N au rat es ,

wh om I wi sh ed t o m e e t , was n ot on board t h e sh ip .

b . A re lat v e i m ay agre e in g e n d e r an d n u m be r w it h an i mp li ed
an t e c e d e n t

qu art u m ge n u s qu i in vet e re ae re alien o va illan t ( C at 1 1 c . . a f ou rt h

c
las s , who are staggeri n g u n d er old debts .

un u s e x e O n u m ero qu i p arat i e ran t ( I u g one of t he n u m ber .

[of t h ose ]
who were ready .

c on iuravere c
p au i , d e qu a [i e c on i urat i On e ] d ic am ( Sall C at
. . . . a f ew
have c c c
onsp i red , of wh i h [ on sp ira y ] I wi ll sp eak c .

N OT E .
— So re g u larly wh e n t h e c
an t e e d e n t i s i m p lie d i n a possessive p ron ou n : as ,
n ost ra c
a t a, q u es t y ran n Os vo ca s ( Vat . th e d eed s of u s , wh om y ou all t y ran t s c .

[H e re qu ds ag re es wit h t h e n ost ru m ( g en it i ve p lu ral) i m p li e d i n n ost ra ]

An t eceden t of t h e R elat ive

3 07 . Th e An t e c e de n t N ou n s om e t im e s ap
p e a s r in b ot h c lau s e s
bu t yu su all on ly in t h e on e t h at p re c edes . S o m e t im e s it is
wh olly om it t e d .

a. Th e an t e c e de n t n ou n m ay be rep e at e d in t h e r elat ive c lau se

loc i n at ura e rat h ae cq m ue loc u m n ost ri d elege ran t (B G . . ii . t he n at u re

of t he g rou n d whic h ou r m en h ad ch osen was thi s .

b . Th e an t e c e d en t n ou n m ay ap p e a r on l
y i n the r elat ive c lau se ,

agre e in g w it h t h e relat iv e in c as e

q u as rice in c b n su lat u n ost rb gess im u s at t igit h i c ve rsib u s ( Ar h c . he has

c
t ou hed i n verse t he t hi ngs wh i h I d i d i n m y ons u lship c c .

q u ae p ri m a in n oc e n t is m
ih i déf é n sib est ob lat a su sc ep i ( S u ll . I u n der
t ook the fi rst d ef e c
n e o f an i n no c ent m an t hat was ff
o ered me .

N O TE .
— In t hi s c as e t h e re lat ive cl au se u su ally c om e s fi rs t (c f . 308 . d) an d a
d e m on s t rat ive u su ally st an d s 1n
'

t h e an t e c e den t cl au se :

q u ae pars ci it at e m po p u lo Rom an o i n t u lerat , ea p ri n e p s po sn as p e r

v it at i s c alam c
solv i t ( B G i t h at p art of th e s t at e wh i h h ad brou g h t dis as t er on th e
. . . c
R om an p eop le was t h e fi rst t o p ay t h e p en alt y .

c
q uae g rat i s a rru m f u it vi vi s , ead em se q u i t u r ( A e n v i t h e s am e p le asu re . .

c
t h at t h ey t ook i n h ari ot s i n t h ei r life t i m e f ollows th em ( aft e r d e at h ) .

q u i fi t u t n é m o, q u am s ib i sort e rn rat io d e d e ri t , i lli c on t e n t u s vi vat ( c f H or S i . . . .

1 . h ow d oe s i t h app en t h at n o on e li ves c on t e n t ed wi th t h e lot wh i h h oi c c c e

h as as si g n e d h i m ?
 3 07, 3 08] R ELA TI VE PR ON OUNS 1 87

c . Th e an t e c e d en t m ay be om it t e d , e s e c iall
p y if it i s in d e fi n it e
g u i d e c im ae le g iOn is aq u ilam f e rebat (B G . . iv .
[t h e m an ] who bore t he
eag le of the t en t h leg i on .

qu i c Ogn Osc e re n t m isit ( id . i . he sen t [m en ] to c

re on n oitre .

Th e p h rase id qu od m ay b e d i
d . or quae res u se
( ns t e ad of qu od
alon e) t o r ef e r t o a g rou p of w ord s or an ide a °

[Ob t re c t at u m es t ] Gab i n io d ic am an n e Pom p eio an u t ri qu e — i a qu od est

vé rin s ? ( Ma nil an af ron t h as been — I
'

.
fi
o ered sh all say t o Gabin iu s
or t o P omp ey 7 or c
wh i h i s t ru er t o both
m u lt u m su n t in ven at iOn ib u s , q u ae res vi ré s alit
(B G . . iv . t hey sp en d
c
m u h t im e i n h u nt i n g , wh i h c [p rac t ic e ] i nc reases t hei r st re ng th .

N O TE Bu t qu od alon e O f t e n oc c u rs : as ,
. C assiu s n ost er, q u od m ih i m ag n ae volu p
t at i f u i t , h os te m ré i éc e rat ( Fam i i ou rf ri en d C as si u s — wh i h was a gre at s at i s
. . c
f a c
t i on t o m e — h ad d ri ven ba k t h e e n e m y c .

e. Th e an t e c e den t n ou n , wh e n i n app osi t ion w it h t h e m ain c lau se ,

or w it h som e word Of i t , i s p u t in t h e re lat iv e c lau se

f irm i [am i c i ] , c fi iusg e n e ri s e st m agma p en uria ( Lae l st e adf as t f ri en d s, .

c la f
a ss o c c c
whic h there i s great la k ( of wh i h lass t h e re is ,

f . A p r e dic at e ad j e c t iv e ( esp e c ially a su p er lat iv e) b e lon gin g t o t h e

an t e c e de n t m ay st an d in t h e relat i v e c lau se
v asa e a qu ae p u lc h ern m a ap u d c u m vi d erat ( Ve rr iv t hose m ost beau t i
‘

. .

c
f u l vessels wh i h he had seen at his hou se [N e arly eq u ivale n t t o t he .

c
vesse ls of whi h he had seen som e very beau t ifu l on es ]

S pec ial Us es of t h e R elat ive

3 08 . I n t he u se of R e lat iv e s, t h e followin g p oin t s are t o be

Obse rv e d
a. Th e relat ive is n e ve r O m it t e d in Lat in , as it O ft en i s in En g
lish
lib er qu e m m ih i d e d ist i , t h e book y ou g ave m e .

is su m qui se m p e r f u i , I am t he s am e m an I alway s was .

e d in 100 6 e st d e qu d t ib i loc ut u s su m , he i s i n t he p la e I t old y ou c f

o .

b . Wh e n t w o relat iv e c lau se s are c on n e c t e d by a c op u lat iv e c on

j u n c t ion , a relat iv e p ro n oun s om e t im e s st an d s in t h e fi rs t an d a

d e m on st rat iv e i n t h e last
e rat p rofe c t us ob viam le gi on ib u s Mac e d on ic i s qu at t u or, qu i s s ib i on iliare c c
c
p e un ia c Ogit ab at e as qu e ad u rb e m ad d u e re ( F am x ii 2 3 he had c . . .

c
s et ou t to m e e t f ou r legi on s f rom Ma ed on i a, wh i h he t hou ght t o wi n over c
t o h im self by a g if t of m on ey an d t o lead ( t h e m ) t o t he it y c .
188 S Y N TAX : PR ON OUN S 3 08

c . A re at iv e c lau se
l in Lat in t ake s t h e p lac e of som e o t h e
O f t en r
r
c on s t u c t ion in En glish , p art i c u larly of a
p art ic i le , an a
p p p os it iv e ,
or a n ou n O f ag e n c y

c
leges qu ae n u n su n t , t he exist i n g laws ( t h e laws wh i h n ow e xist ) c .

C aesar qu i Galliam vi c it , C ae sar t he on qu eror of Gau l c .

i nsta gloria q u i es t fru t u s vi rt ut is ( Pison c

t ru e g lory [wh i h is] the f ru it . c
of virtu e .

ille q u i p e t it , t he p lain t iff ( h e wh o su es) .

qu i legit , a read er ( on e wh o re ads) .

d . I n f orm al or e m p h at ic d is c ou r se ,
the r elat iv e c lau s e u su ally

c om e s fi rst , Of t e n c on t ain in g t h e an t e c e de n t n ou n
(cf . 3 07 b) .

qu ae p ars ci H e lvet iae i n si gn e m c alam i t at e m p op u lb R e m an d in t u le rat ,

vit at is

c
e a p ri n e p s p o e n as p ersolvi t ( B G i t he p ort i on of t he H elveti an . . .

c
st at e whi h had brou ght a seri ou s disast er on th e R om an p eop le was t h e

fi rst t o p ay t he p en alty .

c
N O TE — I n olloqu ial lan gu ag e , t h e relat i ve lau se in su h as e s O ft en on t ain s a
. c c c c
re d u n d an t d e m on s t rat i ve p ron ou n w h i h log i ally b e lon g s in t h e an t e e d e n t c lau se : c c c
as , — i lle q u i c On su lt é c
av e t , d i ut i n é ut i b e n e li e t p art u m b e n e ( Plau t Bu d c . .

h e wh o i s on h is g u ard , h e m ay lon g enj oy wh at h e h as we ll obt ai n e d .

e. Th e re lat ve i w it h an ab s t rac t n ou n m ay be u se d in a p are n t h e t

i c al c lau se t o c h a ra c t eri z e a p e rs on , like t h e En glish su c h :

q u ae p rud e n t ia e s t ( C ae l
ve st ra su h i s y ou r wisdom [Equ ivalen t t o
. c .

l]
prb ve s t ra p rud e n t i a
au d iss es c b m oe d b s ve l lec t b re m ve l ly rist en , ve l, qu ae m e a lib eralit as , o m n es

( Plin Ep i
. . .
y ou wou ld have li st en ed t o om ed i an s , c or a reader, or a

ly re-p lay er, or — c

su h i s m y li be rali t y — t o all of t hem .

f . A re lat iv e p ron ou n
( or ad v e rb
) O f t e n st an d s at t h e be g in n in g of
an in de p e n d en t s en t en c e or c lau se , s e rv i n g to c on n e c t i t w it h t h e

se n t e n c e or c lau s e t h at pre c e de s :

C aes ar s t at u it e xsp e c t an d am qu ae u b i c on ven it ( B G iii

c lasse m ; . . .

c
C aesar d e id ed t hat h e m u st wai t f or t he fleet ; an d wh en t h i s h ad c om e

t oget her, et c .

qu ae qu i au d ieb an t , an d t hose who heard t his ( wh ic h t h in gs) .

qu ae c u m it a S in t , an d s i n e t his i s so c .

qu eru m q u od S im ile f a t u m ( C at iv c
what d eed of t heirs like th is ? . .

qu b c u m ven isse t , an d when he had c om e t here ( wh it h e r w h e n h e h ad c om e ) .

N O T E — Th is arran g e m e n t i s
. c om m on e v e n w h e n an ot h e r relat ive or an i n t e rrog
at i v e f ollow s Th e relat iv e m ay
. u su ally be t ran slat ed b y an En gli sh d e m on st rat iv e ,
wit h or w it h o u t an d .

g . A re lat i v e adv e r b is re gu la ly u se d i r n re f e rrin g t o an an t ec e de n t

in t h e Loc at ive c ase ; S O , Of t e n , t o e xp re ss an y re lat ion O f p lac e in st e ad

Of t h e f orm al r elat ive p ron ou n

1 90 Y
S N TA X : PR ON OUN S 3 11-3 13

3 11 . In a p art ic u lar n eg at i ve aliqu is (ali qu i) , som e on e

(som e) , is
r egu larly u se d, wh e r e in a u n ivers al n e gat i ve qu is qu am , an y on e ,

or nllu s , an y , w ou ld be re qu ire d
ius t it ia n u m q u am n oc e t c u iqu am
( F in . i .
j u st ic e n ever d oes harm t o an y
body .
[alic u i wou ld m e an t o som ebody who p ossesses it .
]
withou t
‘

n On s in e ali qu b m e t ir, n ot s om e f ear Bu t , sin e 6 116 m e t ii , withou t

’

an y f ear .

h ab e as ( Tu sc i when th ere is
‘

c u m ali qu id n c m . . s om eth in g y ou h ave n ot .

N O TE .
— Th e sam e c
d ist in t i on h old s b et w e e n q u i s an d ali q u i s on t h e on e h an d , an d
c
qu i squ am ( fi llu s) on t h e ot h e r, i n on d it ion al an d ot h e r s e n t e n e s wh en a n e g at ive is c
e xp re sse d or su gg e st e d
si q u i sq uam , i lle sap i en s f u it ( Lae l if an y m an was ( e ve r) a s ag e , h e was . .

d u m p rae sid i a fi lls f u é ru n t ( R ose Am . wh i le t h ere were an y ar med f or es

. . c .

8 1 qu i d in t é p e avi ( At t i i i 15 cc if I h ave d on e wron g t oward s y ou [in an y

. . .

c
p art i u lar as e ( se e c
3 12 w ill s qu am , an d t h e
.
Qu ivi s or qu ilibet ( an y on e y ) , qu i ou c or

re sp on di n g j
ad e c t i e fi llu s , v an
y fi
at all, are g en eral in d e n i t e s .

Qu i vi s and qu ilibet are u se d c h i e fly i n afi rm at i ve c lau se s, qu i squ am

an d fi llu s in c lau se s wh e re a u n i vers a l n eg a t ive i s e xp re sse d or su g
ge st e d
n On c u ivi s h om in i c on t in git ad i re C orin t h u m ( H or Ep i 17 . . . . it is n ot every
c
m an s lu k t o g o t o C orin t h
’
[n an c u i qu am wou ld m ean . n ot an y m an
’
s .
]
qu e m lib et m od o aliqu em ( A c ad . ii . an y body y ou wi ll, p rovided it be
s om ebod y .

si qu i squ am e st t im id u s , is e go su m
( F am . vi . 14 . if an y m an i s t im orou s ,
I am he .

81 te m p u s est ullu m ifi re h om in is c
n e an di ( Mil .
if t here i s an y cc a i
o s on

what ever when h om i id e i s j u stifi c able .

N O TE - Th e u se of t h e in d e fi n it e s i s v e ry v ariou s , an d m u st b e le arn e d f rom t h e

.

c
Le xi on an d f rom p ra t i e c c c c
Th e h oi e am on g t h e m m ay d e p e n d m e re ly on t h e po in t
.

o f v i e w of t h e sp e ak e r, so t h at t h e y are oft e n p ra t i ally i n t e r h an ge ab le Th e di ffe r c c c .

on c e s are ( wit h f ew c pti

ex e on s ) t h ose of logi c ,
n ot of sy n t ax .

3 13 . Th e dist ribu t iv es qu i squ e ( e ver

y) , u t erqu e
( e ac h of t wo) , an d

fi nu s qu isqu e ( e ver
y sing le on e ) are u se d in ge n e r al asse rt ion s :
b on us lib er m e lior qu i s qu e qu o m aior ( Plin Ep i 2 0
e st t he larg er a . . . .

g ood book i s , t he better ( e a h good b ook is b e t t e r i n p rop ort ion , c

am b o e xe rc it us su as qu i s qu e ab e u n t d om os ( Li v 11 7 bot h arm i es g o . . .

away , every m an t o his hom e .

u t erqu e u t ri qu e e rat e xe r c it i as n c On spe c t u (B G . . vii . ea ch arm y was

in sight o f t he ot her ( ac h t
e o ea ch ) .

p en it e an t e o c u lOs fi n u m qu e m qu e regu m
( Par . i . se t before y ou r ey es ea ch
of t he kin gs .
 3 13 , 3 14] I N D EF INI TE PR ON OUN S 1 91

Qu i squ e re gu larly st an d s in a d e p e n de n t c lau se , if t he re is on e :

q u O qu i s qu e es t s olle rt io r, h Oc d oc e t i rac u n d iu s (R ose . C om . t he kee n er
witt ed a m an is , the m ore i mp atie n t ly he tea hes c .

N O TE u i sq u e is ge n e rally po st pos iti ve 1 : as s u um c u i u e own

.
Q , q , to e very m an h is .

b .
Qu is qu e i s id iom at ic ally u sed w it h su p e rlat iv e s an d wit h ord in al

n u m e rals

n Ob iliss im u s qu i s qu e , all t he n oblest ( on e aft e r t h e ot h e r in t h e ord e r of t h e ir

2
n ob ilit y ) .

p ri m e q u bqu e t e m p ore ( B os Am at t he very fi rst opp ort u n ity c . . .

an t i q u iss im u m qu odq u e t e m p u s ( B G i t he m ost an ient ti m es . . . c .

c
d e i m u s q ui s q u e ( id . v . on e i n t en .

N O TE 1 — Two su .
p e rlat i ve s w it h q u i sq u e i m p ly a p ropo rt ion : as , sap ie n t iss im u s

q u isq u e ae q u i ss im o an im o m ori t u r ( C at M t h e wis es t m e n d i e wi th th e g reat est

. .

e q u an i m i t y .

N O T E 2 —Qu ot as q u i squ e h as t h e sig n i fi at ion of h ow m an y , p r ay

. of t e n in a d is c
p arag in g se n se ( how f ew)
q u ot u s e n im q u i squ e d ise rt u s ? q u ot u s qu i sq u e i fi ris p e ri t u s est ( Plan e f or h ow .

f e ware e loq u en t h ow f e ware le arn e d i n t h e law

q u ot u s e n im is t u d q u i sq u e f é c i ss e t ( Li g f or h ow m an y wou ld h ave d one t h is ? .

[i . e . c c
s ar e ly an y b od y wou ld h av e d on e it ] .

3 14 . NEm G, n o on e , is u se d of p e s on s o nl r y
1 . As a su b st an t iv e :

n ém inem ac c usat , he cc
a u ses n o on e .

2 . As an ad e c t iv e j p ron ou n in st ead of n fi llu s :

vi r n é m b b on u s ( Le gg . 11 . no g ood m an .

Eve n wh en u s e d as a su b s t an t i v e , n é m b m ay t ak e a in ap po sit ion

’

N OTE .
- n oun .

as , — n é m 6 sc ri pt or, n obod y [wh o i s] a wri t er .

a. Nullu s, n o, ; b u t in t h e ge n it ive an d
is c o m m on ly an ad e c t iv e j
ablat iv e s in gu lar it i s r
e g u larly u se d in st e ad of t h e c o re sp on din g r
c ase s of n é m b, an d in t h e p lu ral i t m ay b e e it h e r an ad e c t ive or a j .

su b st an t i ve
nfi llu m m itt it u r t é lu m ( B C 11 n ot a m issi le is t hrown
. . . .

n ullo h ost e p ro h ib e n t e
( B G i ii wi thou t op p osi t ion f rom the en em y
. . . .

n ulli u s i n se c t o r c alam it at e m ( Ph il ii I p ersecu t e t h e m isf ortu n e of n o on e. . .

mi ll?) ad iu van t e ( id x with th e help of n o on e ( n o o n e h elp in g)

. . .

n fi lli e ran t p raed b n es ( Plac e t here were n o p irat es . .

mi ni e x im e n t u r ( Pis on n on e shall be t aken away

. .

F or n bn n é m b, n an n ullu s ( n bn mi ni ) , see 326 a . .

1 Th at is , it d oes n o t st an d fi rs t in it s lau s e c .

2 A s , in t ak in g t hin g s o n e b y on e o ff a p ile , ea ch t h i n g is u p p e rm ost whe n y ou

t ak e it .
1 92 S YNTAX : PR ON OUN S 3 15

A lias an d A lt e r

3 15 s im p ly ot he r, an ot her
. Aliu s m e an s ( of an i n d e fi n it e num

be r) ; alt e r, t he ot he r
( Of t wo) , of t e n the se c on d in a se r ies ; c et eri

an d reli qu i , all t he rest , t he ot he rs alt eru t er, on e o f t he t wo

p rop t ere a q u od ali u d it e r h ab é re n t n ullu m (B G . . i . c

be au se ( as t hey
said ) t hey had n o other way .

uni e p is t n lae re sp o n d i , ve n io ad alt eram ( F am . 11 . 17 . on e let ter I h ave

an s wered , I c om e t o t he other .

alt eru m ge n u s lass

( C at 11. .t he sec on d c .

iec isse m ip se m e p ot in s i n p rofu n d u m u t c é t eros on se rvare m ( Se s t c . I

shou ld have rather thrown m y sel f in t o t he d eep t o save t he rest .

S e rvi liu s co n su l, re liq u i q u e m ag is t rat us (B . C iii

. . S ervi li u s the c on su l

an d t he rest o f th e m agist rate s .

c
c u m sit n e ess e alt e ru m u t ru m vin e re c ( Fai n . vi . si n e c it m u st be t hat on e

of the two shou ld p revail .

N O TE .
-
A1t er is o ft e n u se d , e s e
p ci ally wit h n e g at iv e s , in re fe re n c e t o an i n d e fi n it e

n u m b er w h e re on e is op p os e d t o all t h e res t t ak e n s in g ly :

du m né s it t é d i t ior alt er ( H or S i 1 . . . . so lon g as an oth e r is n ot ri ch er t h an

y ou ( lit th e oth er, t h e re b e in g at t h e m om e n t on ly t wo p ersons o n s id e re d )

. c .

n On u t m ag is alt e r, am i u s ( id i 5 c
a f rie n d su c h t h at n o ot h e r i s m ore s o
. . . .

a. Th e e xp re s sion s alt er alt e r ,

t he on e t he ot h e r, aliu s

aliu s, on e a n o t h e r, m ay be u se d i n p airs t o d e n ot e e it h e r d i vis i on

of a grou p or re c ip roc i t y Of ac t i on

alt e ri d i m ic an t , alt eri vic t b re m t im e n t ( F am . vi . on e p arty fi ghts ,

t he
ot her f ears the vi ct or .

alt erarn alt e ri p raesidio e sse i usse rat ( B C . . iii . he had ord ered ea ch ( of

t h e t wo le gion s) t o supp ort the ot her .

alii glad u s ad oriu n t u r, alii frag m e n t is s aep t Oru m ( Se st . som e m ake an

c
at ta k with swords , ot hers wit h f ragm ent s of t he rai li n g s .

aliu s e x ali b ca
q u aerit ( B G
u sam . . vi . t hey ask ea ch ot her t he reason .

ali u s ali u m p e rc on t am u r ( Pl S t i h . c . we keep aski ng ea ch other .

I) . Aliu s r a e oft en u sed t o e xp re ss

an d alt e as w e ll as a
r the on e no r

( t h e t h e ) of t h e obj e c t s e f e e d t o
o r r rr

alt O l m
er c f t h [t w ] c
n su u l , on e o e o on su s .

li d
a u t m l di es li d cc u a ( C a l
a e it i
c e re , t hi g t
a u l d a s re e . s on e n o s an er,

a th t acc no er o u se .

c .Aliu rep e at e d in an ot h e r c ase o w it h an ad v erb f r om t h e s am e

s
,
r

st e m , e xp re s se s b rie fly a d ou b le st at e m e n t :

aliu s ali u d p et it , on e m an seeks on e t hi n g , an other an other ( an ot h er s eek s

an ot h er t hin g) .

'

i u ssit alias alibi fode re ( Liv . xliv . he ordered d ifi eren t p erson s t o d ig in

‘
d igere n t p la es c .

alii all?) 1006 re s ist eban t ( B C . . som e halt ed in one p la e, som e i n an ot her.c
1 94 S YN TA X : VER B S [ g 3 17

b . I f t he j
su b e c t s are c on n e c t e d by di s j u n c t ive s 2 23 . a ) ,
or if
t h e y are c on s i de re d as a s in gle wh ole, t h e ve rb is u su ally s in g u lar :

qu e m n e qu e fi d es n e qu e ius i uran d u m n e qu e i liu m m ise ri c dia or re pre ss it

( Te r . Ad . n ot f aith, n or oat h , n ay , n or m er c y c h ck d h i m
, e e .

s en at u s p op u lu squ e R om an u s i n t e lle git ( Fain . v . t he R om an sen at e an d

p eop le u n derst an d [B u t , n e qu e C aesar . n e q u e e go h abit i e s s ém u s ( id .

xi . n ei ther C aesar n or I shou ld have been con sidered ]

f am a e t vit a i n n oc e n t is dé fe n dit ur ( R ose A m . . t he rep u tat i on an d life of an

i nn o c en t m an are d ef en ded .

e st in e o virt us e t p robit as e t s u m m u m offi iu m su m m aq u e ob s e rvan t ia (F am c .

x iii . 28 A . i n him are t o be f ou nd wort h , up right n ess , the h ig hest sen se

of d u ty , an d th e greates t d evot ion .

N O TE . SO alm ost alway s wh e n t h e su b e j ct s are ab st ra ct n ou n s:

0. Wh en a v erb b elon gs t o t wo or m ore su bj e c t s s ep arat ely ,

it of t e n

agre e s wit h on e an d is u n d e rst ood w it h t h e ot h e s r

M A n t on iu s Q C assiu s t rib un i p leb is ( B C i
in t erc édit . . . . . Mark A n t ony
an d Q u in tu s C ass iu s t ri bu n es of t he p e op le i n terp ose , , .

h OO m ih i e t Pe rip at et ic i e t ve t us A c ad em ia c on c edi t ( A c ad . 11 . t his both

c
t he P erip at et i p hi losop hers an d t he Old A c ade m y gran t m e .

d . A c olle c t ive n oun c om m on ly t ake s a v erb in t h e s in gu lar ; bu t

t h e p lu al i s r of t e n f ou n d wit h c olle c t ive n ou n s wh en i n di vidu a ls are

t h ou gh t of 280 . a
) :

( 1) sen at u s h ae ci n t e lle g it ( C at . i . t he sen at e is aware of this .

ad h ib e r na e xerc it u s re di t ( Liv . xxi . t he ar my retu rn s t o win ter-qu arters .

p leb es ap at rib u s s é c e ssit ( S all C at th e p lebs se ed ed f rom th e p atri i an s

. . c c .

( 2 ) p ars p rae d as agé ban t ( I u g a p art brou ght i n boot y . .

c u m t an t a m u lt it ude lap id es c on ic e re n t ( B G ii when su h a c rowd were . . . c

t hrowi ng st on es .

N O TE 1 .
— Th e p oin t o f vi e w m ay ch an g e in t h e c ou rse of a se n t e n c e : as , —e qu it a
t um om n e m q u em h ab é b at p rae m it t it , q u i vi d ean t ( B G i h e se n t ah e ad all . . .

c
th e avalry h e h ad , t o se e ( wh o sh ou ld s e e) .

N O TE 2 Th e s in gu lar of a n o u n re g u larly d e n ot in g an in d ivid u al is som et im e s

.

u se d c olle ct i v ely t o d e n ot e a g rou p : as , Foeh n s , t h e C arth ag i n i an s ; m i les, th e soldi e ry ;

e qu e s , th e c avalry .

e. Qu isqu e, e ac h , an d fi rm s qu i s qu e, e very s in g le on e, h av e y O ft e n ve r

a p lu r al ve rb bu t m ay b e c on sid e ed as i
,
r n
pa r t i t ive ap p o sit ion w it h a

p lu r al s bj ec t i m p lie d c f 2 8 2 )
u
( a . . :

s ib i q u isqu e h ab e an t q u od su u m e s t ( Pl C u rc O
. . let every on e keep h is
own ( le t t h e m k ee p e ve ry m an h is o wn ) .

N O TE — S o also u t erq u e ,
. ea ch ( f o t wo) , an d t h e re cip c ro al p h rase s ali u s
alt e r alt eru m 3 15 a) . .
 3 18 , 3 19] OMI S SI ON or SUB JEC T on VERB 1 95

Om is s ion of S u bjec t or Verb

3 18 . The S u b j e c t of t he Ve rb is s om e t im es om it t e d

a. A Pe rson al p ron ou n , as su b e c t , j is u su ally om it t ed u n le ss e m

p h at i c :

loq u or, I sp eak . Bu t , e go loqu or, it i s I t hat sp eak .

b . An i n defi n i t e su b j ec t is oft e n om it t e d z — c rederES

, y ou wou ld
e op le t h in k
h a ve s up
p os e d ; p u t am u s, w e ( p ) di cu n t , f eru n t , p erhibent ,
t h ey sa
y .

0. A p assi ve ve rb is oft en u se d im p e rson ally wit h ou t j

a su b e c t e x

p re ssed or u n d e rs t ood 2 08 d) : .

G i they f ou ght long and vig orou s ly

‘

diii atq u e ac rite r p ugn at u m e st (B . . . .

3 19 . Th e v e rb is som e t im e s o m it t e d

a. Di ce, fac io, ago, an d ot h e r c om m on v e rb s are oft e n om it t ed in

f am iliar p h rases
qu orsu m h a c [ p c t a t ] what d
e s e n , oes t hi s ai m at ?
ex u n g l O m [c og o c e ] y
ue e ne n s s , ou will kn ow a lion by his c law .

qu id m u lt a, what n eed of m an y words ( wh y sh ou ld I ay m c h ? )

s u

qu id ? q u od , what of t hi s , t hat ( wh at sh all I say of t h is , t h at

f rm of t ran s it ion ]
[A o

A e olu s h ae cc on t ra (Ae n . i . o lu s t hu s [sp ok e ] in rep ly .

t u m C ott a [in qu it ] t hen s aid C ott a , .

d i m e liora [d u in t ] 1 ( C at M H eaven f orf e n d ( m ay t h e gods

. .
gran t b e t t er
t h in gs) i
u n d e [ve n is] e t qu o [t en d is] ? ( H or S i i 4 where f rom . . . . an d whit her
bou n d ? [C f id i 9 62 for t h e fu ll form ]
. . . . .

6 . Th e Oop u la s u m is ve r
y c om m on ly it t e d i n t h e p re se n t in dic a
om

t iv e an d p re s e n t in fi n it iv e , ra r el
y ( e xc e t b
p y la t e au t h ors in t h e su b
)
j un ct i e v
t u c on iun x ( Aen . iv .
y ou [are ] h is wif e .

qu id e rg o au d ac issi m u s e go e x o m n ib us ( R ose A m . . what then i? am I

the boldest o f all
om n ia p rae c lara rara ( Lael all t he best t hin gs are rare . .

c
p ote st in id ere sas p e c on t en t io e t c om p arat io d e d u b b u s h on e st is u t ru m

h on es t iu s ( Ofi . i
t here m ay of t en o u r a om p arison of t wo
. cc c
honorable ac t ion s , as t o wh i h i s the m ore hon orable c
[H e re , if an y .

cop u la we re e xp re ss e d , it w ou ld b e s it , b u t t h e d ire t q u e st ion wou ld c

be c om p le t e wit h ou t an y .
]
acc ip e q u ae p e rage n d a p riu s vi ( Ae n . . hear what is fi rst to be ae cm
o

p lished [D ire c t z qu ae p eragen da p riu s

.
1 96 S Y NTA X : PA RTI C LES [gg 3 2 0 , 321

PA R TI C LES
Adve b s r
3 20 Th e p rope r fun t ion of Ad ve rb s
. c , as p e t ri fi e d c ase -form s , i s t o m od ify Ve rb s :
as , — c e1eri t er i re t o g o wi th sp eed I t is
, . f ro m t h i s u se t h at t h e y d e rive t h e i r n am e

( ad verb i u m f rom ,
ad , t o, an d ve rb u m , verb ; see 24 1 b)
. . Th e y also m od ify ad e t ives , j c
S h owin g i n wh at m an n e r or d e g re e t h e q u alit y d es rib e d is m an ife st ed : as , sple nd i d e c
m en dax , g lorious ly f alse More rare ly t h e y m od ify ot h e r ad ve rb s : as , n im i s g ravi t er,
.

t oo severe ly Man y ad ve rb s , e sp e ially relat ive ad v e rb s , se rve as on n e t i ve s , an d

. c c c
are h ard ly t o b e d ist in gu ish e d f rom on j u n t ion s ( se e § 20 g c c . .

32 1 . A dv e rbs are u se d t o m odify Ve rbs A dj e c t iv es

, , an d ot h e r
A dv e rbs .

a. A D em on st rat iv e or R e lat iv e adv e rb is of t e n e qu ivale n t to the

co rresp on din g Pr on o un w it h a p re p os it i on ( se e 3 08 g) . :

in ea ] i m p b n it vas a (Iu g . up on t h em ( t h it h er ,
t h e re on , on t h e
b e ast s ) he p u t s t he am p -u t en s i ls c .

e b m i lit es im p en e re ( B G i t o p u t s old i ers u p on t hem ( t h e h orse s)

. . . .

ap u d e os q u a ad qu es ] S e c on t u lit ( Ve rr i v am on g t hose t o whom . .

( wh it h er) he resorted .

qu i eu m n e c as se t u n d e qu a] ip s e n at u s e sse t ( R os e A m on e who shou ld . .

h ave killed his own f ather ( h im w h en e h e h ad h is b irt h ) c .

0 c on di c io n es m ise ras ad m in ist rafi d aru m p revin c iaru m u b i in qu ib u s ]

se verit as p eric u lOsa est ( F la cc . c
O ! wret hed term s of m an agin g t he
p rovin c c
es, where stri t n ess i s d an gerou s .

b Th e p art i c ip le s dict u m an d fact u m , wh e n u se d as n ou n s, are re g u

.

larly m od ifi ed by ad v erb s r at h e r t h an by ad j e c t iv e s ; s o oc c asion ally

ot h e r p e rf e c t p ar t ic ip le s :

c
p rae c laré f a t a ( N e p Ti m ot h . . l ) , g lori ou s d eeds ( t h in gs gloriou s ly d on e ) .

m u lt a fac é t é di ta ( Off i c . . m an y witt y say i n g s .

c . A n ou n i s som e t im e s u se d as an j v
ad e c t i e , an d m ay then be m odi

fi e d by an ad v e rb :

c
vi t or e xe rc it us , t he vi ct ori ou s arm y .

adm od u m p u e r, qu it e a boy ( y ou n g) .

m agi s vir, m ore f

o a m an ( m ore m an ly ) .

p op u lu m lat e rege m ( Ae n . i . a p eop le ru li n g f ar an d wi de .

N O TE — Very rarely ad ve rb s are u se d w i t h n ou n s wh i h h ave n o ad j e t i ve for e

. c c c
c c
b u t wh i h on t ai n a ve rb al id e a :
h i n c ab it io ( Plan t R u d a g oi n g a way f rom h e re
. . .

q u id c b gi t e m d é ob vi am i t i en e ( At-t x ii i wh at I t h i n k abou t g oi n g t o m e e t . .

( h im ) [Pe rh ap s fe lt as a om p ou n d ]
. c
1 For t h e d e ri vat ion an d cl assi fi c at ion of adve rb s , s ee 214- 217 .
1 98 S YN TA X : PA R TI C LES 3 2 2 , 32 3

u su ally le as t ,
c . Cert b m e an s c e rt a i n ly, cert e ( ) at a t an
y ra t e
c e rt e c
a i d, I kn ow f or a c ert ain t y e go c e rt é, I at least .

d . Pri m u m m e an s fi rs t
(fi rs t in ord er, or f or t he f i rs t t i m e
), an d

i m p lie s a s e ri es of e v en t s or ac t s . Pri m e m e an s at firs t , as O pp ose d

t o aft erwa rds, giv in g p rom i n en c e m e re ly t o t h e diffe en c e of t im e r :

h oc p ri m u m se n t i e, t hishold in t he fi rst p la e
I c .

ae dis p rim e ru e re reb am u r, at fi rst we thou ght the h ou se was f alling .

N O TE In e n u m e rat ion s, p ri m u m ( or pri m e) is oft e n followe d b y d ei n d e , se on dly , i n c

cc
.

t h e n e xt p lac e , b y t u m , th e n , or b y b ot h i n s u
or ession B e i n ac m ay b e s e ve ral t im e s
.

c
rep eat e d ( se on d ly , t hi rdly , Th e s eri e s i s oft e n lose d c b y d én i qu e o r p ost rem e,
last ly , fi n ally Th us , — p ri m u m d é g e n e re b elli , d ei n as d é m
.
ag n it udin e , t um d é i m

p e rat Ore d é lig e n d e ( M a n il f i rs t of t h e ki n d of war, n e xt of

. i t s m ag n i t u de , th en f
o

c c
th e h oi e of a om m an d er c .

Q i n d e e d
u idem ,
, g
iv e s e m p h as i s, an d Of t e n h as a c on c ess i ve m e an

in g, e sp ec ially w h e n f ollowe d by sed, au t em , e t c : .

h Oc quide m vid ere li e t ( Lael c

r m s su rely on e m ay see
[Em ph at i ]
. . c .

c
[sec urit as] sp e i e q uide m b lan d a, s e d re ap se m u lt is lo i s rep u d ian d a ( id 4 7 c .

( tranq u illity ) i n app earan e, t is tru e, attra t ive, bu t i n reality to be

’
c c
re ej ct d f
e or m an y reas on s .
[ C on c essive ] .

f . Ne qu idem m e an s n ot e ven o r n ot e i t h er . Th e e m p h at ic

w ord or w ord s m u st st an d b e t we e n us an d qu idem

se d n é I u gu rt h a qu ide m q u iet u s e rat (Iug . bu t Jugu rtha was n ot qu i et

eit her .

e go au t e m n é i rasc i p ossu m q ui de m ils qu es vald e am o ( A t t . 11 . 19 . bu t I

c an n ot even get an gry wi th those wh om I love very m u h c .

N O TE .
—Equ i d e m h as t h e sam e s en s es as q u i d em , b u t i s in e ro C ic c on fi n ed t o t he
fi rs t p e rs on . Th us , equ i d em adp rob ab o ( Earn 11 3 I f or m y p art . . . sh all ap p rove .

J
CON UN CTI ON S 1

323 . C op u lat iv e an d D isj u n c t ive C on j u n c t ion s c on n e c t s im ilar

c on s t r u c t ion s an d are reg u larly followe d by t h e s am e c as e or m ood
,

t h at p r e c e de s t h e m :

c ip t m at i t p p lo ( C at iii
s r u s en w i tt
u t th e t a dp pl o u . . r en o e s en a e n eo e .

t ua [p t i ] a a e
e s t c o f i m a e ( Mil
ar s th t y
S n m ig ht c
r s ea d n r r s . a ou u re n

st ren gth en t hose p arts .

n eq u e m e a p rud e nt ia n e qu e h u m an i s c en s iln s f ret u s ( C at . 11 . rely in g

n either on my own f oresight n or on hu m an wisdom .

1 For t h e cl assifi c at i on Of con j un c t ion s , see 223 , 224 .

5 3 23 ] C ONJU N C TI ON S 1 99

a. C on ju n c t on s of
C om p ari son ( as u t , qu am , t am qu am , qu asi) als o
i
c om m on ly c on n e c t s im ilar c on s t ru c t ion s

h is igit u r qu am p h y s ic is p ot in s c red e n d u m e xist im as ( D i v 11 do y ou . .

t hin k t hese are m ore t o be t ru st ed t han t he n atu ral p h ilos op hers ?

c allid iOre m
h om in e m vi d i n em in e m qu am Ph orm iOn e m ( Te r . Ph . a
shrewd er m an I n ever saw t han P horm io ( c f .

111: mi n o m n e vi n u m si c n On o m n is n at fi ra ve t u st at e c o ac esc it
( C at M . .

as e very wi n e d oes n ot sou r wit h ag e, so [d oes] n ot every n atu re .

in m e qu as i i n t y ran n u m ( Ph il . x iv . ag ain st m e as ag ai ns t a t yran t .

b . Tw o or m ore c oordin at e word s, p h rase s, or se n t en c e s are o ft e n

p u t t og et h e r wit h ou t t h e u se o f j
c on u n c t ion s A
( y
s n d e t on , 601 . c
) :

o m n es d i , h om in es , all g ods an d m en .

su mm i , m e d ii , i n fi m i , t he h igh est , t he m id d le lass, an d t he lowest c .

iura, leges , agree , li b e rt at e m n ob is re li qu eru n t ( B G v ii th ey have lef t . . .

us ou r rig hts , ou r laws , ou r fi elds , ou r liberty .

c . 1 . Wh e re t h e re are m r
o e t h an t w o c oord in at e w ord s e t c .
,
a c on

j u n c t ion ,
if u s e d, is ord in arily u se d w it h all or all e x c e p t
( the fi rst
) :

au t ae re alien o au t m agn it ud in e t rib fi t b ru m au t in ifi ria p ot e n t iOru m (B G . .

vi . by d ebt , c
ex ess ive t axat i on , or op p ressi on on t he p art of t he

p owerf u l .

at su n t m oresi e t an xu e t irac u n d i e t diffi iles c se n es ( C at . M . bu t ( y ou

say ) old m en are c ap ric iou s , soli c it ou s, choleric , an d f u ssy .

2 . Bu t w ord s are oft e n so d iv id e d in t o grou p s t h at t h e m e m be rs

of t h e grou p s om it t h e c on j u n c t ion
( or e x p re ss it , w hile t h e grou p s
)
t h e m se lv e s e xp re s s t h e c on j u n c t ion
( or om it i t :
)
p rop u diu m illu d e t p ort e n t u m , L A n t en iu s i n si gn e od iu m om n iu m h om i.

num
( Phil xi v . . c
t hat wret h an d m ons ter, Lu iu s A n t on iu s , t he abe m i c
n at i on o f all m en .

u t ru m q u e egi t gravit e r, au c t erit at e et Offen sion e an im i n on a e rb a ( Lae l c .

c c
he a t ed i n bot h ases with dign ity , withou t loss of au t hori ty an d
wit h no bit t ern ess of f eelin g .

3 . Th e e n c lit ic -
q u e is som e t im e s us e d w it h t h e last m e m b e r of a

se ri e s, e v en wh e n t h e re i s n o grou p in g ap p are n t :
c
ve e volt u m et uqu e ( B ru t . by c
voi e , exp ress ion , an d g estu re .

c u am c o
r n siliu m vigilan t iam
qu e ( Phi l VI I are , wi s d om , an d vig i lan . . c c e .

q u bru m au c t eritate m d ign it at e m volu n t at e m qu e d ef e n d e ras ( F am i 7 . . .

whose d ign i ty , hon or, an d wishes y ou had def en d ed .

d . Tw o j
ad e c t i e s v be lon gin g t o t h e s am e n ou n are re gu larly c on

u s et e d by j
a c on u n c t io n :

m u lt ae g raves et c au sae , m an y we ighty reasons .

vir li be r ac fort is ( R ep . 11 . a f ree an d brave m an .

200 S YNTA X : PA R TI C LES 3 23 , 3 2 4

e. Oft e n t h e sam e j
c on u n c t ion i s re p e at e d in t wo c oo din at e c lau se s r
et - ue
q
- ue
q ) , bot h an d .

an t , e ither or.

v e l, e ither or .
[Exam ples in § 3 2 4 e ] . .

s iv e ( se u ) s i ve ( se u ) , whet her or [ Exam p les in 5 3 24

. .
f ]
.

f . Man y adv e rbs are sim ilarly u se d in p airs, as c on u n c t ion s, j p art ly

or wh olly losin g t h e i r ad v e rb ial fo rc e
n un c nun c , t um t u m , ia m i am , n ow n e w.

m ode m od o, n ow no w .

sim ul s im u l, at t he s am e t i m e at t he sam e tim e .

qu a qu a, n ow n ow, both an d , ali ke [t h is] an d [t h at ] .

m od e ait m od o n e gat ( Te r Eu n
. . n ow he say s y es , n ow n o .

s im ul grat ias agi t , s im u l grat u lat u r (Q . C . vi . 7 . h e than ks h im an d at

t h e sam e ti m e c on grat u late s hi m .

Eru m p u n t sas p e vit ia am i c eru m t u m in ip s os am i es t u m in alien os c ( Lae l .

t he f au lts of f rien ds s om et im es break ou t , n ow ag ain st t he ir f ri en d s

t hem selves , n ow agai ns t stran g ers .

qu a m ari s qu a f em in as ( Pl . Mil . both m ales an d f em ales .

g . Ce r t ain re lat i ve an d d e m on st r at iv e ad v e rbs are u se d c orre la

t ively as j
c on u n c t ion s :

ut ( re l .
) it a, si c as ( wh i le) so ( y et ) .

t am (d em ) .
qu am so ( as) as .

c um ( re l ) . t um whi le so also ; n ot on ly bu t also .

Th e followin g C on j u n c t ion s r e q u ir e
i

3 24 . n ot ic e

a. Et , a n d , S im l
p y c on n ec t s word s or c lau se s ;
—
qu e c om bin es m ore
c los e ly in t o on e c onn e c t e d wh ole qu e i s al ay s e n c lit i c t o t h e w ord
.
-
w
c on n e c t e d or to t he fi rst o r se c on d of t w o or m ore word s c on n e c t e d

c u m c on iu gi b u s e t lib eris , wit h [t h e ir] wives an d child ren .

ferrb i gn i qu e , wi th fire an d sword [N ot as s ep arat e t h in gs, b u t . as t h e

c
om b in e d m e an s of d e vast at ion ]

aq u a e t i gn i in t erdi c t u s , f orbidde n t h e u s e of wat er an d fire [I n . a legal

f orm u la, wh e re t h ey are on s id e re d se p arat e ly ] c .

a n d, ad d s w it h
b . At qu e ( ) ac , som e e m p h asis or wit h som e im p lie d
re flec t ion on t h e word add ed . H en c e it i s of t e n e qu iv alen t t o a n d s o,
an d y et ,
and besi d es, Bu t t h e se dist in c t ion s d e p e n d e ry
an d t h en . v
m u ch u p on t h e f e elin g of t h e sp e ak e r, an d are of t en u n t ran slat ab le :
om n i a h on est a at qu e in h on e st a, everyt hi n g hon orable and di shon orable ( t oo ,

w it h ou t t h e sligh t est d ist in t ion ) c .

c c c
usus at qu e d is ip lin a, p ra t i e an d t he ory bes id e ( t h e m ore im p ort an t or less
e xp e t e d ) c .

c
at qu e e go red o, an d y et I beli eve ( for m y p art ) .
2 02 S Y N TA X : TH E S EN TEN C E [ 5 324

f . S ive ( seu
) i s p rop e rly u se d in d is ju n c t iv e c on dit ion s ( if e i t h er
bu t also w it h alt e rn at iv e word s an d c lau se s, e sp e c i all wit h
or if ) , y
t wo n am e s f or t h e s am e t h in g :

si v e in rid en s s ive qu od it a p u t ar
et (De Or i . . e ith er lau ghi ng ly or be au sec
he really t hou ght so .

si ve d e ae s e u S in t volu c res ( A e n . i ii . whether t hey (t he H arp ies) are

g oddesses or birds .

g . Vel, e ve n , f or i n s t a n c e, is oft e n u se d as an in t e n sive p a t ic le w it h r

n o alt e rn at i ve f orc e : as, - v el m i n im u s , t h e v ery le as t .

h . Nam an d n am qu e, f or, u su ally in t rod u ce a r e al re ason , r

f o m ally
e xp re sse d, f or a p re v i ou s p ost p osit ive) , a st at e m e n t ; e n im
( alw ay s

le ss im p ort an t e xplan at ory c irc u m st an c e p u t in by t h e w ay ; et en i m

(f or, y ou s ee f or, y ou kn ow f or, m i n d y ou

) an d i t s n e at i e n equ e
g v
en im in t rodu c e som e t h in g self-e v i de n t or n e e d in g n o p ro of .

( ea vi t a q u ae est S ela vi t a n em in an d a
) . n am du m su m u s c
in lusi in h is
c
c om p agib u s orp oris , m un e re q u ed am ne c e ssit at is e t gravi op e re p er
f u n gi m u r ; est e n im an im u s c ae le st is , etc .
( C at . M .
( t h at life)
c
whi h alon e d eserves t o be alled lif e ; f or so lon g as we are onfi n ed by c c
t he bod y s f ram e , we p e rf orm a sort of n ec essary f u n t ion an d heavy
’
c
t ask F or the sou l i s f rom heaven
. .

h aru m t riu m se n t e n t iaru m n ulli p rOrsu s ad se n t ior n e c e n i m illa p ri m a .

vera est ( Lael f or of ou rse that first on e i s n t t ru e

.
’
c .

i . Erge, t h eref ore, is u se d of t h in gs p rov e d f or m ally , bu t of t e n h as

a we ake n e d f o rc e . I gi t u r,
t h e n , a c c ord i n g ly, is w e ak e r t h an e rgo an d

is in p assin g f rom on e st age of an argu m e n t t o an ot h e r

u se d I t aqu e, .

t h eref ore, a c c ord i n g ly, a n d s o, i s u se d in p roofs o r in f ere n c e s f rom t h e

n at u re of t hin gs rat h e r t h an in f orm al log i c al p roof . All of t h e se are
of t e n u se d m e rely to re su m e a t rain of t h ou gh t b rok e n b y a d igre ssion
or are n t h e s is I dc irc b, f or t h i s re as on , on t h i s a c c ou n t , i s re g u larl
p .
y
f ollowe d ( or p re c e d e d) by a c orre lat iv e ( as, qu ia, qu od, si , ut, né
) , an d

refe rs t o t he sp e c ial p oin t i n t rod u c e d by t h e c orre lat ive .

m alu m m ihi vid et u r e sse m m is eru m i git u r, q u on iam m alu m

ors . est e rt e .
‘

c .

e rgb e t e i q ui b us even i t iam u t m ore re n t u r e t e i q u ib u s even t uru m e st

m ise ri m ih i it a vid et u r
. n em o e rg o n On m is er ( Tus c i
. D eath . . .

seem s t o m e to be an evi l ‘I t i s wretc hed , t hen , sin e it is an evi l

. C ertai n ly c . .

Theref ore, all t hose who have alread y d ied an d who are to di e hereaf ter are
wretc hed .
’
S o it app ears to m e . There is n o on e, theref ore, who i s n ot

wretc hed .
’

q u ia n at ura m ut ari n on p ot e st , i dc irc b verae am i c it iae se m p it em ae su n t

( Lae l . be ca u se c
n atu re an n ot be han ged , f or th is c reason tru e f ri en d
ship s are et ern al .
 3 2 4—3 2 6] N EGA TI VE PA R TI C L ES 2 03

1
j . Au t em , e n i m , an d vé rb are p os t
p os i t i ve ; so ge n e rally i git u r an d

Oft e n t am en .

k . Tw o j
c on u n c t ion s of S im r
ila m e an in g are of t e n u sed t oge t h e r
f or t h e s ake of e m h i t o b in d a ore c los e l
p as s or se n t e n c e m y t o wh at
rec e d e s : as, at v éro, bu t i n t ru t h , bu t s u re l , s t i ll, h ow eve r ; it aqu e
p y
ac c ordi n g ly t h en ; f f or,
erge, n am qu e, or ; et -e n i m , y ou see ,
f or of
c ou rs e 3 24 h) . .

c
For C on j u n t i on s in t rod u in g S u b ordin at e C lau ses , c se e Syn t ax .

Negat ive Pa t ic les r 2

3 25 . I n t he u se of t h e N e gat i ve Par t ic les , t h e follow in g p oin t s

are t o be obse rv e d :
326 . Two ne
g at i e s v
are e u i ale n t
q v t o an affi rm at ive
n ém e n on au die t , every one will hear ( n ob od y will n ot h e ar) .

n on p ossu m n on c en fi t eri ( Fam . ix 14 . . I m u st c on ess f .

ut 116 mi n t im ers qui de m sin e aliqu o t i m b re p o ssi m u s ( Mil . so th at we

ca n n ot even be relieved o f f ear withou t som e f ear .

a. Man y c om p ou n d s or p h ras e s of wh ic h n on i s t h e fi rst p art e xp re ss

an i n d efi n i t e affi rm at iv e

n en n ullu s , som e n On n fi lli aliqu i ) , som e f ew .

n On n ih il aliqu id ) , som et h in g .

n b n n em o aliq u ot ) , su n dry
p erson s .

n en n u m qu am aliqu ot ien s) , som et i m es .

b . Tw o n e gat ive s of wh ic h t h e s e c on d is n on
( b e lon g in g t o t h e

p red i c at e ) e xp re ss a u n i ve rs a l affirm at iv e :

On , n ullu s n en , n obod y [d oe s] n ot i every bod y [d oes] [C f

‘

n em c) n ,
. e . . . n on

n em o, n ot n obod y , i s . . som ebod y ] .

n ih il n On , every th in g .
[C f . n On n ih il, som et hi n g
]
nu m qu am n on , n ever n ot , i e . . alway s .
[C f . n on n u m qu am , som et i m es ]
0. A st at e m e n t is of t e n m ad e em p h at ic by d e n y i n g it s c on t rary

( Li t ot es
,

n On se m e l saep iss im e ) , o f t en en ou gh ( n ot on c e on ly ) .

n bn h ae c s in e n um in e d i vom even iu n t ( A e n i i . . these t hi n gs do n ot

cc
o ur withou t t he wi ll of t he g od s .

h ae c n dn nim is e x q u i re
( At t . v ii . 18 . n ot very m u h, i c . s . very litt le .

N O TE .
—C om p are nan nfi llu s , n on n em e, e t c .
,
i n a ab ov e .

1 Th at i s , t h e y d o n ot s t an d fi rst i n t h e ir lau se c .

2 F or a li st o f N e g at iv e Part i le s , s e e 217 e c . .
2 04 S YNTA X : PA R TI C LES [ gg 3 2 7—3 2 9

3 27 . A g en eral n e gat io n is n ot de st roy e d

1 . By a f ollowin g né qu idem , n ot e ven , or n on m odo, n ot on l

y
n u m qu am to n on m odo ot iu m , se d né b e llu m q u ide m n is i n e fariu m on u p ist i c c
( C at . i . n ot on ly have y ou n ever d esi red rep ose , bu t y ou have n ever

d es ired an y war c
ex ep t on e whi h was i nf am ous c .

2 . By su c c e e d in g n e gat iv e s e ac h in t rod u c in g a se p arat e su b ord i

n at e m em be r
e aq u e n e sc i e ban t n e c u b i n e c q u alia e sse n t ( Tus c . i ii . they kn ew n ot where
or o f what kind these thi n gs were .

3 . By n equ e in t rod u c in g a c oordin at e m e m be r :

n e qu e o sat is m i rari n e qu e c c
e n i e ro
( Te r Eu n . . I ca n n ot won der en ou gh

n or c on e j ct ure .

3 28 .
g v
Th e is fr e u e n t l
q ne y j oi n e d w it h a c on j u n c t ion or
at i e

wi t h an in de fi n it e p ron ou n or ad v e rb H e n c e t h e form s of n e ga .

t io n in Lat in d iffe r from t h ose in En glish in m an y e x p re ssion s

ulli (
n t i ) c ed o (
neu r t o c edo um) I d r t b li noith ( I b li
n n r , o no e eve e er e e ve

n e it h e r ) .

s in e one p eri c u lo (le ss c om m on ly c um mi ne) , with no d an g er ( wit h ou t an y

d an ge r) .

n i h il u m q u am au d i vi ifi c un diu s , I n ever heard an y th in g m ore am u s in g .

Cf . n e goh ae c e s se v era n ot ( c
di o n on e s se ) , I say t hi s i s n ot t ru e ( I d e n y ,

a . I n t he se c on d of t wo c on n e c t e d id e as , a n d n ot is re
gu larly ex

p re ss e d by n eq u e
( n ee
) ,
n ot by et n on :

h ost es t e rga p riu s f u ge re d es t it eru n t ( B G i

ve rt eru n t , n e qu e . . . the en em y
t u rn ed an d fled , an d did n ot stop fleei n g u n til, e t c .

N O T E — S i m ilarly n ec qu i sq u am is reg u larly u s ed for et n ém o

; 1 1111 5
n e qu e 1 f or et

n fi llu s ; n ec u m qu am f or et n u m q u am ; n é v e ( n e u ) , f or e t n o .

329 Th e p ar t ic le im m o, n ay , is u se d t o c on t rad ic t so m e p art of

.

a p re c e din g s t at e m e n t or q u es t ion , or it s for m in t h e lat t e r c ase ,

t he s am e s t at e m e n t is o ft e n re p e at e d in a s t on g e r r fo rm , so t h at
i m m o be c o m es n ea rly e qu ivale n t t o y e s (n ay bu t , n ay rat her)
c au s a igit u r n on b on a e st ? im m o op t im a ( A t t ix 7 i s t hec au se then . . . n ot

a good on e on t he c ontrary , the best .

a. Min u s, less ( e sp e c ially wit h si , if , qu o, i n ord e r t h a t ) , an d m i n im é ,

le as t , of t e n h ave a n e gat iv e f orc e
si m in u s p ossu n t , if t hey an n ot [F or q u o m in u s , see c . 5 58 b . .
]
au d ac issi m u s e g o e x om n ib u s ? m in i m e ( R ose A m . . am I the boldest f
o

t hem all? by no m eans ( n ot at all) .

2 06 S YNTA X : QUES TI ONS 3 3 2—3 3 5

0. Th e p art ic le -n e of t e n wh e n ad de d t o t h e v erb , le ss c om m on ly
w h en ad d e d t o som e ot h e r w ord , h as t h e f orc e of h om e
:

m e m in i s t i n e m e in se n at ii d i e re
‘

c ( C at . i . d on t y ou
’
re m e m ber m y say i n g
i n t he S en ate
ré c t é n e in t e rp re t e r se n t en t iam t u am ( Tu sc . iii . do I n ot rig ht ly i n t erp ret
y ou r m ean in g
N O TE 1 — T. h i s wa s e vid e n t ly t h e o rig i n al m e an i n g o f -
ne ; b u t i n m os t as e s t h e c
c
n e g at i ve f or e was lost an d n e w as u se d m e re ly t o e xp re ss a q u e st ion
-
S o t h e En glish .

i n t e rro gat i ve n o ? sh ad es off i n t o e h ?

c c
N O T E 2 —Th e e n li t i -n e is som e t i m e s add e d t o ot h e r in t e rrog at i ve word s : as ,
.

u t ru m n e , wh e t h e r ? an n e , or q u an t an e ( H e r S ii 3 h ow big ? qu on e m alo( id . . . . .

by wh at c u rse ?

3 33 A q u e st ion c on c e r n in g som e sp e c i al c irc u m stan c e is for m e d

.

by p re fi xi n g t o t h e s e n t e n c e an in t e rr og at iv e p r on ou n or adv e rb
as in En lish 15 2 )
g
qu id e xs p ec t as ( C at . ii . what are y ou lookin g f orward t o
q u o igit u r h ae c sp e ct an t ( Fam . vi . 6 . whither t h en i s all t hi s t en di n g ?
I c are , u b i es (C v M . . viii . I c aru s, y ou ?where are

qu od c
ve t igal vob is t ot u m f u it qu e m soc i u m d efen d is t is c ui p raesid io
c lass ib u s ve s t ri s fu ist is ( Man il what reven u e has been saf e f or y ou
.

what ally h ave y ou d ef en d ed w hom have y ou g u ard ed with y ou r fleets

c
N O T E — A q u e st ion of t h is fo rm b e om e s an e x lam at ion b y h an g i n g t h e t on e
. c c of
c
t h e voi e : as ,
q u i li s v ir e rat ! wh at a m an h e was !
qu ot c alam i t at os p assi su m u s ! h ow m an y m i sf ort u n es we h ave sufi ere d !
'

qu o s t u d io Con se n t iu n t ( C at iv wi t h wh at zeal t h ey u n i t e
. .

a. Th e p art ic les -
n am
( en c lit ic ) an d t an dem m ay be add ed t o in t e r
rogat ive p ron ou n s an d ad ve rb s f or t h e sake of e m p h as i s :

qu is n am est , p ray who is it ? [qu i s t an de m e st w ou ld b e st ron ger .

]
u b in am ge n t iu m su m u s ( C at . i . where i n th e world are we ?
i n qu a t an de m u rb e h oe disp u t an t ( Mil . i n what c i ty , p ray, d o they m ain
t ain t hi s
N O T E — Tan d em is som e t im e s add e d t o v e rb s :
ai n t an d em ( F am i x
’
y ou d on t say so ! ( say y ou
. . so , p ray
i t an e t an d em u xore m d uxit An t ip h o ( Te r Ph . . so t h en , eh ? A n tip h o ’
s g ot
m arri ed .

Dou ble Qu est ion s

33 4 . A D ou ble or A lt e rn at iv e Q u e st ion is an in qu iry as to
w h ic h of t wo or r
m o e su pp ose d eas e s is t h e t ru e on e .

335 . I n D ou ble r or A lt e n at i v e Q u e st ion s , u t ru m or n e -

, whe t her,
st an ds in t h e fi rs t m e m b e r ; an , an n e, or, an n on , h ee n e, or n ot , in t h e
s e c on d ; an d u s u all
y an in t h e t hird , if t h e r e b e on e :
 3 3 5] D OUB LE QU ES TI ON S 2 07

u t ru m n e sole , an p ro n ih ilo id p u t a
s ( F am . x . is it that y ou d on ’t kn ow,
or do y ou th in k n othi n g of it ?
vosn e L D o m it iu m
. an vos D o m it iu s d ese ru it (B . C . 11
. d id y ou d esert
c
Lu i u s D om it i u s ,
d id D om i t iu s desert y ou ?
or

q u ae ro se rvosn e an li b eros ( R ose A m I ask wheth er slaves or f ree . .

.

u t ru m b os t e m an vos an fort un am u t riu sq u e p op u li i n Orat is Liv xx i

g ( . .

i s i t th e e n em y , or y ou rselves , or th e f ortu n e of the t wo p eop les, t hat y ou

do n ot kn ow
N O TE . A n ne f or an is rare . N ec n e is c
in d ire t q u e st ion s , b u t in i n dire t qu e s
rare c
t ion s i t is c om m on e r t h an an n on . In p o e t ry
-n e -n
e som e t i m es o u rs cc .

a. Th e in t e rrogat i ve p ar t ic le i s of t e n om it t e d in t h e fi rst m e m
b e r ; in wh ic h c ase an or -n e (an n e, n ec n e) m ay st an d in t h e se c on d :
Gab in io d i c am ann e Pom p eio an u t riq u e ( Man il 5 7 shall I say t o Gabin iu s .

or t o P om p ey , or t o both ?
su n t h ae ct u a ve rb a n e c n e
(Tus e . iii . are t hese y ou r word s or n ot ?
qu aesi vi a C at ili n a in c on ven t u ap u d M Las . c am f u isse t n e c n e ( C at 11 . .

I asked C at i lin e whether he h ad bee n at the m eetin g at Marcus L oec a

’
s
or n ot .

b . S om e t im es t h e fi rst m e m b e r i s om it te d or im p li e d, an d an
( an n e
)
alon e ask s t h e q u e s t ion, -
u s u all
y w i t h i n d i gn at ion or su rp ri se :

an t o m ise ros p u t as illos ( Tu sc i what ! do y ou thin k those m e n wret hed

. . c
an ist e u m q u am d o s o b on am sp e m h ab u isse t , n is i d o vob i s m alam op i n ion e m
an im o im b ib isse t ( Verr . i . wou ld he e ver h ave h ad g ood h op es abou t

him self u n less h e had c onc e ived an evi l op i n i on o f y ou

c . S om e t im e s t h e se c on d m em b e r is om it te d or im p lied , an d u t ru m

m ay ask a q u e st ion t o wh ic h t h e e i s r no alt e rn at ive

u t ru m est in Clarissim i s c i vib us is , qu e m ( Plac e . i s he am on g the

n oblest c iti ze ns, whom , etc . ?

d . Th e f ollowin g t able e x h ib it s t he v a i ou s
r form s of r
alt e n at iv e

qu e st i on s :

an n bn ( n e ch e , se e 33 5 . N .
)

-n e ne h e c

N O TE F rom d ou b le ( altern at i ve) q u e st ion s m u st b e dist in g u ish ed t h o se w hi h are

. c
c
i n t h e m se lve s si n gle , b u t of wh i h som e d e t ai l is alt e rn at i ve Th e s e h av e t h e om m on . c
c c
d isj u n t iv e p art i le s au t or v el -v e ) Th u s , q u ae ro n u m i n i fi s t é au t i m p rob é f é c e ri t
.

( Off i ii
. . c
I ask wh e t h e r h e a t e d u n j u s t ly or even d ish one s t ly H e re t h e re i s n o .

d ou ble q u e st ion Th e on ly i n q u iry is wh e t h e r t h e m an d id

. e i t h er of t h e t wo t h in gs
c
su p pose d , n ot wh i h of t h e t wo h e did .
208 Y
S N TA X : QUESTI ON S 336, 33 7

Qu est ion an d An swe r

3 36 . The r e is n o on e Lat in word in c om m on u se m e an in g sim

l
p yy e s rin g a qu e s t ion afi irm ative ly t he v e r b or
or n o . In an s we ,

som e ot h e r e m p h at ic w ord is g e n e r ally r e p e at e d ; in ans we r in g

n g at ively t h e v e r b e t c
e wi t h m m or a S i m ilar n eg at iv e
, , .
,

vale t n e , i s he we ll? vale t , y es ( h e is we ll) .

e rat n e te c u m , was he with y ou ? n bn e rat , no ( h e was n ot ) .

num q u id n am n ovi t here i s n ot h in g n ew, i s t here ? n ih il s an e, oh ! n ot hi n g .

a . A n i n t e n si ve o r n e g at i ve
p art i c le , a
p h rase , or a c lau s e is s om e

t im e s u se d t o an s we r a d ire c t q u e st ion :

1 . F or Y ES
'

verO, i n tru th , tru e , no dou bt , y es . it a vero, c ert ain ly ( so in t ru t h ) , et c .

e t iam , eve n s o, y es , e tc . s an e q u id e m , y es , n o d ou bt , et c .

it a, so, tru e, etc . i t a e st , it i s so, tru e, e t c .

s an e, s u rely , n o d ou bt , d ou btless, e tc .

c e rt e, c ert ain ly , u n qu est i on ably , e t c .

c
f a t u m , t ru e , i t ’
s a fa ct , y ou re right , e t c
’
.
( lit .
,
it was d on e ) .

2 . F or NO :

n On , n ot so . nfi llO m od e, by no m eans .

m in im e, n ot at all (lit , . in t h e sm alle st d e gree , cf . 3 2 9 a)

. .

m in im e vero, n o, n ot by an y m ean s ; oh !
'

n o, e t c .

n On qu id e m , why , n o ; ert ai n ly n ot , e t c c .

n On b e rele vero, wh y , gra iou s , n o ! ( ert ain ly c c n ot , by H er c u le s 1)

Exam ple s are

qu id n am lau d at ion es ? it a, why , wh at ? is it eu log ies ? j u st so

an .

au t e ti am au t n bn re sp on d ere ( A ad ii t o an swer ( at eg ori ally ) y es or n o c . . c c .

e s t n e u t fe rt u r form a ? s an e ( Te r Eu n i s she as han dsom e as they . .

’
say she i s i ( is h e r b e au t y as it is s aid oh ! y es .

c
m ise r e rgo A r h e lau s c e rt e s i i n i fi st u s ( Tu sc v was A r helau s wret hed . . c c
t hen ? c ertai n ly , if h e was u n ust j .

an h ae c c on t e m n it is m in im e ( D e Or . 11 . d o y ou desp i se these th ings n ot

at all .

volu e rib us n e e t fe ris ? m ini m e vero ( Tu sc . i . t o t he bird s an d beasts ?

why , of c ou rse n ot .

ex t u i an im i se n t e n t ia t u u xore m h ab es nan h erc le , ex m e i an im i se n t e n t ia

( D e Or . 11 . Lord ! n o, e t c .

33 7 rin g a dou ble qu e s t ion on e m e m be r of t h e alt e rn a

. In an sw e ,

t iv e or so m e p ar t Of i t m u st be r e p e at e d
, ,

idi t i
v de d i t o fi t ia
s g m t i d i ( Pl t M c
an an did y n n s e o e v an . er . ou see
it or are y ou rep eati ng som ethin g y ou have heard I saw it m ysel
f .
21 0 S YNTA X : C ON STR UC TI ON OF C A S ES 3 3 9-3 41

N OMI N A TI VE C A S E

33 9 . Th e S u bj e c t O f a fi n it e v e rb is in t h e N om in at ive :

C ae s ar R h en u m t ran si re d ec reve rat (B G . . iv . C ea

s ar had d et erm i n ed to

c ross t h e R h in e .

F or t h e om is sion of a p ron om in al s u b j e t , c se e § 295 . a .

a. Th e n om in at ive m ay b e u se d in e xc lam at ion s

en d e xt ra fi d esq u e ( Ae n . iv . lo, t he f ait h lig ht ed word !

an d p

e cc e t u ae lit t e rae d e Varron e ( A tt . x iii . lo and be hold , y ou r let t ers abou t

Varro
N O TE . Bu t t h e a cc u sat ive i s m ore c om m on 3 97 d) . .

VOCA TI VE C A SE
3 40 Th e Voc at iv e i s t h e
. e as e of dir ec t add ess r
Tiberi n e p at e r, t e, si n et e , p rec or ( Liv . u . O f ather Tiber, thee, holy on e,

I p ray .

res om n is m ih i t e c um c rit , Hort é nsi ( Ve rr i . . m y whole atte n t ion will be

d evot ed to y ou , H orte ns iu s .

a. A n ou n in t h e n om in at iv e in ap p osit i on w it h t h e j
s u b e c t of

t h e im p e at i r ve m ood i s som e t im e s u s e d i n st e ad Of t he v oc at ive :

au d i t u, p op u lu s Alban u s ( Liv . i . hear, t hou p eop le f A lba

o .

b . Th e v oc at iv e Of an ad e c t iv e j i s som e t i m e s u s e d in p oe t ry in st ead
Of th e n om in at i ve , wh e re t h e v e rb i s in t h e se c on d p e rson

qu o m ori t ure ru is
(Aen . x . whither art t hou ru shi n g t o thy d oom
c en sOre m t rab e at e salut as ( Pe rs . iii . robed y ou salu t e t he c e n sor.

c . Th e voc at i ve m e et s i s u se d as a
p re d ic at e in t h e p h rase m e et s
est b
(
virt ut e
) ,
su c c ess a t t en d y our
( v alor :
)
iu b ere m t e m ac t e virt ut e e sse ( Liv . n . I shou ld bid y ou go on an d p rosp er
i n y ou r valor .

m act e n ova virt ut e p u e r ( A e n . ix . su cc ess atten d you r valor, boy !

N O TE A s t h e ori gin al q u an t i t y of t h e fi n al e i n m ac t e is n et d e t e rm in ab le , i t m ay
.

be t h at t h e word was an ad v e rb , as i n be n e est an d t h e lik e .

GEN I TI VE C A S E

3 41 Th e Gen it iv e is r e gu larly u se d t o e x p r e ss t h e r elat ion Of

.

on e n ou n t o an ot h e r H e n c e it is s om e t im e s c alle d t he adj ec tive

.

c ase , t o d ist in gu ish it f r om t h e D at i v e an d t h e A blat iv e , w hic h

m ay be c alle d ad verbi al c ases .

 34 1- 34 3 ] POSSESSIVE GENI TI VE

Th e u se s O f t h e Ge n i t i ve m ay be c lassifi ed as follows :
1 O f Possession ( 5
2 O f Mat e ri al
O f Qu ali t y
I . Geni ti ve wi t h Noun s
Z Of t h e Wh ole , af t e r word s d esign at in g a Part
( Part it ive ,
5 W it h N ou n s of Ac
t i on an d F e e lin g
A ft e r Re lat iv e A c
d j e t iv e s ( o r Ve rb als)
II . Gen iti ve wi t h Adj cti e ves :
1 c
O f Spec ifi at ion ( lat e r u se ) 349 d) . .

O f Me m ory , F ee lin g , e tc 350, 35 1 ,

3
r
II I Ge n i t i ve wi t h Verb s :
.

.
,
Of Acc
us i n g , e t c ( C h arg e or Pen alt y)
.

GENI TI VE WI TH N OUN S

3 42 . A n ou n u se d t o lim it or de fi n e an ot h er an d n ot , m e an in
g
t he sam e p e sor
n o r t h in g , is p u t in t h e Ge n it iv e .

Th is re lat ion i s m ost f re qu e n t ly p d in En gli sh b

ex
y t
re ss e h e p ep o r
s it ion o f, s om e t im es by t h e En glish ge n it iv e ( or p osse ss iv e) c ase
lib ri Cic eran is , t he books f Ci
o c ero, or Ci c ero s books
’
.

c
i n im i i Cae s ari s , C ces ar ’
s e n em ies, or the en e m i es of C ces ar .

t ale n t u m ant i , a t alen t of g old .

vir su m m ae virt ut i s , a m an of the great es t c ou rage .

Bu t O b se rv e t h e f ollowin g e q u i vale n t s :

va c at io l bo i a r e , a resp it e F RO M to il .

c
p e t i t io c en s u latfi s , an did a y F O R the onsu lship c c .

regn u m c
i vit ati s , roy al p ower O VER t he state .

Pos sessive Geni t ive

Th e Possessiv e Ge n it iv e de n ot e s t h e p ers on
3 43 . or t hin g t o
wh ic h an O bj e c t , qu ali t y, fe elin g , or ac t ion b elon gs
Ale xan dri ca
A lexan d er s d og
n is ,
’
.

p ot e n t i l
a Pom p éi ( S a l C at P omp ey s p ower
’
. . .

Ari ovi s ti m ors ( B G v t he d eat h of A riovistu s

. . . .

pe rdi t bru m t e m e rit as ( Mi l t he rec kless n ess of d esp erat e m en

. .

N O TE 1 — Th e Poss es si ve Ge n it iv e m ay d e n ot e ( 1) t h e a t u al owne r ( as in A lex

. c
’ ’
c
an d e r s d og ) or au t h or ( as i n C i e ro s wri t i n g s) , o r ( 2 ) t h e p e rson o r t h in g t h at p oss e sses
’
som e f e e li n g or q u ali t y or d oe s som e a c t ( as i n C i e ro s e loq u en e , t h e s t ren g th of t h e c c
bri d g e , C at i li n e s evi l deeds)
’
I n t h e lat t e r u se i t i s som e t i m e s alle d t h e S u b j e t iv e
. c c
c
Ge n it iv e ; b u t t h is t e rm p rope rly i n lu d e s t h e po sse ss ive g e n it i ve an d s e v e ral ot h e r
c c
g e n i t ive o n st ru t ion s ( n e arly all, i n f a t , e x e p t t h e Ob j e t i ve Ge ni t i ve , c c c
N O TE 2 - Th e n ou n lim i t e d i s u n d e rst oo d i n a fe w e x p re ssi on s
.

ad C ast oris [aed es] ( Qu in c t a t t h e [t e m p le ] of C ast or [C f S t P au l s ]

’
. . . . .

Flac c u s Glan di , F lac cu s [slav e] of C lau di u s .

A
H ec t ori s n d rom a h e ( A en ii i c H e tor s [wif e ] A nd rom ac he
’
. . c .
2 12 S Y NTA X : C ON S TR U C TI O N O F C A S ES [ g 3 43

a. F or t h e g e n i t iv e Of p o s s es si on a p osse ss ive o d e rivat iv e adje c r

ti ve is O ft e n u s e d , — r e gu larly f or t h e p osse s siv e g e n it iv e of t h e p e r,

son al p ron ou n s 3 02 . a
) :

lib e r m eu s , m y book [N o t libe t m ei . .

]
alié na pe ri c ula, ot her m en s d an gers [Bu t also alibru m ]
’
. .

S u llana t e m p e ra, t he t i m es of S u lla O f e n e r S u llae ]

.
[ t .

b Th e p osse ss ive ge n i t i ve O ft e n st an d s in t h e p re dic at e ,

.
c on n e c t e d

w it h i t s n ou n by a e rb ( P re d i c a t e Ge n i t i ve) : v
h ae cd o m u s es t p at ri s m e i , t his h ou se is m y f at her s
’
.

i am m e Pom p éi t ot u m e sse c
s i s ( F am ii y ou kn ow I am
. . n ow all or P om
f
( all Pom p e y s)
’
p ey .

su m m a lau S et tu a et Brut i e s t ( Fam . X 11 . 4 . t he hi g hest p raise i s d u e both

)
’
t o y ou an d t o Brut u s ( is b ot h y ou rs an d B ru t us s .

c c
om p e n di f a ere , t o s ave ( m ak e O f s avin g) .

c
I u c ri fa ere , t o g et t he ben efi t of ( m ak e O f p rofi t ) .

N O T E — Th e se g e n i t i ve s b e ar t h e s am e re lat i o n t o t h e e x am p le s in § 343 t h at a
c
p re d i at e n ou n b e ars t o an ap p os it iv e 28 2 ,

0. An i n fi n it iv e or a c lau se , wh e n u sed as a n ou n ,
i s O f t e n lim it e d
by a g e n it i v e in t h e p re d ic at e :

n e qu e s u i i fi di c i [ e rat ] d is c ern e re (B . C . i . n or was it f or h is j u dg m en t t o

c
d e id e ( n or d id it b elon g t O h is j u d gm e n t ) .

c fi i u s vi s h om in is e st e rrare
( Ph il. x ii . it is an y m an ’s [liab ilit y ] t o err .

n e g avi t m bri s e sse Grae c Oru m , ut in c on vi vi O virOru m ac c u m b e re n t m u lie res

( Ve rr . ll . 1 . he said it was n ot t he c u st om o f t he Greeks f or wom en t o

app ear as g u es t s (re clin e ) at t he ban qu ets of m e n .

se d t im idi e st O p t are n e c e m ( O v M iv .bu t t is . .

’
t he c oward s
’
p art to
wish f or d eath .

s t ult i e rat sp erare , su ad ere im p u de n t i s ( Ph il . ll . i t was f olly ( th e p art of

'

a f ool) t o hop e , e fi ront ery to u rg e .

s ap ien t i s e s t c
p au a loq u i , i t i s w ise ( t h e p art Of a wise m an ) t o s ay li tt le .

[N ot s apien s ( n e ut er) est , e t c ] .

c c
N O TE 1 — Th is on st ru t ion i s re gu lar w it h ad j e t ive s of t h e t hi rd d e le n sion
. c c
i n st e ad O f t h e n e u t e r n o m in at iv e ( s ee t h e las t t w o e xam p le s) .

N O TE 2 . A
d e ri vat ive or p os se s s i v e ad j e t i ve m ay h e u s e d f or t h e g en i t ive in t his c
c c
on st ru t i on , an d m u s t b e u se d f or t h e g e n i t i ve O f a p e rson al p ron o u n :

m e n t i ri n On e st m eu m [n ot m ei ] , i t i s n ot f or m e t o li e .

h fi m an u m [f or h om i n i s] e st e rrare , i t i s m an ’s n at u re t o err ( t o e rr is h u m an ) .

d . A lim i t in g g e n it iv e i s s om e t im e s u se d in st e ad O f a n ou n in app o

s i t ion A
( pp os i t i on a l Ge n i t i ve )
n om en i n s aniae ( for n Om e n in san ia) the word , m ad n ess .

O p p id u m An t i oc hias ( f or Opp i du m A n ti oc hi a ,
th e re gu lar form ) , t he c i ty f
o

A n t io h c .
2 14 S Y N TA X : C ON S TR U C TI ON OF C A SES [ s3 4e
'

2 . N u m e rals, C o m p arat ive s, S u p e rlat ive s, an d Pron om in al words lik e

aliu s , alt e r, n ii llu s , e t c : .

fi n u s t rib fi n bru m , on e o f t he tribu n es ( se e 0 b elo w) .

s ap ie n t u m o ct a vu s ( Hor S . . ii 3 . . t he eig hth o f t he wise m en .

m i lia p as s u u m ses c e n t a ( B G i v s ix hu n dred m iles ( t h ou san d s . . . Of pa c es ) .

m aior f rat ru m , t he eld er of t he brot hers .

an im aliu m fort iOra, t he st ron ger [of] an i m als .

S u eb Oru m gen s est lon ge m ax im a e t b e llic Osissim a Ge rm an Oru m om n iu m

( B G iv. . t he t ribe of t he S u evi i s f ar the larg est an d m ost warlike of
.

all t he Germ an s .

alt er c On su lu m , on e of t he [t wo] on su ls c .

n fi lla e aru m ( B G i v n ot on e of t hem ( t h e sh ips )

. . . .

3 . N e u t e r Ad j ct i
e ve s an d Pron o u n s, u se d as n ou n s

t an t u m spat i , so m u h [of] sp a e c c .

aliqu id n u m m bru m , a f e w p e n e ( som e t h in g Of c c oin s ) .

id lo ic ( or loc bru m ) t hat sp ot of grou n d ; id t e m pori s , at that t i m e

, 397 . a ) .

p lan a u rb is , t he le vel p arts of t he t own .

qu id n ovi , what n ews ? ( wh at Of n e w ? )

p au lu m frum e n t i ( B C i a little grain
. . . .

p lus doloris ( B G i . m ore gri ef

. . .

s u i aliqu id t im bri s ( B C I I som ef ear of his own

. . .
( som e t h in g O f his own fe ar) .

N O TE 1 . c c
I n lassi p rOse n e u t e r ad j e t iv e s ( n ot p ron om i n al) se ld om t ak e a p art i c
c
t i ve g e n i t ive , e x e p t m u lt u m , t an t u m , qu an t u m , an d sim ilar w ord s .

c
N O T E 2 — Th e g e n it i ve of ad j e t iv e s of t h e th i rd d e le n si on is rare ly u s e d p art i
. c
t iv ely — n i hil n ovi ( g e n it i ve ) , n ot h i n g n ew ; b u t , — n ih il m em orab ile (n om i n at ive ) , n othf
i n g worth m e n t i on (n ot n i h i l m em orab ili s) .

4 . A dve rbs, esp e c ially t h ose o f Qu an t it y an d Of Pla c e

p aru m 6ti , n ot u e se m ch a
oo lit t le of e ase )
(t .

s at is p e c fi n ia e , m on ey en ou gh ( en ou gh of m on e y ) .

p lurim u m t bt i u s Gallias e qu it at u vale t ( B G v . . . is stron gest o f all Gau l

in cavalry .

u b in am gen t iu m su m u s ( C at . i . where i n the world are we ( wh ere of

n at ion s) ?

u b ie u m qu e t erraru m et
g e n ti u m (Ve rr . v . wherever i n t he wh ole world .

res e rat e O i am loc i u t ( S est . the bu si n ess had n ow rea hed su h a p oin t c c
t hat , etc .

s o m i se ri aru m (I u g . 14 . to t hat [p it c h ] of m isery .

in d e loc i , n ext in order ( t h en c e Of p lac e ) [Poe t ic al ]

. .

b . Th e p oe t s an d lat e r writ e rs Of t e n u se r
t h e p a t it ive ge n i t iv e
j
af t e r ad ec t ive s, in st e ad Of a n ou n in it s p rop e c ase r
se qu im u r t e, s an c te d e eru m ( A en . iv . we f ollow t hee O holy d e ity , .
[F or
s an c t e 49 g
deu s . .

n igrae lan a ru m ( Plin H N . . . viii . bla k wools c [F or n igrae lane s ]

.

e xp e d i t i m ilit am
( Li v xxx . . light-arm ed sold i ers [F or expe di t i m ilit ias ]
.

h om i n e m c un c t OS ( Ov M . . iv . all m en .
[For c fi n c t bs h om in é s ; c f e ] . .
 3 433 43 ] OBJEC TI VE GENI TI VE 21 5

0. r
C a din al n u m e rals
(
p t m ilia) re g u larly t ak e t h e Ab lat iv e
ex c e

w it h 6 ( ex) or dé in s t e ad Of t h e Part it ive Ge n it ive S O also qu i dam , .

a c ert a i n on e, c om m on ly , an d ot h e r wo rd s o c c as ion all

y
un u s ex t rib fi n i s , on e o f t he t ri bu n e s .
[B u t also , un us t rib fi n bru m (c f . a .

m i n n m us ex illi s ( I ug . t he y ou n g est of t hem .

m e d iu s ex t ribu s t he m idd le on e of t he t hree .

q u i d am ex m ilitib u s , c ert ai n o f the sold i ers .

un us dé m ulti s ( Fin . ii . on e o f t he m an y .

c
p au i dé n os t ri s c ad u n t ( B G i . . . a f ew of ou r m en f all .

h o m in e m dé c om iti b u s m ei s , a m an o f my com p an ions .

ro e rl
d .
( p y
Ut erqu e, bot h
p e
)
ac h , an d qu isqu e, e a c h , w it h N ou n s
are re gu larly u s e d as ad e c t iv e s in j agre em e n t , b u t w it h Pron ou n s
r
t ake a p a t it i v e ge n it iv e
u t erq u e co n s u l, both t he c on su ls ; but , u t e rqu e n os t ru m , both of us.

un u s q u isq u e v e st ru m , ea h c one o f y ou .

c
u t raqu e as tra, both am p s c .

e. N u m b e rs an d w ord s Of q u an t i ty in c lu d in g t h e w h ole Of

t h in g t ak e a c ase in agre e m e n t , an d t h e p art it iv e ge n it i ve

n ot .

als o word s d en ot in g a p art wh e n on l

y t h a t p a rt i s t h ou gh t O f
n bs om n es , all o f us ( we all ) .
[N ot om n es n os t ru m ]
qu ot su n t h os t é s , how m an y of t h e e n em y are t he re
ca e i
v n i m i c Os , q u i m u lt i su n t , be ware of y ou r en em i es , who are m an y .

m u lt i m i lit é s , m an y of t he sold i ers .

n ém O R fi m an u s , n ot on e R om an .

Objec t ive Gen it ive

3 47 . Th e Obj e c t ive Ge n i t iv e is u se d w it h N ou n s , A dj e c t iv e s,
an d Ve rbs .

348 . N ou n s O f ac t i on , ag en c y, an d f e e lin g g o v e rn t h e Ge n i t i ve
of t h e Ob jec t
c a it a t i
r s u , afi ec ti on
f or y ou d esid eriu m bt i lon gin g f or rest
.
, .

v ac at io m fi
n e ri s , reli ef f rom d u ty grat ia be n efi c i grat itu d e f or ki ndn ess .
, .

fu ga m aloru m ref u ge f rom d is ast er

, p re c at io d ebru m , p ray er t o t he god s .

c on t en t io h on bru m , st ru gg le f or offi ce Op i n io vimi ti s rep u t at i on f or valor , .

N O TE —Thi s u sage is an e xt e n s ion O f t h e id e a of belon g i n g t o ( Posse ss i ve Gen it iv e )

.

Th u s in t h e p h ras e od i u m Cae sari s , h at e of C aesar, t h e h at e i n a p ass iv e s e n s e be lon gs

c
t o C ae sar, as odiu m , t h ou gh i n i t s a t iv e se n se h e i s t h e obj e t O f i t , as h at e ( c f a) c . .

c
Th e d ist in t ion b e t we e n t h e Poss e ssiv e ( su b j e t ive ) an d t h e Ob j e t ive Ge n it i v e is ve ry c c
u n st ab le an d i s O ft e n los t s ig h t O f I t i s illu st rat e d b y t h e f ollow in g e x am p le : t h e
.

p h rase am or pat n s , love of a f at h e r, may m e an love f e lt by a f a t h er, a f ath er s love

’
’

c
( su b j e t ive ge n it iv e ) , or love t owards a f ath er ( ob j e t ive g e n it ive ) c .
2 16 SYNTA X : C ONSTR UC TI ON or C A SES 3 43 , 3 49

a. Th e j
Ob e c t i ve gen it ive is som e t im e s r ep lac e d by a p osse ss ive
p ron ou n o r o t h e r d e ri vat iv e j
ad e c t iv e :

m e a in vidia, m y u np op u lar i ty ( t h e d islik e of whi h I am t h e c Ob e j ct ) .

[C i .

O d iu m m e i ( Har R e sp . . hatred f
o me .
]
lau d at or m e u s ( A tt . i 16. . my eu log i st ( on e wh o p rais es m e ) .
[C i . nost ri

lau d at or ( id i 14 . . .

c
ClOdi an u m ri m e n ( Mil 7 . t he m u rd er of C lod iu s ( t h e C lO d ian ch arge ) [A s
we s ay , th e N at han m u rd e r ] .

m e t u s h os t i li s (I ug .
f ear of t he e n em y ( h os t ile fe ar) .

ea q u ae f ac ieb at , m s 3 6 fid u i a f a e re c c d i c eb at ( Ve rr v . . what he was

d oi n g , he s aid h e did re ly i n g on y ou ( wi t h y ou r re lian c e ) .

n e q u e n egle ge n t i a t u a, n e qu e id O d ie f e it t u b Ter
( Ph c . . he d id t h is
n e it her f rom neg le ct n or f rom hatred of y ou .

b . R are ly t h e j
O b e c t iv e g e n it i ve i s u se d w it h a n ou n alre ady lim
i t e d by an ot h e r g e n it i ve
an im i m u lt aru m ré ru m p e re u rsiO ( Tu so iv t he m i n d ’
. . s t raversi n g o f m an y
th i n gs .

c . A n ou n w it h a p re
p os it ion is O f t e n u se d in st e ad Of t he O b eCj °

t iv e ge n it iv e :

O d iu m i n An t bn i u m ( F am . x . 5 . hate o f A n ton y .

m erit a e rga m e ( id . i . 1 . servi es c to m e .

m e am i n t e p ie t at e m ( id . i 9
. . m y d evoti on t o y ou .

im p e t u s i n u rbe m ( Ph il xi i . . an att a k on t he ity c c .

e xc e ssu s é vi t a ( Fin . i ii . d ep art u re f rom lif e .

[Also , e xc e s s u s vit ae ,

Tu se i . .

ad op t iO in Dom it i u m ( Tac . An n . xi i . t h e ad op ti on o f D om it iu s .
[A late
an d b old e xt e n s ion O f t h is c on s t ru ct i on .
]
N O TE — S O also i n lat e writ e rs t he d at i v e o f re f e re n
. c e (c f . 366 b) : . as ,
b ellb m at eria ( Tac H i re sou r es f or a lon g war
. . . c .

GEN I TI VE W I TH AD ECTI VES J

3 49 . A d j ec t iv e s r e qu irin g an ob ec t j Of r e fe re n c e g o v e rn t he
O bj e c t iv e Ge n it iv e .

a. Ad j e c t i ve s d e n ot in
g d esi re , kn owledg e, m em ory, f u ln es s , p ow er,
s h a ri n g , g u ilt , an d t h e i Op p os i t e s gov e rn t h e g e n it i e r v
avid i lan di s ( Man il . 7 greedy of p rais e .

f as t i diOsu s li tt eraru m , d isd ain in g letters .

i fi ri s p e ri t u s , ski lled in law [S O also t h e ab lat ive , ifi re , c f . .

m e m ore m ve st ri , Ob li t u m s u i ( C at i v m i n df u l of y ou , f org etf u l of hi m self . . .

rati On i s e t Orat ibn i s e xp e rt es ( Off i . . devoid of s en s e an d sp ee ch .

n ost rae c en su é t fi di ni s i m p e ri t i ( B G . . iv
. u na cq u ain t ed with ou r c ust om s .
2 18 S NTA Y X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A SES [5 350

GENI TI VE W I TH VERBS
Verbs of R em em beri n g an d r
Fo get t in g

3 50 . Ve rbs Of rem em berin g an d f org e tting t ak e e it h e r t h e A c c u

s at i ve or the Ge n it iv e of t he Ob ec t j
a. Mem i n i t ak e s t h e A c c u sat iv e wh en it h as t h e lit e al r se n se of

re t a i n n
gi i n t h e m i n d wh at on e h as see n , h e ard, or le a r n ed . H en c e
t h e ac c u sat iv e is u se d of p e rs on s wh om on e r em e m b e rs as ac qu ain t
an c es, or Of t hi n gs wh ic h on e h as e xp e ri e n c e d .

SO oblivi s c or in t h e Op p os it e s e n s e , t o f org et lit e ally , t o los e r a ll

m em ory o
f a t hin g ( ve r
y r
r a e ly , O f a p e rs on ) .

Cinn am m e m in i ( Phil Cin n a

. v . I rem em ber .

u t in am avu m t u u m m e m in iss es ( id i oh ! t hat y ou ou ld rem em ber y ou r . . c

gran df at her ( b u t h e di e d b e f ore y ou w ere b orn ) .

c
Post u m iu m , uiu s s t at u am in I st h m O m e m i n isse t e d i c is ( A t t x iii P ostu . .

m iu s, whose st at u e y ou say y ou rem em ber ( t o h ave se e n ) on t he I sth m u s .

o m n ia m e m in it Si ron Ep ic uri dogm at a ( A ad c . ii . S iron rem em bers all

c
t he d o trin es of Ep i u ru s c .

m u lt a ab alii s au d i ta m e m in eru n t (De Or . 11 . t hey rem em ber m an y t hi n gs

t hat t hey have heard f rom ot hers .

t Ot am cau s am ob lit u s e st (Bru t . h e f org ot t he whole ase c .

h in c iam ob livi sc ere Grai bs ( A e n . ii .

f rom hen ef ort h f orget t he Greeks c
(i . s . n ot m erely d isregard t h e m , b u t ban is h t hem f rom y ou r m in d , as if
y ou h ad n eve r kn own t h e m ) .

b . Mem in i t ak e s t h e Ge n it i ve wh en it m e an s t o be m i n df u l or

reg ard u
f l of a p e rson or t h in g , t o t h i n k of som e b ody or som e t h in g

( Ofte n w it h sp e c ial i n t ere st or w arm t h Of f e e lin g) .

S O oblivi sc or in t h e Op p osit e sen se , t o d i s reg ard, or d is m i ss f rom

t h e m i n d, a d t h e adj e c t ive oblit u s ,
- n
c a re less or reg a rdless .

ip se s ui m e m in e rat ( Verr . ii . he was m in df u l of him self ( Of h is own

in t e re sts) .

'

fac iam huins loc i diéi q u e m éi q u e se m p er m em in e ris ( Te r Eu n

ut I wi ll . .

m ake y ou rem em ber t his p la e an d t his day an d m e as lon g as y ou li ve c .

u se m e m e m in is se p igeb it Eli s s ae , d u m m em or ip se I h ei ( A en iv n or . .

shall I f eel regret at t he t hou ght o f Elissa, so lon g as I rem e m ber f

m y se l .

m e m in e rin t v eré c u n di ae ( Off . i . let t he m ch eris h m odesty .

h um an as in firm it at is m e m in i ( Liv xx x 3 1 I rem em ber hu m an weakn ess . . . .

ob livisc i t e m poru m m e Oru m , m e m in isse ac ti6n u m ( Fam i 9 t o d isregard . . .

m y own i n t erests , t o be m in df u l of the m att ers at i ssu e .

n ec c
t am e n Ep ic fi ri li e t ob li v i sc i ( Fin v an d y et I m u st n ot f orget Ep i u ru s . . c .

ob li vi sc e re c ac ai a at qu e in c e n dibru m ( C at i t u rn you r m in d f rom slau ght er . .

an d c onflagrat i ons ( d ism iss t h e m from y ou r t h ou gh t s) .

 3 50, 3 5 1] GEN I TI VE W I TH VERB S 2 19

N O TE 1 W it h b ot h m em in i an d ob li vi sc or t h e p e rson al an d re fl e xi ve p ron oun s are

.

re gu larly in t h e Ge n i t iv e n e u t e r p ron ou n s an d ad j e t i ve s u se d su b s t an t iv e ly are re g u c

larly i n t h e Acc c
u sat iv e ; ab s t ra t n ou n s are oft e n i n t h e Ge n i t i v e Th e s e u s e s o m e . c
c c
in e a h in st an e f rom t h e n at u ral m e an in g of t h e v e rb s ( as d e fi n e d ab ove ) .

N O T E 2 — Me m i n i i n t h e se n se of m e n t i on t ak e s t h e Ge n i t i ve : as ,
. e u n d e m A h il c
lam c fi i u s s u p ra m e m in im u s ( B C i ii
. . . th at sam e A h illas c wh om I m en ti on ed
above .

c . R em in i scor i s rare . I t t ake s t h e A c c u sat iv e in t h e lit e ral s en se

of c a ll t o m in d , rec olle c t t h e Ge n it ive i n t h e m ore fi gu rat ive se n se

Of

c
d u l i s m orien s re m in is c it u r Arg os ( A e n . x . as he d i es he call s t o m in d
h is be loved A rg os .

re m in i sc eret u r e t ve t e ris in c om m odi p op u li R em an i e t p ri st in as v irt ii ti s H e lve

t iOru m ( B G i let hi m re m em ber both t he f orm er d isc omfi tu re of t he

. . .

R om an p eop le an d the an i ent valor of t h e H elvet ians c .

[A w arn in g ,

let h im bear i t i n m in d ( an d b e w are ) 1]

d . R ecorde r ,
rec ollec t , rec a ll, r eg u lar ly t ake s t h e A c c u sat iv e :

re c ord are c an s en s u m illu m t h e at ri ( Ph il . i . re all c t hat u n an im ou s agree

m en t f
o t he [au d ie n c e in t h e ] t he atre .

rec ord am in i om n i s ci vilis dis s é n si bn é s ( C at . iii . c all t o m i n d all t he ci vi l

wars .

N O TE .
— R ec ord or t ak es t h e ge n i t i ve on c e ( Pi son . 12 ) i t i s n e v e r u se d wi t h a p e r
son al Ob e t , j c b u t m ay b e followe d b y (16 wit h t h e ab lat iv e O f t h e p e rson or t h i n g

( c f § 351
. . N .
)
dé t é rec ord or (S c au r . I re m e m ber abou t y ou .

as i lli s ( lac rimi s) re c ord or ( Plan e . I am re m i n d e d o f those t e ars .

Verbs of R em in din g

3 51 . Ve rbs of rem in din g t ak e w it h t h e A c c u s at i v e of t he p e r

s on a Ge n it iv e Of t h e t hin g ; e xc ep t in t h e c as e O f a n eu t e
p ro r
n ou n , w hic h is p u t in t h e ac c u s at i v e (c f . c
) .

S o adm on eo, c om m on eo, c om m on efac io, c om m on ef i o . Bu t m on eb wit h

t h e ge n it i ve i s f ou n d in late writ ers on l
y .

C at ilin a adm on eb at ali u m e ge s t ati s , ali u m c u p idit ati s su as ( Sall C at

‘

. .

C ati li n e rem in d ed on e o f h is p overt y , an ot her of h is c up idi t y .

e ds h bc m on e O ( C at I g i ve t hem t his warn i n g

. ii . .

qu od vos lex c om m on e t ( Ve rr iii t hat wh i h t he law . . c rem i n d s y ou o f .

N O TE All t h e se v e rb s O ft e n t ak e d é wi t h t h e ab lat i ve , an d t h e a u s at ive of n ou n s

. cc
as well as Of p ron oun s i s som e t i m es u se d wit h t h e m
sae p iu s t é ad m on e o d é sy n grap ha S it t i an a ( F am V I I I 4 5) I re m i n d y ou ag ai n an d . . .

bon d
’
ag ai n of S i tt i us s .

ofli c i u m vost ru m n t v Os m alo c Og at is m on é ri e r ( Plan t Ps t h at y ou m ay

'

c om . .

by m isf ort u n e f or c e you rselves t o be re m i n d e d o f y ou r d u t y .

220 S YNTA X : C ON STR UC TI ON OF C A SE S 3 52 , 3 53

Verbs of Accu s i n g, Con dem n i n g , an d Ac qu it t in g

3 52 . Ve rbs o f ac cu sin g , c on d e m n in g , an d ac qu i tt i ng , t ake t h e

Ge n it iv e of t h e C ha ge r or P en alt y :
argu it m e f urt i , he acc u s es me o f thef t .

p ec fi lat fi s d am n at u s ( p e c fi ni ae p ub li ae d am n at us ) c ( Flacc . c on dem n ed f or

em bezz le m en t .

vi d e o n en t é ab solut u m e sse i m p robit ati s , se d illes d am n at es e ss e c ae d i s

( Ve rr . u . 1 . I see, n ot t hat y ou were ac qu i t ted of ou t rag e , bu t t hat

t hey were c on d em n ed f or h om i id e c .

a. P e c u lia gen it i r ve s u ,
n de r t his c o n st ru c t i on , are

c ap iti s , as in dam n a c p iti

re a s, t t c t
o s en en e o d eat h .

mai e s t at i s [laesae ] treason ( c rim e again st t h e d ign it y of t h e st at e )

, .

re p e t u n daru m [reru m ] , extort i on ( lit O f an ac t ion f or rec lai m i n g m on e y ) . .

vet i dam n at u s ( or re u s ) bou n d [t o t h e p ay m e n t ] of on e s vow i s su cc ess

’
,
. .
,

f u l in on e s e ffort
’
.

pe c fi ni ae ( d am n are , iud i are , se e n ot e ) c .

d u pli e t c , as in du p li c on de m n are , on d em n t o p ay t wof old

. c .

N O TE — Th e orig in of c c
t h e s e g e n it i v e on st ru t i on s i s p o in t e d at b y pe c fi n i ae dam
n are ( Ge ll xx 1 . . . to c on d e m n t o p ay m on e y , i n a as e O f i n j u ry t o t h e p e rs on ; c
q u an t ae p ec fi n i ae i fi d ic fi t i e ssen t ( id xx , h e w m u h m on e y t h e y . .

‘
c we re adj u d g ed to p ay ,
in a m e re s u it f or d e b t ; c en f essi aeri s ac d eb i t i i fi d i c at i ( id xx 1 . . . a dj u d g e d t o owe

an ad m i t t e d su m Th e s e e x p ression s s h ow t h at t h e g en i t i ve o f t h e p e n alt y om es
due . c
f rom t h e u se of t h e g e n it iv e of valu e t o e xp re s s a su m of m on e y d u e e i t h e r as a d e b t o r as
a fi ne . c c
S in e in e arly i vili z at i on s all off e n e s ou ld b e om p ou n de d b y t h e p ay m e n t o f c c c
c
fi n e s , t h e g e n it iv e am e t o b e u s e d o f o t h e r p u n ish m e n t s , n o t p e u n iary F rom t h i s t o c .

c c
t h e g e n it i v e of t h e a t u al ri m e is an e asy t ran s it i on , i n as m u h as t h e re i s alway s a c
c c
on f u sion b e t we e n rim e an d p e n alt y ( c f En g g u i lt y of d e at h ) I t i s q u i t e u n n e e ssary
. . . c
t o assu m e an e llip sis of c rim in e e r i ud i i o c .

3 53 . Ot h e r c on s t u c t ion s r for t h e C h arg e or Pe n alty are

1 Th e Ablat iv e Of Pric e : re gu larly Of a d efi

. n i t e a m ou n t Of fi n e,
an d O f t e n of in d e fi n it e p e n alt ie s ( of 4 1 6) .

F ru sin até s t e rt ia p art e agri d am n at i ( Liv x t he p eop le . . o f F ru sin o c on

d em n ed [ t o forfe it ] a th ird p art of t heir lan d .

2 Th e A blat ive wit h de, t h e A c c u sat iv e w it h i n t e r i n i diom at ic

’
. or ,

e x p re ss ion s

dé ale a, f or gam bli n g d é am b it u, f or bribery .

d é p ec un iis re p e t u n d is , of ext ort i on ( c f 3 52 . . a) .

c
in t e r si arios ( R ose A m . . as an assassi n ( am on g t h e assass in s) .

de vi e t m aie st at is d am n at i ( Ph il . i . c onvicted of assau lt and treason .

N O T E — Th e a cc u sat i ve wi t h ad an d i n o cc i n lat e r w ri t e rs t o e xp ress t h e p e n

u rs
— ad m ort e m ( Tac
.

alt y : as , . An n x vi . . to d eath ; ad (i n) m et alla, t o th e m i n es .

2 22 S YNTA X : C ON S TR UC TI ON OF C A SES 3 55 , 3 56

a. I n st e ad of t h e ge n it ive of a p e son al p on ou n t h e c o r r rre sp o d n

i n g p o sse ssive i s u se d in t h e ablat ive sin gu la f e m in in e af t e r r i n t erest

o r ré fert

qu id t u a i d refe rt m agn i ( Te r Ph how d oes t hat . . c c on ern y ou ? m u h c .

[ S ee a lso t h e las t t wo e xam p le s ab ove ] .

ve h e m e n t e r in t e re rat v e s t ra q u i p at res e s t is
( Plin Ep . . iv 13. . i t wou ld be
very c
m u h t o y ou r advan tag e , y ou who are f at hers .

N O T E —Th i s is t h e on ly on st ru t ion wi t h
. c c réfert in cl as si cp c
rose , e x e p t in on e

p assag e i n S allu s t ( se e e x am p le ab ove ) .

b . Th e ac c u sat iv e w it h ad is u se d wit h in t erest an d réfert to ex

p re ss t h e t h in g w it h f
re eren c e t o w h i c h on e i s in t e re st ed
m agn i ad h e n dre m n ost ru m in t e re st ( F am . xvi .
i t is of g reat c ons equ en e c
to ou r honor .

refe rt e t i am ad frfi c t d s ( Varr . R R i 16. . . . it m akes a d ifi ererwe as t o the

'

c rop .

N O TE 1 —Ve ry rarely t h e p erson i s e xp re sse d b y

. ad an d t h e a cc u s at ive , o r ( wit h
rét ert ) b y t h e d at iv e ( p rob ably a p op u lar o rru p t ion ) : c ‘

q u i d i d ad m 6 au t ad m eam rem ré fe rt ( Pl Pe rs . . wh at d ifi e re n c e d oes t h at

t o m y i n t erest s ?
m ake t o m e or
‘

qu i d ref e rat i n t ra n at urae fi n i s vi ve n t i (H e r S i 1 wh at d ifl ere n c e d oes i t

. . . .

m ake t o m e wh o li ve wi t hi n t h e li m i t s of n at u ral d es ire ?

ré fe rre d é d ec ori ( Tao A n n t h at i t m akes to t h e
'

n en xv . . . no d ifi e ren c e as

disgra e c .

N O T E 2 — Th e d eg ree o f in t e rest is
. e xp resse d b y a ge n it ive o f valu e , an ad ve rb ,

or an ad ve rb ial a u sat i ve cc .

Verbs of Plen t y an d Wan t

3 56 . Ve rbs of Ple n t y an d W an t som e t im e s
g o e n v r t h e ge n i
ti ve ( cf . 4 09 . a N . .
)
c on vi viu m vi c i n dru m c om p le e ( C at M 46 , in t h e m ou t h . . of C at o ) , I fi ll u p the
ban qu et with m y ne ighbors .

im p le n t u r ve t e ris B a h i p in gu isqu e f e rin ae ( Ae n i cc . . t hey fi ll t hem selves

with old win e an d f at ven ison .

ne q u i s e nxili e ge at ( B G vi lest an y require aid . . . .

qu id e st qu od dé f é n s idni s in d ige at ( R ose A m what i s t here t hat . . n eed s

qu ae ad c en s olan d u m m ai Oris i n ge n i e t ad fe re n d u m s in gu laris vi rt uti s in d i

g en t ( F am vi 4 . . .
[s orrows] whic h f or thei r c omf ort i ng n eed m ore abil
i t y , and f or e n du ran c e u n u su al c ou rag e .

N O TE — Ve rb s o f p le n t y an d w an t m ore om m on ly t ak e t h e ab lat ive ( see

. 409 a, c .

c c
e x e p t e ged, wh i h t ak es e it h e r as e , an d i n d i g ed c
B u t t h e g e n i t iv e is b y a Gre e k .

i d iom o ft e n u se d i n p o et ry in st e ad of t h e ab lat ive wit h all word s de n ot in g sep aration

an d wan t ( of § 357 b 3 ) . . .

ab st in é t o i ri ru m ( H e r O d ii i 27 ref rai n f rom wrat h. . . . .

ope rum solut i s ( id i ii f ree f rom t oi ls

. . .

désin e m olli u m qu erellam m ( id 11 9 h ave d one wi th we ak om p lai n t s . . . c .

 3 57-3 59] PEC U LI A R GENI TI VES 22 3

Gen it ive wit h S pec ial Verb s

3 57 . Th e Ge n it iv e is u se d w it h ce rt ain s
p ec i al v e rb s .

a Th e gen it i ve som e t im e s f ollow s pot ie r, g e t p oss ess i on

. of;
alway s in t h e p h ras e pot i ri ré ru m , t o be m as t e r of afi a i rs

illi n s ré gni p ot i ri ( F am i 7 . . . to be c om e m as ter o f t hat king d om .

C lean t h es s ole m d om in ari e t ré ru m p ot iri p u t at ( A ad c . ii . C leant hes

thi nks the su n holds sway an d is lord of the u n i verse .

N O TE .
— Bu t p et i or u su ally t ak e s t h e ab lat ive (see
b . S om e ot h e r ve r bs ra e l r y t ak e t h e ge n it iv e
1 . By an alogy w i t h t h ose m e n t ion e d in 3 54
n eq u e h fi i us sis ve rit u s f é m in ae p ri m ariae ( Te r . Ph . an d y ou had no

resp ect f or this h ig h-born lady .

2 . As akin c
t o ad j e t ive s w h i h t ake t h e ge n it ive c
fast id it m e i ( Plan t . Au l . h e disdains m e .
[C f . fas t id id su s .
]
st u d e t t ui ( qu ot e d N . D iii. . he is zealou s f or y ou .
[C f . s t u d iosu s .
]
3 . I n i m it at ion of t h e Gre e k
i d s t itiae n e p riu s m i re r, b e lli n e lab oram ( Aen . xi . shall I rather ad m ire

c
h is j u st i e or h is t oils i n war ?
n e qu e ille sé po s it i t ic e ri s n ec lon gae in vi dit av é n ae ( He r S . . 11 . 6 . n or d id
he gru dge his g arn ered p eas , e t c .
[ Bu t cf i n vid u s , p arc us ]
. .

laboram d ec ip it n r ( H e r Od ii 1 3 . . . . he is begu iled of h is woes .

m e laboram le vas ( Pl R u d y ou . . reli eve me o f m y t rou bles .

3 58 The ap p ar e n t Ge n it ive an im i ( r e ally Loc at iv e) is u se d wi t h

.

a fe w v e rbs an d adj e c t iv e s o f f ee ling an d t h e lik e :

An t ip h o m e e xc ru c iat an im i ( Te r Ph. . A n t ip ho tortu res m y m i n d ( m e in
m y m in d ) .

q u i p e n d e t an im i ( Tu sc iv . . who is i n su sp en se .

m e ani m i f allit ( Lu e r i . . m y m i nd d ec eives m e .

So , b y an alogy , d esip ié b am m e n ti s ( Pl Ep id I was ou t . . o f m y head .

ae ge r c
anim i , si k at he art ; c en f nsu s an im i , d is t u rbed i n sp irit .

san us m e n t i s au t anim i (Pl . Trin . sou n d i n m in d or he art .

PECULIAR GENI TI VES

3 59 . P e c u liar Ge ni t iv e r
c on s t u c t i on s are t h e followin g :

a A p oe t ic al ge n it iv e oc c u s rarely in
. r e x c lam at ion s, in i m it at ion
t h e Gre e k ( Gen i t i ve of Ex c lam a t i on )
d i im m ort ales, m e rc im oni le p idi ( Pl Mos t good heavens ! what a harm . . c
in g barg ain !
c
foed e ris h eu t a it i ( Pre p iv 7 alas f or the u nsp oken ag reem e n t !
. . .
2 24 S N TA Y X : C ON S TR UC TI ON OF C A SES 3 59 , 360

b . Th e g e n it iv e i s Of t e n u s e d wit h t h e ab lat i ve s c au s a, r
g at ia, f or
t he s a ke o f e rgo, bec a u s e o
f an d t h e i n d e c lin ab le i n st ar, li ke also
w it h p ri dié, t h e d ay bef ore ; pos t ri dié, t h e d a y af t er; t en u s, a s f ar as :

h on ori s c aus a, with d u e resp e ct ( f or the s ak e o f h on or) .

v e rbi grat ia, f or exam p le .

eiu s legis e rgo, on a cc ou n t o f t his law .

e qu us i n st ar m e n t is ( A en . ii . a horse hu ge as a m ou ntai n (t h e i m age of

a m ou n t ain ) .

lat eru m t e n u s ( id . x . as f ar as the s id es .

N O T E 1 — O i t h e se t h e g e n i t iv e wi t h c au sa is a d e v e lop m e n t f rom t h e p osse ss iv e

.

g e n i t iv e an d re se m b le s t h at i n n em en in san iae 34 3 d ) Th e ot h e rs are o f v ariou s orig in . .

N O TE 2 — I n p rose o f t h e R e p u b li an Pe riod p ri d i é an d p ost ri d i é are t h u s u se d on ly

. c
i n t h e e xp ress ion s p ri d i é ( p e st ri d ié ) é i u s d i ei , th e d ay bef ore ( af te r) th at ( c f t h e e ve , t h e .

m orrow o f t h at c
Ta i t u s u se s t h e o n s t ru t ion w i t h ot h e r w ord s as , c
pe st ri d i é c
i n si d iaru m , t h e d ay af t er t h e p lot . F or t h e a cc u sat i ve , s e e § 4 32 . a
. Ten u s t ak es also
t h e ab lat iv e ( p .

D ATI VE C A S E

3 60 Th e . D at ive i s p rob ably , lik e t h e Ge n it ive ,

g ram m at i al ase , t h at i s, i t is a c c
a f orm app rop riat e d t o t h e e xp re ss ion of a v arie t y o f re lat ion s ot h e r t h an t h at o f t h e
c
d i re t ob j e t c
B u t i t is h e ld b y so m e t o be a Lo at i ve wi t h th e p ri m ary m e an i n g of
. c
c
t o or t owards , an d t h e poe t i u s e s ( lik e it c lam or c ac lo, Ae n v 45 1) are reg ard e d as . .

s u rviv als o f t he o ri gin al u se .

I n Lat in t h e D at iv e h as t wo lasse s of m e an in g s c
c
1 Th e D at ive d e n ot e s an ob j e t n ot as au se d b y t h e a t ion , or di re t ly afi e c t ed b y
. c c c
i t ( lik e t h e Acc c
u s at i ve ) , b u t as re ip ro ally sh ari n g i n t h e a t ion or re ei vi n g i t ort c c c c
s c i ou s ly or a t i ve ly c Th u s i n d ed it pu erd li b ru m , h e g ave t h e boy a book, o r f ec i t m i h i
.

i n ifi ri am , h e d i d m e a wron g , t h e re is an id e a of th e boy s re ei vi n g t h e book , an d o f m y

’
c
f e e li n g t h e w r on g H e . c
n e e x p re ss ion s d e n o t in g p e rson s , or t h in g s wi th
p erson al
att ri bu t es , are m o re lik e ly t o b e i n t h e d at i ve t h an t h ose d e n o t in g m e re th i n g s So .

i n S pan i s h t h e d at i ve i s u sed wh e n e ve r a p erson is t h e ob j e t of an a t ion ; y o ve o al c c

h om bre , I see [t o] th e m an Th is d iffe re n e b e t we e n t h e
.
u sat ive an d t h e D at i ve c Acc
c c
( i e b e t w ee n t h e D ire t an d t h e I n di re t O b j e t ) d e p e n d s u po n t h e p oin t o f v ie w i m p lied
. . c
i n t h e v e rb or e xi s t in g in t h e m in d of t h e w rit e r H e n e Lat in v e rb s of s i m ilar m e an i n g . c
( t o an En glish m in d ) O fte n d iff e r i n t h e ase o f t h e i r O b j e t ( s e e § 367 a) c c . .

2 Th e D at i ve is u se d t o e X p re ss t h e p u rp ose of an a t ion or t h at fo r whi h it se rves

. c c
( se e c c
Th is on st ru t ion i s e sp e ially u se d wit h ab st ra t e xp re ssion s, or t h ose c c
i m p ly in g an a t ion c .

c
Th e se t wo lasse s o f D at i ve s ap p roa h e a h ot h e r in som e ase s an d are o asion c c c cc
c
ally on fou n d e d , as i n 38 3 , 384 .

Th e u se s of t h e D at i ve are t h e f ollow in g
1 . c
I n d i re t Ob j ec t ( ge n e ral 1 . W it h Tran sit ive s
u se : ) t h I n t ran s it i ve s 366
Posse ssion (wit h ) (5
esse

A g c y ( w it h
en Ge ru n di ve )
2 . Spec ial or I d iomat i cU se s R f c (d ti
e e re n e a vus c om m od i ) 376
4 . O f Pu rp o s e or En d ( p re d i at e u se ) c
L5 . Of Fit n ess e tc ( wi t h d j e t ive s)
. A c 383 ,
22 6 S YNTA X : C ON STR UC TI ON OF C A S ES 3 33 , 334

litt erae ext e m p le R em ain sc rip t ae ( Liv xli 16) a lett er was i m m edi at ely written . .

[an d se n t ] t o R om e .

h ost i s i n f u gam d at ( B G v he p u ts the

. . . en em y t o flight .
[C i . u t 111 6 d em
f u gae ( A t t vii to take to flig ht ]
. .

om n es re m ad Pom p eiam d efe rri volu n t ( F ain . i . all wi sh t he m att er t o be

p u t in t he han ds f P omp ey (re ferred
o t o Pom p e y) .

2 . On t h e ot h e r h an d, m an y ve rb s of m ot i on u s u ally f ollowe d by
t h e A c c u sat iv e wit h ad or i n , t ake t h e D at i ve wh e n t h e id e a of m ot i on
is m erge d in som e ot h er id e a
mi h i lit t eras m it te re sen d m e a letter
( F am VI I . . to .

eu m lib rum t ibi m isi ( id VI I . .

y ou t h at book I sen t .

n ec qu ic qu am qu od n en m ihi C aesar d et u lerit ( id iv . . an d n othin g whi h c

C aesar did n ot c om m u n ic ate to m e
. .

c ures u t m ihi veh an t u r ( id viii 4 t ake . . . ca re t hat t hey be c on vey ed to m e .

c u m aliu s alii su bs idiu m fe rre n t ( B G ii . . . while on e len t aid t o an ot her .

3 64 . C e rt ain
v e rbs m ay t ake e it h e r t h e D at ive of t h e p e rs on an d
t h e A c c u sat iv e of t h e t h in g or (in a d iffe re n t s e n se ) t h e A c c u s at iv e
,

of t h e p e r son an d t h e A blat iv e of t h e t hi n g
1

d en at he p resen t s wreat hs t o his m en ; or,

c oron as s u i s ,

d en at s u ds c oroni s , he p res en ts his m en with wreaths .

vin c u la e x n ers sibi ( C v M vii

‘
t o shake ofi the leash ( from hi m se lf)
. . . .

om ni s armi s e xu it ( B G v he strip p ed the m all of the ir arm s

. . . .

N O TE 1 — I n t erdi c o, f orbid , t ak e s e it h e r ( 1) t h e D at ive of t h e p e rson an d t h e b la

. A
t ive of t h e t h in g , or ( 2) i n lat e r writ e rs, t h e D at iv e of t h e p e rson an d t h e u sat i ve of Acc
t h e t hin g :
aqua e t i gni ali c u i i n t e rdi c e re , t of orbid on e t h e us e of fi re an d wat er [Th e regu lar .

f orm u la for b an ish m e n t ]

in t e rdixi t hi st ribn ibu s sc aenam ( Su e t D om h e f orbad e th e a tors [t o ap p e al:on ]
. . c
th e st age ( h e p roh ib it e d t h e s t ag e t o t h e a t ors) c .

fem in i e ( d at ) p urp u ras fi sd in t e rdi c é m us ( Li v xxxi v

. sh all we f orbid wom en . .

th e weari n g of p u rp le
cc
N O TE 2 — Th e D at ive wit h t h e A u s at iv e i s u se d in p oe t ry wit h m an y ve rb s of
.

c
p re ve n ti n g , p rot e ti n g , an d t h e lik e , w hi h u su ally t ak e t h e c
us at iv e an d Ab lat i ve Acc .

I nt erc lfi d o an d p roh ibe d s om e t im es t ak e t h e D at ive an d u s at iv e , e ve n i n p rose : Acc

h i sce om n i s ad i t us ad S u llam in t e r lud e re ( Re sc Am c
t o sh u t t h ese m en of . .

cc
f rom all a ess t o S u lla ( lose t o t h em e v e ry ap p roa h ) c [Cf n t i eomm eat fi c . .

Caesarem i n t e rc lfi d e re t ( B G i to sh u t Ca es ar ofi f rom supp li es ]

'
. . .

h u n c ( e est ru m ) arc é b i s pe ori ( Ge org iii c y Ou sh all k eep t h i s away f rom th e

. .

c
fl o k [C f i llu m arc u it Gallia ( Phil v
. . h e e x lu d ed h im f rom Gau l ] . . c .

c
solst i t iu m pe ori d é fe n dit e ( Ee l v u keep th e su m m er h eat f rom t h e flo k [C f
. . c . .

n t i 8 6 5 ce nt u m éiii s in im i c Orn m d é f e n d e re t ( B C i
. to d ef en d h i m se lf . . .

f rom th e sland ers of his e n em ies ]

0
'

1 Su h c are i m pert id, in du e, exu e, ad sperg d, in sp ergo, c i rc um d d

,
an d in p oet ry
acc i n g o, im pli ed, an d sim ilar verb s .
 365, 3 66 ] D A TI VE or I ND I R EC T OBJECT 27

365 . Ve rbs whi c h in t h e ac t i e v v oic e t ake t h e A c c u sat i ve an d

D at iv e re t ain t h e D at i ve wh e n u se d in t h e p ass iv e
n un t iab an t nr h ae c e ad e m C d riani (B . C . n . t hese sam e t hin gs were
an n ou n ed t o c
C u rio c
[A t ive mi n t iaban t ( qu i dam ) h ae e ade m C ii ri oni ]
. c .

n ee d oc e n d i C aesaris p ropin qu i s e i u s sp at ium d at u r, n e c t rib fi ni s p lé b is su i

pe ri c u li d ep c an
re d i f a u lt as t ri b u it ur
( id 1 c
n o ti m e i s g i ven C aesar s
’
. .

relat ives to i nf orm him , an d n o op p ortu n it y i s gran t ed to t he tri bu n es f

o

t he p le bs t o avert d an g er f rom them s elves .

p revin c iae p ri vat i s d ec e m u nt u r ( id . i .

p rovi n c es are voted to p rivat e
c
it iz en s .

I ND I R EC T OB JEC T W I TH I N TR A N S I TI VES

3 66 . The D at iv e of t h e I n di Obj ec t m ay be re c t u se d wit h an y

I n t ran sit iv e v e rb w h ose m e an in g allo ws

c é da n t arm a t ogae ( Phil . n . let arm s g ive p la c e to t he g own .

Cae sari re sp e n d et , he re
p li es t o C aesar .

Cae s ari re sp on d et u r, a rep ly i s g iven t o C aes ar ( C aesar is re p lie d t o) .

[Cf § .

re sp on d i m axim is c rim i n ib u s ( Ph il ii . . I have answered th e heaviest harg es c .

ut it a c u iqu e é ve n iat ( id . ii . t hat i t m ay so t u rn ou t to eac h .

N O TE 1 .
—I n t ran sit ive D ire t Ob j e t
v e rb s Th e I n d ire t Ob j e t , t h e re
h av e no c c . c c
c
fore , i n t h e se ases st an d s alon e as i n t h e se on d e x am p le ( b u t c f § 362 a) c . . .

N O TE 2 Cé d d, y i e ld , som e t i m es t ak es t h e
. b lat iv e o f t h e t h i n g alon g wi t h t h e A
D at ive o f t h e p e rson : as , c
ede re ali on i posse ssi on e h ort Oru m ( c f Mil t o g i ve up t o . .
'

on e t h e p ossess ion of a g ard en .

a. Man y p h ras e s c on sist in g o f a n ou n w it h t h e c op u la su m or a

c op u lat iv e v e rb are e q u i v ale n t t o an in t ran sit ive v e rb an d t ak e a

kin d of in d ire c t j
Ob e c t ( cf . 3 67 . a . N .
2
)
c
au t or esse ali c u i , to advis e er i n st ig ate (c f p ersu aded)
on e . .

c
q ui s h u i rei te st is e st ( Qu in e t . who t estifi es ( is wit n ess ) to t his f a t ? c
is fin is pe puli t ibni b u s f u i t ( Li v ii 3 0 . . . t his p u t an en d to t he raid s .

b . Th e d at ive i s som e t im e s u se d w it h ou t a c op u lat iv e v e rb in a

s e n s e ap p oac hin g r t h at of t h e ge n it ive ( cf . 3 6 7 d, 3 7 7 ) .

legat u s f ratri ( Mu r . a lieu t en an t t o his brother ( i . e . a m an ass ign e d t o h is

b rot h e r) .

m in ist ri s c e lerib u s ( Tac . An n . vi . agen ts of c imr e .

[C i . s editioni s m in is
t ri ( id i . . ag en t s of sed i t ion ]
m i s e rii s s u i s re m e diu m m ort e m e xsp ec t are ( Sall . C at . to look f or deat h
as a c u re f or t hei r m is eries .
[C f . Bolu s m e drum m i s eri arum s t re m edi u m

( Te r . Ad .

N O TE — Th e
as e s in a an d bc d iffe r c
from t h e on st ru t ion s O f § 367 a N ii an d c . . .

5 37 7 in t h at t h e d at ive is m ore lose ly c c c

onn e t ed in i de a wit h som e s in gle word t o

c
whi h it se rve s as an in dire t ob j e t c c .
22 8 S YNTA X : C ON S TR U C TI ON OF C AS ES 3 67

I n di rect Objec t w it h S pec ial Ve b s r

3 67 . Man y v e rbs si
g n ifyin
g t o f h
avor,e l
p p
, le ase , t ru st , an d
t h ei r c on t ari esr ; also t o be li e ve , p ersu ade , c om m an d , obey , se rve ,

re si st, e n vy , t hreat en , p ard on , an d 3p are ,

1
t ak e t h e D at i ve
cfi r m i hi in vid es , why d o y ou en vy me?
m ih i p arc it at q u e i gn d sc it , he sp ares an d p ard on s m e .

i gn ds c e p at rid doldri ( Li v i ii ex u se a f at her s grief

’
. . c .

su b ve n i p at riae , e it u lare
pou r collea
c e n lé g ae (Fam . x . 10 c om e t o t he aid f
o y ou r
c ou nt ry , he lp y gu e .

mi hi n dn disp lic e t ( C lu . it d oes not d isp lease m e .

n d n om ni b u s servid ( A t t xiii . . I am not a servan t to e very m an .

n dn p arc am op erae ( F am xi ii . . I will sp are n o p ain s .

s i c m i hi p ersu asi ( C at M 7 . . I have p ersu ad ed m y self

so .

m i hi F ab ius d ebé b it i gn dsc e re si m in u s é iu s f am as p ar e re vid ebor q u am c an t e a

c d n su lu i ( Tu ll F abiu s . will have t o p ard on m e if I see m t o sp are his

rep u t at i on less t han I have h eretof ore reg arded it .

hu i c l gid i C a
e n esar c dn fid eb at m axim e ( B G i 4 0 . . . . i n t his leg i on C aesar
t ru sted m ost .

I n t h ese v e rbs t h e Lat in re t ai n s an o rigin al i t r an sit ive n m e an in g .

Th u s i nvidere, t o i s lit e all t l k as ka n c e a t se rv i re i s t o be

en v
y, r
y o oo

a s la ve to su dddre i s t o m a ke a t h i n g p le as a n t ( swe e t ) t o .

a. S om e ve rb s ap p are n t ly of t h e sam e m e an in gs t ake t h e Ac c u sat ive .

Su h c are iu vd, adiu vd, help ; lae dd, inj u re ; iu bed, ord e r ; d é fi c id, f ail;
déle ct d, p le as e

h ic p ulvis oc u lum m e u m lae di t , t his d u st hu rts m y [Cf m u lta oc u li s

‘

eye . .

n oc e n t , m an y t hing s are i nj u ri ou s t o t he ey es ]

N O TE 1 . Fi d d an d c dn fi d d t ak e also t h e
43 1) as , m u lt u m n at d ralo i Ab l t i a ve c
c d n fi d é b an t ( B G iii th e y h ad g rea
. . on en e i n t h e s t re n g t h of t h e i r p os it i on
. t c fid c .

c
N O TE 2 — S om e om m on p h ras es re g u larly t ak e t h e d at i ve p re is e ly lik e ve rb s o f
. c
s i m ilar m e an i n g . c
S u h are — p rae st d e sse , be on h an d ( of ad esse) ; m d re m g e re re , .

. c
h u m or ( c f m dri g eri ri ) g rat u m fa e re , d o a f avor ( c f grat ifi c ari ) d ic t d au d i é n s e sse , .

be obedi en t ( c f ob eedi re) c u i fi d e m h ab é b at ( B G i

. i n wh om h e h ad onfi d e n e . . . c c
( of cdn fi d ébat )
. .

S O also m an y p h ras e s wh e re n o orre spon din g v e rb e xist s S u h are c b en e ( m ale , . c

‘
p u lc h ré , ae g ré , e t c ) e sse , be we ll ( i ll, e t c ) ofi ; i n i fi riam fa e re , d o i nj u s t i e t o d i e m
. . c c
c
d i e re , bri n g t o t ri al ( n am e a d ay f or, ag e re g rat i as , e xp ress on e s t h a n ks ;
’

h ab é re grat iam , f ee l t h an kf u l; re fe rre grii t i am , rep ay a f avor ; O p u s ess e , be n e c es

c
s ary ; d am n u m d are , i nfl i t an i nj u ry ; ac c e p t u m ( e xp é n s n m ) f e rre ( e sse ) , red i t c
c
,

( h arg e) ; h on d re m h ab é re , t o p ay h on or t o .

1 Th e se in lu d e , c am on g ot h e rs , t h e f ollow in g : ad ve rse r, c éd d, c ré d d, rav ed , f i dd,

i gn dsc d , i m pe rd, i n d u lge d, i n vi d ed, i rasc or, m i n i t or, pared, pared, placed,
n oc ed, resi std,

se rvi d, st u d e d, sud d ed ( p ersud d ed) , su sc dn se d, t em p e rd ( e b t e m pe rd) .

23 0 S YNTA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 33 3 , 33 9

W it h
‘

3 .
grat ifi cer, grat u lor, m I bd, perm itt d, p lau dd, p robd, st u ded, su p

p li ed, excelld

Pom p éid Se grat ifi c ari p u t an t ( F ai n i . . t hey supp ose t hey are d oi n g P om p ey

a servic e .

grat u lor t i b i , m i B albe ( id . vi . I c on grat u lat e y ou , m y d ear B albas .

ti bi p e rm it td re spo n d ere ( N D i ii . . I g ive y ou

. leave to ans wer .

m i hi p lau d d ip se d om i ( H e r S i l . . . I ap p lau d m y se lf at hom e

. .

cu m in im i i c M . F on t é i vd b is ac p op uld R d m an d m in en t n r, am i i ac p rop in q u i c
s u pp lic e n t v dbi s ( F on t . whi le t he enem i es of Mar u s F e nt ei u s are c
t hreat en in g y ou an d t he R om an p eop le too, while h is f ri ends an d relat i ves

are besee h in g y ou c .

Misc ed an d i u n gd s om e t i m e s t ak e t h e d at iv e ( se e 413 a N ) Be et e d u su ally

'

N O TE . . . .

tak e s t h e ab lat i v e , wi t h o r wi t h ou t i n , rarely t h e d at iv e : as, —h ae re n t e m ap i t i ord c c

n am ( H e r S i 10 . a wre at h li n gi n g t o t he he ad
. . . c .

a. Th e dat iv e i s of t e n u s ed by t h e p oe t s in c on s t ru c t ion s wh ic h
w ou ld in p ros e e qu i e a r r n ou n w it h a p re p osit ion S o e sp e c ially .

v
.

wit h e rb s O f c on t e n di n g 4 1 3 b) .

c on t en d is Hom é rd ( Prop i 7 . .
y ou vie with H om er
.
[I n p rose : c um Hom é rd ] . .

p lac itd n e e t iam p ug n ab is am dri ( A e n iv will y ou st ru gg le even ag ains t a

. .

love t hat p leases y ou

ti bi c e rt at ( Ec l . v . vies wit h y ou .
[t é c u m ]
(H e r
’

d iffe rt S i 4
s erm dni . . . . d ifi ers f rom p rose [a s erm dn e , .

lat eri abd id it en se w ( A en n . . bu ried t he s word i n his s ide .

[in lat ere ,
43 0 .

F or t h e D at iv e in st e ad Acc t i o f ad
428 h wi t h t h e u sa ve , s e e . .

3 69 . S om e v e rbs or di n arily in t r an sit i v e m ay h av e an A c c u s af

ti ve of t h e dire c t obj e c t alon g wit h t h e D at iv e of t h e i n dire c t
cf 36 2
( . . a )
c ui c u m rex c m c e m m in aré t u r ( Tus e . i . an d when t he kin g threaten ed
him wit h t he c ross .

Cré t é n sib u s ob s i dé s i m p e ravit ( Man il . he exa ct d h e ost ages o f t he C retan s .

s b i ign d sc e re ( Ve ll i i t o p ard on on e s self

’
e m ni a i . . e veryt hi n g .

A s cani dn e p at e r R dm an as in vid e t arc é s ( A e n iv . . does the f ather en vy

c
A s an ius his R om an c it ad els
[W it h in vi de d t h is c on s t ru ct i on is p oe t i c
or lat e
]
a. W it h t h e p as si ve v oic e t h i s d at i ve m ay b e ret ain ed :

c
q u i iam n u n san gui n e m m e u m sibi in d u lgeri ae q u n m c en se t ( Liv xl 1 5 . . .

who eve n n ow thin ks it right t hat m y blood shou ld be grant ed to h im as a

s in gu li s c é n s dn b u s d en ari i t rec e n t i im p e rat i ( Verr t hree hu n

’

su n t . ll .

d red d en arii were exa te d of ea h ensor c c c .

c c
S c ae volae on essa e st f ac u n diae virt us ( Qu in t xu . . 3 . to S aevola has c
been granted ex ellen e i n oratory c c .
5 3 7 0] D A TI VE WI TH C OMP OUN D S 23 1

I ndi rect Objec t with Com pou n ds

3 70 . M an y v e rbs c om p ou n d e d wi t h ad, an t e , eon , in in t er, ob,

pe st , p rae, pt d, su b, su per, an d s om e w it h c irc u m , ad m it t h e D at iv e

of t he in di rec t ob e c t j
n e qu e e n im ads en t ior e i s ( Lae l .
f or I do n ot agree wit h t hem .

n at ura h o m in is p e c u di bu s an t e c ed it
q u an t u m (C d i f ar
’
. . so as m an s
n at u re is sup erior t o bru t es .

si s ibi ip se co n se n t it ( id . i . if he is i n ac c ord with him s elf .

virt fi t es se m p e r v olu pt at ib u s in h aere n t ( F in . i . virt u es are alway s c on

n ealed with p leasu res .

om n ib u s n e gdti i s n on in t e rf u it s dlu m se d p rae f u it ( id i . . he not on ly had

h and in all m atters, bu t took t he
a lead in t hem .

t e m p e s t at i O bse qu i art is e st ( F am i 9 . . . it is a p oin t f ski ll t o y ield

o to
t he weat her .

um q u am su ec u m b e t inim i c i s ( D e iot an d he wi ll never y ie ld t o hi s

'

n ec .

f oes .

c um et B rut u s d u c u m p rae fe re n du s vid eret u r e t Vat i n iu s n d lli n d n

c u ili b e t

e ss e t p ost fe re n d u s ( Vell n sin e Bru tus seem ed worthy of be in g p u t

. . c
bef ore any of th e g en erals an d Vatin iu s d eserved to be p u t af ter all of them .

a. I n t h e se t h e d at iv e d e p e n ds n ot
c as e s on t h e p rep os it ion , b u t
on the c om p ou n d v e rb in it s ac qu i e d m e an in g r . H e n c e , if t h e ac q u ired
m e an in g i s n ot su i t e d t o an in dire c t Ob e c t , j the o r igin al c on st ru c t ion

of the S im
p le v e rb re m ain s .

Th us in cen v oc at d
su s , h c ll e a s h is m en t oget her, t h e id e a of allin g is n ot so c
m od ifi e d as t o m ake an i d i ct n re c
Ob j e t app rop riat e Se h om in e m in t erfi c e re , t o
.

m ake way with a m an ( k ill h im ) Bu t in praefi c ere im p erat dre m b e lld, t o p u t a .

c
.

m an as om m an d er-iw c hief in c harg e of a war, t h e id e a re su lt in g f rom t h e c om

p os it ion is su it e d t o an in d ire t Ob j e t c c ( s ee als o b, 3 7 1 , 3 88 b) . .

N O TE 1 S om e of t h e se v e rb s , b e in g origin ally t ran s i t iv e , t ak e also a d ire t ob j e t :

. c c
— n é offe ram u s n ds e ri c u li s ( O ff i t h at we m ay n o t e xp ose ou rse lves t o p e ri ls
p . . .

c c
N O TE 2 — Th e on st ru t i on o f 3 7 0is n ot d i ff e re n t in i t s n at u re f rom t hat of
. 362 ,
c
366 , an d 367 ; b u t t h e om pou n d v e rb s m ak e a on v e n ie n t gr ou p c .

b . S on ic c om p ou n ds of ad, an t e, ob, w it h a f e w o th e s , r h ave ac qu i re d

1
a t ran sit iv e m e an in g, an d t ake t h e ac c u sat i ve (c f . 3 8 8 b) . :

n ds op p ugn at ( Fam . i
he op p oses u s
. .

q u is au d e at b e n e c om iti t um aggre di ( Ph il xi i . . who wou ld dare en c ou n t er

a m an we ll att en ded ?
m fi n u s ob i re (Lael . to at t en d t o a du ty .

1 Su hc v e rb s are aggre d i e r, ad ed, an t ec ed d, an t eed, an t e gre d i or, c on ven id, i n c b, obe d,

offe n d d, opp ixgn d, p raeeé d d, su be d.

232 Y
S N TA X : C ON STR UC TI ON or C A S ES -
3 73

c . Th e j v
ad e c t i e obviu s an d t h e ad e v rb obviam wit h a ve r b t ak e
t h e d at iv e
si ille ob vins e i i n t urns n dn e rat ( Mil . if he was n ot i nt e nd ing t o get i n
his way .

m i h i ob viam ven ist i ( F am . II . 16 .

y ou c am e t o m eet m e .

371 . Wh e n p lac e or m ot ion is dis t in c t ly t h ou gh t of, th e v e rbs

m e n t ion e d in 3 7 0 re g u larly t ak e a n ou n wit h a r
p pe os i t ion
in h aere t i n c
vi s e rib u s ( Tuse iv . . it rem ain s fi xed i n t he vitals .

h om in e c on iun c t d m ec u m ( Tu ll . a m an u n i t ed t o m e .

c um b de c on c u rrit ip s e Eu m e n es ( N e p Eu m . . 4 . wit h hi m Eu m en es hi m
sel eng ages
f c
i n om bat ( ru n s t oge t h e r) .

i n se rit e oc u ld s in c d riam ( F on t .
fi x y ou r ey es on t he sen at e-hou se .

igni s qu i e s t ob ds offI I su s ( Tim t he fi re whi c h i s d iffu sed bef ore t he s ight

'

. .

ob ic it u r c on t ra ist d ru m im p e t d s Mac e d on ia ( Fon t M aced on i a i s . s et to

wit hst an d t heir attac ks [ C f si q u is v dbi s e rror ob ie c t u s ( C ae
. . c . if
an y m i stake has been au sed y ou ] c
in s e ge t e m flam m a in idit ( A e n i i c
t he fire f alls up on t h e s tand i ng . . c orn .

N O TE .
— Bu t t he u s age vari es in d i ffe re n t au t h ors , i n d iffe re n t word s , an d oft e n in
t h e sam e word c
an d t h e s am e c c
se n se Th e Lexi on m u s t b e on su lt e d f o r e a h
. v e rb .

3 7 2 I n t ran sit iv e v e rbs t h at g o v e rn t he d at iv e are u se d

. imp er
son ally in t h e p assiv e 2 08 d) Th e dat iv e is r e t ain e d (c f . . . 3 65)
i p a c i p t it ( Li
cu r xx i wh c ld b p a d ?
e u v . . o ou e s re

n dn m od o n dn i n vid et u r illi ae t at i veru m e t iam favet u r ( Off . t hat ag e

(y ou t h ) n ot only is n ot en vied , bu t i s even f avored .

t em pe ri se rvien d u m e st ( F am . ix . we m u st serve t he exige n y c f t he occasion

o .

N O TE — I n poe t ry t h e pe rson al
. c on st ru ct i on is som e t i m e s f ou n d : as — c ur i n vi d eor
,

( Her .P A .wh y am I e n vi ed ?
.

Dat ive of Pos se s sion

3 73 . Th e D at iv e is u se d wit h es se an d sim ilar wor ds t o d en ot e

Posses sion
'

e st m ih i d om i p at e r ( Eel i ii . . I h ave a f ather at hom e ( t h ere is t o m e ) .

h e m in i c u m d e d si m ilit fi d d e st ( Le gg . i . m a n has a like n ess t o God .

qu ibu s Op es n fi llae su n t
( Sall . C at .
[t h ose ] who have no wealt h .

N O TE — Th e Ge n i t ive or a Posse ssi ve w it h e sse e m p h asi z e s t h e p ossessor ; t h e

.

c
D at ive , t h e f a t o f p ossessi on : as , —li b e r e st m u s , t h e book i s M I N E ( an d n o o n e s
e
’

e lse ) e st m i h i li be r, I H VE a book ( am on A
g o t h e r t h i n g s) .

a. W it h adm en e st , an d sim ila r e xp re ss i on s , the n am e is o f t en

pu t
in t h e D at iv e by a k in d of ap p osit ion wit h t h e p . e rs on ; bu t t h e
v
N om in at i e i s also c om m on
23 4 S YNTA X : C ON STR UC TI ON OF C A SES 3 7 5-3 7 7

a. Th e Dat iv e
t h e Age n t i s of u se d by t h e p o et s an d r r
lat e w it e rs
wit h alm ost an y p as s i e v e rb : v
n eq u e c e rn i t u r ( Aen
d lli . i . n or is s een by an y .

f eli x est di ta c s erdri ( C v . F ast iii 1 . . . she was c all d h e ap p y by her s ister .

A e lia Pas t in a N arci s sd f e veb at u r ( Tac . An n . xii . z Eli a P wti n a was

f avored by N ar issu s c .

b . Th e d at iv e of t h e p e rson wh o s ees or t h i n ks i s regularly u se d

af t e r videor ,
s ee m

vid et u r m ihi , it seem s ( or seem s good) to m e .

it s eem ed otherwise t o t he g ods

di s alit er vi su m [ e st ] ( A en . II . .

vid e or m ihi p e rsp ic e re ip si u s an im u m ( F am iv 13 . . . I seem ( t o m yse lf) to see

t he sou l o f the m an hi m self .

N O TE — Th e ve rb p robd re , ap p rove ( origi n ally a m e r an t ile word ) , t ak e s a D at i ve c

of Re f e re n e c c c
wh i h h as b e om e so fi rm ly at t a h ed t h at it i s oft en re t ain e d wit h c
t h e p assiv e , s ee m in gly as D at iv e of Ag e n t :
c
h ae se n t e n t ia c t i lli e t n db i s p rob ab at u r ( Earn 1 7 th is view m et both hi s . . .

app roval an d m i n e ( was m ad e a e p t ab le b o t h t o h i m an d t o m e ) cc .

h dc c d n silin m p 16ri squ e p rob ab at u r ( B C i

n dn t h is p lan was n ot app roved by
. . .

th e m aj ori t y .
[Bu t also, c d n siliu m 5 c fi n c t i s p rob ab at u r ( id i 7 4). . .

Dat ive of R efe rence

3 76 . Th e D at iv e oft en de p e n ds , n o t on an
y p art ic u lar word, bu t
‘
On t h e g en eral m ean ing Of the se n t e n c e
( D ati ve of R eferen c e
) .

Th e d at ive in t his c on s t u c t ion r is of t e n c alle d t h e D at iv e of

A d van t ag e D isadvan t age , as den ot in g t h e p e rson or t h in g f or 1

‘

or

wh ose be n e fi t or t o wh ose p re j u dic e t h e ac t ion i s p e r f orm ed .

t ibi aras ( Plan t Me re

. .
y ou p lou gh f or y ou rsel
f .

t u as res t i bi h ab et d ( Plan t . Trin keep you r g oods t o y ou rself

.
( form u la
Of divor c e
) .

lau d avi t m ihi f rat re m , he p rai sed m y brother ( ou t of re gard for m e ; lau davit
frat re m m e u m wou ld i m p ly n o su h m ot ive ) c .

m e rit d s m ac t avit h on d res , t au ru m N e p t fi n d, t an ru m t ib i , p u l h e r A p ollo c

ifi c es du e,
‘

( A en . iii . he fi
o ered t he sac r a bu ll t o N ep tu n e, a bu ll to
thee , beau t if u l A p ollo .

c c
N O T E — I h t h is on st ru t ion t h e m e an i n g o f t h e se n t e n e i s om p le t e wit h ou t t h e
.
c c
c c
d at i ve , wh i h is n ot , as i n t h e p re e d in g on st ru t ion s , losely on n e t e d w it h an y si n c c c c c
gle w ord Th u s t h e D at ive of R e fe re n e i s e asily d i st i n g u ish ab le in m ost i n st an e s
. c c
e ve n wh e n t h e s en t e n e c c
on s ist s o f on ly t wo word s , as i n t h e fi rs t e x am ple .

377 . Th e D at iv e of R e fe r e n c e is o ft e n u se d t o qu alify a w h ole

ide a, in st e ad of t h e Posse ssiv e Ge n it iv e m odifyin g a s in gle w ord

1 D at i vus c e m m od i au t i n c om m od i .
 3 7 7—3 7 9] D A TI V E OF R EF ER EN C E 2 35

it e r Poe n i s ve l c orp orib u s su i s ob s t ru e re ( C at M 7 . . to bloc k t he m ar h of c

th e C art hag i n ians e ven wit h t heir own bod ies ( t o c
b lo k , e t c , for t h e d is
.

ad van t age oi ,
86 in c On s p ec tum n au t i s d e dit ( Ve rr . v . he p u t h im self in sig ht o f t he
sailors p u t h im s e lf t o t h e
(he s ailors in t o S igh t ) .

ve rs at u r m i hi an t e oc u I Os ( id v . . it c om es bef ore m y ey es ( it c om e s to m e
be fore t h e e yes ) .

3 78 . Th e D at iv e is u se d of t h e p e son f r rom wh ose p oin t of vi ew

an o in ion
p is st at e d or a S it u at ion or a di re c t ion is d e fi n e d .

Thi s is of t e n c alle d t h e D at i ve of t h e P e rson Ju d gin g, 1 bu t i s

m e re ly a w e ake n e d v arie ty of t h e D at i ve of R e fe re n c e . I t is u se d

1 . Of t h e m e n t al p oin t Of Vi ew ( i n m
y o i n i on ,
p ac c ordi n
g t o m e,
etc .
)
Plat o m ihi un u s in st ar e st c en t u m m i liu m ( B ru t . i n m y op in ion ( t o m e )
P lato alone is wort h a h u n d red t hou san d .

crit ille m ihi s e m p e r d e u s ( Ec l i h e will alway s be a g od t o m e ( in m y. .

regard ) .

q u ae e st is t a se rvi t us t am laro b om in i ( Par c

what is t hat slavery a ord i n g . cc
to t he view of this d istingu ished m an

2 Of t h e loc al p oin t of vie w ( as you go i n

. I n t h i s u se t h e
e rson i s c om m on l d e n ot e d in d e fi n it e ly b y a p ar t ic i le i n t h e d at ive
p y p
p lu ral
Opp id u m p ri m u m Th e ssaliae ve n ie n tibu s ab Ep i ro ( B C i ii . . . t he fi rst town
f
o c
Thessaly as y ou om e f rom Ep iru s ( t o t h ose om in g, c
lae va p art e s in u m i n fran t i ( Liv xx vi . . on t he lef t as y ou sail up t he gu lf
( t o on e e n t e rin g ) .

est u rb e é gre s si s t u m u lu s ( A en . n . t here is , as y ou c om e ou t o c

f the ity ,
a m ou n d (t o t h ose h avin g cm o e ou t ) .

N O TE . Th e D at iv e
- of t h e Pe rs on J dgi
g i s ( b y a Gre ek id io m ) rarely m od ifi e d b y
u n

p p c
n blén s , v olen s ( art i i le s o f 11616, v ola , or b
) y som e S im ilar word :
u t q u i b u sq u e b e llu m i n vi t i s au t c u p i e n t ib u s e rat ( Tac An n i as e a h m ig h t . . . c
c
re ei ve t h e war re lu t an t ly or g lad ly
‘
c .

u t m i li t i b u s lab os volen t i b u s e sse t ( I u g t h at th e soldi ers m ig h t assu m e th e.

t ask wi lli n g ly .

3 79 . Th e D at iv e of R e fe re n c e is u sed idiom at ic ally wi th ou t

an y v e rb in c olloqu ial q u e s t i on s an d e x c lam at ion s

q u o m ihi fort fi n am ( Hor Ep i 5 . . . . o f what u se t o m e is f ort u n e ?

u n d e m i hi lap id e m
( Hor S i i 7 . . . . where c an I g et a ston e ?
qu o t i bi , Tilli ( id . i 6
. . what u se f or y ou , Ti lliu s ?

1 D ati vus iud i c an tis .

 2 36 S Y NTA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A SES 3 7 9—38 1

a. Th e d at iv e of r e fe re n c e is som e t im e s u se d af t e r in t e r j e c t ion s
ei
( h e i) m i h i ( A e n . 11 . ah m e !
vae vi t i s c ( Liv . v
. woe t o t he c on qu ered .

em t ibi , t here , t ake t hat ( t h e re f or y ou ) ! [C i .

N O TE — To e xp re ss F O R — m e an in g i n s t e ad of , i n d ef en e
.
c o f, i n beh alf of — t he
ablat i v e wi t h p a? is u se d

p t 6 p at ri a m o ri ( H o r O d iii 2 t o di e f o o n e s ou n t r
r
’
. . . . c y .

e go i b o p rb t é ( Plan t Most . . I wi ll g o i n ste ad of y ou .

Et h ical Dat ive

3 80 Th e D at iv e
. of t h e Pe rson al P ron ou n s is u se d to S h ow a

ce rt ain i n t e r es t fe lt by t h e p e rs on in dic at e d
1
.

Th is c on st ru c t ion is c alle d t h e Et h ic al D at i ve .
2
I t is r e ally a
fade d v arie t y of t h e D at i ve of R e f e re n c e .

q u id ( H or Ep i 3
m i h i C e lsu s agit . . . .
p ray what i s C elsu s doin g S ’

su o s ibi se rvit p at ri ( Plan t C ap t . . he s erves his own f ather .

at t ibi rc p e n t e ve n it m ih i C an i n iu s ( Fam . ix . bu t , look y ou , of a su dd e n

c om es t o m e C an in i u s .

h e m t ibi t ale n t u m arge n t i ( Pl . Tru c .hark y e , a t alen t of s i lver .

q u id t ibi vis , what wou ld y ou have ( wh at d o y ou wish f or y ou rself)

Dat ive of Separat ion

3 81 . M an y v e rbs of t aking away an d t he lik e t ak e t h e D at ive

( e sp e c ially of a p e rson
) in s t ead of t h e A blat i ve of S ep arat ion

Su c h are c om p ou n d s of ab, dé , ex, an d a few of ad

au reu m ei d et raxit am i c u lu m (N . D iii . . he t ook f rom h im his c l ak

o f
o

g old .

h u n c m ih i t errore m c rip e ( C at . i . t ake f rom m e this t error .

vi t am adu lé s c e n t ib u s vi s au fe rt ( C at M . . violen e c d ep rives y ou ng m en f

o

n ih il e n im t ibi d et raxit se n at u s ( F am . i 5
. B ) f or the sen ate has taken
, n othin g

f rom y ou .

n ec m ih i h u n c errOre m e xt orqu eri volo ( C at M . . n or do I wish this error

wrest ed f rom m e .

N O TE Th e D at i ve of S ep arat ion i s a v arie t y of t h e D at ive of R e fe re n e

. I t re p re c .

c
se n t s t h e a t ion as d on e t o t h e p e rson or t h i n g , an d i s t h u s m ore v ivid t h an t h e Ab lat ive .

1 C om p are I
ll rh y m e you
’
so e igh t y e ars t og e t h e r .
— A s Yo u Li ke I t , i ii 2 . .

2 D ati vu s é t h i c u s .
23 8 Y
S N TA X : C ON S TR UC TI ON OF C A S ES 383- 38 5

3 83 . Th e D at iv e is u s e d aft e r A dj e c t iv es or A d ve rbs, t o de n ot e
t h at t o whi c h t he g iven qu ali ty is di re c t e d, f or whic h i t e xist s, o r

t owards whic h i t te n d s .

N O TE . Th e d at i ve wit h c e rt ain ad e j ct i ve s is in origi n a Dat ive o f Pu rp ose or En d .

3 84 . Th e D at iv e is u se d wi t h adj e c t iv es ( an d a fe w A d v e rbs) of
fi tn ess , n e arn e ss, like n ess, se rv c e, i i n c l n at ion , an
i d t h e ir op p osit e s 1

n ih il e st t am n at urae ap t u m ( Lae l . 17 n ot h ing is so fi tted to n atu re .

n ih il d iffi c ile am an t i p u t o ( Or . I t h i nk n othin g hard t o a lover .

c as t ri s id On e u m lo c u m d elegi t (B . G i . . he sele ct d a p la
e c e su itable f or a

t rib un i n dbi s su n t am i i c (Q
. Fr i 2 . . . t he t ribu n es are f ri e nd ly to us .

e ssep rop it ius p ot e st n é m i n i ( N D i . . . he c an c

be gra i ou s to nobody .

m agn i s au t e m viri s p rosp e rae se m p e r om n es res ( id ii

. but t o great m en
.

every thi n g is alway s f avorable .

s ed es hu i c n ost rO n On i m port un a s e rm bn i (D e Or iii . . c

a p la e not u n su it
able f or t his c on versati on o f ou rs .

c ui f u n dd e rat affi n is M Tu lliu s ( Tu ll

. . t o whi h c estat e Marc u s Tu lliu s was
neat n eighbor .

c on ve n ie n t er n aturae vi vere ( Off . i ii . t o live i n a cc ordanc e wit h nat u re

( buoh oy ovuévws 7 5 gonn a ) .

N O TE 1 . S o, also , i n p o e t i c an d c olloq u i al u se , wi t h i dem in vi t u m qu i se rvat

: as ,

c c
id e m f a i t o c i d en t i ( H or P . A
h e wh o save s a m an
. . ag ai n s t h is wi ll d oes t h e sam e
as on e wh o k i lls h i m .

. A c
N O T E 2 - d j e t iv es of li ke n ess are o ft e n f ollowe d b y at q u e ( ac ) , as S o also .

t h e ad ve rb s ac q u e, p ari t er, si m i li t er, e t c Th e p ron ou n i d em h as re g u larly at q u e or a

.

re lat iv e

si p are m s ap ie n t iam h ab e t ac f orm am (Plan t Mil if h e h as se ns e e qu al t o . .

h is beau t y (li k e as h is b e au t y ) .

t é su Sp ic or ei sd em ré b u s q u i b u s m e i p su m c om m ové ri ( C at M I susp e t y ou are . . c

d i st u rbe d by t h e sam e t h i n g s by wh i h I am c .

3 85 . O th e r r
c on st u c t ion s are s om e t im e s fou n d wh e r e t h e dat iv e
m igh t be e xp e c t e d

a . Ad j e c t ive s of fi t n es s o r u s e tak e of t en e r t h e A c c u s at iv e w it h ad

t o de n ot e t h e p u rp ose or e n d bu t r e gu la ly t h e D at iv e of p e
r rson s

ad re m m i lit are m
fi du ty t f or a s old i er s
’
ap t u s , .

loc u s ad i n s i di as ap t ior ( Mil a p lac e j itt er f or ly i n g i n wait

. .

n dbi s ut ile e st ad h an c re m
( c f Ter A n d i t i s of u se t o u s f or t his t hin g
. . .
.

1 A d j ct i
e ve s o f t h is k in d are acc omm od at u s , ap t u s ; c
am i u s , i n i m i c u s , i n fe st u s, i n vi su s ,
m ole st u s ; i d dn eu s , op port fi n u s, p rop ri u s ; ut ili s , i n ii t i li s ; aff i n i s , f i n i t i m u s, p rop i n q u u s,
vi ci n u s ; par, d i spar, si m i li s , d i ssi m i li s ; i fi c un d u s , g rat u s ; n at u s , i gn bt u s, an d ot h e rs .
§ 3 8 5] D A TI VE WI TH A D JEC TI VES 2 39

b . A dj e c t ive s an d n ou n s of in c li n at i on an d t h e lik e m ay t ake t h e

A c c u sat ive w it h in or e rga
c om i s in uxbre m ( H or Ep. . ii 2 . . kin d to h is wif e .

di vin a b on it a
s erg a h om in i s ( D i i
t he d i vin e good n ess toward s m en
N . . . .

d e b e n e vole n t ia q u am q u is qu e h ab e at e rg a n ds ( OH i in reg ard to e a h . . c

m an s g ood will whi h he has towards u s
’
c .

grat i Ore m m e esse in t é ( F am . xi . t hat I am m ore grat ef u l t o y ou .

0. S om e j
ad e c t ive s of li ken ess , n e a rn ess , be lon gi n g, an d a fe w
r
ot h e s, o r di n ari l
y re qu i ri n
g t h e D at i ve ,
of t e n t ak e t h e Posse ssiv e
1
Ge n it iv e
qu od ut illi p rop riu m ac p e rp e t u u m s it op t are d eb et is ( Man il . whic h
y ou own ) an d las ti n g to hi m
ou g ht to p ray m ay be se u re ( h is
[D at ive ] c .

f u it h oc q u on d am p rop riu m pop u li R dm an i ( id t hi s was on e t he p e u li ar . c c

c c
hara t erist ic of t he R om an p e op le [Ge n it ive ] .

cum u t ri qu e sis m ax i m e ne c e ss ariu s

(A t t . ix 7 . A ) , si n e c y ou are esp e ci ally
bou nd to both .
[D at ive ]
c
p ro urato r ac q u e u t ri u squ e n e essarius c ( Qu in c t . an ag en t alike cl osely

c c
on n e t ed wi th bot h [Gen it ive ] . .

1 Th e ge n it ive i s e sp e ially u se d wit h t h e se

. c ad e j cti ve s wh e n t h e y are

u se d wh olly o r app rox im at e ly as n ou n s

c
am i u s Cic e rdn i , f ri end ly t o C ic ero . B u t , Ci c erb ni s am i c u s, a f rien d of C ic ero ;
an d e ven , Cic eroni s am i c issi m u s , a very great f rien d of C i cero .

c c
ret i u s e t e i u s ae qu alis p ae an ( Or . t he c ret i ca ndits equi valen t t he p aean .

e ran t affin es (Ve rr t hes e were t his m an s f e llows

’
hi is t iu s . n . .

Aft e r ilis , like , t h e ge n it ive i s m ore

s im om m on in e arly write rs c .

Ci c e ro re u larl u se s t h e ge n it ive o f p erson s, an d e it h e r t h e ge n i t ive o r t h e

g y
d at iv e of thin gs . Wit h p e rs on al p ron ou n s t h e ge n it ive is re gu lar
( m e i, t u i ,

an d also in véri s im ilis , p robable

like y ou r m aster ( y ou r m aste r s lik e !
’
( Ter Eu n
’ *
dom in i sim ilis e s . .
y ou rt .

u t ess é m u s s im D i ilé s de dru m (N . . . t hat we m ig ht be like t he gods .

e st sim ilis m a i oru m sn om ( Te r A d he s like h is an es t ors

’
. . c .

pat ris s im ilis esse ( Off i t o be like h is f at her

. .
.

si m ia q u am s im ilis t u rp iss im a b est ia n dbi s ( N D i 97 , q u ot e d f rom . . .

i s that wret hed beast t he ap e !

how like us c
si e n im h Oc illi sim ile S it , es t illu d h u i ( id i c . .
f or if this is like t hat , that
i s li ke t his .

N O TE . c
Th e g e n it iv e in t h i s on st ru t i on i s n ot ob j e t i ve lik e t h ose in c c 349 b u t .

po sse ssiv e ( c f
Acc
.

u sat i ve wi t h p rOp i or, p roxi m u S , p rop i u s , p roxim é , se e 43 2 a

'

F or t h e D at i v e or . .

1 c
S u h are aequali s , affi n i s , ali en u s , am i c u s , c dgn at u s , c om m un i s , c on san gu in eu s , c on t ra

par, pe c fi lia
u i s , p rop in qu u s, p rop ri u s
'

ri u s , d i spar, fam iliari s , f i n i t i m u s , i n i m i c u s , n e c e ssari u s ,

( re gu larly ge n it ive) , sac e r, sim i li s , su pe rst es , vi c in u s .

24 0 S YN TA X : CON STR UC TI ON OF C A SES 3 86 , 3 87

A CC U S ATI VE C A S E

3 86 . Th e Acc u s at i ve o rig in ally s e rve d to c on n e ct the n ou n m ore or le s s loosely

wi t h t h e w h e t h e r e xp re sse d b y a ve rb p rop e r o r b y a v e rb al n ou n or ad j oe
v e rb-id e a,
t i ve I t s e arlie st u se was p e rh ap s t o re p e at t h e ve rb -id e a as i n t h e C og n at e
. u sat i ve Acc
c
( ru n a ra e , fi g h t a bat t le , se e 3 90) F rom t h is i t wou ld b e a sh o rt s t e p t o t h e F a t it ive c
Acc u s at ive ( d e n o t i n g t h e re s u lt o f an ac t , as in m ake a t able , d ri ll a h ole , c f 27 3 N J) . . .

c c
F rom t h is las t ou ld e asily om e t h e o m m on a u s at i ve ( of c cc
ff e t i n g , bre ak a t able , A c
p lu g a h ole , see 38 7 a) . . c
Tra es of all t h e se u s es ap p e ar in t h e lan g u age , an d t h e loose
c c
on n e t ion of n ou n w i t h v e rb -id e a is s e e n i n t h e u s e o f s t e m s i n o m p o si t ion ( c f § 265 3 ) 1 c . . .

I t is i m p ossib le , h owe ve r, t o d e ri ve t h e v ario u s on s t ru t ion s of t h e a u sat ive wit h c c cc

c e rt ai n t y f rom an y S in gle f u n t ion of t h at asec c .

cc
Th e u ses of t h e a us at i ve m ay b e lassi fi e d as f ollows : c
1 c ff ct d b y t h Act i
. Dire t ly a 387 e) e e on . a .

1 Pri m ary Obj e t c Th i d c d 387 )

C g a
2 Eff c t f t h Ac t
.
p n ro u e . a .

t Acc
' e O e i on
ti o n e u sa ve
- P d ic t Acc ti ( Of N m i g t )
e
r re a e u sa ve a n e c .

11 . Two Acc u sat i ves N Of A k i g T ch i gs n or ea n

Q
Q Of C c li g 396 c) on ea n . .

H Ad bi l 3 97
ve r ) a . a .

Of S p c i fi c t i ( G k Acc
,

O
t e ti )a 397 b)
on re e u sa ve .

I II I d i om at i c Uses Of E t d D ti
J
. O t x en 423 an u ra on ,
h
i O f E cl m t i x 3 97 d) a a on . .

S b j c t f I fi it i )
l

U u e 3 97 o n n ve . e .

Di rec t Ob j ec t
3 87 . Th e D ir e c t O bj e c t of a r
t an sit i v e v e rb is p u t i n t he A c
c u s at ive

a. Th e A c c u sat ive of t h e D ire c t Ob j ec t d e n ot e s ( 1) t h at wh i c h i s

d ire c t ly affec t ed, or ( 2 ) t h at whic h i s c a u s ed o r p rod u c ed by t h e ac t ion

of t h e v e b r
( l) B rut u s Cae sarem in t e rf é c it , Bru t u s killed C aesar .

( 2) c
ae de m f a e re , t o m ake a t em p le [ C f proeli u m p ugn are , to fi ght a battle,
. .

N O TE — Th e re is n o d e fi n it e lin e b y wh i h t ran s it ive ve rb s c an b e d ist in gu is h e d c

f rom i n t ran s it i ve c
Ve rb s wh i h u s u ally t ak e a d i re t ob j e t ( e xp re s se d or i m p lie d )
. c c
are c
alle d t ran s it i ve , b u t m an y of t h e s e are o f t e n u s e d i n t ran s i ti ve ly o r absolu t e ly .

c
Th u s t im ed, If e ar, is t ran s it ive i n t h e se n t e n e i n im i c u m t im ed, I f e ar m y e n em y , b u t
i n t ran sit i v e ( absolu t e) in n bli t i m é re , d on t be af raid
’
. Ag ain ,
m an y v e rb s are t ran si
t ive in on e s e n se an d
i n t ran sit i ve i n an ot h e r : as , Helvé t i bs su pe ravéru n t Rbmi n i , th e
c
R om ans over am e th e H e lve t i ans ; b u t n i h il supe ri bat , n ot hi n g rem ai n ed ( was le ft e ve r) .

c
S o also m an y v e rb s o m m on ly i n t ran si t ive m ay b e u se d t ran sit ively wit h a sligh t
ch an g e of m e an in g : as , - ri d é s , y ou are lau g h i n g ; b u t m e ri d es , y ou ’re lau g h i n g at m e .

C om p are arm i ge r, arm or-beare r, wit h arm a g erere , t o be ar arm s fld ic en , lyre-p lay er,
1

wi t h fi d ib u s c an ere , t o ( p lay on ) si n g to t h e lyre C om pare also i st an c t ac tié ( Plan t ) , the

.

[ac t o f ] t ou h i n g h e r,
c w i t h i st an c t an ge re , t o t ou h h er 388 d N 2
) c . . . .
2 42 S YN TA X : C O N S TR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 3 8 8-3 80

N O T E 1 — S o af t e r lat e t i n p o e t ry an d p o s t- lass i al p ros e : as , - lat e t plé rdsq u e

. c c .

( Plin N H n
. . i t i s u n kn o wn t o m ost p ersons
. . .

N O TE 2 Th e se v e rb s are m e re ly o rd in ary t ran sit i ve s wi t h an idi om at i s igni fi c a

. c
t i on . c
H e n e m ost o f t h e m are als o u s e d p e rs on ally .

c
N O TE 3 — B e et an d lat et s om e t im es t ak e t h e d at i v e :
.

i t a n dbi s d s e ct
( Te r A d . . t h u s i t befi t s u s .

h ost i qu e ROm a lat e t ( S il I t . . x ii . an d R om e lie s h i dd e n f rom th e f oe .

ve
.

d . A fe w rb s i n is olat e d e x p re ss ion s t ak e t h e ac c u sat iv e f rom

a f orc in g of t h e ir m e an in g . Su c h e x p re ss ion s are
:

f e ri re f oe du s , t o stri ke a t reaty ( i . e . to san ct i on by st rik in g d own a vi ct im ) .

c
vi n e re ifi di c i u m ( s p dn sibn em , re m , hdc ) , to p re vai l on a t ri al, et c .
[A s if t h e
ca se we re a diffi c u lt y t o ove r c om e ; cf . vi n c e re i t er, A e n . vi .

ae qu or n avig are ( A en . i 67 . t o sai l t he sea .

[A s if i t we re t ran sire , 3 88 b . .
]
m aria asp e ra inro ( id . vi ( of . I swear by t he rou g h seas . id . vi .

[T h e acc u s at i ve wit h ve rb s of swearin g i s c h iefly p oe t ic

] .

n oc ti s d orm i re t o s leep [wh ole ] n ights ( t o S p e n d i n S lee p )

,
.

N O TE 1 — Th e s e
. acc u s at i v e s are o f v ariou s k in d s . Th e last e xam p le app roa ch es

th e c og n at e c on s t ru c t ion (c f . th e se c d m pl
on exa e u n der

N O TE 2 . I n early an d p op u lar u sa e so g m e n ou n s an d ad e j ct i v es d e ri ve d f rom t ran

s i t i ve v e rb s re t ai n v e rb al f o r e s u en o c ffi c i t t g ov e rn t he a cc u sat iv e

c
q u id t ib i i st an o t a t ic e st ( Plan t P oe n . . wh at bu s i ness h ave y ou t o t ou h h er ? c
[C f t an g6 ]
. .

m i rab u n di bé st iam ( Ap M e t iv. . .

f u ll of won d er at th e c re a t u re .
[C f . m i ror ] .

vi t ab u n d u s cast ra ( Li v . xxv . t ry i n g t o avoi d th e c am p .

[C f . vi t 6
] .

3 89 . M an y v e rbs or din ar ily t ran sit iv e m ay b e u se d absolu t e l ,

y
h av in g t h e ir n at u r al Ob e c t j in t h e ablat i v e wit h de 27 3 . N .
2
)
p rin s qu am P om p On in s dé é iu s adv e n t ii c Ogn Osc ere t ( B C iii . . . bef ore
c
P om p on i u s ou ld learn of h is om ing [ C f e m s adve n t fi c . . c dgm t d,
‘

h is
arrival being d is c overed ]
F or Acc
u sat ive an d Ge n it iv e af t e r I m p e rson als , se e § 354 . b . F or t h e A cc us at ive
aft e r t h e im pe rson al Ge ru n d ive wit h e sse , s ee § 500 3 . .

Cogn at e Accu sat ive

3 90 A n in t r an sit iv e
. v e rb oft e n t ake s t h e A c c u sat i ve of a n ou n
of k in dre d m e an in g , u su all
y m od ifi e d by an ad e c t i e or j v in som e

ot h e r m an n e r .

Th i s c on s t ru c t ion is c alle d t h e C ogn a t e Ac cu sat ive or Ac c u s at i ve

of Ki n d red S ign ifi c at i on
t ut iOre m vi t am vi ve re ( Ve rr . n . t o li ve a saf er lif e .

t e rt iam iam aet at e m h om i n u m vi vé b at ( C at M . . he was now living t he

t hird gen erat ion of m en .

s e rvi t ut e m se rvi re , to be i n slavery .

c oire s oc i e t at e m , to [go t oge t h e r an d ] f orm an alliance .

g 3 90] C O GNA TE A C C U S A TI VE 2 43

a. Ve rbs of t as t e , s m e ll, an d t h e lik e t ak e a c ogn at e ac c u sat iv e

t h e qu alit y :

vi n u m re d olens ( Ph il . ll . s m elli ng [of] wine .

h e rbam m e lla sap iu n t ( Plin . H N . . xi . t he honey t astes [of] grass .

olé re m ali tiam ( R ose . C om . t o have t he od or f

o m ali c e .

C ordu b ae na
t is p o et is , p in gu e quiddam son an t ib us at q u e p e re grin u m ( A r h c .

to p oets born at C ordova, whose sp ee h had a som ewhat t hic k and c

f oreign ac en t c .

b . Th e c ogn at e ac c u s at i ve is of t e n loosely u sed by t h e p oe t s :

hu i c e rrOri S im ile m [e rrdre m ] in s an i re ( H or . S ii 3
. . . to saf er a d elu sion
like th is .

salt are Cy c ldp a ( id i 5 . . . to d anc e t he C y lop s c ( re p resen t in d an in g) c .

Ba c c han alia vi ve re ( I n v ii . . to live i n revellin g s .

Am ary lli da reson are ( Eel . i . to ree ch

‘

o [t h e n am e of
] A m aryllis .

in t on u it laevum (A en ii it t hu n dered t he left

’

. . on .

d ul c e rid e n t e m , du l c e loqu en t e m ( H or . C d i 22 . sweetly . . sm ili n g , sweet ly

p ratt ling .

ac erba t u en s ( A e n . ix . lookin g fi er e ly c .
[C f En g . . t o look
t orvum c lam at ( id . vu . he c rie s harshly .

c . A n eu t e rp ron ou n or an j
ad e c t iv e of in d e fi n it e m e an in g i s ve r
y
c om m on as c ogn at e ac c u sat i ve ( c f . 2 1 4 d , 3 9 7 a) : .

c
Em p e d o les m ult a alia p e c c at ( N D i . . . Emp edo les c c om m its m an y ot her

errors .

ego illu d ads en t i or Th eOp h ras tO ( D e O r i ii . . i n t his I agree with Th eo

p hrastu s .

m u lt um té ist a f e fe lli t Op i n i o ( Verr . n .

y ou were m u h d e
1 . c ci
e ved i n t his
exp e ctat i on (t h is e xp e c t at i on de c e ive d y ou m u h ) c .

p lds vale O, I have m ore stren gt h .

pldrim um p ot es t , he i s strong est .

quid m e is ta lae d un t ( Le g A gr ii . . . what harm do those things do m e

hdc t é m on e 6 , I g ive y ou this warn ing (c f . (1 . N .

id laet or, I rej oic e at t his ( of d N . . .

qui dm oror, why d o I de lay 5 ’

qu ae h om in es aran t , n avigan t , ae d ifi c an t ( Sall . C at . 11 . what m en do in

p lou ghing , saili n g , and bu i ld ing .

d . S o in m an y m on p h ras e s :
c om

S i qui d ille S e velit ( B G i if he shou ld want an y thi ng of him ( if h e

. . .

S h ou ld wan t hi m in an y t h in g) .

n u m qui d , Ge t a , aliu d m e vi s ( Te r Ph c an I d o an yt hin g more f or y ou , . .

Geta ( t h ere is n othi n g y ou wan t of m e , i s t h e re ) ? [A om m on f orm c

of leave -t aki n g ]
qu id e stqu od , e t c , why is it t hat , . e ta ? [Cf . h dc e rat quod ( A en . n .

was it f or t his t hat ,

244 S YNTA X : C ON S TR U C TI ON OF C A S ES [gs sec—3 93

NO TE 1 .
- I n t h e se c as e s su b s t an t i ve s wi t h a d efi n i te m e an i n g wou ld b e in som e

ot h e r c on st ru ct ion z
i n h dc e dd e m p e c c at , h e errs i n t h is sa m e p oi n t .

b on i s réb u s lae t ari , t o rej oi e a t p rosp e ri t y c

[ lso : i n , d i . A , or e x .
]
d é t est am en t ?) m on é re , t o re m i n d on e o f t h e wi ll .
[Lat e r z g e n i t ive ,
offi c i ad m on é re , to re m i n d on e o f h is d u ty .
[Also z d é offi c i 6 .
]
N O TE 2 c c
I n s o m e of t h e se ase s t h e on n e t ion o f t h e a u sat ive w i t h t h e v e rb h as
. c cc
c
so f ad e d ou t t h at t h e w ord s h av e b e o m e re al ad ve rb s : as , — m u 1t u m , p hi s , p lfi ri m u m ;

p leru m q u e , f or t h e m ost p art , g e n e ralli c é t e ru m , c é t e ra, f or t h e res t , ot h e rwi se , bu t ;

p ri m u m , fi rs t n i h i l, by n o m e an s , n ot a t a ll; ali qu i d , s om ewh at ; q u i d , wh r fac i le , e asi ly .

c
S o i n t h e om p arat i ve o f ad ve rb s Bu t t h e lin e an n ot b e sh arp ly d rawn , an d c
som e of t h e e xam p les u n d e r b m ay b e lasse d as ad v e rb i al c .

Two A C C U S A TI VES

3 91 . S o m e t r an sit iv e v e rb s t ake a s ec on d ac c u s at i e v in addi

t ion t o t h e i r D ire c t O bj e c t .

Th is se c on d ac c u s at i ve is e it h e r ( 1) a Pr e dic at e A c c u sat iv e or

2
( ) a S e c on dary Obj e c t .

redic at e Ac c u sat ive P

3 92 A n ac c u sat iv e i n t h e Pr e d ic at e r e fe rrin g t o t h e sam e p e r

.

son or t hin as t h e D ir e c t O bj ec t b u t n ot in app os it ion wi t h it

g , ,

is c alle d a Pr e dic ate A c c u s at iv e .

3 93 Ve rbs of n am in g c hoosing app oin t in g m aking e st ee m ing

.
, , , , ,

s howin g an d t h e lik e m ay t ak e a P r e d ic at e A c c u s at iv e alon g

, ,

wit h t h e dire c t obj ec t

O Sp a t a q m r im re p t i
c e, ap p ll m ( Ph il x iii
ue en O Sp a t ac f o ns e e . . r u s, or

what l hall I c ll y ( th
e se s Sp t c ) ? a ou an ar a u s

l m c ae t l ct C i c c l
‘

Ci m m d
c e rc e c nsu e re r , o e e ero on s u .

me au g u re m n Om in averu n t ( Ph il ii t hey n om i n ated m e f or au gu r

'

. . .

cum grat ias age re t qu od S e c dn s u le m i c e isse t ( D e or i i . . when h e t han ked

c
him be au se he had m ad e hi m on su l ( su p p ort e d h is c c an d id a cy) .

h om i n em p rae S e n é m in e m p u t avit ( R os e . Am . h e thou ght n obod y a m an

c
i n om p arison with him self .

( Vat
'

du c e m Se p rae b u it . he ofi ered hi m s elf as a lead er .

N O TE — Th e p re d i at e c a cc u s at i ve m ay b e an adj e t i ve c : as , —h om in es m it is re d

d idit e t m i n su et ds ( I n v i . . h as m ad e m e n m i ld an d g en t le .

a. In c h an gin g f rom t h e ac t iv e v oic e t o t h e p ass ive , t h e Pre d i c ate

A c c u s at iv e b e c om es P re d i c at e N om in at i ve
ré x ab su i s G viii
ap p e llat u r B ( . . . he is call d ki
e ng by his su bj ec ts .
[A c t ive
sui e u m reg em app e llan t ]
24 6 S YNTA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A S ES ( s 393

3 96 . S om e v e rbs of asking an d t e ac hing m ay t ak e t wo ac c u s a

t iv e s , o n e of t h e Pe rs on ( dire c t obj e c t , an d t h e o t h e
) o f t h e Thi n
g r
( se c on dary ob e c t : j )
me he asked m e m y Op in ion
s e n t e n t iam rog avit , .

dt iu m di vds rogat ( H or O d ii 16 l) , he p rays t he g ods f or rest

. . . . .

h ae c p rae t dre m p ost u lab as ( Tull you d em an d ed this of t he p roc tor . .

s e dili s p op ulu m rogare ( Liv vi . . t o ask t he p eop le [t o e le c t ] wd iles .

do c ere p u e rds ele m en t e , to t ea h c child t h i ren e r A B C ’

s .

N O TE . Th i s c on s t ru ct i on i s f ou n d i cl ic l n ass a au t h ors wit h dt d, p ose d, rep ose d, rog d,

i n t errog d, fld gi t d, d e cd e .

ve r bs of a s ki n g t ake t h e ab lat iv e of
t h e p erson w it h a
in st e ad of t h e ac c u sat iv e S o, alw ay s, pet d ab , qu aerd
.
( )
u su ally
( ex, ab,dd) ; poscd ( ) ab , flagit d ( ) ab , post u ld ( ) ab , an d oc c a

s ion ally ot h e rs
c
p a e m ab R dm ani s p e t ieru n t ( B G 11 . . . t hey sou ght c
p ea e f rom t he R om ans .

qu od q u ae si v it e x m d P A p u leius ( Ph i l . . vi . what P u bliu s Ap u leiu s asked

f
o me .

b . W it h t h e p assi e of som e v v erb s of aski g o t e ac hin g n r , t he p er

s bj e c t
2
s on or th e t h i n g m ay b e u s e d as u
( cf c N
) . . .

Caes ar s en t e n t iam rog at u s e s t , C aesar w as asked his op i n ion .

id ab ed fi agi t ab at ur ( B C i . . . t hi s was u rg en t ly d em an d ed of him .

N O TE . Th e a cc u sat iv e of t h e th i n g m ay b e re t ain e d wit h t h e p as siv e of rog d, an d

of v e rb s of c
t e a h in g , an d o cc asion ally wit h a f e w ot h e r v e rb s :
f u e ran t h dc ( C ae l rog a t h ey h ad be en as ked this
ti . .

p osc or m e u m Laelapa ( Ov M vi i I am as ke d f or m y Lwlap s

. . . .

C ie e rd c fi n c ta é doet u s ( S all C at Ci ero, bei n g i nf orm e d of e very t h i n g

. . c .

Bu t wit h m i n p rose t h e ac u sat ive of t h e t hin g b e om e s t h e

os t v e rb s of askin g c c
c
s u b j e t n om in at i ve , an d t h e a cc
u s at i v e of t h e p e rson i s p u t i n t h e ablat ive wi t h a

r
p p e os i t i on : as ,
-n
é p ost u lan t u r qu id e m vi ré s i se n ec t fi t e ( C at M s t ren g th i s . .

c
n ot e ve n e xp e t e d of an old m an ( ask e d f rom old age ) .

c Th e v e rb c eld, c on c e a l, m ay t ake t w o ac c u sat iv e s, an d t h e u su ally

.

in t r an sit iv e lat ed, li e h i d, an ac c u sat ive of t h e p e rson :

n dn té c elavi s e rm dne m T Am p i (F am ii 1 6
. . . . I d id n ot c on c eal f rom y ou
t he t alk of Titu s A mp iu s .

n ec lat u ere d oli frat re m I un d n is ( A en . i . n or d id t he wi les o f Ju n o

es ap e c t he c
n oti e o f her brother .

N O TE 1 . cc
Th e a u sat ive of t h e pe rson w it h lat ed is lat e or po e t i al 388 N c . c . .

N O T E 2 — All t h e d ou b le on st ru t i on s i n di at e d i n
. c
396 arise f ro m t h e wave r c c
in g m e an i n g o f t h e v e rb s Th u s d ece d m e an s b ot h t o sh ow a t h in g , an d t o i ns t ru t
. c
a p e rs on ; 0616, t o keep a p e rson i n t h e d ark , an d t o h i d e a t hin g ; rogd, t o qu est i o n
a p e rson , an d t o ask a qu est i on or a t h i n g Th u s e it h e r a u sat ive m ay b e regard e d . cc
c c c
as t h e d ire t ob j e t , an d S 0 b e om e t h e su b j e t o f t h e p ass iv e ( c f b ab ove ) , b u t f or c .

c c c
on ve n ie n e t h e a c usat ive of t h e t hin g is u su ally alle d se on dar
y c c .
5 397 ] I D I OMA TI C U SES OF TH E A CCUS A TI VE 247

3 97 . Th e A c c u s at iv e h as t h e followin g S p e c ial u s es

a . Th e ac c u sat iv e i s f ou n d in a fe w ad v e rb ial p h ras e s ( Ad verbi a l

Ac c u s a t i ve)
id t e m p o ris , at t hat t im e ; id ( is t u c ) ae t at is , at that ag e .

id ( qu od ) ge n us , of t hat ( what ) sort ( p e rh ap s orig in ally n om in at ive ) .

m e am vi c e m , on m y p art .

b on am p art e m , in a great m easu re ; m axi m am part e m , f or t he m ost p art .

viri le of t he m ale ( f em ale) sex ( p rob ab ly origin ally in

ap p osit ion ) .

q u od si , bu t if ( as to whi h , if ) c qu od n isi , if n ot .

b . Th e so-c alle d sy n ec d oc h i c a l or Gr ee k A c c u sat iv e, f ou n d in p oe t ry

an d lat e r Lat in ,
is u s ed t o d en ot e t h e p a t aff e c t ed r
c ap u t n e c t e n t u r ( A en . v . t hei r head s sha ll be bou n d ( t h e y S h all b e b ou n d
ab ou t t h e h ead ) .

ard e n t is oc u lds su ii e c t i s an gu in e e t i gn i ( id . 11 . t he ir g lari n g

blood e y es

blaz i n g wit h fire (su ffus e d as t o

shot an d t h e ir e y e s w it h b lood an d fi re ) .

n i i d a g en fi
( id i with her kn ee bare ( b are as t o t h e kn e e )
’

. . .

f e m u r t ragu la i t us ( Li v xxi 7 c wou n ded i n t he t h igh by a d art

. . . .

N O TE .
— Thi s cons t ru cti on is also c alle d t h e Acc u s at i ve of Sp e i fi c c at ion .

c . I n m an y app are n t ly sim ila r e xp re ss on s i t h e ac c u sat iv e m ay be

r e gard e d as t h e d irec t j
ob e c t of a v e rb in t h e m id dle v oic e 1 5 6 a) .
:

in ut ile f e rrum c in git u r ( Aen . u . he girds on t he u s eless ste el .

n od d S in d s c ollec t s. flu e n t is ( id i . . havi ng her flowin g f old s g at hered i n

a kn ot .

u m erds i n st ern or p elle le d n is ( id . 11

. I c over my shou ld ers wit h a li on ’
s

s kin .

p rdt in us in d u it u r f ac ie m c u lt u m qu e D ian ae ( Ov . M . n .
f orthwit h she
assu m es t he shap e an d garb of D ian a .

d . Th e A c c u sat iv e i s u sed in Exc lam at i on s :

d f ort un at am re m p ii b lic am , O f ort u nat e rep u bli ! c [C f .

‘

d fort im at a m ore

( Ph il . xiv . oh , hap p y de at h ! 3 39 .

6 m e in felic e m ( Mil . oh , u n h ap p y I 1
m e m ise ru m , ah, wretc hed m e !
911 qu at t u or aras ( Eel . v . lo, f ou r altars
e llu m ( z em illu m ) , t here he is ! [C i . 146 a . . N .

e c c ds e cc e e ds ) , t here they are , look at t h em !

p rd d eu m fi d e m , g ood heaven s ( O p rot e t ion of t h e gods ) l c
h d c in e s ae e lu m (Te r A d 0 t his g en erat ion ! . .

h u n c in e h om i n em ( Ve rr . v
. t hi s m an , g ood heaven s !
248 S YNTA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A SES

N O T E 1 —S u h e xp re ssion s u su ally d ep e n d u po n s om e lon g-fo rg ot t e n v e rb

. c . Th e
su b s a
t n t i ve i s om m o n ly a o m p a ncie d b y an ad j e t i ve T h e u s e cc
o f -n e
i n so m e c . c ase s

s u gg e st s an origi n al q u e s t io n , as i n q u i d wh at 9 wh y ? t e ll m e .

N O T E 2 - Th e om i ss ion o f t h e ve rb h as gi ve n rise t o s o m e o t h e r idiom at i a

. c cc u sa

t i ve s . Su h c are :
salfi t em ( se di. cit )
le t t e r) , g re e ti n g
( in add ress in g a .

an d d i n s fi d iu s ( se ad i u ve t ) , s o h e lp m e h e ave n ( t h e g od of fait h )
. .

u n d e m i hi lap i d em ( H or S n 7 wh ere c an I g e t a s tone

. . . .

u d m ih i f ort d n am ( H or Ep i 5 of wh at u se t o m e i s f ort u ne ? [N o v e rb
q . . . .

t h ou gh t oi ] .

e. Th e j
su b e c t of an in fi n it ive i s in t h e ac c u s at iv e

in t e lle gd t é sap e re (F am vii . . 32 . I p er c

t hat y ou are w ise
e ive .

e ae reS iac t ari n dleb at ( B G . . i . he was u n willi ng th at t hese m att ers shou ld

be d is c u ssed .

N OTE .
— Th is c on st ru ct i on is e sp e ci ally c om m on w it h ve rb s of kn owi n g , t h i n kin g ,
t elli n g , an d p e r e i vi n g c
f . Th e ac c u sat ive in lat e r w rite rs i s s om e t im e s u se d in ap p os it ion

wi t h a c lau se

d eseru n t t rib un al m an ti s in t en t an t es , c au s am dis c ord iae et in it iu m arm d

ru m ( Tao . An n . i . t hey aban d on t he tribu n al s haki n g t he irfi sts ,
a ca u se o f d is se n s ion and t he begi n n i ng of war .

N OTE Th is . c on st ru ct i is an
i n flu e n e) of a u sag e m ore
on e xt e n s ion ( u n d e r Gre e k c
n e arly wi t h i n t h e
o rd in ary ru le s , s u h as , Eu m e n e m p rd d id é re A n t ioc h d , p ac is m erc e c
d em ( S all Ep Mit h t h e y be t ray e d E u m e n e s t o A n t i oc h u s , t h e p ri e of p e a e
. . .
[H e re c c .

Eu m e n es m ay b e re gard e d as t h e p ri e , alt h ou gh t h e re al p ri e is t h e b e t ray al ] c c .

F or t h e Acc
u s at iv e of t h e En d of Mot i on , se e 42 7 2 f or t h e u sat iv e o f D u ra . Acc
t ion of Ti m e an d Ex t e n t of S p a e , s e e 42 3 , 425 for t h e c
us at ive w i t h Prep osi t ion s , Acc
se e 2 20 .

A BLATI VE C A SE

3 98 . Un der t h e n am e A bl t i a ve are c
i n lu d e d t h e m e an i n g s an d , in p art , t h e f orm s
of t h re e c as e s , —t h e Ab l t ia ve p rop e r, e x p re s si n g t h e re lat i on F R O M ; t h e Lo at i v e c
c
,

IN ; an d t h e I n st ru m e n t al, W I TH or B Y . Th e se t h re e ase s w e re orig i n ally n ot w h olly

c
d ist in t i n m e an i n g , an d t h e i r on f u si o n was c re n d e re d m ore c e rt ain ( 1) b y t h e d e ve lop
m en t of m e an i n g s t h at ap p roa ch
e d e a h o t h e r an d ( 2) b y p h on e t i d e c c c ay , b y m e an s of
c
w h i h t h ese c ase s c
h ave b e om e larg e ly id e n t i al i n f orm C om p are , fo r t h e fi c . rst , the
p h rases 5 part e d ext era i , O N t h e ri g h t ; q u am ob au sam , F R O au se ; ad famam , c M wh i ch c
A T ( in c c
on se q u e n e of) t h e rep ort ; an d , f or t h e se on d , t h e lik e f orm s O f t h e d at ive c
an d ab lat i ve p lu ral, t h e old d at ive i n — d of t h e fi ft h d e le n s ion an d t h e loss o f t h e c
o rigi n al -d of t h e ablat ive 49 e ; c f 43 N 1 , 92 f , 2 14 a . . . . . . .

Th e c
i n lu d e s sep arat i on , s ou rc e , au se , ag e n t , an d om p ari son ,
re lat ion o f F R O M c c
cc
t h at o f W I TH or B Y , a om p an i m e n t , i ns t ru m e n t , m e ans , m an n e r, q u ali t y , an d p ri c e ;
t h at o f I N or A T , p la e , t i m e , i r u m s t an e c
Th is las s i fi at ion a o rd in g t o t h e c c c . c c cc
origi n al c c
ase s ( t o w h i h , h ow e ve r, t oo g re at a d e g re e of e rt ain t y S h ou ld n ot b e c
c
at t a h e d) 1 is se t fort h i n t h e f ollowi n g t ab le :

1
A
Th us t h e b lat iv e o f C au se m ay b e , at le ast in p art , o f I n s t ru m e n t al origi n , an d
the A blat ive A
bs olu t e ap p e ars t o om b in e t h e I n st ru m e n t al an d t h e Lo at iv e c c .
25 0 S YNTA X : C ONS TR U C TI ON OF C A SES 402 , 403

402 . Ve rbs c om p ou n d e d w it h a, ab, dé, ex, 1

( ) t ake t h e s im l
p e
A blat iv e wh e n u se d fi gu rat ive ly ; bu t ( 2) whe n u se d lit e r ally t o
d e n o t e ac t u al sep arat i on or m ot ion , t h e y u su ally re q u ir e a p r e p o
s it iou 4 26 1 ) .

( 1) c On at ti d é sist e re (B G i . . . t o des ist f rom the att emp t .

d esin e c om m ii n ib u s loc i s ( A c ad . ii .
qu it om m onp la es c c .

ffi ce
’
ab ire m agi s t rat fi , t o leave on e s o .

ab st in ere i ni fi ri a, to re rain
f f rom wrong .

( 2)5 p rOp osit b ab errare ( Fin v

. . . t o wan der f rom t he p oin t .

as p rovi n c ia d e ed e re ( Ve rr ll c . . t o wit hd raw f rom one s

’
p rovin c e .

ab i fi re ab i re ( id ii . . t o go ou tsid e o f t he law .

ex ci vit at e e xc essere (B . G . vi . t hey d ep art ed f rom t he stat e [B u t of . .

fi ni b u s su i s e xc e ss eran t ( id . iv . they had lef t t heir own t errit ory ]

5 m agn o d em issu m n om en I li la ( A e n . i . a n am e d es c en d ed ( se n t d own )
f rom great I u lu s .

F or t h e D at iv e u se d in st e ad of the Ab l t i a ve of S ep arat ion , se e 38 1 F or t h e ti b i a

.

t iv e of c
t h e a t u al p la e c wh en c e in idi m t i c o a e xp re ssion s , s e e 427 l , 42 8 f
. . .

a. Adj e c t ive s de n ot in g f reed om an d wa n t are f ollowe d by

ab lat iv e :
u rb s n ud a prae s idib ( A t t VI I . . t he c ity n aked o f d ef enc e .

i m m un is m iliti a ( Liv i f ree . . of m ilit ary s ervi e c .

p lebs orb a t rib r

i ni s ( Leg . i ii . t he p eop le dep rived f
o tri bu n es .

N O TE — A p re po si t ion som e t i m e s o u rs
. cc
a c u lpa v ac u u s ( S all C at f ree f rom blam e . . .

li b e ri a d éli c ii s ( Leg Agr i 2 7 ) , f ree f rom lu xu ri es

. . . .

Me ssan a ab h i s réb u s v ac u a a t q u e n ud a e st ( Ve rr . iv . Messan a is e mp ty

bare of t h ese th i n g s .

For t h e Ge n it i ve wit h adj e t i ve s c of wan t , s ee § 349 . a .

Ablat ive of Sou rce an d Mat erial

403 . Th e A blat iv e (u su ally w ith r
a p e p osit ion ) is u s e d t o de n ot e
t h e S ou rc e from whic h an yt hin g is de riv e d, or t h e M at e r i al O f
whic h it c on sis t s

1 . Sou r c e
R h en u s orit u r e x Le p on ti i s (B G . . iv . the R hin e ris es in ( from ) t he
c ou n try o f the Lep on t ii .

ab hi s s e rm o orit u r ( Lael . th e c on versation is beg u n by ( arise s from ) t hem .

c ui u s rat iOn is vi m at qu e ut ilit at e m e x i116 c ae lest i Ep ic uri volfi m in e ac c ep i

mus (N . D . i . o f t his reason in g we have learn ed the p ower an d
ad van tage f rom that d ivi n e book o f Ep i c u ru s .

su avit at e m O dOru m qu i afi laren t u r é flarib u s ( C at . M . t he sweet ness o f

t he odors c
whi h breathed f rom the flowers .
5 403 ] A B LA TI VE OF S OU R C E AN D MA TERI A L 25 1

2 . Mat erial
e rat t Ot u s ex f rau de et m e n dacio fa t us c ( C lu . he was en t ire ly m ade up o f
f rau d an d f alsehood .

valvas m agn ifi c e n t iOres , ex au rO at qu e e b ore p e rf e c t iOres ( Ve rr . iv .

m ore Sp len d id doors , m ore fi n ely wrou g ht of g old and i vory .

c
f a t u m dé c au tibu s an t ru m (Ov M . . i . a ca ve f orm ed of ro cks .

t e m p lu m as m ore p on am ( Ge org . ii i . I ’
ll bu ild a t e mp le f
o m arble .

N O TE 1 — I n p o e t ry t h e p rep osi t i on is O ft e n om it t e d
. .

N O TE 2 — Th e . A
blat iv e Of Mat e rial i s a d e velop m e n t Of t he Abl t i a ve O f S ou r c e .

F or t h e Ge n it i ve of Mat e ri al, se e 344 .

a. r
Pa t ic ip le s de n ot in g bi rt h or ori gi n are f ollow e d b y t h e Abla
t iv e of S ou rc e , g en e r ally w it h ou t p rep os it ion
a
1

love n at u s e t Maia ( N . D . i ii . s on of Ju p it er an d Mai a .

é d it e ré gi bu s ( H or . Od i 1 . . . c
d es en d ant of kin gs .

c
q u O s an gu in e ret as ( A e n . ii . born of what blood .

ge n it ae Pan dion e ( Ov M . . vi . d aughters of P an dion .

N O T E 1 —A p re p osit ion ( ab , d é , ex) i s u s u ally e xp re sse d wit h p ron ou n s , wi t h t h e

.

n am e of t h e m ot h e r, an d O ft en w i t h t h at of ot h e r an es t ors : c
ex m e hi e n at u s n On e st s e d e x f rat re m e o ( Te r A d th i s is n ot m y son , b u t . .

m y b t h e s ( n ot b orn from m e ,
’
ro r

c u m ex u t raqu e [u xOre ] fi li u s n at u s e sse t ( D e O r i e a h wif e h avi n g h ad . . c

a son ( wh e n a son h ad b e e n b orn o f e a h wif e ) c .

Bélu s e t om n es a 13616 ( A e n i B e lus an d all h is d es e n d an ts

. . c .

c
N O TE 2 — R arely , t h e p la e of b i rt h i s e xp re sse d b y t h e ab lat ive Of sou r e : as ,
. c
d é si d e rav it C Fle g i n at e m Pla en t ia,
. c
Gran i u m Put eoli s ( B C i ii A
h e lost Cai u s
. . . .

c
F leg i n as of P la e n t i a, A u lu s Gran i as of P u t e oli .

N O TE 3 — Th e Ro m an t rib e i s re g u larly e xp re sse d b y t h e ab lat iv e alon e : as ,

.

Q Ve rt e m R bm iliei ( Ve rr i
. Qu i n t us Verres of th e R om ili an t ri be
. . .

b . S om e ve rbs m ay t ak e t h e Ablat iv e of Mat e rial wit h ou t p ep a r

2
o sit ion . Su c h are c On st are c On s i st ere, an d c on t i n é ri . Bu t wit h c On
r
st a e, ex is m ore c om m on

d o m us am oe n it as n On ae difi c ib se d S ilva c On s t ab at ( N ep A t t . . the harm c

of the hou se c on sist ed n ot i n t he bu i ld ings bu t i n t he wood s .

e x anim O c On st am u s e t c orp ore ( F in i v . . we c on s ist o f sou l an d body .

vi t a c orpore e t s pirit r
i c on t in et u r ( Marc . lif e c on sists o f body an d sp irit .

0. Th e Ablat iv e of Mat erial wit h ou t a re o sit ion

p p is u sed w it h
facere, fi eri , an d S im ilar w ord s, i n t h e sen se O f d o w i t h , bec om e o
f :

q u id h Oc h om in e f ac iat is ( Ve rr . ii 1 . . what are y ou g oin g t o d o wit h t his

m an
qu id Tu lli ola m e a fi e t ( F am xiv 4 what wi ll be om e of m y d ear Tu lli a ?
. . . c
q u id t é f u t uru m e s t ( Ve rr ii what will be om e of y ou . . c
1 As n at u s , sat u s , é d it u s, ge n i t u s , ort u s , p rOg n i t u s , ge n erat u s , c ré t u s, c t eat u s, ori u n d u s .

2 Th e ab lat ive wit h c bn si st ere an d c on t i n é ri is p rob ab ly lo at ive in orig in ( c f c .

2 52 S Y N TA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 403 , 404

d . Th e Ab lat i ve of Mate rial w it h ex, an d in p oe t ry w it h ou t a

p re
p os i t i on , s o m e t im e s d e pe n d s d ire c t ly on a n oun

n On p au c p OC u la e x s u n) ( Ve rr i v
a
“

. . n ot a f ew c up s of gold .

s c op u li s p e n d e n t ib u s an t ru m ( A e n i . . a cave of hangi ng rocks .

F or A bl t i a v e of S ou r c e i n st e ad of Part it i ve Ge n it i ve , se e 346 . c .

Ablat ive of Cau s e

Th e A blat iv e (wi t h
404 . or wit h ou t a r
p pe os it i on
) is u se d to
e xp r ess C au se
1

n e gle ge n t i a p le c t im u r ( Lae l . we are c ha t i s sed f or n eg ligen c e .

gu b e rn at Oris ars ut i li t at e n On art e lau d at u r ( F in . 1

. t he p i lot ’
s ski ll is
p raised f or i ts servi e, n ot i t s ski ll c .

c e rt is dé c an s i s , f or c og en t re asons .

e x vu lnere ae ge r ( R ep 11 . . d isabled by ( from ) a wou n d .

m are a s ale lu c e t ( A c ad . ii . th e sea gleam s i n t he su n ( from the su n ) .

a. Th e Ab lat iv e Of C au se w it h ou t
os i t i on i s u s e d w it h labbro a re
p p
( als o w it h ex
) , ex s ili O, exsu lt b, t i u m ph s, lac ri m b, ardeb z r
‘
d ole O t é ali i s m ali s lab Orare (F am . iv . I am sorry t hat y ou s ug er wi th
ot her i lls .
[C f . e x ae re ali é n b lab Orare (B . C . iii . t o labor u n der
’
d ebt ( fro m an ot h e r s
e x su lt are lae t itia, t riu m p h are g au dib c oe p it ( C lu . she began t o t u lt
ec in

glad n ess , an d t riu mp h i n j oy .

e xsilu i g au di b ( F ain . x vi . I j u mp ed f or j oy .
[C f . la c rim o gau di b ( Ter .

Ad . I weep f or j oy ] .

ard ere dolbre e t ira ( A t t ii 1 9 . . . t o be on fi re wit h p ain and an ger .

F o r gau d e b an d glbri or, se c § 431 .

b . Th e m ot i ve wh ic h in flu e n c e s t h e m in d t h e p e rson ac t in g i s
of .

e xp re sse d by t h e ab lat iv e O f c au se ob e c t e x c it in g t h e e m ot ion

; t he j
2
Of t e n by 0b or p rop t e r w it h t h e ac c u s at i v e

sp olian d i c u p idi n e
n On ob prae dam au t ( Tac . H i . . n ot f or boot y or t hrou g h
lu st of p lu n der .

am i c it i a ex sé et p rop t e r s é e xp e t e n d a
( Fin . n .
f ri en dship m u st be sou ght

o f an d f or its elf .

N O T E — B u t t h e se on s t ru t ion s c c are O ft e n c on f u se d : as , —
p aré rc lé g ib u s p rop t e r
m e t u m ( P ar t o o bey t h e laws on
. a cc ou n t o f f e ar .
[H e re m et u m i s alm ost e q u iv a
le n t t o t h e t e rrors o f t h e law ,
”
an d h en c e p rop t er is u se d , t h ou gh t h e ab lat iv e wou ld
b e m ore n at u ral ] .

1 c
Th e au se , in t h e ab lat ive , i s o rigi n ally s ou r e , as is sh ow n b y t h e u se o f ab , d é , c
e x ; b u t wh e n t h e a cc
u s at iv e wit h ad , ob , i s u s e d , t h e i d e a O f au s e arise s f ro m n e arn ess c .

cc c
O as ion ally i t i s d i ffi u lt t o d ist i n g u ish b e t wee n a u se an d m e an s ( wh i h i s t h e Old c c
c c c c
I n st ru m e n t al ase) or i r u m s t an e ( w h i h is e it h e r t h e Lo at iv e or t h e I n s t ru m e n t al) c c .

g y c
2 O ri in all a m e r an t ile u se : c f ob d e em m i n i s
,f o
r th e p ri e of t en m i nes. c c .
2 54 S Y N TA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A SES 4054 07

N O TE 1 - Th e ablat i ve o f m e an s or i n st ru m e n t is oft e n u se d in st e ad of t h e ab la
c c
.

t ive of ag e n t , e sp e a y i ll i n m ili t ary p h rase s : as ,

— h ae e xc u b it bri b u s t en é b an t u r

( B G vn
. . .t h ese ( re d ou b t s) we re h eld by m e an s of sen ti n e ls .

N O TE 2 — Ah an im al i s s om e t im e s re g ard e d as t h e m e an s or i n s tru m e n t , som e

c cc
.

t im es as t h e ag en t H e n e b ot h t h e sim p le ab lat i ve an d t h e ab lat ive wi t h ab o u r :

c c
.

e q u b v e hi , t o ri d e on h orse b a k ( b e on ve y e d b y m e an s of a h orse ) [N ot ab e q u 0] . .

c lip e Os a m fi ri b u s e s se d é rOsOs ( D iv i th at t h e sh i e ld s were g n awe d by m i e

. . c .

F or t h e D at ive of t h e A
g e n t wit h t h e Ge ru n di ve , se e 37 4 .

Ablat ive of Com pari son

406 . Th e C om p ar at iv e de g r e e is O ft e n followe d by t h e A bla

ti ve 1
S ign ifyin g t han
C at o est Ci c e ron e eloqu e n t ior, C at o i s m ore e loqu en t t han C i ero c .

q u id n abi s d u bbu s lab OriOs ius est ( Mil . what m ore bu rd en ed wit h t ail t han
we two
vilin e arge n t u m H or Ep i l s ilver is less
e st au r6, virt utib u s au ru m ( . . . .

c
p re i ou s t han gold , gold t han virtu e .

a. Th e id iom at ic ablat i v e s opi ibn e spe solit b dic t b aequ o

n , , ,
‘

, ,
c ré di

b ili, an d ifi st b are u se d af t e r c om p a at iv e s in st e ad O f a c la se
r u

c ele riu s opi ni one ( F am xiv f ast er than on e wou ld thin k

. . .

serins s p e om n iu m ( Li v xx vi lat er t han all hop e d ( t h an t h e h Op e of all)

. . .

am n is s olit b c it at ior ( id xx iii 19 a stream swif t er t han it s won t

. . . .

gravins aequ b ( Sall C at m ore seri ou sly t han was right

. . .

407 . Th e c om p a at i r v e m ay be follow e d by qu am , t han Wh e n .

qu am is u se d , t he t wo t h in g s c o m p ar e d are p u t i n t h e sam e c ase

n On c allid ior es q u am h i c ( R osc A m y ou are
. . n ot m ore c u n n in g t han he .

c bn ti bni b u s ac c o m m od at ior e st q u am i fi di c ii s ( C lu .
j itter f or p op u lar assem
blies t han f or ou rt s c .

m i s eri c ordia d i gn iorqu am c on t u m é li a ( Pison . m ore worthy f

o p it y t han f
o

d i sgra c e
.

a. Th e c on st r u c t ion
wit h qu am is re qu ir e d wh e n t h e fi rst of the
t h in g s c om p are d i s n ot in t h e N om in at iv e or A c c u sat iv e .

N O TE 1 — Th e re are se v e ral lim it at ion s on t h e u se of t h e ablat i ve of om p arison ,

. c
c
e v e n wh e n t h e fi rst of t h e t h i n g s om p are d i s i n t h e n om in at ive or a u sat i v e Th u s cc .

t h e q u am c c
on s t ru t ion i s re g u larly u s e d ( 1) wh en t h e om p arat i ve i s i n ag re e m e n t c
w it h a gen i t iv e , d at iv e , or ab lat i ve : as , — se n e x est e O m e liOre on d i ion e q u am ad u lé s c c
c é n s ( C at M . c
an old m an i s i n t h i s resp e t i n a be t t er p osi t i on t h an a y ou n g m an
.

c c
an d ( 2) w h e n t h e s e on d m e m b e r of t h e om p aris on is m odifi e d b y a lau se : as , — m i n or c
f u i t aliqu an t o i s qu i p ri m u s f ab u lam d e d it q u am ei q u i , e t c ( B ru t h e wh o firs t . .

p resen t ed a p lay was som ewh at y ou n g er t h an t h ose wh o, e t c .

1 Th is i s
b ran h of t h e
a c
b lat iv e of S e p arat ionA Th e Ob j e t wi t h wh i h an yt h in g . c c
c
i s om p are d is t h e st art i n g —p oi n t f rom wh i h we re k on c
Th u s , C i e ro i s eloqu e n t c . c
b u t st art in g f rom h i m , we o m e t o C at o , wh o is
, cm ore so t h an h e
”
.
§ 407 ] A BLA TI VE OF C OMPA R I SON 25 5

N O TE 2 — Th e p oe t s som e t i m e s u se t h e ab lat ive O f om p arison wh e re t h e p ros e

. c
c c
on st ru t ion re q u i re s q u am : as , — p an e e g e o i am m e lli t i s p ot i Ore p lac e n t i s ( H or E
p . .

i 10. . I n ow wan t bre ad be t t er t h an h on e y-c akes .

N O TE 3 — Re lat i ve p ron ou n s h av in g a d e fi n i t e an t e e d e n t n e v e r t ak e q u am in t his

. c
c c
on s t ru t ion , b u t alway s t h e ab lat i ve : as , — rex e rat e n eas n ob i s , q u b i ns t ior alt e r A
n e c , e t c ( Ae n i
. ! En e as was ou r k i n g , t h an wh om n o ot h e r [was] m ore r
. . i g h t eous .

In e xp re ss in g im p ly in g
b . se n t en c e s or
g en era l n eg at i ve t h e
a

ablat ive
( rat h e r t ha qu am ) i s t h e
n r
re gu la c on st ru c t ion wh e n t h e fi rs t

m e m be r Of t h e c om p arison i s in t h e n om in at iv e or ac c u sat iv e :

n i h il d et e s t ab ilius dé dec ore , n ih i l foe d iu s s e rvit ii te ( Ph il . iii . n othi n g is

m ore dreadfu l than dis grac e , n othin g vi ler t han s lavery .

n em iu e m ess e c ariOre m té (A t t . x . 8A . t hat n o on e i s d e arer t han y ou .

c. Af t e r t h e c om p arat iv e s p lus, m in u s , am pliu s, lon gin e

, w it h ou t
qu am , a word Of m e as u re or n u m ber is Of t e n u se d w it h n o c h an g e in
it s c ase

p lus s e p t in g e n ti c ap ti ( Liv . xli . m ore t han seven hu n dred were t aken .

[Nom i n at ive ] .

p lus t e rt ia p art e in t e rfe t a ( B G iii c . . . m ore than a t hird p art be ing slain .

[A b lat ive A bsolu t e ]

adi t u s in lat it ud in e m n On am p liu s d u c en t bru m p e du m re lin qu ebat u r ( id . ii .

an ap p roa ch o f n ot m ore t han t wo hu n d red f eet i n width was lef t .

[Ge n it ive of Me asu re : 34 5 b . .

]
N O TE c
Th e n ou n t ak e s t h e as e re q u ired b y t h e on t e x t , wit h ou t re fe re n e t o t h e
.
- c c
c c
om p arat i ve , wh i h is in a sort O f app os it ion : se ve n h u n d re d w e re t ak e n [an d] m ore
”
.

d . Aliu s is som e t im e s f ollowe d by t h e ablat iv e in p oe t ic an d c ollo

qu ial u se ; in f o r m al p rose it i s f ollow e d by s o ( at qu e) , et , m ore ra ely

r

by n is i, qu am °

n ec q u ic qu am ali u d libe rt at e c om m un i ( F am . xi . n othi ng else t han the c om

m on libert y .

ali u s Lysi pp ci ( Hor Ep . . 11 . 1 . an ot her t han Ly sip p u s .

n u m ali u d vid et u r e sse ac m e Oru m b on Oru m d i re p t io ( D om . does it seem

d ifleren t f rom t he p lu n derin g of m y p rop erty ?

’

an yt h in g
e rat h ist oria n ih il aliu d ni s i an n aliu m on fe t io ( D e Or i i c c . . h istory was
n othi n g e lse bu t a c omp i li n g o f c
re ords .

e. Th e c om p ar at ive Of an ad v e rb is u su ally followed by qu am ra ely ,

r

by t h e ab lat iv e e x c e p t in p oet y r
t em pu s t e c it iu s qu am brati a d efi c ere t ( R ose . Am . t im e wou ld f ail y ou
soon er t han words Bu t ,
.

c u r Oli vu m s an gu in e vi p e rin b ca n t in s vi t at ( H or . Od i 8 . . . why does he shu n

oil m ore c aref u lly t han vip er s
’
blood

N O TE — Pre po sit ion s m e an in g bef ore be yon d ( as an t e , p rae , p raet er, su p ra) are
or

som e t i m e s u sed wi t h a c om p arat ive : as , — sc e le re an t e ali as im m an ior om n i s ( Ae n i . .

m ore m on s trou s i n cri m e t h an all o th er m en .

2 56 S YNTA X : C ON S TR UC TI ON OF C A S ES 408 , 409

US ES OF THE ABLATI VE A S I N S TRUMENTAL

4 08 . I n st ru m e n t , Man n e r, an d
Me an s ,
om p an i m e n t are d e n o t e d b y t h e I n st ru Acc
A
m e n t al blat iv e ( se e b u t som e o f t h e se u se s m ore om m on ly re q u ire a p re p o c
s it i ou . c
A s t h e y all om e f rom on e sou r e ( t h e O ld I n st ru m en t al C ase) n o s h arp lin e c
c an b e d rawn b e t we e n t h e m , an d in d e e d t h e R om an s t h e m s e lve s c an h ardly h av e

t h ou g h t O f an y d i st in t io n c
Th u s, i n om n ib u s p rec i b u s brab an t , t h ey e n t re at e d wi th
.

e ve ry [kin d of] p raye r, t h e ab lat ive , p rop e rly t h at Of m e an s , an n ot b e d i st in g u ish e d c

f rom t h at of m an n e r .

Ablat ive of Mean s or I n st ru m en t

409 . Th e A blat iv e is us e d t o d e n ot e t h e m e an s or in stru m en t
an ac t ion
c ert an t es p ug ni s , c alc ib u s , u n g u ib u s , m ot s u d en iqu e ( Tu sc . v .
fi ghti n g
with fi sts , heels , na i ls , an d even t eet h .

cum p fi gni s e t c alc ibu s on isu s e sse t c c ( Ve rr . iii . wh en he had bee n p u m

m elled with t h ei rfist s an d heels .

m eis labbribu s iu t eri t u re m p ub li c am li b e ravi ( Su ll . by m y t oi ls I have

s aved t he st at e f rom ru i n .

m u lt ae is t aru m arb oru m m e a m ami su n t sat ae ( C at M . . m an y of t hose

t rees were set ou t with m y own h an ds .

vi vic t a vi s , ve l p ot iu s Op p re ssa virt ut e au d a ia e st ( Mil c . viole n e c was

c
over om e c
by violen e, or rat her, boldn ess was p u t d own by c ou rag e .

a. Th e A blat iv e of Me an s is u se d w it h v e rbs an d ad e c t ive s O f j

fi lli n g , a bou n d i n g , an d t h e lik e
D e u s boni s om n ibu s e xp lé vi t m u n du m ( Tim . God h as fi lled t he world with
all g ood thi n gs .

ag g ere e t c ratib u s fos sas e xp le n t (B . G . VI I . t hey fi ll up c

the d it hes with
earth an d f asc in es .

t ot u m m on t e m h om ini b u s c o m p levi t ( id i . . h e fi lled t he whole m ou nt ain

with m en .

Op i m u s p re e di ( Ve rr I I 1 ri h wi th sp oi ls
. . . c .

c
vi t a p len a e t on ferta v olu p t at ib u s -
lif efi lled an d c rowded wit h d elig ht s .

F oru m A pp i d iffe rt u m n au ti s ( H or . S i 5
. . . F oru m A p p ii c ram m ed wi th
bargem en .

N O TE - I n p oe t ry t h e Ge n it ive i s Oft e n
. u se d wit h t h e se w ord s . Com pleb an d im p le b
s om e t i m e s t ak e t h e g e n it iv e i n
p rose ( c f . so re g u larly p lé n u s an d ( wit h p e rson al
n ou n s) c om p let u s an d ref ert u s 349 a) : .

om n i a p lé n a lfi ct fi s et m ac rbri s fu é ru n t ( S es t . e ve ry t hi n g was f u ll of g ri ef
an d m ou rn i n g .

Ollam d é n ariOru m i m p lé re ( F am . ix . t o fi ll a p ot wi th m on ey .
[H ere e vid e n t ly
c ollo q u i al, ot h e rwise rare
i n C i e ro ] c .

c on vi vi u m vi c i n bru m c om p le O ( C at M 46 , in t h e m ou t h of C at o) , I fi ll up t h e ban
. .

qu e t wi th m y n e ig hbors .

c um c
om p let u s m ercat brum c are er esse t (Verr v when th e p ris on was f ull of . .

t rad ers .
25 8 S Y NTA X : C ON STR UC TI ON OF C A SE S 4 1 1- 4 13

b . Op u s i s of t e n f ou n d in t h e p re dic at e , wit h t h e t h i n g n eed ed in

t he n om in at i ve as su b ec t j
du x n Ob i s e t au ct or Op u s e st ( Farm . 11 . 6 . we n e ed a chi f e an d resp on si ble

advis er ( a ch i ef, e tc is c f or )
'

.
,
ne e ss ary us .

si qu id ipsi Op u s e sse t ( B G i if he . . . hi m self want ed an yth in g i

( f an y
t h in g sh ou ld b e n e e ssary for h im ) c .

qu ae O p u s su n t ( C at o R . R . 14 . t hi ngs whi h are c requ ired .

Ablat ive of Man n er

4 12 . Th e M an n e r o f an is d en ot e d by th e A blat iv e ; u su
ac t ion

all
y w i t h c u m , u n le s s a lim it in g adj e c t iv e is u se d wit h t he n ou n
c u m c ele rit at e v en it , he c am e wi t h sp eed Bu t , .

s u m m a c e le rit at e ven it , h c e am e wit h t he great est sp eed .

qu id refe rt qu a m e rat i 6n e c Ogat is Lae l

( what d ifferen . c e d oes it m ake in
what way y ou c omp el m e 7

a. Bu t cu m is of t en u s e d e v en wh e n t h e ab lat i e v h as a lim it in g
j
ad e c t iv e :

qu an t 6 id c u m p e ri u lo f ec e rit ( B G i c . . . at what risk he d id thi s .

n on m i n are c um t ae dio re u b an t ( Plin Ep c . . ix . 17 . t hey re li ne with c no less

weariness .

b . Wi t h su c h w or d s of m an n e r as m oab, pac t b, rat ione '

,
ri t ii , vi , vi a
'

an d wit h st oc k e xp re ssi on s wh ic h h av e b e c om e vi rt u all ad

y ve rbs ( as
s ilen t i o, iu re ,
i n ifi ria) , cu m is n ot u se d :

ap is Ma
t i n ae mare m odbq u e ca m i r na fi n g o ( H or Od iv 2 . . . . i n the st y le

an d m an ner of a M atin ian bee I f ashi on son gs .

N O T E — S O in p o et ry t h e
. ab lat iv e of m an n e r of t e n om i t s cu m : as , — i n se qu i t u r c u
m u 16 aqu ae m Ons ( A en i . . a m ou n t ai n of wate rf ollows i n a m as s .
[Cf . m urm u re
( id i 124) ri mi s ( id i 12 3)
. . . .

Ablat ive of Acc om pan im ent

4 13 . A c c om p an im e nt is de n ot e d by t heA blat iv e , re gu larly wit h

cu m

c u m c on i u gib u s ac
'

h be ri s (A t t . viii . 2 . with wives an d child ren .

c um f u n di t Oribu s s agitt arii s qu e flum e n t ran sgre ssi (B . G

. ii . havin g
c rossed t he ri ver with t he ar ch ers an d sti n g ers .

qu ae su p p lic at io si c u m et eri s c c On fe rat u r ( C at iii . . if t his t han ksgivin g

c
be omp ared wit h ot hers .

qu ae [lex] e ss e c u m t elo ve t at ( Mil . t he law whi h c f orbids [on e ] t o go

arm ed ( b e wi t h a we ap on ) .

si s ec u m su es ed fi x e rit ( C at i . . if h e lead s ou t with hi m his asso ciat es.

[For s é c u m , see 144 b . .

 4 13 , 4 14] AB LATI VE OF D EGR EE OF D IF F ER EN C E 259

a. Th e ab lat i ve is u se d W it h ou t cu m in som e r
m ilit a y p h ase s, an d r
he re an d t h e re b y ea rly w rit e rs

su b se q u eb at u r om n i b u s c bp ii s (B . G . 11 . he f ollowed close wit h all his

f orc es .
[B u t als o c u m om ni b u s c bp ii s , id i . .

1160 p raes idi o p rofe c t u s e st

( Ve rr . n . l . with this f or c e he set ou t .

N O TE .
— Mi sc e6 an d i un go, w it h s om e o f t h e ir
p o un d s , an d cbn fu n d b t ak e e it h er c om

( 1) t h e A bl t i a ve o f Acc om p an im e n t wit h o r wi t h ou t c um , or 2 som e t im es t h e D at ive

( )
( m ost ly p t ic oe al or lat e )
m ix t a d olore volu p t as ( B Al
p le asu re m i n g led wi t h p ai n
'

. .
.

‘
c ii ius an i m u m c u m su e m isc e at ( Lae l wh ose sou l h e m ay m i n g le wi th h i s own .
.

fi é t u m q u e c ru bri m isc u i t ( C v M i v an d m i n gle d t e ars wi t h blood

. . .
.

C aes ar e as c oh ort i s c u m e xe rc it a su b c o n i un xi t ( B C i Ce as ar u n i t e d t h ose

c
. . .

oh ort s wi t h h is own arm y .

aé r COD lfi D C t US t erri s ( Lu er v ai r u n i t e d w i th e art h

. .
.

h um an e ap i t i c c e rvi c e m eq u i n u m i u n g e re ( H or . A . P . t o j oi n t o a h u m an h e ad
a h orse
’
s ne ck .

b . Words of C on t en t ion an d t h e lik e re q u i re c u m :

arm i s c u m b os t e c ert are t o fi ght with t he enem y i n arm s

( Off . i ii . .

c
lib e n t e r h ae c u m Q Cat u lo d isp u t are m ( Man il. I shou ld g lad ly d iscu ss .

t hese m at ters with Qu i n t u s C at u lu s .

N O TE . B u t wo rd s of c on t e n t ion m ay t ak e t he D at i ve in po et ry ( se e 368 a) . .

Ablat i ve of Degree of Differen ce

4 14 . W it h C om p ar at iv e s an d wor ds i m p lyin g c om p arison t h e

ablat i ve i s us ed t o d e n ot e t h e D e g r e e O f D iff e r e n c e :
q u i n qu e m ilibu s p assu u m dist at , it is j i ve m i les di st an t .

a m ilib n s p ass u u m ir it e r d u Ob us ( B G v c c at a d istanc e . . .

f
o abou t two

[F or a as an adverb se e 43 3
m i les .
, .

aliq u ot an t e ann i s ( Tus c i several y ears bef ore . . .

ali qu an t o p ost su sp e x it ( R e p vi a wh ile af ter he looked up . .

, .

m u lt am e vigilare ac rius ( C at i t hat I wat c h m u c h m ore sharp ly . .

nihil?) e rat i p se C y c lOp s q u am ries p rfi d e n t ior ( Tu se t h e C y c lop s

-

a v . .

him self was n ot a whit wiser t han th e ram .

a. Th e qu o ablat iv e s
so an d qu an t o t e n t s, are u sed

c orre lat i e l v ik
y w it h c om p a at iv e s, l e t e
h E n li h
g s t eh t he 1
r
qu am in u s c u p id it atis , e ap lus au c t Orit at is ( Liv xxiv . . t he less greed , t he
m ore weight ( b y wh at t h e le ss , b y t h at t h e m ore ) .

qu an t o erat gravi or Opp fi gn at io, es lit t e rae m itt é b an t u r ( B G

t an t a c reb rioi
'

. .

v . the severer t he siege was , t he m ore f requ en tly letters were sent .

1 I n t h is p h rase t he i s n ot t h e d efi n it e art i le b u t a p ron om i n al ad ve rb , b e in g t h e c

A n glo-S ax on t h y, t h e in st ru m e n t al ase of t h e p ron ou n t h a t , t h a t c
Th is p ron ou n i s .

c
u s ed bo t h as relat iv e ( by whi h , by how m u h ) an d as d e m on st rat i ve ( by t ha t , by so c
m uc h ) Th us t he
. t he o rres po n d s exac t ly t o q u ac eb .
2 60 S YNTA X : C ON STR UC TI ON O F C A SES 4 14 , 41 5

N orm — To t hi s on st ru t ion are d ou b t less t o b e ref erred all ases of gu t! an d ab

c c c
c
( h bc ) wi t h a o m p arat iv e , e ven wh en t h ey h ave eas ed t o b e d ist in t ly f elt as d egree c c
c
o f diff eren e an d app roac h t h e b lat ive o f C aus e : A
obq u e m e m in u s p aen it e t ( N D i an d f or t ha t re as on I reg re t les s , e t c ( b y s o
. . . .

c
m u h t h e less regret ) I .

c
hae ob f ac ili u s fac i éb an t , qu od ( B G iii t h is t he y d id t he m ore e asilyf or t his
. . .

c
re as on , be au s e , e tc [C f h oc m aiore sp e, qu od ( id iii 9)
. . . .

b . Th e Ablat ive of C om p ari son 406) an d t h e Ablat i ve of D e gr e e

of D iffe ren c e are s om e t im e s u sed t oge t h e r wit h t h e s am e ad j e c t iv e

p aulb m in us du ce n ti s ( B C iii a litt le less t han t wo hu nd red

. . . .

p at ri a, q u ae m ih i vi t a m e a m u lt a e st c arior ( C at i m y ou nt ry , wh ic h . . c
c
is m u h cle arer t o m e t han lif e .

Bu t t h e c on st ru c t ion w it h qu am is m ore c om m on .

Ablat ive of Quali t y

415 . Th e qu ality of a t hin g is d e n ot e d by t h e A blat i ve wit h an

j
ad e c t i e or v ge n it i ve m od i fi e r .

Th i s i s c alle d t h e D es c rip t ive Abla t i ve or Abla t iv e f Qu a li t y

o

anim b m e li bre su n t gladi at Ores ( C at . 11 . t he g lad iat ors are of a bet t er

m ind .

q u ae cu m esse t c i it a a q i
v s e u s sim b i fi re ac f oe dere ( Arc h . as th is was a
city with p er ef ct ly q al c e u on st it u ti onal right s .

m u liere m e xim ia p u lc hri t fi di n e ( Verr . 11 . l . a wom an of rare beau t y .

A ris tot e les , vi r s um m ain g e ni b, s ci en tia, c ap ia ( Tu sc . i . A ristot le , a m an o f

t he great est gen iu s , learn i ng , an d g if t of exp ressi on .

d e D om it ib d ixi t ve rsu m Grae u m e adem s en t e n t ia ( De i ot c . c c on ern in g

D om itiu s h e re c it d a G
e reek lin e f t he sam e t enor
o .

A
N O TE — Th e b lat ive o f Qu alit y ( lik e t h e Ge n i t ive of Qu alit y , 345) m odi fi es a su b
.

c
st an t ive b y d e s ri bi n g i t I t i s t h e re fore e qu iv ale n t t o an ad j e t iv e , an d m ay be e it h e r
. c
at t rib u t iv e or p re d i at e c
I n t hi s i t d iffe rs from ot h e r ab lat ive s, wh i h are eq u i vale n t
. c
t o ad v e rb s .

a. In ex r
p e ssi on s of qu ality t h e Ge n it ive or t he Ablat ive m ay
r
of t e n b e u s ed in diffe e n t ly ; bu t p h ys ic a l q u alit ie s are of t en e d e n ot e d r
by t h e Ab lat i e ( c f 3 45 N ) v . . .

c apillb s un t p rbm is s b ( B . G. v . t hey have lon g h air .

u t c apit e ope rt o s it ( C at . M . t o have h is head c overed ( t o b e wit h c overe d

h e ad) .

c
q u am fu it in b ec illu s P Afri an i fi lius , qu am t e n u i au t n fi lli p ot ius valé t fldine
.

( id h
. ow w eak was t he so n of Af ri an us , of wh at f eeble health, or c
rather non e at all !

I t was ori gi n ally i ns t ru m e n t al

1 an d app e ars t o have d e ve loped from ac com p an i
m en t 41 3 ) an d m an ne r
2 62 Y
S N TA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 4 17 , 4 18

N O TE . c
Wit h verb s of ex h an gi n g cu m is oft e n u sed , p e rh aps wit h a d iff eren t con

c e p t ion of t h e a t ion : as , c
— ari é s c um ro eo m fi t abit v elle ra hi t ?) ( Ec l i v c c e . th e
c
ram sh all h an g e h is fl ee e f o r [o n e d y ed wi th c
] the y ll
e ow s a
‘
gron .

0. Wit h v e rb s of bu y i n g an d s e lli n
g t h e s im p le A blat i e of Pric e v
m u st b e u se d , e x c e p t in t h e c ase Of t an t i , qu an t i , p lfi ri s, m i n eri e z

quan ti c am
y q u ot m ini s ? q u ad ragin t a m i n i s
c in it ? ili ( Pl Ep id . .

what did he bu y her f or 7 C heap F or h ow m an y m i nce 7 F orty . .

Ablat ive of S pec ifi cat ion

418 . The A blat iv e of Sp e c ifi c at ion de n ot e s t h at in res

p ec t

whic h an yt hin g is or i s d on e
virt ut e p rae c ed un t ( B G i t hey ex el in ou rage
. . . c c .

c lau d us alt e ro pe de ( N e p A ges lam e of one f oot . . .

lin g u a h ae sit an tes , vo e ab son i ( D e Or i c

hesitat in g in sp ee h , h arsh . . c
vows .

sun t en im h om in es n On ré se d h om in e ( Off . i .
f or t hey are m e n n ot i n

fa ct , bu t i n n am e .

m aior nat ii , old er; m in or nat fi , y ou n ge r ( c f 13 1 ) . . c .

p aulu m as t at e p regressi ( C at M som ewh at ad van

. . c ed i n ag e .

c orp ore se n e x esse p ot e rit , an im a n u m q u am e rit ( id . he m ay be an old m an

i n bod y , h e never will be [Old ] at h eart .

a. To t his h e ad are t o b e re f e rre d m a y n e xp re ssion s wh e re t h e ab la

t ive e xp re s se s t h at i n a c c ord an c e wi t h wh ic h an y t h in g i s or i s d on e :
m ed i fi re k wit h p erf e t c
; b u t , m e b m odb , i n m y f ashi on
rig ht .

m e a s e n t e ntia, i n m y op i n ion ; b u t als o m ore f orm ally , e x m e a s ent en tia .

‘
[Here t h e se n se is t h e sam e , b u t t h e fi rst ab lat ive is sp e ifi at ion , t h e c c
c
se on d sou r e c ]
prop in qui t at e c on iun c t Os at q u e n at ure ( Lae l . cl osely alli ed by kind red an d
n at u re .
[ H e re t h e ab lat ive is n ot d iff ere n t i n se n se f rom t h ose ab ove ,
bu t
d ou b t is a d e ve lop m e n t O f m eans ]
no

c
qu i vin it vi ribu s ( id who su rp asses in st re ngth
.
[H ere it is im possible .

t o t e ll wh et h e r virib u s is t h e m eans of t h e su p e riorit y or t h at i n resp e t c

t o whi h c on e is su p e ri or .
]
N O TE As t h e Rom an s h ad n o su h at e gories as w e m ak e , i t i s im possible t o
. c c
class ify all u ses of t h e ab lat i ve Th e ab lat i ve of sp e ifi ati o n ( origin ally i ns t ru
. c c
c
m e n t al) i s losely ak in t o t h at of m an n e r, an d sh ows som e rese m b lan e t o m e ans an d c
c au se .

F or t h e S u p in e in -fi as an Ablat ive
'

of Sp e i fi c c at ion , se e § 5 10 .

b . Th e j
ad e c t i e s v di gn u s an d in di gn u s t ak e t h e ab lat iv e :

vir pat re , ave, m fii ofi bu s su is d ign iss im u s ( Phil iii . . a m an m ost wort hy

of his f at her, gran df at her, an d an es t ors c .

te om n i b ou bre in d ign iss im u m i nd i avit ( Vat c . he j udg ed y ou en t irely

u n wort hy o f every h onor .

55 418 , 4 19] ABLA TI VE AB SOLUTE 2 63

N O TE 1 . So t h e v erb ai gn ot in poe t ry an d lat er p rose : as, h au d e q ui d e m t ali m e

di gn or h on bre ( A e n i . . I do n ot d eem m y se lf wo rth y of su c h an h on or .

N O TE 2 Di gn u s . an d in di gn u s som e t i m e s t ak e t h e g e n i t iv e in olloq u i al u sag e an d c

ca ram di gni ssim am t u ae virt fi t i s ( Balb u s i n At t vi ii. . c are m o st wo rt h y of
y ou r n oble ch ara t er c .

di g n u s salut i s ( Plan t Tri n wo rt h y of saf e ty . . .

m agn Orum h an d u m qu am i n di g n u s avbrum ( Ae n x ii . . ne ve r u n wort h y o f my

g re at an est ors c .

Ablat ive Absolu t e

419 . A
p r on o u w i t
n ou n or
n h a p ar t ic ip le in ag r ee m e n t m ay , ,

be pu t in t he A blat iv e t o de fi n e t h e t im e or c i rcu m s tan c e s of an

i
ac t on T his co
. n s tr c t
u ion is c a lle d h
t e A blat iv e A bsolu t e 1

Ca pt i litt i
e s ar, ac c e n t i m m itt it ( B G s ha i g c i d th
er s, n n u . . v . v n re e ve e
l tt Ca e d am er, g (t h l t t h a i g b
esar sen c i d) s essen er e e er v n ee n re e ve .

qu ib u s ré bu s c ogni ti s C aesar ap u d m i lit es c On t iOn at ur (B . C i . . havin g

learn ed t his , C aes ar m akes a sp ee h t o the sold iers c .

f u gat a o m n i (B e qu it atfi . G . vn . all t he c avalry be in g p u t t o flig ht .

i n t e rf e ct o I n d ii t iom a
ro ( id . vi . u p on t he d eat h o f I nd u t iom aru s .

n On d u m c bnf e c t a in f i n i s N e rvi Oru m c on t e n dit

hi e m e ( id . vi . t hou gh t he
win t er was not y et over, he h ast e ned i nt o t he t errit ory of t he N ervii .

c om p ress i [su n t ] c on at us n unc t u m u lt fi p ub li e on it at a ( C at i c c c . . th e

were p u t d own wi t hou t ex it ing an y general alarm
at temp ts c .

11 6 v is q u id e m om n ib u s ré e t iam t u m p rob ate ( id i i si nc e . . at that tim e

c
t he f a ts were n ot y et p roved even t o all of y ou .

N O T E — Tll e ab lat i ve ab solu t e is an ad ve rbi al m odifie r of t h e p red i a t e

. I t is, c .

c
h owe ve r, n ot g ram m at i ally d e p en d en t on an y word i n t h e se n t e n e : h e n e i t s n am e c c
a bsolu t e ( ab solfi t u s , i e f ree or u n on n e t e d) . . c
s u b st an t i ve i n t h e ab lat i ve ab solu t e c . A
ve ry s eld om d e n ot es a p ers on or t h in g e lse wh e re m e n t ion ed in t h e s am e lau s e c .

a. An j
ad e c t iv e , or a s e c on d n ou n , m ay t ake t h e p lac e of the p a t i r
c ip le i n t h e Ablat ive Ab solu t e c on st u c t ion : r 2

e xigu a p art e aest at is re liqu a (B . G iv . . when bu t a sm all p art of t he su m

m er was lef t ( a s m all p art of t h e su m m er re m ai n in g ) .

L Dom iti c A p Clau di ac en s u libu s ( id v

. . i n th e onsu ls hip of Lu i us D om i . . c c
t i u s and A p p iu s C lau d iu s ( Lu iu s D o m it iu s an d A pp ius C lau d iu s [ b e in g] c
c on su ls ) .
[Th e re gular way of e xp re ssin g a d at e , see 42 4 g . .
]
n il d esp eran d u m Te u crb du c e et au s pi e c Te u c rb Od ( H or . . i 7 . . t here
shou ld be n o desp air u n d er Te uc er ’
s lead ersh ip an d au sp i c es ( Teu c er
b e in g le ad er,

1 Th e A bl t i
Ab solu t e is p e rh aps o f i n s t ru m e n t al origin
a ve I t is , h owev e r, som e .

t im e s e xp lain e d as an o u t g rowt h of t h e lo at i ve , an d i n an y e ve n t e rt ai n lo at ive c c c

c c c
o n st ru t ion s ( o f p la e an d t i m e ) m u st h ave o n t rib u t ed t o i t s d e velop m e n t c .

2 Th e
p resen t p art i ip le of esse , wan t in g i n Lat in c 170 b) , i s us ed i n S ans k rit an d .

Gree k as in En glish .
2 64 S NTA Y X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A SES 4 19, 42 0

b A p h r ase or c lau se , u sed su b st an t ively , som et im e s

. oc c u rs as
ablat ive ab solu t e w it h a p ar t i c ip le or an ad j e c t iv e

in ce rt b q u id p et ere n t ( Liv xx viii . . as it was u nc ert ain what t hey shou ld

aim at ( it b e in g u n e rt ain , c
-
c om p e l to v an u m esse f orm i din e m ( Tac . A nn . i . whe n it was f ou n d t hat
t he alarm was grou n dless .

c ur p rae t e re at u r dé m bu s t rat b ( I n v . n . when t he reas on f or om itt in g it has

been exp lain ed ( wh y i t is p ass e d b y b e in g e xp lain e d ) .

N O TE .
— Th is c on st ru ct i on is v e ry rare ex ep t c i n lat e r Lat in .

c .A p art ic ip le or an adj e c t i ve i s som e t im e s u se d ad e v rb ially in

th e ablat ive ab solu t e wit h ou t a su b st an t iv e

c on s u lto ( OE . i . on p u rp ose ( t h e m att er h avin g b e en d elib e rat e d on ) .

m ih i opt at o ven e ris ( A t t xiii 28

.
y ou will om e i n a ord an e with m y
. . c cc c
wis h .

s eren e ( Liv xx xi
. . u n der a cl a e r sky ( it [b e in g] cl a )
e r .

n e c au s pic at c) n ec
‘
li t atb ( id . v . with n o au sp i c es or f avorable sa rifi c c e .

t ran qu illo, ut aiu n t , qu ilib e t gu b e rn at or e st ( Se n Ep . . 85 . i n good

weat her, as t hey say , an y m an s a p ilot
’
.

420 Th e A blat iv e A bs olu t e

. O ft e n t ak e s t he plac e of a Su b
o rdin at e C lau se .

Th u s it m ay rep lace
1 . A Te m p oral C lau se 5 41 if .
)
c
p at re in t erf e t a, [hi s ] f at her h avi ng be en killed [This orrespon ds t o . c c um

pat er in t erfe c t n s e s s e t , when h is f ather had been killed ]

re c e n ti b u s sc ele ris é ius ve s t i gii s (Q . C . vii . 1 . whi le the trac es of the crim e

were f resh .
[Cf . du m re ce nt ia s u n t ve st igia ]
2 . A C au sal C lau se 5 40)
at e i qu i A lesiae ob s id eb an t u r
prae t erit a di e q u a au xilia sn orum e xspe c t a
veran t , c 6n s fi m p t 6 o m n i frum e n t o, on ilio c oac t o c bn su lt ab an t ( B G c c . .

vn . bu t t hos e who were u n der s iege at A les i a, s inc e the ti m e, e t c , .

had exp ired , and t hei r grain had been exhaust ed , allin g a ou nc il (s ee 5 c c
c
b e low) , on su lt ed t ogether [C i c u m di é s praet eri s s et , et c ] . . .

c
D aré us , dé sp éri t ap a e , ad rep aran d as viris in t e n d it an im u m ( Q C i v 6 l ) , . . . .

c
Dari u s, s in e he de sp aired of p ea e , d evoted his e n erg ies t o recru it in g c
his f or es c
[Cf c u m p a em dé sp é rare t j
. . c
3 . A C on c e ssive C lau se 52 7 )
at ea rep fi gnan t e f i ch at ( c on su l) , im m o verb eb f ieb at m agis ( Mil . bu t
t hou gh he ( C lodiu s) op p osed , he ( Milo) was likely t o be ele t ed c c on su l;

n ay , rat her, e t c
’

t urrib u s e xc i t at i s, t am en h as alt it fi d o p u p p iu m e x b arb ari s n avib u s su p e

rab at (B G . . iii . althou gh t owers had been bu i lt up , sti ll t he high
of the en em y s ship s rose above them
’
st em s .
2 66 Y
S N TA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 42 3 , 424

TI ME AN D PLA C E

42 3 . Tim e when , or wit hin whic h, is e x p esse d r by t he A bla -

ti ve ; t im e how long by t h e A c c u sat iv e .

1 . Ablat ive
c the ap p oin ted d ay
On st it fi t a d ie, p ri m a lu e , at d ay break
on c .

c c
q u ot a h Ora, at what o lo k t e rt ia vigilia, i n t he t h ird wat h
’
c .

t rib u s p roxim is an n i s ( I u g . wit hin the last t hree y ears .

diébu s vi gin t i q u i n q u e agge re m e xs t rfi x eru n t ( B G vii . . . wi th in t went y

fi ve days they fi n ished bu i ldin g a m ou n d .

2 . Ac c u sat ive
di es c on t in u os t rigin t a, f or thirty days together .

c um t ri du u m it e r f é c isse t (B G . . ii . when h e had m ar hed three d ays c .

N O TE .
— Th e Ab l t i
a ve of Ti m e i s lo c at i ve i n i t s origin 42 1) th e Acc u sat ive is t he
s am e as t h at of t h e e xt en t of sp a e c
424 . Sp ec ial r
c o n s t u c t ions o f t im e are t h e followin g :

a. Th e A blat i ve of t im e w i t h i n w h i c h som e t im e s t ake s i n , an d the

Ac c u sat ive of t im e h ow lon g per, f or g e at e r p re c i sion : r
i n d ieb u s p roxim is d e e m ( I u g c
wit hin t he next t en d ays . .

Iud i p e r d e c em dies ( C at iii . .

g am es f or t en days .

b . D urat ion of t im e is oc c asion ally e xp re ss e d by t h e Ablat ive

m i lites qu i n q u e h ori s p roeliu m su st in u e ran t (B . C i
. . t he m en h ad sus~
t ained t he fi ght fi ve h ou rs .

N O TE — I n t hi s u se t h e p e riod of t i m e i s re g ard e d as t h at wi t h i n wh i h t h e ac t i s
. c
d on e , an d i t i s on ly i m p lie d t h at t h e ac t last e d t h rou g h t h e p e riod C f i n t e r an n Os . .

q u at t u orde c im ( B G i f orf ou rteen y ears

. . . .

c . Tim e d u ri n g w h i c h wi t h i n wh i c h m ay b e e xp e sse d by t h e
or r
A c c u sat ive or Ablat ive of a n ou n in t h e s in gu la , w it h an o d in al r r
n u m e al r
quin t ii dié , wit hin [j u st ] f ou r day s ( lit . on t h e fi ft h d ay ) .
[Th e R om an s
c
ou n t e d b ot h e n ds , s ee 63 1 . d ]
.

regn at i am s e xt u m ann u m ,
he has rei gn ed g oin g on six y ears .

d . Man y r
e xp e ss ion s h ave i n Lat in t h e c on s t ru c t ion of t i m e wh en ,
Wh e re in En glish t h e m ain id e a i s rat h e r o f
p la c e
p ugn a C an n é ns i ( or, ap u d C an n as ) , i n the fi ght at C an nw .

lud ie R b m an i s , at t he R om an g am es .

o m n ib us
'

Gallic i s b e llis , in all the Galli wars c .

 TI ME AN D PLA C E 26 7

e. I n m an y id iom at ic e xp re ss ion s of t im e, t h e A c c u sat ive wit h ad,

in , or su b is u se d . Su c h are t h e followin g
su p p lic at io de c ret a e st in Kale n dae I an u ari as , a t han ksgi ving was voted f or
t he fi rst o f Jan u ary .

c on ven eru n t ad di e m , t hey assem bled on t he [app oin t e d ] day .

ad vesp e ru m , t ill even in g su b ve spe ru m , t oward s even i ng .

su b ide m t e m p u s , abou t t he sam e tim e ; s u b n oc t e m , at n ig htf all .

f . D ist an c e of t im e bef ore or a f t e r an t h in g i s v ari ou sl e x re sse d :

y y p
p ost ( an t e )
t res an n Os , p ost t e rt iu m an n u m , t res p ost an n Os , t e rt iu m p ost
an n u m , t rib u s p os t an n i s , t e rt i o p os t an n o t hree y ears aft er .

t rib us an n i s ( t e rt io an n o ) p ost e xsiliu m ( p ostq u am é ie c t u s e st ), t hree y ears

af ter his exi le .

h is t rib us p roxim is ar mis , within the las t t hree y ears .

c
p au is an n is , a f ew y ears h enc e .

ab h in c an u os t res ( t rib u s an n i s) , an t e h os t res an n Os t hree years , ago .

t rie n n iu m e st c u m ( t res an n i su n t c u m ) it i s three y ears s in c e ,

.

o ct a o m é
v nse q u am the e ighth m ont h af t er ( se e
,
43 4 .

g I n D at e s t h e p h rase an t e die
.
( a d
) w it h m . . an ord in al, or the
o rd i n al alon e , i s f ollowe d b
y a n ac c u s at iv e ,
lik e p e p osit ion ;
a r an d

t h e p h rase it self m ay als o be gove rn e d by a re os i t ion

p p .

Th e y e ar i s e xp re sse d by t h e n am e s of t h e c on su ls in t h e ablat i ve
abs olu t e , u su ally wit h ou t j
a c on u n c t i on 419 . a
)
is d ies e rat a . d . v . Kal A p r ( qu i n t u m Kale n d ae A p rilis) L Pi s On e A Gab in io
. . . .

c On su lib u s (B G . . i . t hat d ay was t he 5th bef ore t he cal en ds o f A p ril

( Marc h i n the c onsu lship of P iso an d Gabi n iu s .

in a d . . v . Kal N ov . .
( C at . i . t o t he 5th d ay bef ore t he alen ds c o f N ovem ber
( Oc t .

xv . Kal Se xt i lis , t he 15t h d ay bef ore the

. cal en d s o f A u gu st (Ju ly [ F u ll
f orm : c
qu i n t b de im o di é an t e Kale n dae .
]
For t h e Rom an C ale n d ar, see 563 1 .

Ext en t of Space

42 5 . Ex te n t of S p ac e is e x p ess e dr by t h e A c c u sat iv e
c
f ossas q u i n d e im p e dé s lat as ( B G vn . . . c
tren hes fi f teen f eet broad .

p rogressas m ili a p ass u u m ir it er d u od ec i m c c ( id . v . havi n g ad van c ed abou t

t we lve m i les .

in om n i v i t a su a q u e m q u e a re t a c c c msc ie n t ia
'

t rans ve rs u m u n gu e m n On

Op ort e t d is c ed e re ( qu ot e d i n A t t . x i ii . in all on e s
’
lif e, one shou ld

n ot dep art a n ai l s
’
bread th f rom straight orward f c ci c
ons en e .

N O TE Thi s
. Acc
u sat iv e d e n ot e s t h e ob j e t t h rou g h c or over wh i ch t h ct i e a on t ak es
c
p la e , an d i s k i n d re d wi t h t h e us at iv e of t h e En d of
.
Acc Mot ion 42 7
 268 S YN TA X : C ON STRUC TI ON OF C A SES [gs425 , 42 6

Me asu re is oft e n by t h e Gen it i ve of Qu ality

'

ex re sse d 34 5 b)
a. p .

vallu m d u odec im pe dum (B . G . vii . a ram p art of t welve f eet ( in h e igh t ) .

b Dist an c e w h e n c on side re d as ex t e n t of sp a c e is p u t in t h e Ac c u
.

sat iv e ; wh e n c on sid e re d as d eg re e of d ifi ere n c e, in t h e A blat iv e

m ilia p assu u m t ria ab oru m c ast ris ast ra p On it c c (B . G i . . h e p i tc hes his

c
amp three m i les f rom their am p c .

qui n q u e d ié ru m it er e h est ( Liv xxx . . i t is d ist an t fi ve d ay s m ar h ’

c .

t rlgin t a m ilibu s p assu u m i n fra e am lo c um

(B . G . vi. thi rty m iles below
c
t hat p la e ( b e low b y t h irt y m iles) .

R elat ion s of Place

426 . Relat ion s of Plac e 1

are e x p e s se d as r follows
1 . Th e p lac e f rom wh i c h , by t h e A blat ive w i t h ab, (15, or ex .

2 . Th e p lac e t o w h i c h ( or en d of m ot ion ) , by t h e A c c u sat iv e wit h

or in .

3 . Th e p lac e wh ere, by t h e Ablat iv e wit h i n ( L oc a t ive Ablat i ve

) .

Exam p le s are

Pla c e f rom whic h

5 . se p t e n t ribn e , f rom the n orth .

c u m 5 vdbi s d isc e ssero ( C at . M . when I leave y ou .

c
dé p rovin c i a d e ed ere , t o om e away c f rom one s
’
p rovin c e .

dé m on t e , d own f rom the m o u nt ai n .

n e got iat or e x Afric a ( Ve rr i i 1 . . . a m er cha t f n Af ri a

rom c .

ex Brit annia ob sid es m is é run t (B G . . iv . t hey sen t h ost ages f rom Brit ain .

Mesa p rod u it e x m on t e Vose go ( id . iv . t he Meu se ( flows from ) rises i n

t he Vosges m ou n t ains .

2 . Pla c e to whi hc ( en d o f m otion )

no ctN ervios p e rv en é ru n t ( B G 11
e ad they am e by n ight t o the N ervu . . . c .

ad i b am ad i s t u m f u n du m ( C as e I was g i n g t o t hat est at e

o . .

in Afri cam n avig avit , he sai led t o Af ri a ; in It aliam p rofe c t u s , g on e t o I t aly c .

legat u m in Tre ve ros m it t it ( B . G iii . . he send s his lieu t en an t i n t o t he

c
[ ou n t ry of t h e ] Treveri .

1 Origin ally all t h e se relat ion s we re e xp resse d

b y t h e ases alon e Th e a usat i ve , c . cc
c
in on e of it s Old e st f un t ion s, d en ot e d t h e e n d of m oti on t h e ab lat ive , i n it s p rop e r
c
m e an i n g of se p arat ion , d en ot e d t h e p la e f rom wh i h , an d , i n it s lo at iv e fun t ion , t h e c c c
c
p la e wh ere Th e p reposit i on s, ori gin ally ad ve rb s , w e re aft erward s adde d t o de fi n e
.

c c
m ore e xa t ly t h e di re t ion of m ot ion ( as in t o u sward , t owa rd u s) , an d b y lon g asso
c
c iat ion b e am e i n di spe n sable e x e p t as i n di at e d b e low c c .
 2 70 Y
S N TA X : C ON STR UC TI ON OF C A SES 42 8

42 8 . S p e c ial u se s of p lac e f rom whi c h, t o whi c h, an d where are

t he followin g :

a. W it h n am es of t o wn s and sm all islan d s ab is of t en u sed to

den ot e f rom t h e vi c i n i ty f;
o an d ad t o d e n ote t owards, t o t h e n eig hbor

h ood of

ut a Mu t i n a d isc ed e ret ( Ph il xiv . . t hat h e shou ld ret ire f rom Moden a

c
( wh i h h e was b e s ie gin g) .

erat a Ge rgovi a d esp e c t u s i n ca t s ra (B G. . vn . t here was f rom abou t

Gergovi a a view i n t o t he camp .

ad Ale s iam p rofi c isc u n t u r ( id vi i . . t hey set ou t f or A lesia .

ad Ale s i am p e rve n iu n t ( id vii 7 . . t he y arri ve at A lesi a ( i e i n t h e n eigh b or

. .

h ood Oi t h e t own ) .

D . Laelius cum cla ss e ad Bru n di s ium ven it (B 0

. . i ii . c
D e im us Lazli u s
cam e t o Bru n d isiu m wi th a fleet ( arri vin g in t h e h arb or) .

b Th e gen e ral word s u rb s, Opp idu m , i n su la r e qu ire

. a p rep osit ion
to e xp r e ss t h e p lac e f rom w h i c h , t o w h i c h , or w h ere

ab ( e x) u rb e , f rom t he c it y . in u rb e , i n t he c ity .

ad u rb e m , t o th e c ity . R Gm ae i n u rb e , i n t he i ty of R om e c .

in u rb e m , i n to th c it y
e . R Om a e x u rb e , f rom the ity of R om e c .

ad u rb e m R Om am ( R em ain ad urbe m ) , to the ity of R om e c .

c. Wit h the n am e of a c ou n t ry den ot e s t o t h e borde rs ; i n wit h

, ad

t h e ac c u sat iv e , i n t o t h e c oun t ry i t se lf S i m ilarly ab d e n ot e s a way

.

f rom the ou t s i d e ex, ou t o f t h e i n t e ri or .

Th u s ad It aliam p e rvé n it wou ld m e an h e am e t o t h e fron t ie r, re gard less of c

t h e d e s t in at ion ; in It aliam , he wen t to I t aly, i e t o a p la e wit h in i t , t o R om e , . . c
f or in st an e c .

S O ab It aliap rofe c t u s e s t wou ld m ean he am e away f rom the f ron tier, regard c
less of t h e origin al s t art in g-p oin t ; e x It alia, he c am e f rom I taly, from wit h in , as
f rom R om e , f or in stan e c .

d . Wit h all n am e s of p lac e s at, m e an in g n ear

( n ot i n ) , is e xp e sse dr
by ad or apu d w it h t h e ac c u sat i e v .

p fi gn a ad C an n es , t he fi ght at C an n ae .

c c
on h as ad Ga iet am le g u n t ( D e Or 11 . . at ( alon g t h e sh ore )
C ateta .

ad ( ap u d ) i n fe ros , in t he world below ( n e ar, or am on g t h os e b e low), .

ad f oris , at the d oors . ad i an u am , at t he door .

N O TE 1 — I n th e n e i g h borh ood of m ay b e e xp re ssed by c ir a wit h t h e a c usat i ve ;

. c c
am on g , b y ap u d wit h t h e ac u sat iv e c
ap u d Graec Os , am o n g t h e Gree ks ap u d m e, at m y h ous e . .

ap u d S olé n si s ( Le g ii at S oli . i r a C ap u am , rou n d abou t C ap u a

. . c c .

c
N O TE 2 - I n i t i n g an au t h or, ap u d i s re g u larly u se d ; in it i n g a p art i u lar w ork,
. c c
in . Th u s , — ap u d X e n op h On t e m , i n X en op h on ; b u t , i n X e n op h On t i s O e c on om ic o, i n
X e nop h on s m c on om i cu s
'
.
§ 428] R ELA TI ON S OE PLA C E 27 1

e. r
La ge i slan d s, an d all p lace s wh e n t h ou gh t of as a t erri t ory an d

n ot as a loc a lit y, are t re at e d lik e n am e s of c ou n t ri e s

i n S ic ili a, i n S i ily c .

c
in It h a a le p ores illat i m oriu n t u r ( Plin . H N . . viii . in I thac a hares , when
ca rried there, d i e .
[ Ulysses lived at c
I tha a wou ld re qu i re I t hacas .
]

f Th e Ablat iv e w it h ou t a re os i t i on is u sed t o d e n ot e t h e p lac e

.
p p
whi c h in c e rt ain id iom at ic e xp re s sion s
f rom

c e ssisse t p at ria ( Mil . he wou ld have lef t his c ou n t ry .

p at ri a p e llere , t o drive ou t o f the c ou nt ry .

m an d m it te re , t o em an ip at e c (le t go from t h e h an d) .

g T h e
.
p oe t s an d lat e r writ e rs O f t e n om it t h e re osit ion w i t h t h e
p p
l rom w h i c h 01 t o w h ic h wh e n it would b e re qu ir e d in c lass i c al
p ac e f
prose
m an is Ac h eront e re m iss Os ( Ae n . v . the sp irits ret u rn ed f rom A heron c .

c
S y t hia p rofe e t i sett in g ou t f rom S yth ia c .

lt ali am Lavin iaq u e ven it lit ora ( A e n i . . c

h e am e t o I taly an d the L avin ian
s hores .

t e rram H esp e riam ve n ies ( id . ii .

y ou shall c om e to t he H esp erian lan d .

Ae gyp t um p rofi c is c it u r ( Tac . An n . ii . he sets ou t f or Egyp t .

h I n p oe t ry t h e p lac e t o wh i c h is
. Of t e n e xp e sse d r by t h e D at i ve ,

oc c as ion ally also i n lat e r p ros e

c
it lam or c ae lo ( A en v a shou t g oes up to the sky
. . .

c
f ac ilis d es en su s Ave rn o ( id vi e as y i s t h e d es en t to A vern us
. . c .

d iad em a c apiti rep On ere iu ssit ( Val Max v 1 he ordered hi m to p ut ba k . . . . c

t he diad em on h is head .

i Th e p rep osit ion i s n ot u se d wit h t h e

. su p in e in -u m 509) an d
In t h e f ollowin g Old p h r ases
e xse qu i as i re , to go to the f u n eral . ln fi t ias Ire , to res ort to d en ial .

p essu m ire , to go to ru in .
p essu m d are , to ru i n ( c f pe rdo)
. .

ven u m d are , to sell ( gi ve t o sale) .

[ He n c e vé n dere ] .

ven u m i re , to be sold ( go t o sale ) .

[H en c e veni re ] .

f oras use d as ad ve rb ) , out — foras egred i , to g o ou t of doors

( as , .

s u pp e t ias ad ve n ire , to c om e to on e s ass istan e

’
c .

j . Wh en t wo or m ore n am e s of p lac e are u se d wit h a v erb of m ot ion ,

e ac h m u st b e u n der it s ow n c on st r u c t ion :

q u ad ridu o q u ae es d h
su n tc g ta res ad Chrys ogon u m in cas t ra L Sallae Vola
.

t e rras d efe rt u r ( R ose A m . .wit hi n f ou r day s after t his was d on e , the

m att er was rep ort ed TO C hry sogon u s I N S u lla s amp A T Volaterroe
’
c .

. cc
N O TE — Th e a u sat i ve wit h or w it h ou t a p re pos it ion is o ft en u sed i n Lat in wh e n
c
m o t ion t o a p la e is im p li ed b u t n ot e xp ress ed in En gli sh ( see k,
272 S YNTA X : C ON STR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 42 8 , 42 9

k Dom u m d e n ot in g t h e p lac e t o w h ic h , an d t h e loc at iv e dom i, m ay

.

be m od i fi e d by a p osse s siv e p ron ou n or a g e n it iv e

d om u m ré gi s ( D e iot t o t he kin g s hou se
.
’
.
[Bu t also in M . Lae c ae dom u m

( C at i t o Marc u s Lce c a s h ou se ] ’
. . .

d om i m eae , at m y hou se d om i Cae s ari a, at C wsar s hou se ’

.

d om i s u ae ve l ali é n ae , at hi s own or an ot her s h ou se

’
.

—At
'

N O TE . t i m e s wh en t h u s m od ifi e d , an d re g u larly wh e n ot h e rw ise m od ifi ed , in
d om am or i n d om e i s us ed :
i n d om u m p ri v at e m c on v en iu n t ( Tac H i v 55) th ey om e t og e th e r i n a p ri vat e h ou se . . . c .

c
i n Mar i C rassi ast i ssim a d om e ( C ael c i n th e h ast e h om e of Mar us C rassu s . c c .

[C f . ex An n i an a Milon j e d om o, 302 . e .
]

429 The p lac e where is den ot e d by t h e A blat iv e wit h ou t

. a

r
p pe osit ion i n t h e follo win
g i n s t an c es

1 . Oft e n in in d e fi n it e word s, su c h as loc o, p a t e, r et c .

c
qu ib u s lo o p osit is ( D e Or iii . . when t hese are set in p osit ion .

qu a p art e b e lli vie e ran t ( Liv xx i . . c

t he bran h of warf are i n wh i h t hey c
were vic tori ou s .

loc i s c ert i s h orre a e On s t it u it (B . C iii . . he e st ablished gran ari es i n p ar

t i c u lar p la c es .

2 . F r equ en tly wit h n ou n s whic h are qu alifi e d by j

ad e c t i e s v ( r e gu

larly wh en t bt u s i s u se d
)
m edi a u rbe ( Li v i . . in t he m iddle o f the c i ty .

t Ot a S icilia ( Ve rr iv . . t hrou ghou t S i i ly ( in t h e wh ole of S i ily ) c c .

t ot a Terraci n a ( D e Or . . ii . i n all Tarrac i n a .

cu n et a Asia at qu e Grae c ia ( Man il . t hrou ghou t t he whole f A si a

o an d
Gree c e too .

3 . I n m an y idiom at ic e xp e ssi on s r whi c h h a ve lost th e id e a of p lac e

pe n d em u s ani m i s ( Tu sc i we are i n s u sp ens e of m in d ( in ou r m in ds)
. . .

c
so iu s pe ri c u li s v i s u m ad ero ( I u g 85 c
I will be p resent wit h y ou , a . .

c
omp an ion in dan g ers .

4 . F re ely in p oe t ry :
li t ore c urvo (Aen . iii . on the win di ng shore .

an t r6 es clu a s relin qu it ( id . iii . she leaves t hem shu t u p i n t he c av e .

Epirb ,
Hes pe ria ( id iii i n Ep i ru s , i n H esp eri a
. . .

p rem i t alt u m c orde d olOre m ( id i he keep s down the p ain d eep in his heart
. . .

a. Th e way by w h i c h is p u t in t h e Ablat iv e wit h ou t r

a p e p osit ion :

via b re vi Ore e qu it es p rae m i si ( F am x I sen t f orward . . th e ca al y v r by a

short er road .

A e gae o m ari t raiec it (Liv . xxxvn . c

he rossed by way of t he E gean S ea .

p rOve h im u r p elagb ( A en iii , . we sailf ort h over t he sea .

N OTE .
— In t h is u se t h e way by wh i h i s c c c on e ived as t h e m e an s of pass ag e ;
27 4 S YN TA X : C ON S TR U C TI ON OF C A S ES 43 2

S PEC IA L US ES OF PREPOS I TI ON S 1

Adverb s an d repo it io P s ns

43 2 . C e r t ain A d v e rbs an d A dj e c t iv es are som e t im es u s e d as

Pr ep osit ion s
a. Th e ad v e rb s p p rOp iu s, p roxim e, le ss f re qu e n t ly t h e
ri die, post ri die,

j
ad e c t ive s p rop ior an d p roxim as , m ay b e f ollowe d by t h e A c c u sat i v e :
p ri d ie a as Maias ( A t t . ll . t he d ay bef ore t he N on c s o f May ( se e
p ost ridie ludbs ( A t t x vi . . t he d ay af te r t h e g am es .

p rop in e p e ri u lu m ( Liv c . x xi . l) , n earer t o d an ger .

p rop ior m on t e m ( I u g . n earer t h e h ill .

p rox im as m are O cc a nu m (B . G ii i. . n earest t he c

o ean .

N O T E —Pri d i é an d p ost ri d i é t ak e als o t h e Ge n it i ve

. 359 b) Pre pi or, p rop i n e , p roxi . .

m u s, an d p roxim e, t ak e als o t h e D at i ve , or t h e blat i ve w i t h ab : A

p rop i n e Ti b e ri qu am Th erm Op y li s ( N ep H au n n e are r t o t h e Ti be r t h an t o T her . .

m op ylae .

S u gam b ri q u i sun t p roxi m i Rh en o ( B G vi t h e S u g am bri , wh o are n earest . . .

t o t h e R hi n e .

p rox im u s a p ost rem o ( O r n ext t o t h e last . .

b . Usqu e s om e t im e s t ak e s t h e A c c u sat i ve ,
bu t usqu e ad is m u c h
m r
o e 00111111011

t e rm i n bs usqu e Lib y ae ( lu st i 1 . . . t o th e bou n d s o f Li bya .

c
fi s q u e ad ast ra h os t iu m ( B G i . . . to t he en em y s
’
camp .

c . Th e ad ve rb s p alam , p roen l, s im u l, m ay b e u se d as
p re p osit ion s
an d t ak e t he Ablat iv e :
re m c red it ori p alam p op u ld solvi t ( Liv vi . . he p a id t he debt to his c red itor

in t he p resen c e of t he p eop le .

h au d p roc u l cas t ri e in m od u m m un i ip i c e xst ruc t a

( Tac . H iv . . n ot f ar
c
f rom t he amp , bu i lt up li ke a t own .

sim u l n dbi s h ab it at b arb aru s ( Ov . Tr . v . 10 . cl ose am on g u s dwells the

barbarian .

N O TE —B u t si m u l re g u larly t ak e s cu m ; p roen l i s u s u ally follow ed b ab i n

.

y cl ic
ass
writ e rs an d t h e use of palam as a p repos it ion i s om p arat ively lat e c .

d . Th e v
ad e rb c lam i s f ou n d in e arly Lat in w it h t h e A c c u sat ive ,
also on c e wit h t h e Ge n it i ve an d on c e in c lass ic al Lat in w it h t h e
Ablat ive
cl ma m at t e m su am ( Pl . Mil . u n kn own t o his m ot her .

clam p at ri a ( id . M e re . withou t h is f ath er’s kn owledge .

clam vdbi s (B . C ii 3 2
. . . wit hou t y ou r kn owledge .

1 F or alis t of Preposit ions wit h t h ei r ord in ary u se s , s e e 221 .

 433 -43 5] A D VER B S A N D PR EP O SI TI ONS 2 75

43 3 . Pr e p osit i ons oft e n r e t ain t hei r origin al m e an in g as Ad

v e rbs :
1 . An t e an d post in relat io n s of t im e
q u os p au lo an t e d ixim u s ( B ru t whom I m en t ion ed . a little whi le ag o .

p ost t rib u s d ieb u s , t hree d ay s af ter ( c f 42 4 f ) . . .

2 . Adve r su s, c irc it er
, p rope
n em o adversu s i hat ( Liv . xxx vu . 13 . wen t ou t i n op p ositi on
n o on e .

c ir cit er p ars qu art a ( S all . C at . abou t t he f ou rth p art .

p rope e xan i m at u s , n early life less .

3 . A or ab, o fi
'

,
in e xp e s sion s of r d is t an c e, wit h t h e A blat i ve of

De gre e of D iff e re n c e 414)

a m i lib us p assu u m c c
ir it e r d u ob us R em an Oru m ad ve n t u m e xs p e c t ab an t
(B G v
. . . c
at a d ist an e of abou t t wo m iles ( ab o u t t wo m ile s O ff) t hey
await ed t he ap p roa ch f
o th e R om an s .

4 . I n gen e ral p r ep osit ion s e n di

,
n g in a
A eolus ha c c t a (A
e on ri th en . . us E olus i n rep ly .

fort e f ui t iuxt a t u m u lus ( id ii i . . t here h ap p en ed t o be a m ou nd cl ose by .

434 S om e Pr ep os it ion s an d A d v e rbs wh ic h im ply c omp arison

.

are followe d, like c o m p ar at iv e s , b y qu am , wh ic h m ay be se p arat e d

by ve ral words or e v e n c lau se s
se ,
.

Su c h word s are a t e p ri u post post ed n ,

s, , , p ri die, p ost ri die ; also m agi s
an d p rae in c om p ou n d s :

n e q u e ant e d i m is it cum qu am fi d e m d ed it ( Liv . xxxi x . nor d id he let him

go u n t il he g ave a p ledg e .

pos t di e m t e rt i u m qu am d ixe rat ( Mil . the thi rd d ay aft er he said it .

C at o ip se iam quam p ugn are s ervire m av u lt ( A t t vii C at o hi m self by t his

. .

t i m e had rat her be a slave t han fi ght .

GallOru m qu am R em an Oru m im p e ria p raef e rre (B G i . . .

[t h ey ] p ref er the
ru le o f Gau ls to that f R om ans
o .

N O TE .
— Th e ablat i ve O f t im e i s som e t im e s followe d b y q u am in t h e sam e way
424 f ) .
,
c
as — o t avo m é n se q uam ( Liv xxi . . wi thin eig h t m on t h s af ter, e tc .

435 . Th e followin g Pre p osit ion s som e t im es c om e aft e r t h ei r

n ou n s : ad, c it ra, c ircu m , c on t ra , de, 6 ( ) ex , i nt er, ifi xt a, pen es , p ropt er,
u lt ra so r e gu larly t e nu s an d versu s , an d oc c as ion ally ot h e s : r
[us us ] i s e t n orm a loqu e n d i ( H e r A P
qu em p e n e s arb it riu m e s t e t i r . . .

c c
u st om , u n d er whose ont rol i s the c hoi e , right , an d ru le of sp ee h c c .

c fi iu s am e c orp u s e st c re m at u m , c
qu od on t ra d e c u it ab illo m eu m ( C at M . .

whose body I bu rn ed [on t h e fun e ral p ile ] , whi le on t he c on trary

(c c
on trary t o wh i h ) m i ne shou ld have been bu rn ed by h im .
276 S Y NTA X : TH E VERB [ 5 433

S YNTAX OF THE VERB

M O OD S A N D TEN S ES

4 36 Th e Syn t ax of t h e Ve rb relat es h i efly t o t h e us e of t h e Moo ds ( wh i h exp ress

. c c
c c
t h e m an n er i n whi h t h e a t ion i s on ei ved ) an d t h e Te n se s ( wh i h e xp re ss t h e tim e ofc c c
c
t h e a t ion ) Th e re i s n o d iff e ren e i n origi n b e t ween m ood an d t en se ; an d h e n e t h e
. c c
u s e s of m ood an d t e n s e f req u e n t ly ross e a h ot h e r Th u s t h e t e n ses s om e t im es h avec c .

m od al s ign i fi c at ion s ( c om p are in d ic t i

a ve in ap od os is , § 5 17 . 0;f u t u re for im p e rat i ve ,
449 b) ; an d t h e m ood s
. eX p res s t im e ( om p are
som e t i m es c c
su b j u n t i ve i n f u t u re c on

d it ion s , § 516 b , an d n ot i e t h e wan t of a f u t u re su b j u n t ive)

. c c .

Th e p aren t lan gu ag e h ad , b es ide s t h e I m p erat ive m oo d , t wo or m ore form s wit h

m od al sign ifi at ion c
O f t h e se , t h e S u b j u n t i ve app ears wit h t wo se t s of t erm in a
. c
-a-m m -é -m -e—
t io s ,
n ,
-i -s
,
i n t h e p re s en t t e n s e ( m on ea ,
d i c am ), an d ,
s, i n t h e p rese n t

( am em ) or ot h er t en ses ( essem , di xi ssem ) Th e Op t at iv e was form ed b y ié i wit h t h e .

p re sen t st em d u im ) or t h e p e rf e t ( di xerim )
( Sim , ( S ee d e t ails in 168 , c .

c
Ea h m ood h as t wo g en e ral lasses or ran g es o f m ean in g Th e u ses of t h e c . Su b
j u n c t ive cl d d t h g
m ay all b e l id
as se f will
un d i
er d f ct i
e e n e ra e as o or es re an o a on

i idly c
v v c i d ; d th
on e ve f t h Op t t i
an d
e u ses oth g l id a f wi h
e d a ve u n er e en era e s o s an
o f ct i
a g ly c
on va u e ci d on e ve .

It m t t b
us no
pp d h w e su th t i ose y gi , oc t c t i it h t h b
ever, a n an ven on s ru on e er e su
j ct i
un th
ve or pt ti w e O d lib a t ly ve d b c as it d
e t d c c pti
e ra e p i
u se e au s e en o e on e on or o ss

b ilit y O th c t
. n y e ch c t ct i h h d it w li f d l p m t f m
on rar , ea on s ru on as a s o n ne O e ve o en ro

m ore t gi b l
an d li t e anl f m f th gh t t m
e ra or g d id l;
s o d by t h i
ou o ore v a u e an ea an s

p c ro e ss th m d e d c m t hoo u sei ch c a p ci l m
e o i g wh i ch w
ave n ea ft ase a S e a e an n , as a er

w d h b it lly
ar s a ci t d wi t h it i t h t c t ct i
ua asso a e Si m il d l pmn t h a on s ru on . ar eve o en s av e
t k
a en p l c i E gli h a e n Th th
n p s i . I w ld d thi h
u s, b c m e ex q i l t
re ss on ou o s as e o e e u v a en

to a m ild c m m d wh il b y
o an ly i it i
, t b th
e p d i
an a f p
s s t c di s se en o e e a o os s O a rese n on

ti on c t y t f ct
on rar o f I w a y t By f t h
i ly i I w ld d i
ere ou , e c . ur e r an a s s, ou o s

see n t h o m t
av e i g i lly I h
ean , ld h
or wi h d (
na I did wi h ) t d
, s ou ave s e or s o o .

I L t i th
n a igi
n, l S bj e or ti d t h Op t t i
na u b c m c f
un c d d i m
v e an i g e a ve e a e on oun e n ean n
an d i f m n ord w , man g d i t h S bj
e re ct i t fi t i t h p
er e n t t
e u Th un ve , a rs n e resen e n se . en
ne wt f m
e n se - or f th bj ct i w f m d d t t h t h igi l w ll
s o e su un ve e re or e ,
1 an o e se e or na as e as
th d i
e er ved m i g f b th m
ean n d b c m so t t ch d (
o oo All t h i d p
s e a d t e a a e se e e n e en en

u se s o f th L t i e bj act i n su th t b un cc t d f ve are us o e a ou n e or.

Th d p e d et en f th en bj ct i h
u se s o i f m th
e su m pl y mun t fve m ave ar se n ro e e o en o so e

i d p
n e d en t bjen ct i c t ct i i c ct i wit h m i t t m t M t f
su un ve on s ru on n on n e on a a n s a e en . os re

q u ent ly t h m i et t m t i p fi
a n s a e d t t
en c c t iigs re bj xe ct i o a se n e n e on a n n a su un ve , as
a m ore c m p l t p i f c m pl id
o e e ex re ss on o Th a q ti o im p lyi g ex ea us a u es on n a
l g ti (q i g m ? wh y h ld t I k 9) m ig h t h l ’
g e n e ra ne a ve u ll ro e th g s ou ga n as av e e en e ra n e
ti ve ex resse
p d i p fi d t t m
n a t ( fi ll c
re xe t th
s a e i );
en h t n a au sa es , ere s n o re ason or s ea ,

l t hi m g
e w y m y b
o a a p ,d d i t a i b t
e ex Wh an ch c m b i t i c m
e n o s n e a ea . e n su a o na on o es

i t h b it
n o a l th
ua igi l m
u se , i g f th
e or bj ct i p t i lly wh lly di
na e an n O e su un ve ar a or o s

d wm i g b y i m p lic t i Th i m i it lé g i t b q i di
'

a pp ears an a ne i e an n ar se s t a on . u s, n s a s u c ere n ,

h e se n t mb a ad t
ass y (i whors h ld
o sa y) t h .ig i l h t t y
e . o s f th
ou sa , e or na or a or s en se o e

su bj un ct i i p t i lly l t d t h m d b c m i p t
ve s ar a os , an p i e f p p oo e o es n ar an e x ress on o u r o se .

Sim il p c ar m y b
ro esse s i t h g wt h f A p d i
a e s ee n Th n t ll h e c pi i O m
ro o o os s . u s, o e an o n ne ,

lfi ct u m su st u leri s, rem ove th i s n ot i on , y ou will h ave don e away wi th grief ( i . e. if y ou

re m ove ,

1 F or t h e signi fi c at ion of t h e t en se-e n d in gs, see 169 .

 78 S YN TA X : TH E VER B 43 8 , 43 9

J
S UB UN CTI VE MOOD

4 38 . The Su bj u n c t i ve in g e n er al e x p r esse s t h e v e rbal ide a wit h

su c h as is e xp r e sse d in En lish by au xiliar ie s ,
1
s om e i fi
m od c ta i on
g
by t he in fi n it iv e , or by t h e r ar e s u bj u n c t iv e 15 7 b) . .

a Th e S u bj un c t iv e i s u se d i n d ep en d en t ly t o
. e xp re ss

1 . A n Ex h ort at ion or C om m an d ( H ortatory c

S u bj u n t ive
2 . A C on c e s si on
( C on c essi ve S u b
j u n t i ve : c
3 . A Wish ( Op tative S u bj u n c tive
4 . A Qu e st ion of D ou b t etc .
( D e libe rat i ve S u b u n c t ive :
j
5 . A Possib ilit y or C on t in ge n y c ( P ote n tial S u bj u n c tive
F or t h e sp e ci al id iom at i c u ses of t h e S u b j u n t i ve c
b . Th e Su bju n c t ive i s u se d in dep en d en t c lau

1 . C on dit ion : f u t u re or c on t rary t o fa t c 5 16 b

.

2 . Pu rp ose ( F in al,

3 . C h arac t e rist i c
4 . R e su lt ( C on sec u ti ve ,

8 als o u se d w it h C on d it ion al Part ic le s of C om .

su b ordin at e c lau s e s in t h e I n di re c t Disc ou rse

SUB JtI N C TI VE IN I N D EP EN D EN T

r r
Ho t at o y S u bju nc t ive

43 9 . Th e H or t at ory S u bj u n c t iv e is u se d in t h e p r e se n t t e ns e
to r
e x p e ss an exhort at ion or a c om m an d . The n e gat iv e is as .

h Os lat rOn é s in t e rfi c iam u s (B G . . vu . let us ki ll these robbers .

c ave an t in t e m p e ran t iam , m e m in e rin t ve ré c u n d iae ( Off . i . let t hem s hu n

exc ess an d ch eri sh m od esty .

c
N OT E 1 — Th e h ort at ory su b j u n t iv e o u rs rarely in t h e p e rfe t ( e x e p t in p ro
. cc c c
h ib it i on s : as , — Ep i u ru s h oc vi d eri t ( c
ad ii le t Ep i u ru s look to th is Ac . . c .

c
N O T E 2 — Th e t e rm h ort at ory su bj u n t i ve i s so m et i m es res t ri t ed t o t h e fi rs t p e r
. c
c
son p lu ral, t h e s e on d an d t h i rd p e rson s b e in g d es ign at ed as t h e j u ssi ve s u bj u n t i ve ; c
c c
b u t t h e on st ru t i on s are su b st an t ially id e n t i al c .

1 Th e se m odi fi c at ion s are of v ari ou s c c

k in d s , e a h of w hi h h as h ad i t s o wn S p e ial c
d e ve lop m e n t ( c f Th e su b j u n
. c t i v e in Lat i n h as also m an y idiom at i u se s ( as in c
c la u s e s o f R es u lt an d Ti m e ) w h e re t h e En g li sh d oe s n o t m od i f
y t h e v e rb al id ea at all,
b u t e xp re sses i t d ire t ly c . c c
I n s u h ases t h e Lat in m e rely t ak e s a d iff e ren t vie w of .

c c c
t h e a t ion an d h as d eve lop ed t h e on st ru t i on d iff e ren t ly f rom t h e En glish .
 43 9, 440] H OR TA TOR Y SUB JUNC TI VE 279

N OTE 3 — O n c e in C i e ro an d o as ion ally in t h e p oe t s an d late r writ e rs t h e

. c cc n e ga
t ive wi t h t h e h ort at ory su b j u n t ive is mi n : as, c
alé gi b u s n 5n recé dam u s ( C lu . le t
u s n ot aban d on t h e laws .

a. Th e S e c on d P e rson of t h e h ort at o ry j
su b u n c t i e v is u se d on l
y
o f an i n d efi j
n i t e s u b ec t , e x c e t
p in p rohi b it ion s, in ea rly Lat in ,
an d in

p oe t ry
in iurias fort un ae , q u as fe rre n e q u e as , d ef u gien d o re lin qu as Tusc v
( t he . .

wrongs of f ortu ne, whi h y ou an n ot be ar, leave be hind by fl ight c c .

e xoriare aliq u i s u lt or ( A e n iv rise, s om e ave n ger . .

.

is t o b on o ut are d u m ad sit , c u m absi t n e re quiras ( C at . M u se this bless .

i n g while it is p resen t ; when it is want i n g do n ot regret it .

doc e as i te r e t sa ra c Ost ia pan das ( A e n vi . . s how us the way an d lay op en

the s ac red p ortals .

For N e gat ive C om m an ds ( p roh ibi t ions ) , se e § 450 .

b . Th e I m p e r fe c t Plu p e rfe c t of t h e h or t at ory

an d j
su b un c t iv e

d e n ot e an fi lled obliga t ion in p ast t im e

u nf u l

m ore ré t u r, in q u i es he shou ld have d i ed , y ou will say

( R ab P ost . . .

p ot ins doc ére t ( Off iii he shou ld rat her have tau ght
. . .

n e p op osc i s s é s A t t n l y ou s hou ld n ot have asked

( . . . .

salt e m aliqu id d e p on d e rs dét raxi ss e t ( F in iv at leas t he shou ld have . .

When som ething f rom the weight .

N O TE 1 .
- I h t h is c on st ru cti on t h e Plu pe rf e t c u su ally d i ffe rs f rom t h e I m p e rfe t c
Th is u se o f t h e su b j u n t iv e is c c are f u lly t o b e d i s t in g u ish ed f ro m t h e
u se Th e diff ere n c e c
is in di at e d b y t h e t ran slat ion , sh ou ld or ou g h t
d or m igh t) .

440 Th e H o t at o y S u b u n c t i e is
. r r j v u se d to r
e x p e ss a c on c es

si on
l
The P e se n t i s u s ed for p esen t
. r r e P e r fe c t for p as t ;

Th e ne
g at i ve is né .

s it f ur, s it sac rilegu s : at es t b on u s i rr . v .

gran t he i s a
t hi ef , a god less wretc h : y et he is a
f u erit alii s ; su p p os e he was [so] to
others ;

n em O is um n ever was su ch a on e [you

( Tuso . 11 .
gran t ed that
p ain is n ot t he greatest evil, at least i t is an e vil .

c c c
N O T E — Th e on essive su b j u n t iv e wi t h qu am vi s an d li et i s origi n ally h ort ato ry
. c
( 5527 a, b)
. .

F or ot h er m e t h od s o f e xp ressin g Con e ssio n , s ee § 5 27 c .

c
F or t h e H ort at o ry S u b j u n t iv e d e n ot in g a Proviso, s e e § 528 a . .

1 Man y s ch olars re g ard th e c con j c

essive su b u n t iv e as a d e ve lop m e n t of t h e Optat i ve
c
Su b j u n t i ve in a wish .
 fi g ! '

280 S Y NTA X : TH E VEEB [ gg 44 1, 442

Op t at ive S u b j u nct ive

44 1 . The O p t at iv e Su bj u n c t iv e is u se d t o e x p r ess a Wish The .

p r es en t t e n s e de n ot e s t h e wish as
p ossi ble , t h e im
p e r fe c t as u n ac

c om lishe d in
p p r es e n t t im e , t h e
p lu p erf ec t as u nac c om li shed in
p
a s t t i m e T h e n e at iv e is n é
p .
g
it a vi vam ( A t t v as tru e as I live, so m ay I live
. . .

n e vi vam si s io ( id iv 16 c
I wi sh I m ay n ot live if I kn ow
. . . .

d i t e pe rduin t ( D e iot the g ods onfou n d thee ! . c

vale an t , vale an t c ive s m ei S in t i n c olu m es ( Mil .
f arewell, f arewell to m y
f ellow- c i ti zens ; m ay t hey be se u re c f rom harm .

d i f ac ere n t sin e p at re f ore m ( Ov . M . viii . wou ld that t he g ods allowed m e

to be withou t a f at her ( b u t t h ey d o n ot
)
a. Th e p e rfe c t su b u n c t i ve j in a wi sh i s r
a c h ai c

d i f axi nt ( F am m ay t he g ods grant

. x iv . 3 . .

q u od d i Om en ave rt e ri n t ( Ph il x ii 14 , i n a re ligiou s form u la) , and m ay the . .

g ods avert t hi s om en .

442 . Th e Op t at iv e S u bj u n c t i v e is of t en p r e c e de d by t h e p ar
t ic le u t inam s o r e u larl in t he im p e r fe c t an d plu p e r fe c t :
g y
falsu s u t in am vat es sim ( Liv xxi 10 I wish I m ay be a f alse p rop het . . . .

u ti n am C lOdi u s vi ve re t ( Mil wou ld t hat Clod iu s were n ow ali ve . .

u ti nam m e m ort u u m vi di s s é s ( Q F r i 3 wou ld y ou had seen m e dead . . . . .

u t in am n é vere s c ri be re m ( F am v 17 wou ld that I were n ot writ in g t he . .

t ru th .

N O TE .
— Ut in am mi n i s o cc asion ally u se d i n s t ead of u t i nam n e z as , — u t i nam su s

c ep t u s n on e ssem ( At t ix. . 9 . wou ld th at I h ad n ot been born .

a. r
I n p oe t y an d old Lat in u t i or u t of t e n in t odu c e s t h e op t at i e r v
j
s u b u n c t iv e ; an d i n p o e t ry s i or 5 s i w i t h t h e su b u n c t iv e s om e t im e s j
r
e xp e s se s a w i sh

ut p ere at p osit u m rob ig in e t elu m ( H or . S . u . 1 . m ay t he weap on u n u sed

p eri sh with rust .

6 s i an gu lu s ille ac c é dat ( id 11 6 . . . 0 if t hat c orn er m ight on ly be ad ded !

si n u n c
S e n ob is ille au re u s ram u s os t e n dat ( A en . vi .
if n ow th at g old en
bran h wou ldc on ly show i tself to us !

c
N O TE 1 — Th e su b j u n t i v e wit h u t i ( at ) or u t i n am was ori gin ally d elib e rat i ve ,
.

m e an in g h ow m ay I , e t c Th e su b j un t ive w it h si or 6 si i s a p rot as is
. 5 12 a) , c .

th e ap od osis n ot b ein g e xp re sse d .

N O TE 2 . c
Th e su b j u n t ive of wish w it h ou t a p art i le i s seld om fou n d in t h e im pe r c
c c
f ec t or p lu p e rf e t e x e pt b y se qu e n e o f t en ses i n I n d ire t D i s ou rse as , — ac c c c
c
v en erat a C e res , it a u lm o su rge ret alto ( H or S ii 2 an d Ce res worsh ipp e d [wit h . . . .

lib at i on s] t h at so she m igh t ris e wi th t all s t alk [I n addre ssin g t h e god d ess d ire t ly . c
t h e p ray e r wou ld b e : i t a ma gi s ] ,
2 82 S N TA Y X : TH E VERB [gg 444 44 7

Pot en t ial S u b j u n ct ive

445 O f t h e t wo p ri n ip al u ses of t h e S u u n
. c ve n i n d e pe n d en t se n t e n e s ( c f bj ct i i c .

c
t h e se on d , or Pot e n t i al S u b j u n t ive , 1 is f ou n d in a v arie t y of s en t e n e-form s c c
c
h avin g as t h e i r om m on e lem en t t h e f a t t h at t h e m ood re p re s en t s t h e a t ion as m ere ly c c
c c
on e i ved or p oss i ble , n ot as d es ired ( h ort at ory , op t at i ve ) or re al ( i n d i at i ve) So m e c .

o f t h e se u se s are v ery old an d m ay g o b a k t o t h e I n d o— Eu rop e an p are n t spe e h , b u t c c

n o s at i sf a t ory c c c
on n e t ion b e tw e e n t h e Pot e n t ial an d t h e H o rt at ory an d Op t at i ve

c c
S u b j u n t i ve h as b een t ra ed Th e re is n o sin gle En glish e qu i valen t f or t h e Pot en t ial
.

c
S u b j u n t ive ; t h e m ood m u st b e ren d e re d , a ordin g t o ir u m s t an e s , b y t h e au xil cc c c c
i ari e s wou ld , sh ould , m ay , m ig h t , c an , ou ld c .

44 6 . Th e Pot e n t ial S u bj u n c t iv e is u se d to su
gg est an ac t ion

as p ossible or c on c e ivable v e is n o . Th e n egat i n .

I n t h is u se t h e P es e t a d t h e P e rf e c t re fe r wit h ou t dist in c t ion t o

r n n

t h e im m e di at e f t e t h e I m p e rf e c t ( oc c as ion ally t h e Pe r f e c t ) t o p as t
u ur

t im e ; t h e Pl p e fe c t ( wh ic h is r ar e) t o wh at m igh t h ave h app e n e d

u r .

44 7 . Th e Pot e n t ial S u bj u n c t iv e h as t h e followin g u ses :

1 . In c au t iou s or m ode st asse rt ion s in t h e fi r st p e rs on sin gu lar of

r
e xp e s sion s of s a yi n g, t h i n ki n g, or w is h in g ( p re se n t or p e rfe c t )
c
p a e t u a di xe rim ( Mil I wou ld say by y ou r leave . .

c
h au d s iam an ( Lae l I shou ld i n lin e t o t h in k
. c .

t ii ve lim si c e xi s t im é s ( F am x ii I shou ld like y ou to thin k so

'

. . .

c e rt u m affi rm are n on au s im ( Liv ii i I s hou ld n ot d are t o assert . . as su re .

N O TE —Vollem , n dllem , o r m allem e xp ressi n g an u n fu lfi lled w ish in p res e n t t im e

.

c
m ay b e lassed as i n d ep en d e n t p ot e n t ial su b j u n t i ve or as t h e ap od osis of an u n e x c
p re ss ed on d ict i on a s — v ellem ad e sse t M An tOn i u s ( Ph il i I ou ld wi sh . . . c
A n t on y we re h e re .

2 . I n t h e in d e fi n i t e se c on d p e rson s in gu la r of ve r bs of s ay i n g, t h i n k
i n g, an d t h e lik e ( p r e s en t or im p e rf e c t )
c ré das n on d e p u e ro s rip t u m s e d a p u e ro ( Plin Ep iv 7 c y ou wou ld . . . .

th in k t hat it was written not abou t a boy bu t by a boy .

c ré deré s vic t Os ( Liv ii 4 3 y ou wou ld have thou ght t hem c on qu ered

. . . .

re o s di c eré s ( id ii 3 5 y ou wou ld have s ai d they were u lp rits

. . . c .

vi dé ré s s us u rros ( H or S ii 8 y ou m ight h ave seen th e m whisp eri n g ( li t

. . . . .

fre to ass im ilare p ossi s (Cv M . . v .

y ou m ight c omp are it to a s ea .

3 . W it h ot h e r ve r b s, in all p erson s , w h e n som e word or p h ase in r

t he c on t e xt i m p lie s t h at t h e ac t ion i s e xp res se d as m e rely p ossible or

c on c e iv ab le

1 Th e n am e P ot e n t i al S u bj u n t i ve is c n ot c
p re isely d e s c rip t iv e , b u t is fi xed in
g ram m at ic al u sag e .
 447 , 44 8] I MP ER A TI VE MOOD 2 83

n il e go con t ulerim iuc u n d o s an us am i co (H or . S i 5

. . . when i n m y sen s es
I shou ld c om p are n ot hin g with an i n t erest in g f rien d .

f ort un am c it iu s re p e t i as q u am ret in e as ( Pu b . Syr .

y ou m ay soon er fi nd
f ort u n e than keep it .

aliqui s di c at
( Ter . An d . s om ebod y m ay s ay .

N O TE .
—I n t h is u se t he su b u n j ct i ve m ay b e re g ard ed as t h e ap od osis of an u n d e
ve lop e d p rot as is W
h en t h e on di t ion al i de a b e o m e s leare r,
. c c c it fi n ds e xp re ss ion in
c
a f orm al p rot as is , an d a on d i t ion al s e n t e n e i s d e v e lop e d c .

Fors it an , p erh ap s, e gu larly t ak e s t h e P ot e n t ial S u b u n c t iv e

a. r j
e x c e p t in late r Lat in an d in p oe t ry , wh e re t h e I n d ic at ive i s also

C OIII II I O II 2

f ors itan qu ae rati s qu i ist e t e rror sit ( R ose A m . .

y ou m ay p erhap s i nqu ire
what t his alarm is .

f ors it an t e m ere f ec erim ( id p erhap s I have . ac te d rashly .

N O TE . c
Th e su b j u n t iv e laus e w it h f orsi t an c f ors sit an ) was origi na lly an In di
re c t Qu est ion : i t wou ld be a h an e whe the r, e t c c c .

b . Fort asse, p e rh ap s, is re gu lar

ly f ollow e d by t h e I n d ic at iv e ; som e

t im e s, h ow e ve r
,
by t h e j
S u b u n c t iv e, b u t c h i efly in lat e r Lat in
q u aeres f ort ass e ( F am . xv . 4 .
p erhap s y ou will ask .

N o n a — Ot h e r e xp ress ion s for p e rhap s are ( 1) f orsan ( hie fl y p oe t i al ; on st ru ed c c c

c c
wi t h t h e i n di at i ve or t h e su b j u n t iv e , m ore om m on ly t h e i n d ic at iv e ) , f ors ( rare an d c
c c
poe t i al ; on st ru e d wi t h e it h e r t h e i n di at i ve or t h e su b j u n t iv e) F orsit ( o r f ors sit ) c c .

c c
o c urs on e ( H or S i 6 49) an d t ak es t h e s u b j un t i v e
. . . . F ort asse i s som e t i m e s f ollowe d c .

c cc
b y t h e i n fi n i t i v e wit h su b j e t a u sat iv e i n Plau t u s an d Te re n e F ort ass i s ( rare ; c on c .

st ru ed lik e f ort asse) an d f ort asse an ( v e ry rare ; on st ru ed wit h t h e su b j u n t i ve ) are c c

I MPERATI VE MOOD

44 8 . Th e I m p e r at iv e is u s e d in C om m an ds an d En t re at ies
c on s u li t e v i s , p ros p ic it e p atriae , co n s e rvat e v os ( C at . iv . c
have a are f or
y ou rse lves , gu ard the ou ntry , p reserve y ou rselves c .

c
di e , Mar e Tu lli , sen t e n t iam , Mar u s Tu lliu s , stat e y ou r op in i on c .

t e ips u m c on c u t e ( H or S i 3 exam i n e y ou rsel f. . . . .

vi ve , valé qu e ( id . ii 5. .
f arewell bles s y ou ( live
, an d b e w e ll) !
m i s eré re an i m i n dn dign a f ere n t is ( A en ii . .
p it y a sou lbearin g u nd es erved

a. Th e t hi rd p erson of t h e i m p e rat iv e i s an t i qu at e d or p o e t i c

olli s salus p op u li su p rem a lex e st o ( Le gg ii i t he safet y . . of the p eop le shall

be theirfi rst law .

c
inst a i m p e ria s u n t o, isq u e i ves m od e st e p are n t ?) ( id iii c . . let there be law
f ul au thorit ies , an d let th e it izen s st ri t ly obey them c c .

N O TE .
— In p rose t h e H ort at o ry S u b j u n t i ve i s c c
om m on ly u sed in s t e ad
2 84 S YNTA X : TH E VE RB 449

449 . Th e F u t u r e I m p e r at iv e is u se d in c om m an ds, e t c .
, whe re
the re is a di st in c t re fe re n c e to f u tu re t im e

1 . In c on n e c t ion wit h som e ad v e rb or ot h e r e xp e ssion r t h at in di

c at e s at wh at t im e in t h e f u t u re t h e ac t ion of r
t h e i m p e at i ve s h a llt a ke

p la ce .S o e sp e c ially w it h a f u t u re , a fu t u
p e rfe c t in di c at iv e , re or

( i n
p oe t ry an d e arly Lat in ) r
wit h a p e s en t im p e rat i ve :
e ras d ab it u r ( Pl Mer
p e t it o, . c
ask t o-m orrow [an d ] it shall be g iven
. .

c u m valet ud in i c on su lu e ris , t u m c bn su li t b n avigat ion i ( F am xvi 4 when . . .

y ou have att en d ed to y ou r health , t hen look t o y ou r sailing .

Ph yllid a m it t e m ih i , m e us est n at alie , I olla; c u m f ac iam vit u la p ro f rfi gib u s ,

ip se venit ?) ( Ec l i ii . . P hy lli s t o m e , it is m y birt hday , I ollas ;
sen d

when I [sh all] sa rifi c c e a he ifer f or t he harves t , om e y ou rsel f c .

d ic q u ib u s in t erris , e t c , . e t Ph y llid a solu s h ab é t b ( id iii te ll in what . .

lands , e t c , an d have P hy llis f or y ou rself

. .

2I n gen era l d irec t i on s

. se rvin g f or all t im e ,
as P re c ep t s ,
S t at u t e s,
an d Wills
is iuris ci vilis cu t o
s s e s t ?) (Le gg iii . . let him ( t h e p ra t or) be the g u ard ian

of c ivi l rig ht .

B ore a fi an t e , n e arat o, sem e n n e i acit o( Plin H N Xviii

. . . . whe n the n orth

wind blows, p lou g h n ot nor sow y ou r seed .

a. Th e ve r bs s c io, m em i n i , an d h abeo ( in t h e se n s e of c on sid er

) re
gu
larly u se t h e F u t u re I m p e rat i ve i n st e ad of t h e P re se n t :

filiolo m e au c t u m s c i t b (At t . i . learn t hat I am bles sed with a litt le boy .

si c h abé t o, m i Ti ro ( F am . xvi 4 . . s o u n derstan d it , m y g ood Ti ro .

d e p alla m em e n t o, am ab o ( Pl A sin . . rem em ber, de ar, abou t t he g own .

b Th e F u t u r e I n dic at iv e i s som e t im e s u se d f or t h e im p e rat iv e

.

w i h e P re se n t I n d ic at iv e m a h ave t h e f or c e
(
an d qu i n wh y n ot ?
) t t h y
of a c om m an d
si qu id ac c id e rit n ovi , fa ies c ut s ci am
( F am . xi v .
y ou will let m e kn ow if
an y th in g n ew hap p ens .

q u i n ac c ip is ( Te r . H au t . here, t ake i t (wh y n ot t ak e it

c . I n st e ad of th e sim p le I m pe rat iv e ,
curs u t , fac ( f ac ut
) , or v elim ,

f ollow e d by t h e su b j un c t ive is of t e n u se d, e s e c iall

p y in c ol

loqu i al lan gu ag e

cu s r ut R om ae si s
( At t . i . take c are to be at R om e .

fac u t valét u din e m cu res ( F am . x iv . that y ou take

see ca re o f y ou r health .

d om i ad si t is t a it e c ( Ter Eu n . . be at hom e, d o .

cum m ih i v e li m m it t as ( A t t viii . . I wish y ou wou ld s en d it to m e .

F or c om m an d s c
i n I n d ire t D i s ou rse , se e 588 c .

F or t h e I m pe rat iv e wi t h t h e for e of a C on dit ion al C lau se ,c see 52 1 b . .

286 S YNTA X : TH E VE RB [ gs 451, 452

I NFINI TI VE MOOD
45 1 . Th e I n fi n it ive i s p rop e rly a n ou n d en ot in g t h e a t ion o f t h e verb ab st ra t ly c c .

c
I t d iffers, h owe ve r, from ot h er ab st ra t n ou n s i n t h e followi n g p oin t s : ( 1) it oft en
c
ad m i t s t h e dist i n t ion of t e n se ; ( 2) it i s m od ifi ed b y adve rbs , n ot b y adj e t i ves ; ( 3 ) it c
c
gove rn s t h e sam e ase as it s v erb ; (4) i t i s lim i t ed t o sp e ial on st ru t ion s c c c .

Th e Lat in I n fi n it ive i s t h e d at ive or lo at i ve ase o f su h a n ou n 1 an d was origi c c c

n ally us ed t o d e n o t e Pu rpo se ; b u t it h as i n m an y on st ru t i ons d e velop e d i n t o a su b c c
st it u t e for a fi n i t e v e rb . c
H e n e t h e varie t y of i t s u se .

I n it s u s e as a v e rb , t h e I n fi n it ive m ay t ak e a S u b j ec t
. u sat i v e 397 e) , orig i Acc
c
n ally t h e ob j e t of an ot h e r v e rb on wh i h t h e I n fi ni t i ve d ep e n d ed c
Th u s i u b e b t é valére .

c
i s lit erally I om m an d you f or bei n g well ( c f su b st an t iv e lau ses, 562 . c .

I nfi n it ive as Nou n

452 . Th e I n fi n it iv e , wit h or wit h ou t j

a su b e c t ac c u sat i e , m ay v
be us e d wit h es t an d s im ilarv e rbs (1) as t he S u bj ec t ( 2) in A pp o ,

sit iou wi t h t h e su b ec t , j or 3 ) as a Pr e dic at e N om in at ive

(
2
.

1 . A s Su bj ec t
dolére m alu m est ( Fin . v . to saf er p ain i s an evi l .

b e llu m e st su a vit ia nasse ( A t t ii

. . it ’
s a fi ne thin g to kn ow on e’s own

p raest at c om p bn ere fi u c t fi s (A en . i . it is bett er t o alm the waves c .

2 . I n A p p o sit ion wit h t h e S u b j ec t

‘

c
p roin d e q u as i in i uriam f a ere id d em u m e sse t im p e rio nt i ( S all C at . .

j u st as if this and this alo n e, to om m it i nj u stic e , were to u se p ower c .

[He re fa c ere i s in ap p osi t ion wit h id .

]
3 . As Pr edic at e N om in at ive
id est c on ve n ie n t e r n at urae vi vere ( Fin . iv . t hat i s to live i n c f
on orm ity

wi th n atu re .
[C f . nti i n t h e last e x am p le ]
N O TE 1 .
— Ah in fi n i t ive D ire t Ob j ec t in on n e t ion wi t h a Pred i
m ay b e u se d as c c c
cat e Acc u sat iv e or as A
p p osit i v e wi t h su h D i re t O b j e t c c c
i st u c ip su m u bu esse c u m f u e ri s m i se rri m u m p u t o ( Tu sc i f or I t hin k t his . .

c
ve ry t h i n g m ost wre t h e d , n ot t o be wh en on e h as bee n [H ere i st uc ip sum .

b elon g s t o t h e n ou n n on e sse ] .

c
m i serari , i n vi d ere , ge st i re , laet ari , h ae om n i a m orb os Graec i ap p ellan t ( id iii . .

t o f ee l p i t y , en vy , d esi re , j oy , — all t h ese t h i n gs th e Gree ks all d ise as es c .

[H ere t h e in fi n it ive s are in ap posit ion wit h hae ] c .

Th e en d i n g -6 (am aze , m on ére , regere , au di re) was ap p aren t ly lo at ive , t h e en din g -i

1 c
(am ari , m on et i , re gi , au di ri ) ap p aren t ly d at iv e ; b u t t hi s d iff e ren e of ase h ad n o sig n ifi c c
c c
an e for Lat in syn t ax Th e g en e ral Lat in re st ri t ion o f t h e i -i n fi n it ive s t o t h e p assive
. c
c
was n ot a p rim i t i ve di st i n t ion , b u t g rew u p in t h e ou rse of t i m e c .

c c c
2 I n t h ese on st ru t ion s t h e ab st ra t i d e a e x re sse d b t h e in fi ni t i
p y v e i s rep re se n t e d
as h avi n g som e q u ali t y or belon gi n g t o som e thi n g .
 4 52- 454 ] I NF INI TI VE a s S UBJEC T or I MP ER S ON A LS 2 87

c
N OT E 2 — An Ap po si t i ve o r Pred i at e n ou n or ad j e t iv e u sed wit h an i n fi n it iv e in
. c
c c
an y of t h e se on st ru t ion s i s p u t i n t h e Ac
c u sat i ve , wh e t h e r t h e i n fi n i t i ve h as a s u b

d t T h — n On esse c u p id um pec un ia e st ( Par t o be f ree f rom

j ec t e xp re ss e or n o u s , . .

des i res ( n ot t o be d esiro u s) is m o n e y i n h an d [N 0 S u b j e t u sat i ve ] . c Acc

a. Th e in fi n it iv e as su b j e c t i s n ot c om m on e x c e p t w it h est an d
s im ilar v e rb s Bu t s om e t im e s, e sp e c ially in p oe t ry , it i s u sed as t h e
.

s u b j e c t o f v e rb s wh ic h are ap p are n t ly m ore ac t ive in m e an in g :

q u os om n is e ad e m adi s s e , e ad e m m e t uere , in un u m c oé git

c u pe re , e ad e m

(I u g . all of whom the f ac t of desi rin g , hat in g , an d f eari n g the s am e

thi ng s has u n ited i nt o on e .

in gen u as di di c i s se fi d eli te r art i s é m ollit m ores ( Ov P n 9 f aithq y to . . . .

have learn ed li beral arts sof tens t he m anners .

p os s e loq u i é ripit ur ( O v M n the p ower of sp eec h is taken away

. . . .

4 53 . Rar ely t h e I n fi n it iv e is u se d e x ac t l
y like t h e A c c u sat iv e
of a n ou n :

b e at e vi vere alii in alio, vos in volu p t at e p en it is ( F in n a happ y life . .

d iflbren t [ph ilosop h e rs] base on d ifferen t t h in gs , y ou on p leasure .

qu am m u lt a c
f ac im u s au s aam i C Oru m , p re c ari ab in d ign o, s u pp li c are , e t c .

how m an y t hi ng s we d o f or f rien ds sake , ask

’
( Lael . ou r f avors f rom
an u n worthy p erson , resort to e nt reat y , e t c .

n ih il e xp lOrat u m h ab e as , n e am are q u id e m ‘au t am ari ( id .

y ou have 710th

i n g assu red , n ot even lovin g a nd be i ng loved .

c
N or m — Man y om p le m e n t ary an d o t h e r o n st ru t ion s ap p roa h a p rope r a us a c c c cc
t i ve u se o f t h e in fi n it ive , b u t t h e i r d ev elop m e n t h as be e n diff e re n t f rom t h at o f t h e
e x amp le s ab o ve Th us ,. avarit ia su pe rb iam , c rfi d é lit at e m , d eOs n e gle g ere , o m n i a

vé n alia habé re é d oc u it ( S all C at c

avari e t au gh t p ri d e , c ru elt y, t o n eg le t t h e g ods ,
. . c
a nd t o h old eve ry t hi n g at a p ri e c .

I nfi n it ive as Ap pa ren t S u bject of I m personals

454 . Th e I n fi n it i v e is u se d as t h e app a re n t S u bj ec t wit h m an y

im p e rson al v e rbs an d e x p e ssion s r
Su c h are libet , licet , oport et , deset , placet , vi s u m e st , pu det , p i get ,
n eces se e s t , Op u s e st , e t c

libe t m ih i c bn sideré re ( Qu in c t i t su its m e to onsider . c .

c
n e e sse e s t m ori ( Tus c i i it is n e essary to d ie
. . c .

q u id at t in e t glorios e loq u i n isi c on st an t e r loqu are ( F in i i . . what g ood does

i t do t o talk boastfu lly u n less y ou sp eak c on s i st en t ly 7
n e qu e me p ae n it e t ( id
vixi s s e . I do f eel s orry to have lived
n ot .

gu be rn are m e t ae d é b at ( A t t ii 7 . . . I was t ired of bei n g p i lot .

N O T E - Th is us e i s a d e velop m e n t of t h e C om p le m e n t ary I n fi n it ive

. . but
c c c
t h e i n fi n i t i ve s ap p roa h t h e s u b j e t on st ru t ion an d m ay b e on ve n i e n t ly c c re g ard ed as

c
t h e su b j e t s of t h e i m pe rson als .
2 88 S YNTA X : THE VER B 455

455 . W it h i m pe rson al v e rbs an d r

e x p e ssion s t h at t ake t he I n
fi n it iv e r
as an app a e n t s u b e c t , t h e j p e rson al s u bj e c t of t h e ac t ion
m ay be r
e x p e sse d

1 . By a D at iv e, d e p en din g on t he ve rb or v e rbal p h rase :

rogan t u t id sibi fac e re lic e at (B . G i . . they as k that it be allowed them to

do this .

n bn lu b e t en im m i hi d ep lorare vi t am ( C at M . .
f or it does n ot p lease m e
to lam ent m y life .

vis u m e st m ihi d e s en e c t ut e aliqu i d c On sc ri b e re ( id . it seem ed good to

m e to write som et hing abou t old age .

qu id est t am c
se u n du m n at uram q u am s e ni bu s em ori ( id . what is so

c
m u h in a cc ord an e c with n atu re as f or old
’
m e n to d i e 5
e xst in gui h om in i su b t e m p ore Op t ab ile est ( id .
f or a m an to d ie at t he
ap p oi n ted t im e is desirable .

2 .By an Ac c u sat i e e xp e sse d v r as t h e su b e c t of t h e j in fi n it iv e or

the j
Ob e c t of t h e im p e rson al

si li c et vi vere e u m qu e m S ex N ae viu s n on volt ( Qu in et

. . if it is allowed
a m an to live ag ain st the will of S ext u s N oevius .

n bn n e O p ort u it p raesc isse m e an t e (Te r A n d . . ou ght I n ot to have kn own

beforehand
brat bre m i rasc i m in i m e d ec et ( Tu sc iv i t i s p arti u larly u n be om i n g f or . . c c
an orat or to lose his temp er .

p u d ers t m e d i e re ( N D i c I shou ld be asham ed to s ay

. . . .

consilia i n eu n t qu oru m e bs in ve stigio p ae n i t é re n e e sse e st ( B G iv t hey c . . .

f orm p lans f or whi h t hey m ust at on e be sorry c c .

N O TE -Li be t , p lac et , an d vi su m est t ak e t h e d at ive on ly ; Oport e t , padet , pi zet , an d

.

c
gen e rally d ec et , t h e a c usat ive on ly ; li c et an d n e esse e st t ak e e it h er ase c c .

a. A p re dic at e n ou n or adj e c t ive is c om m on ly in t h e A c c u sat iv e ;

b u t w it h licet regularly, an d wi t h ot h e r v e rb s oc c asion ally , t h e D at ive
is u se d

e xp e d it bon es e sse vob i s ( Te r H au t . . i t i s f or y ou r ad vant age to be good .

lic u it esse 5fi 68 5 Th e m ist oc li ( Tu sc . i . c

Them isto les m ight have been i n a c
t ive ( it was allowe d t o Th e m ist o les t o b e i n a t ive) c c .

m ih i n e gle ge nti esse n dn li e t ( A tt i 17 I m u st n ot be c . . . n egligen t .

[ Bu t
als o n e gle gent e m .
]
c ur h is esse lib e ros n On li c et ( Flacc . why is i t n ot allowed these m en to
be f ree ?
n On est om n i b us s t an t ibu s n e e sse c di c e re
( Marc . it i s n ot n e es sary c f or
all to sp eak stan d in g .

N orm — Wh en t h e su b j e t i s c n ot e x p re ss ed , as b ei n g i n d e fi n i t e ( on e , an y body) , a
c c
p red i at e n ou n or ad j e t ive i s re gu larly in t h e a ccu sat iv e ( c f § 452 3 . . . as ,
v el pa c e v e l b e lle c lam m fi e ri li e t ( Sall C at one c . . c an be com e illu s t rious e i th e r i n

p ea c e or i n war .
290 S YNTA X : THE VER B [ gs 4 5 7-
460

a. I n p oe t ry an d lat e r w it e r rs m an y ve r b s m ay h av e t h e in fi n i
t i ve , aft e r
t h e an alogy of v erb s of mo re lit e ral m e an in g t h at t ak e
it in p rose :

f u rit t e re pe rire ( Hor Od i 1 5 he rages to fin d t hee

. .
[A for ible way
. . . c
of s ay i n g u p it c
4 5 7 , 5 63 .

saevit e xs ti n g u e re n om e n ( O v M i he rages to blot ou t the n am e . . . .

f u ge q u aere re ( H or Od i 9 f orbear to ask ( c f § 4 50 N

. . . . . . .

c c
p ar e p ias s elerare m an us ( A e n iii f orbear to d efi le y ou r p iou s han ds . . .

458 . A P r e dic at e N ou n or A dj e c t iv e aft e r a c om p le m e n t a ry

in fi n it iv e t ak es t h e c as e o f t he s u b e c t of j t h e m am v e rb :

fi erique st u d eb am eius p rud en t ia doc ti or ( Lae l . l ) , I was eager t o be c om e

m ore wise throu gh his wisd om .

s c io q u am sole as e sse oc c u p at u s ( Pam . xvi . 21 . I kn ow how bu sy y ou

u su ally are
( are won t t o b e) .

bre vi s esse lab b ro, ob sc fi ru s fi o ( H or A P . . . I stru ggle t o be bri ef , I bec om e

obs u rec .

I nfi n it ive wi t h S u b j ect Acc u sat iv e

459 . Th e I n fi n it iv e w it h S u b j e c t A c c u s at iv e is u se d wit h v e rbs

an d ot h e r e x p re ssion s of kn owing , t hin king , t e llin g , an d p erc e i vin g

( I n dire c t Di sc ou rse, 5 7 9)
c
d i it m on t e m ab h ost ib u s t e n eri (B G i he say s t hat the hi ll is held by . . .

the en e m y . c
[D ire t : m an s ab h ost ib u s t e n et ur ] .

I nfi n it i ve of Pu rpose

460 I n . a fe w c ase s t h e I n fi n it i v e re t ain s it s origin al m e an in g

of Pu rp ose .

a. Th e in fi n i t iv e is u se d in i solat e d p assages in st ead of a su b u n c

j
tive c lau se af t e r habed ,
do, m i n i st o r
t an t u m h ab e o polli c é ri ( F am i 5 A so m u h I have to p rom is e . . . c .

c
t h e m ore f orm al on st ru t ion wou ld be qu od p ollic e ar ] c .

ut I ovi b ib ere m in is t rare t ( Tus c . i . to serve Jove with win e ( t o d rin k) .

m e ri d ie bibere d at o ( C at o R . R .
give ( t o) drin k at n oon day .

b . Parat u s, su ét u s , an d t h e ir c om p oun d s, an d a p a t ic i
fe w ot h e r r
l
p es ( u se d as ad j e c t ive s) , t ak e t h e in fi n it i ve lik e t h e ve rb s from wh ic h
t h ey c om e

id q u od p arati su n t f a e re c ( Qu in t . that whi h they are c read y to do .

ad su ef ac t i s u pe rari ( B G . . vi . u sed to bei ng c on quered .

c u rru s u c c éde re su et i
(A en . iii . u s ed t o be i n g harn essed to t he cha i r ot .

c op ia s be llare c On su et as ( B . A fr .
f orces c
ac u s tom ed to fi g ht in g .
 460, 45 1] PEC ULI A R I N F I NI TI VES 2 91

N O TE - I n p rose t h ese words m ore om m on ly t ak e t h e Ge ru n d or Gerun d ive c on

. c
c
s t ru t ion ( 550 3 if ) e it h e r i n t h e g e n it i ve , t h e dat i ve , o r t h e a us at i ve wit h ad z
. cc
i ns u é t us navi gan di ( B G v u n u s e d t o m aki n g voy ag es
. . . .

ale n di s libe ri s s u é ti ( Tao An n xi v a u s t o m e d t o su pp ort i n g h ild ren

. . . cc c .

co rp ora i n s u et a ad on e ra port an da ( B C i bod ies u n u se d t o arry bu rde ns . . . c .

c Th e p oe t s an d e arly wr it ers of t e n
. u se t h e in fi n it iv e t o e xp e s s r
u r ose wh e n t h e re i s n o an alo gy w i t h an y rose c on st ru c t i on
p p p
filiu s i n t ro n t vi dé re q u id agat ( Te r H e c . .
y ou r son has g one i n to see what
he is d oi ng .
[I n p rose : t h e su p in e vi su m .
]
n dn fe rro Lib y c bs p op u lare Pe n at i s ven im u s ( A en . i . we have n ot c om e

to lay waste with t he sword t he Li by an ho m es .

lori c am d On at h abé re viro ( id v he g ives the hero a breas tp late to wear . . .

[I n p rose : habe n dam .

]
N O TE S o rare ly in p ros e w ri t e rs o f t h e lass i pe riod
. c c .

F or t h e I n fi n it ive u s ed i n st e ad o f a S u b s t an t i ve C lau s e of P u rp ose, se e 5457 .

For t em pu s e st abire , s ee 504 N 2 . . .

Pec u lia r I nfi n it ives

46 1 . M an y A dj ec t iv es t ake t h e I n fi n it iv e in p oe try , followin g a

G r e e k idiom :

d fi ru s c om p an e re ve rs usS i 4 harsh i n om p osin g verse ( H or . . . . c .

c an t afi d i gn u s ( Ee l v worthy t o be su ng .
[ I n p rose : qu i c an t é t u r ]
. . .

c
fort is t ra t at e se rp e n t is ( H or Od i 37 brave to han d le serp ents . . . .

c an t are p e ri t i ( Ec l x s ki lled i n s on g . . .

c
f a iles au re m p raebé re ( Pr0p i ii 14 read y to lend an e ar . . . .

c
n es ia vi n i p e t ora A en
(c x ii c hearts n ot kn owin g how to y ield . . .

t e vidé re ae groti ( Plan t Trin 7 si c k of s eei n g y ou . . .

a. r
R a e ly in p oe t ry t h e in fi n it ive is u se d to r
e xp e ss resu lt
fi n git equ u md oc ile m m agist e r ire viam q u a m on st re t e qu es ( H or Ep i 2 . . . .

the t rai n er m akes the h orse gen t le so as to go i n t he road t he rider p oin ts

ou t .

h ic le vare p au p e re m lab oribu s voc at u s au dit ( H or O d 11 18 . . . . he ,

whe n c alled , he ars , so as to reli eve the p oor m an of h is t ro u bles .

N O TE Th e se p oe t i
. cc c
ons t ru t ion s we re orig in ally re g u lar an d b e lon g t o t h e I n fi n

i t ive as a n ou n i n t h e D at i ve or Lo at iv e ase c
Th ey h ad b ee n s u p plan t ed , c
h ow e ve r, b y ot h e r m ore form al on st ru t ion s, an d were afte rward s re st ore d i n p art c c
t h rou gh Gree k i n flu en e c .

b . Th e in fi n it iv e Oc c asi on ally oc c u rs as a p u re n ou n lim it ed

d e m on st rat ive , a p osse ssiv e , or s om e ot h e r ad j e c t iv e

h bc n bn dolé re ( Fin . 11 .
f reed om f rom p ai n
t his [C f t ot u m h dc b e at s . .

( Tusc v
vi ve re . . t his whole m att er of the happ y lif e ]
n ost ru m vi ve re ( Pe rs . i . ou r life ( t o live ) .

s c ire t u u m ( id i . .
y ou r knowledge ( t o kn ow) .
2 92 S YN TA X : TH E VER B 462 , 463

Exc lam at ory I nfi nit ive

462 Th e I n fi n it iv e , wit h S u b j e c t
. A c c u sat iv e , m ay be
1
u se d in
Exc lam at ion s (c f 3 97 d) . .

t é in t an t as ae ru m n as p rop t e r m e in d di s s e ( F am . xiv . alas , that y ou

shou ld have f allen i n to su h gri ef f or m e c
m é n e in c e p t o dé s is t e re vic t am ( Ae n . i . what ! I beaten d es ist f rom m y
p u rp ose 7
N O TE 1 . Th e i n t e rrogat ive part i le c -n e
is oft e n at t a ch ed t o the e m p h at i cw ord ( as
c
i n t h e se on d e xam p le ) .

N O TE 2 Th e Prese n t an d t h e Pe rfe t I n fi
. c n it i ve are u sed i n t h i s c on st ru ct i on wi t h
t h e ir ord inary di st in t ion of t i m e c
a. A j
su b u n c t i ve c lau s e, wit h or w it h ou t ut , is of t e n u se d e lli
p
t ic ally in e xc lam at ory que st ion s . Th e q u e st ion m ay b e r
in t od u c ed
by t h e in t er rogat ive -n e

qu am qu am q u id loqu or ? t e u t ulla res fran gat ( C at i . .

y et why do I
sp eak [t h e id e a] that an ythin g shou ld ben d y ou !
’
e gon e u t t e in t e rp e lle m ( Tu sc ii wh at ,
I i n t erru t
p y ou 5 . .

e go t ibi irasce rer (Q . Fr i . . I an gry with y ou 7

N o r a — Th e I n fi n it ive in e x lam at i on s u su ally re fers t o c som e t hi n g a ct u ally 00

c c
u rri n g ; t h e S u b j u n t i ve , t o so m e t h i n g on t em p lat ed c .

4 63 Th e I n fi n it iv e is oft e n u se d for t h e I m p e rf e c t I n dic at iv e

.

in n arrat ion , an d t ak e s a su b j e c t in t h e N om in at iv e

t u m C at ili n a p olli c é ri n ovas t ab ulas ( Sall . C at . then C at ilin e p rom is ed

abolition of debts ( le an le d gers ) c .

e go in st are u t m ih i resp on d ere t ( Verr

I kep t u rgin g h im to an s wer m e . u . .

p ars c é de re , alii i n seq u i ; n e q u e sign s n e qu e ordin es ob s e rvare ; u b i qu e m qu e .

c
p e ri ulu m c ep erat , i b i re si s t ere ac p ropu ls are ; arm a, t ela, e qu i , viri ,
c
h ostes atq u e i ves p e rm ixti ; n ih il on silio n e qu e i m p eri o agi ; f ors c
o m n ia re g ere give way , others p ress on t hey hold ne it her
(I ug . a p art
to st an dards n or ran ks ; where dan ger overt ook them , there ea h ou ld c w
stand and fi ght arm s, weap ons , horses , m e n , f oe an d f ri en d , m i n g le d
c
i n onfu si on ; n othin g wen t by ou n sel or om m an d ; han e ru led all c c c c .

N OT E .
—Thi s con st ru ct ion b u t rat h er des r
is ve , an d i s
n ot st ri ctly hi t i cal s or ,
c i p ti
n e ve r u se d t o st at e a m e re h i st ori al f a t c
I t i s rarely fou n d in su bord in at e lau se s c . c .

cc
Th ou gh o u rri n g i n m ost of t h e wri t e rs of all p e ri o d s, i t i s m ost f req u e n t i n t h e hi s
t orian s S allu st , Li vy , Ta it u s c
I t d oe s n ot o u r i n S u et on iu s
. cc .

1 Thi s c ct i c
i s ellip t i al ; t h at i s, t h e t h ou gh t i s qu ot e d in I n di re t Di s o u rse ,
on st ru on c c
t h ou gh n o v e rb of s ayi n g e t c i s e xp re ssed or e ve n , p e rh ap s, im p lied ( om p are t h e
. c
c
Fre n h di re qu e) P assag es lik e han c i n e ego ad re m ni t am m i se ram n é
.

( Plau t R u d 188) poin t t o t h e origi n of t h e on st ru t ion

. . c c .
294 S YN TA X : TH E VER B 465 , 466

se n at us h ae c i n t elle git , co ns u l vi de t , h i c t am e n vi vit ( C at . i . the senate

kn ows th is , the c on su l sees it , y et th is m an lives .

t ibi c on c ede m e as s ed i s
( D iv i . I g ive y ou m y seat
.
( an offer c
wh i h m ay
or m ay be a e p t e d )
n ot cc .

e xs pe c t d q u id ve li s ( Te r A n d I await y ou r p leasu re ( wh at y ou wish )

. . .

c
t u a t ion e m i n s t i t u is , ille ac ie m i n s t ru it ( Mu r y ou arran g e a as e, he . c
array s an arm y [The p re se n t is h ere u se d of regu lar e mp loy m en t ]
.

m in ora d i n e gle gu n t ( N D iii the g ods d isregard t rifles

. .
[Gen e ral
. .

t ru t h .
]
T
‘

ob se q u iu m am i c Os , veri t as O d iu m p an t ( e r And
. .
fl att ery gains f ri en ds ,

t ru th h at red [Ge n e ral t ru t h ]

. .

N O TE — Th e p re se n t o f a g e n e ral t ru t h is
. som e t i m es c alled t h e Gn om i Prese n t c .

a. Th e p re se n t i s r e gu larly u se d in qu ot in g writ e rs wh ose works

are e xt an t
c
Ep i urus vero e a di c it ( Tu sc . n . bu t Ep i c u rus s ay s su c h th i n gs .

ap u d illu m Ulix es lam e n t at u r in v oln e re ( id . 11 . i n hi m ( S op h ocles )

Ulysses lam en ts his wou n d over .

Polyp h é m u m H om eru s c u m arie t e c olloqu e n t e m f a it c ( id . v. H omer

bri ngs i n ( m ak es) P olyp hem us talki n g wit h his ram .

Present wit h iam d id et c .

466 .Th e Pre se n t wit h e xp ression s of d u rat ion of t im e (e sp e

c ially iam din, iam a ndu m ) den ot es an ac t ion c on t in u in g i n t h e p r es

e n t , bu t b e gu n in t h e p as t of 4 7 1 b)
( . . .

I n t h is u se the p resen t is c om m on ly t o b e r en d e red by t h e pe rf ec t

in En glish
iam d iu i gn oro qu id agas ( F am . vu .
f or a long t im e I have not kn own what
y ou were d oi ng .

t e i am d ud u m h ort or ( C at i I have lon g been u rgin g y ou

. . .

pat im at m u lt Os iam an u os ( Ve rr v we sufl er n ow thes e m an y y ears

'

. . .

c ‘

[Th e Lat in p erfe t wou ld im p ly t h at we n o long er sufi en ]

c
an n i su n t o to c u m ist a aus a ve rs at u r ( c f C lu c
i t is n ow eight y ears . .

c
t hat this ase has bee n i n han d .

an n u m iam au di s C rati p p u m ( Off i f or a y ear y ou have been a hearer of . .

ad h ii c Plan c iu s m e re t i n e t ( Pam . xiv . l . so f ar P lan c iu s has kep t m e here .

N O TE 1 — Th e d iffe ren ce i n t h e t wo idi om s i s t h at t h e En glish st at e s t h e be gi nn in g

.

c c
an d le av es t h e on t i n u an e t o b e i n fe rre d , w h ile t h e Lat i n s t at e s t h e on t in u an e an d c c
le ave s t h e b egin n in g t o b e in f e rre d C om p are he h as lon g sufi ered ( an d s t i ll s ug ere)
' '

wit h h e s t ill suffe rs ( an d h as su fi ere d lo n g )

'

N O TE 2 — S im ilarly t h e Prese n t I m p e rat ive wi t h i am d fi du m in d i at e s t h at t h e

. c
c c
a t ion o m m an d ed ou g h t t o h ave bee n d on e or was wis he d f or lon g ag o ( c f t h e Pe r
f eet I m p e rat i ve in Gree k ) : as , — iam d udum si n it e poon as ( A e n u
.

e xa t t he . . c
p e n alty lon g delayed .
 46 7-469] PR ESENT TEN S E 2 95

Conat ive Presen t

46 7 . Th e P r e sen t s o m e t im e s de n ot e s an ac t ion atte m

p t e d or

begu n in p r e se n t t im e , bu t ne v e r c om p le t e d at all
( Con at ive P re s

e n t , of 47 1 c)
. .

iam iam qu e m an u t en et ( Aen . ii . an d n ow, eve n now, he att e m p ts t o

grasp hi m .

d en s os fert ur in h os t is ( id . 11. he starts to ru sh i nt o the t hi kest c f the f oe

o .

dec e m ?) q u i n qu ag in t a d ieru m su p p lic at iOn es ( Ph il . xiv . I m ove f or fi f ty

day s thanksg ivi ng
’
[C f . . s e n at u s dé c ré vi t , t he sen ate ordain ed ]

Presen t for Fu t u re
468 . Th e Pr ese n t , esp e c ially in c ollo qu ial lan
gu age an d p oe t ry,
is O ft e n u se d for t h e Fu t u r e :
im u s n e sessu m Or iii ( De shall we take a seat 7 ( are we goin g t o s it
. .

h od ié u xore m d u i s ( Te r A n d c are y ou to be m arr ied M ay 7

. .

q u od si fi t , p e re o fu n dit u s ( id if this happ ens , I am u tterly u n done . .

e c q u id m e adi avas ( C lu won t y ou g ive m e a little he lp 7

’
.

in i iis vo o t e c . n cn ea . n dn is ( Pl . A s in . I su m m on y ou to the c ou rt .

I won ’t go . You won t 7 ’

NO TE — E5 c
i t s om po u n ds are e spe i ally f re q u e n t i n t h is u se ( c f wh e re are
an d c .

y ou g oi n g t o-m orrow ? an d t h e Greek sim in a f u t u re se n se ) Ve rb s o f n e e ssi t y , . c

p ossi bi li t y , wish , an d t h e lik e ( as p oss u m , v oi d, e tc ) also h ave re fe re n e t o t h e f u t u re . c .

F or ot h e r u ses o f t h e Pre se n t i n a f u t u re s e n se , se e u n d e r C on d it ion s 516 a . .

an t eq uam an d p ri n squ am 551 ) , d u m . c

553 N 2 ) , an d § 444 a N . . . . .

Hist o ical Presen t r

469 . The P r es e n t in li v ely na rrat ive is O ft en us e d for t h e H is
t ori c al P e fec t r :

affe rt u r n un t ius Sy rac usas ; p rae t oriu m ; C le om e n es in p ub li o

c u rrit u r ad c
e sse n On au de t ; in c ludi t Se d om i Ve rr v the n e ws is brou ght to S y ra
( . .

cuse ; t hey ru n to headqu arters ; C leom en es d oes n ot ven t u re to be abroad ;

he shu ts hi m s elf u p at hom e .

c
N O TE -Thls usag e , om m on in all lan g u ag e s , om es from i m agin in g p ast
. c e ve n t s

as g oin g on b e fore ou r e y e s ( rep raese n t dt id, 585 b . .

c
For t h e Prese n t I n d i at ive wit h d um , while , se e 556 .

a. Th e p r e sen t m ay b e u se d f or t h e p e rfe c t in a s u m m ary e n u m e ra

t ion of p ast e ve n t s ( An n a lis t ic P res en t )

R em a in t e rim c resc it A lb ae ru i n is : d u pli cat ur c i viu m n u m e ru s ; C ae liu s

addi t ur u rb i m eu s ( Liv i . . R om e m ean while grows as a resu lt of t he
f all of A lba the n u m ber o f c it ize ns i s dou bled ; t he C oelian h ill i s add ed
to the town .
 2 96 S YNTA X : TH E VER B

I MPERFECT TEN S E

4 70 Th e I m p e rfec t de n ot e s
. an ac t ion or a s t at e as c on t in u ed

or re e at e d
i n a st t im e :
p p
h u n c au di é bant an te a ( Man il they u s ed . t o he ar f h im bef ore
o .

[S oc rates ] it a c é n s é bat itaq u e d iss eru it (Tusc . i . So c rates t hou ght so ( h ab it

u ally ) , an d so he sp oke ( t h e n ) .

p rud ens esse p u t abat u r ( Lae l he was ( gen e rally ) thou ght wis e.
[Th e p e r .

f e e t wou ld re fe r t o som e p art i u lar ase , an d n ot t o a st at e of t h in gs ] c c

iam qu e w hi sc ébat Au rora ( A e n iii an d n ow t he d awn was blus hi n g . . .

ara ve t us st abat ( Ov M vi an old altar stood there

. . . .

N O TE .
— Th e c c
I m pe rfe t i s a de s rip t ive t en se an d d e n ot e s an a t ion on e ived as c c c
i n p rog ress or a st at e of t h in g s as a t u ally obse rved c
H e n e i n m an y verb s i t d oes . c
n ot d i ff er i n m ean in g f rom t h e P e rfe t c
Th us ré x erat an d ri x fu it m ay oft en be u se d
.

c c
i n difi e re n t ly ; b u t t h e f orm er d e s ri bes t h e on di t ion wh ile t h e latt e r o n ly s t at e s i t .

Th e En gli sh i s le ss e xa ct i n di st in g u ishin g t h ese t wo m od es of st at e m e n t . H en c e the

c
Lat in I m p e rfe t i s oft en t ran slat e d b y t h e En gli sh Pre t erite
H ae d u i g ravi t er f eréban t , n e q u e legat os ad C ae sare m m i tt e re au d éban t ( B G v . . .

th e H aed u i were d i sp le ase d , an d d id n ot d are t o sen d en voy s t o C aes ar .

c c
[H e re t h e I m p e rfe t s d e s rib e t h e st at e of t h in g s ] B u t ,
i d t u lit fac t u m gravi t e r I n d ut i om aru s ( i d v I n d u t i om aru s was di sp le ase d at . .

t h is a t i on c
[H e re t h e Pe rfe t m e rely st at es t h e fa t )
. c c .

aed i fi c ia vi c Osqu e h abé ban t (i d i v t h e y h ad bu ild i n gs an d villag e s

. . .

47 1 .Th e I m p e rf e c t r e p r e s e n t s a p re s e n t t e n s e t r an sfe rre d t o

as t t i m e H e n c e all t h e m e an in s wh i c h t h e P r ese n t h as d e r iv e d
p .
g
from t h e c on t in u an c e of t he ac tion be lon g als o t o t h e I m p e rfec t in
r efere n c e t o p as t t im e .

ed in des c rip tions

m On s alt iss i m u s im p en dé bat (B G . . i . there
were in all t wo ways a very high m ou n tain overhu n g .

m , an d ot h e r e xp re s sion s of d u rat ion of

t h e p ast b u t b e

gu n at som e p e iou s t im e ( c f r v .

r
I n t h i s c on st u c t ion t h e I m pe rf e c t i s ren de re d by t he En glish Plu
pe rf e c t
iam dfi du m flé bam (C v M . . iii . I had been weep i n g f or a lon g t i m e .

c Op ias qu as di d c om paraban t ( F am . xi 13. the f or es whi h t hey had lon g

. c c
been gett in g read y .

m p e rfe c t som e t im e s de n ot e s an ac t ion as b e gu n ( I n c ep t i v e

or as att e m p t e d or on ly in te n d e d ) ( C’
on at i ve I m er ec t ;
p f cf .
2 98 .
Y
S NTA X : TH E VERB 4 72 , 4 7 3

FUTURE TEN S E

472 . Th e F u t u r e de n ot e s an ac t ion or s t at e t h at will oc c u r

h e re aft e r .

a. Th e F u t u re m ay h ave t h e forc e of an I m p erat iv e 4 4 9 b) . .

b . Th e Fu t u re i s Of t e n re q u ir e d in a s u b ord in at e c lau se in Lat in

wh e re in En gli sh f u t u r it y is s u ffi c i e n t ly e xp e ss e d r by t h e m ain c lau se
c u m ade rit vid eb it , whe n he is there he will see ( of .

s an ab i m u r si v olé m u s ( Tu so i ii we shall be he aled if we wish

. .
( of . 5 16 a) . .

N O TE .
— Bu t t h e Pre se n t i s c om m on i n f u t u re p rot ases 5 16 a . .

C OM P LETED A C TI ON

PERFECT TENS E

Perfec t Defi n it e an d Hist orical Pe fect r

47 3 . Th e Pe r fe c t d en ot es an ac t ion e it he r as n o w c omp let e d
P fe c t D efin i t e ) , having t aken p lac e at som e u n d e fi n e d
( er o r as
p oin t
of p ast t im e ( H i st oric al or A orist ic P er
f ec t
) .

Th e P e rf e c t D e fi n ite c orre sp on d s in gen e ral t o t h e En glish Pe rfe c t

wit h h ave ; t h e H i st oric al P e rf e c t t o t h e En gli sh Pre t e r it e ( or Past )

( 1) u t e go f é c i , qu i Grae c as lit t e ras s e n e x di di i c ( C at M . . as I have don e ,

who have learn ed Greek i n m y old age .

d iut u rn i s ile n ti f in e m h od iern u s d ies at t ulit ( Mar this day has p u t an c .

c
e n d to m y lon g- on t in u e d s ilen e c .

( )
2 t a n t u m b e llu m e xt rem a h ie m e ap p aravi t , i n eu n t e v ere s u sc é p it , m e d ia

aes t at e c an f é c it
( Man il s o g reat a war he m ad e ready f or at the end
.

f win ter, u n derk

o i n early sp rin g , an d fi n ished by m idsu m m er .

N O TE —Th e d ist in c t ion b et wee n t h e se t wo u se s i s rep re se n t e d b y t wo form s in

.

m ost ot h e r I n d o—
Eu rope an lan g u ag e s b u t was alm ost if n ot wh olly lost t o t h e m i n d s
,

of t h e R om an s . I t m u st b e c
n ot i e d , h owev e r, on a cc ou n t o f t h e m ark ed d i st i n t ion c
in En glish an d also b e au se c of c e rt ai n d i ff e re n c es in t h e se qu e n c e of t e n se s .

a. Th e I n de fi n it e Pr e s en t , d e n ot in g a c u s t om ary ac t i on or a g en era l
t ru t h of t en h as t h e P e r f e c t in a su bordin at e c lau se r e f e rrin g

t o t im e an t e c ed en t t o t h at of t h e m ain c lau se

q u i in c om p e dib u s orp oris c se m p er f u é ru n t , e t iam cum s oluti s u nt t ard iu s

in gre di u n t u r ( Tu s c i . . t hey who have alway s been i n the f etters f the
o

body , eve n when released m ove m ore s lowly .

s im u l ac m ih i c ollib it u m e s t ,
prae st o e s t im ago ( N D i . . . as soon as I
c
have taken a f an y , the i m age is bef ore m y ey es .
 473-4 76 ] PERF EC T TEN SE 2 99

h ae c m ort e e fi u gi u nt u r, e t iam men é vé n é ru nt , t am en q ui a pos s u n t é ve n i re

81

( Tusc . i . t hes e t hi n gs c
are es ap ed by d eath eve n if they have n ot y e t
[ ]
happ e ned , be c au se t hey st ill m ay hap p en .

N O T E — Th is use of t h e p e rfe t is c es p e ci ally c om m o n i n t h e p rotasi s of Ge n e ral

Con d it ion s i n p rese n t t im e 5 18 b) . .

4 74 Th e P e rfe c t is s o m et im es u s e d e m p h at ic ally t o de n ot e t h at
.

a t hin g or c on dit ion of t hi n gs t h at o n c e e xis t e d n o lon g e r e x is t s

f u it is ta qu on d am in h ac p ub li a virt us ( C at i
re c . . t he re was on c e suc h vir

t ue i n t his c om m on wealt h .

h ab u it , n dn h ab e t ( Tuso . i
he had , he has n o long er . .

f iliu m h ab e o im m o h abu i n u n h ab e am n e c n e in c e rt u m st ( Te r H au t c . .

I have a son , n o, I had on e ; whet her I have now or n ot is u n ertai n c .

fuim u s Troe s , f u it Iliu m ( A e n ii we have eased to be Troj ans , Troy i s

. . c
no m ore .

Spec ial Use s of t h e Pe fect r

47 5 . Th e Pe rfec t is s om e t im e s u se d of a g en e ral t ru t h, e sp e

c ially wit h ne
g at i v
es
( G f
n om i c P er e c t)

qu i st u d e t c on t in ge re m et am m u lt a t u lit f é c it q u e ( H or . A P . . he who
ai m s to rea c h th e g oal, fi rst bears an d does m any t hin gs .

c
n on a ris ac e rvus e t au ri d é dfi xi t c orp ore fe b ris ( id Ep i 2 . . . . t he p i le of
brass and g old rem oves n ot f everf rom t he f ram e .

c c c
N O T E — Th e g n om i p e rfe t st ri t ly re fe rs t o p ast t i m e ; b u t it s u se i m p lies t h at
c
so m e t h in g w h i h n e ve r d i d h ap p en i n an y k n own as e n e v e r d oes h ap p e n , an d n e v e r c
will ( of t h e En glish
. F ai n t he art n e ve r w on f ai r o r, w it h ou t a n e g at i ve ,

t h at wh at h as on ce h app e n e d will always h app en u n d e r sim ilar ir u m st an es c c c .

a. Th e Pe r f e c t i s of t e n u se d in e xp re ssion s c on t ain in g or im p ly in g
a n ega t i on , w h e re in affirm at i on t h e I m p e rf e c t w ou ld be p re f e r re d

di cébat m eliu s q u am sc ri p sit . H ort en siu s ( Or H orte nsi u s sp oke bett er .

t han he wrote [ H e re t h e n e gat ive is i m p lie d i n t h e

. om p arison c om ! c
p are t h e use of qu i s qu am , fi liu s , e tc . 3 11 , an d th e F re n h c ne

c
aft e r om p arat ives an d su p e rlat i ves ]

47 6 . Th e co mple t e d t e n se s of s om e v e rbs are e qu i vale n t t o t h e

in c om ple t e t e n se s of v e rbs of kin dre d m e an in g .

Su c h are t he p r et e r it iv e v e rb s odi I h a t e m em i i ,
n ,
I re m em ber n ovi ,

w it h ot h e rs u se d p re t e rit iv ely ,
l
I kn ow ; c on s u évi , I am a c c u st om e d,

as vé n erat aderat , h e w as at h an d , c dn s t it é ru n t , t h e y st a n d f irm

( h ave t ak e n t h e i r st an d) , an d m an y i n c e p t iv e s ( see 263 .

1 C f d ét e st or,
. re m i n i sc or, sc i o, soled.
3 00 Y
S N TA X : TH E VER B 476-4 78

q u i dies ae st us m axim os e fi i c e re c on su é vit ( B G iv . . . c

whi h d ay g en erally
m akes t he highest t id es ( is a u st om e d t o m ake ) cc .

c ui u s sp le n d or ob s olé vi t
( Qu in c t . whose sp len d or is n ow all ad ed f .

N O TE — Man y ot h e r v e rb s are
. o cc asion ally so u se d : as, —du m o c u lOs c e rt am e n
i v ert e rat ( Liv xxx n wh ile t he
. . c
on t es t h ad t u rn e d t he i r e yes (k ep t t h e m t u rn e d ) .

[H e re avert erat t en ébat ] .

PLUPERFECT TEN S E

47 7 . Th e Plu p e r fe c t is u se d 1
( ) t o d e n ot e an ac t ion or s t at e

c om
p le te d in p ast t im e ; or ( 2) som e t im es t o d e n ot e an ac t ion in
in de fi n it e t im e , bu t p rio r t o s om e p as t t im e r e fe rr ed t o :
( 1) lo i c n at ura e rat h ae c , c
q u e m lo u m n ost ri c ast ris dé lé g eran t ( B G 11 . . .

t his was the n at u re of t he grou n d whi h ou r m en had c

hosen f or a amp c c .

Virid ovi x su m m am i m p e ri t e n eb at ca m m i m ru o n u c i vit at u m q u ae d é fé c e

ran t ( id . iii . Virid ovix he ld th c hief c m m a d
e o n o f all those tri bes whi h c
had revolted .

(2) n e q u e ver b c u m aliqu id m an dav erat c on fec t u m p u t ab at ( C at . i ii . bu t

when he had g iven a th i n g i n cha g r e he d id n ot look on i t as d on e .

q u ae Si qu an d o ad e p t a es t id q u od c i f u e rs t c on c u pit u m , t u m fe rt alac rit ate m

( Tu so iv . if it ( d e sire ) ever h as g ain ed what i t had [p re vious ly ]
.

desi red , t hen i t p rod u es j oy c .

F or t h e Ep i st olary Plu p e rfe t , se e 47 9 c .

FUTURE PERF ECT TEN S E

4 78 . Th e F u t u r e Pe rfe c t de n ot e s an ac t ion as c om p le t e d in t he
fu t u r e
u t sem en t e m f ec eri s , it a m e tes (D e Or . 11 . as y ou sow ( sh all h ave sown ) ,

so shall y ou reap .

ca m i
r na tu m ip se , c an em u s ( B c l -
m e liu s , cum ix t he n shall we
v é n eri t . .
‘

s in g ou r song s bett er, when he h im se l f has om e ( sh all h ave om e) c c .

s i illiu s i n s id ias c lariOres h ac lfi c e f u e rin t g t u m d en i qu e ob se c ra b o ( Mil .

when the p lots of that m an have bee n shown to be as lear as d ay li ght , c

t hen , and n ot t ill t he n , s hall I onj u re y ou c .

e go c
e rt e m e u m ofii c iu m p rae s t i t e rd ( B G iv I at least shall have don e . . .

m y d u ty ( i e wh e n t h e t im e om e s t o re k on u p t h e m at t e r, I shall b e
. . c c
f ou n d t o h ave d on e it , wh at e ve r t h e e ve n t ) .

c
N O TE — Lat ln i s f ar m ore e xa t t h an En glish in d ist i n gu i sh in g b e t w ee n m e re
.

c c
f u t u re a t ion an d a t i on om p let ed i n t h e f u t u re c H en e t h e F u t u re Pe rfe t i s m u h . c c c
c om m on e r i n Lat in t h an in En gli sh I t m ay ev e n b e u sed i n st e ad of t h e F u t u re , from
.

t h e fon d n e ss o f t h e Rom an s for re p re se n t in g an a t i on as om p le t e d : c c

qu id i n ve n t u m sit p au lo p o st vi d ero ( ad 11 Ac
wh at h as bee n f ou n d ou t I sh all . .

p resen t ly
see .

q u i An t on iu m op pre sse ri t b ellum t ae t e rri m u m c on f eceri t ( F am x whoe ver . .

c c
ru sh e s ( sh all h ave ru sh ed ) A n t on y wi ll fi n i sh ( will h ave fi ni sh e d ) a m os t

loathsom e war .
 3 02 S YNTAX : TH E VERB

Sequ en ce of Ten se s

Th e t e n ses of t h e Su bj u n c t ive in D ep en de n t C lau se s fol

4 82 .

low sp ec ial ru le s for t h e S e qu e n c e of Te n se s .

Wit h r e fe re n c e t o t he se r ule s all t en s e s wh e n u se d in in dep en d

e n t c lau se s are div ide d i n t o t wo c lasses,— P rim ary an d S e c on d ar
y .

1 . PR I M AR Y . Th e P ri m ary Ten s es in c lu de allform s t h at e xp r e ss

p f
res en t or u t u re t im e Th e se are t h e Pre se n t , F u t u re , an d F u t u re
.

Pe rf e c t I n di c at iv e , t h e P re se n t an d r
P e fe c t S u b ju n cti ve , an d t h e

P re se n t an d Fu t u re I m p e rat i ve .

2 . S EC O N D AR Y . Th e S ec on dary Tens es in c lu d e all f orm s t h at re

fe r t o p as t t im e Th e se are t h e I m p e rfe c t , P e f e c t , an d Plu pe rf e c t

. r
r
I n d ic at ive , t h e I m p e f e c t an d Plu p e f e c t S u b u n c t iv e , an d t h e H is r j
t oric al I n fi n it ive .

N O TE— To t h ese m ay b e ad d e d e rt ain c c

form s le ss om m on ly u sed i n in depe n d en t
c lau se s z— ( l) Prim ary : Pre se n t I n fi n i t i ve c
i n Ex lam at i on s ; ( 2) se on d ary : Perfe t c c
Infi n i t iv e c
i n Ex lam at ion s ( se e 462 , 4 85 a . .

c
Th e Pe rf e t D e fi n it e i s som e t im e s t re at e d as p ri m ary ( se e 5485 a) . .

c
F or t h e H is t ori al Pre se n t , se e 485 e ; f or t h e I m p erf e t S u b j u n t i ve in Apod osis ,
. c c
s ee § 485 . h .

483 : Th e followin g is t h e g en eral rule for t h e S equ e n c e of

Te n se s — 1
In pl c om ex se n t e n c e s a Pr im ary t e n s e in t h e m ain c lau s e is
followe d by t h e P r es e n t or Pe r fec t in t h e de p e n de n t c lau se , an d

S e c on dary t en s e by t h e I m p erfec t or Plu p e r fe c t

'

3.

PR I M A RY TEN SES

rog6, I ask, am askin g qu id f a ia c

ls , what y ou are doin g .

rog abb, I shall ask c

qu id f e e ri s , what y ou d id , were d oi ng,
rog avi
( som et im es) , I have asked have d one , have been doi ng .

rog ave rb,

-
I shall have asked qu id f a t uras c si s , what y ou will d o .

s on bit ’ he writ es
u t n os m on es t t o warn us
s c rib e t , he wi ll wri te
writ e at n ds m on e as , to warn us .

sc ribit , he writes qu asi obli t u s s it , as if he h ad f orgott en .

I Th e t e rm is s om et im e s e xt e n d e d to c e rt ain relat i on s b e t we e n t h e t e n ses of su b

ordin at e ve rb s c
ih t h e i n d i at i ve an d t h ose of t h e m ain v e rb Th ese relat ion s d o n ot
.

c c
d i ffe r in p rin ip le f rom t h os e w hi h w e are on sid e ri n g ; b u t for on ve n ie n c c c e t h e t e rm
c c
S e q u e n e o f Te n se s i s i n t h i s b ook re st ri t ed t o su b j un t ive s , i n a ord an c cc c e wi t h t h e
u su al p ra t i e c c .
 483—
48 5] S EQU EN C E OF TEN S ES

S EC O N D A Y R TEN S E S

rog abam , I asked , was askin g qu i d f ac e ré s , what y ou were d oi n g .

qu id f é c i s s é s , what y ou had do n e , had

rog avi , I asked , have asked
been do in g .

qu id f ac t fi ru s e s s é s , what y ou wou ld d o .

u t n bs m on é re t , to warn u s .

qu asi ob li t u s e s se t , as if he had f org ott en .

484 I n . ap p lyin g t he ru le for t he S e qu en c e of Te n ses , obs e rv e

( )
1 Wh e t h er t h e m ain v e rb is ( a) p rim ary or ( b) se c on d ary .

( )
2 W h e t h e r t h e d e p e n de n t ve r b i s t o d e n ot e c om p le t e d ac t ion i e
( . .

p a s t w i t h r e fe re n c e t o t h e m ain v e rb or i n c om p le t e ac t i on
) ( i e p re s . .

e n t or f u t u re wit h re f e re n c e t o t h e m ain v e rb Th
) en .

a. I f t h e le ad in g ve
b i s p rim ary, t h e d ep en den t v e rb m u st be in
r

t h e P res e n t if i t d en ot es i n c omp let e a c t i on , i n t h e P e rf e c t if i t d e n ot e s

c om p le t ed ac t i on .

b . I f t h e le ad in g ve b is
r s e c on d ar
y , t h e dep en d en t e rb m u st b e in v
t h e I mp e rf ec t if i t de n ot e s i n c omp let e a c t ion , in t h e P lup erf ec t i f it
d e n ot e s c om
p le t ed a c t i on

( 1) i c c
H e wr t es [p rim ary ] to warn [in om p le t e a t ion ] u s , s c ri b it u t n Os m on e at .

I ask [p rim ary ] what y ou were doin g [n ow p as t ] , rog o q u id fé c eri s .

c c
( 2 ) H e wrote [se on d ary ] to warn [in om ple t e ] u s , s rip s it u t n ds m on é re t c .

I asked [se c on d ary ] what y ou were d oi n g [in c om p le t e ] , rogavi q u id f ac eré s .

0 . N ot ic e t h at t h e Fu t u re P e rfe c t d e n ot e s ac t ion c om p le t e d
( at

t h e t im e r ef erred t o) , an d h e n c e is r ep re s e n t e d in t h e S u b j un c t ive by
t h e P e rf e c t or Plu pe f e c t r
c c
H e shows that if they om e ( sh all h ave om e ) , m an y wi ll p eris h , dé m c mst rat , s i
‘

vén e ri n t , m u ltOs in t e rit fi rOs

‘
.

c
H e showed t hat if they shou ld om e ( sh ou ld h ave om e ) , m an y wou ld p eri sh , c
dém bn st ravit , si v é ni s se n t , m u lt Os i n t e rit fi ros .

485 . I n t he S e q u en c e of Te n ses t h e followin g sp e c ial p oin ts

are to be n ot e d :
a. Th e P e rf e c t I n dic at ive i s ord in arily a sec on dary t e n se , b u t
allows t h e p rim a y r s equ e n c e wh e n t h e p re se n t t im e i s c le arly in t h e
writ e r s m in d :
’

u t sat is e s s e t p rae sid i prdvi s u m e s t ( C at 11 . .

p rovis ion has been m ade th at
there shou ld be am p le g u ard .
[S e c on d ary se q u e n c e ]
add fi xi h om in e m in q u o sat is fac e re e x t e ris n at iOn ib u s p os s é ti s ( Verr i I . .

have brou ght a m an i n whose p erson y ou c an m ake sat isf ac tion to f oreign
nat ions. [Se c on dary se q u e n c e ]
3 04 S YN TA X : TH E VERB [ g 48 5

e s t e n im res iam in cu m lo c u m addu ct a , ut q u am qu am m u lt u m in te rsit in t e r

co ru m caq u i d i m ic an t , t am s u
u s as c
in t e r vi t orias n On m u lt u m in t erfu
t uru m p u t e m ( F ain v 2 1 f or affairs have been brou ght to
. . . su ch a p a ss

that , t ho u g h t here is a great d if eren e between t he au ses of those who are c c

‘
fi ght i n g , st ill I do n ot thin k there wi ll be m u h d ifi eren c e between their vi c c
tori es .
[Prim ary se qu e n c e ]
e a adh ibit s c
d o t ri n a e s t qu ae vel vit iOsiss im am n at uram e xc ole re pos s it ( Q F r . .

i 1
. . c
su h i nstru c t ion h as been g iven as c an train even t he f au lt iest

n at u re [Prim ary se q u en e ]
. c
N O TE . Th e Pe rf e t I n fi c
i n e x lam at ion s follows t h e s am e ru le :
n it i ve c
q u e m q u am n e f u i sse t am sc e le rat u m q u i h OC fi n geret (Phil xiv was an y one so . .

aban don e d as t o i m ag i n e t his ? [Se on d ary ] c .

ad c on re m redi sse p at re m u t e xt im esc am ( Te r Ph t o t hi n k t h at t h i n gs h ave . .

c c
om e t o su h a p ass t h at I sh ou ld d re ad m y f at he r ! [Prim ary ] .

b . Af t e r a p r im ary t en se t h e P e rfe c t S u b j u n c t i ve is re gu larly u sed t o

de n ot e an yp ast ac t ion . Th u s t h e Pe rfe c t S u bj un c t iv e m ay rep r e se n t
l . c
A Pe rf e t De fi n it e
n On du b it o qu i n om n es t u i s c rip serin t ( F am v I do n ot dou bt that all . .

y ou r f ri ends have writte n [D ire t stat em en t : s c rip s é ru n t ]

. c .

q u a re n On ign oro q u id ac c id at in u lt im i s t erris , c u m au di e rim i n I t alia qu e

rellas c iviu m ( Q Fr i 1 theref ore I kn ow well what hap p ens at the
. . . .

en ds of the earth , when I have he ard i n I taly t he omp lai n ts of itizen s c c .

[Dire c t st at e m e n t : au di vi .
]
2 . c
A Pe rf e t H i st ori c al
m e au t e m h i c lau d at q u od q u od p at e fec erim ( A t t x11
re t t u lerim me , n on . .

c
he p rais es be ause I brou g ht the m att er [be fore t h e se n at e ] , n ot be au se I c
brou ght it t o light [Dire t stat e m e n t : . c
3 . An I m p erfe t c
‘

Si fort e c e c id eru n t , t u m in te llegit u r qu am f u en n t in op es am ic Oru m ( Lael .

if p er hac n c e they f all ( h ave f alle n ) , t hen on e c an see how p oor they were
i n f rien ds .
[D ire c t
qu est ion : q u am in op es e ran t
q u i s t at u s reru m f u e rit c u m h as litt e ras d e d i , s i re p ot e ris e x C Ti t i o S t ra c .

b On e ( F am x11 what the on d it ion of afi airs was when I wrote this

. . c
letter, y ou c an learn f rom S trabo [D ire t q u e st ion : q u i st at u s e rat . c
c
qu am c ivit at i aru s fu e rit m aerore f un eris in dic at u m e st ( Lae l how d ear .

he was to t he state has been shown by t he grief at his f u n eral [D ire t . c

q u est ion : qu am aru s erat c
c
e x e p ist u li s in t elle gi li e t qu am f re qu en s fu eri t Plat On is au d i t or ( Or it .

m ay be u n derstood f rom h is lett ers how onstan t a he arer he was of P lato c .

[Dire c t qu e st i on : qu am f re qu en s erat

c c
N O T E — Th u s t h e P e rfe t Su b j u n t ive m ay rep rese n t , n ot on ly a Pe rfe t D e fi n it e
. c
c c c
or a Pe rf e t H ist ori al of a d ire t st at e m en t or q u e st ion , b u t an I m p e rf e t as we ll c .

c c
Th i s om e s f rom t h e w an t of an y sp e i al t en se of t h e s u b j u n t ive for o n t in u e d p ast c c
c
a t ion aft e r a p ri m ary t e n se Th u s, m i t or qu i d féce ri t m ay m e an ( 1) I won de r wh at h e
.

h as don e , ( 2) I won d er wh at h e di d ( hi st p e rt ) , or ( 3) I won der wh at h e was doi n g . .

3 06 S YNTA X : TH E VERB 48 5

g . Th e I m p e rf e c t an d Plu pe rf e c t i n c on d it ion s c on t a r ry t o f ac t
5 17 ) an d in t h e D e li be rat ive S u b ju n cti ve 4 44 ) are n ot affe c t e d

by t h e s e qu e n ce of t e n se s

q u i a t ale s it , u t ve l si i gn braren t id h o m in es vel S i obm u t ui s sen t ( Fin n . .

c c
be au se i t is su h that even if m en W E R E ig n oran t of it , or H A D B EEN
s i len t abou t it .

'

qu ae ro a as our C C orn eliu m n On defe n dere m (Vat

. I ask y ou why I was .

n ot to d ef en d C aius C orn elius ? [D ire t : c ur n dn defen derem c

h . Th e I m p e rf ec t S u bj u n c t ive i n p r e se n t c on dit ion s c on t rary t o
fac t 5 1 7 ) is r egu larly f ollowe d by t h e se c on d ary se qu e n c e
si alu c en su les essen t , ad t e p ot is sim u m , Pau le , m i tt ere m , u t e b s m ih i q u am
am i c iss im b s re dac t es (F am xv 13
. if t here were other onsu ls , I s hou ld
. . c
send t o y ou , P au lus , i n p ref eren c e to all, that y ou m ight m ake t he m as
f ri en d ly to m e as p oss ible .

si sOlOs e bs di ac res m is e roS qu ib u s m orie n d u m e ss et , n é m in e m e xc ip e rEs

( Tu se i . if.
y ou were t o a ll c
on ly those wretc hed who m u st d i e, y ou

wou ld ex ep t c n o one .

i . Th e Pre se n t i s som e t im es f ollowe d by a se c on d a y r se qu e n c e ,

se e m in gly be c au se t h e wr it e r i s t hin kin g of p ast t im e

se d s i res c Oge t , es t qu id d am t e rt iu m , qu od n e q u e S elic io n ec m ih i d isp lic e~
b at : u t n e qu e iac ere re m p at e ré m u r, e t c ( F am i 5 A bu t if the ase
. . . . c
shall d em an d , t here i s a t hird [c ou rse ] whic h n either S elic iu s n or m yself
d is ap p roved , t hat we shou ld not allow e t c [Here C ic ero is le d b y t h e
,
.

t im e of di spli c é b at .
]
se d t am e n u t sc iré s , h ae t ib i sc c ibe (Fam
bu t y et that y ou m ay kn ow, I
r . xiii .

write thus [A s if h e h ad u se d t h e ep ist olary i m p e rf e t sc rib ébam

. 47 c
c uiu s p rae c e p t i t an t a vis e s t u t e a n on b om in i c u ip iam s e d D elp h ic b d e b
t rib u eré t ur ( Le gg i . . c
su h i s the f or e of t his p rec ep t , that it was c
c
as ribed not to an y m an , bu t to the D elp hi g od [Th e p re e p t was an c . c
old on e .
]

j . Wh e n a c lau se d ep e n d s u p on on e r
al e ad y d epe n den t , it s se

q u e n c e m ay b e se c on da y if t h e r ve r b of t h at c lau s e e x
p e s se s r p ast
v
t im e , e e n if t h e m ain e rb i s in v a p rim ary t en se
sed t am en qu are ac c i derit u t ex m e is su p e riorib u s lit te ri s id s u s p ic arEre n es c io
(F ain . bu t y et h ow i t happ en ed that y ou s usp e ted this f rom m y
ii . c
p revi ous le tt er, I d n t kn ow
o
’
.

t an t u m prbfé c i s s e v id em u r u t a Grae c is n e ve rb oru m qu id e m op ia vin e re c c

m ur (N D i . we see m t o have advan ed so f ar t hat even i n abun dan c e
. . c
of words we A R E n ot su rp assed by t he Greeks .

N O TE . So re gu larly aft e r c
a Pe rfe t I n fi n it i ve c
whi h d ep e n d s on a p ri m ary t en se
5 486] TEN S ES O F TH E I NF INI TI VE 3 07

TEN S ES OF TH E I N FI N I TI VE

4 86 . Ex c ep t in I n dire c t D isc ou rse , on l

y t h e P rese n t an d Per~
fe c t I n fi n it ives are u se d .

Th e Pre se n t r ep re se n t s t h e ac t ion of th e v erb as in p rog re ss w it h

ou t d ist in c t re fe re n c e t o t im e , t h e Pe f e c t as r c om l
p e t ed .

For t h e Ten se s of t he In fi n it i ve in I n di re t Dis c c ou rse se e 584 .

a. Wit h p ast t en se s of ve rb s of n e c es s i t ,
y p rop rie t y, an d p ossi bili ty
( as débu i , Oport u it , pot u i ) , t h e Pre s e n t I n fi n it iv e is of t e n u s e d in
Lat in wh ere t h e r
En glish id iom p e f e rs t h e P e rf e c t I n fi n it iv e
n u m n e , si C oriolan us h ab u it am i c Os , f e rre on tra p at riam arm a illi c u m c
C oriolan o dé bu é ru n t ( Lae l if C ori olan u s had f ri en ds, ou ght they to
.

have born e arm s with hi m agai nst t hei r f at herlan d

pe c u n ia, qu am h is Op ort ui t c ivit at ib u s p ro fru m e n t o d ari ( Ve rr i ii . .

c
m on ey whi h ou ght to have bee n p ai d to these states f or grain .

co n sul e s s e qu i p ot ni , n isi c u m vi t ae c ursu m t e n u isse m a p u e rit ia ( R ep i . .

how c ou ld I have bec om e c onsu l had I n ot f rom boy hood f ollowed t hat
c ou rse o f lif e i
b . Wit h ve rb s of n ec ess i ty, p rop ri ety,
p an d oss ibi li t
y, t h e Pe fe c t r
I n fi n it iv e m ay b e u se d to e m p h as iz e t h e i de a of c om p le t e d ac t ion

t am e t si s t at i m vi c i s s e d eb e e ( R ose A m . . althou gh I ou ght to wi n m y ase c

at on e c ( to be re gard e d as h avin g won i t ) .

b ellu m q u od p ossu m u s an t e h ie m e m p erfé c i sse ( Li v xxx vu 19 a war . . .

whic h we c an have om p let ed before wi nt er c .

n il e go , si p ec c e m , p ossu m n e s c i ss e ( C v H xvi if I shou ld go wron g , . . .

c
I ann ot have d on e it i n ignoranc e ( am n ot ab le n ot t o h ave kn own ) .

N O TE .
— Wi t h t h e p ast t e n se s of t h e se v erb s t h e p erfe t in fi c n it ive is ap p aren t ly
du e t o at t ra t i on : c
c
q u od i am p ri d e m fa t um e sse Oport u it ( C at i ( a t h in g) wh i h ou g h t t o h ave . . c
been d on e lon g ag o .

c
h ae fact s ab ilIO Opo rt é b at ( Te r H au t
'

t h is ou g h t t o h ave been don e by h i m

. . .

t u m d e c u i t m et u i ssa ( Ae n x t h en was th e t i m e t o f e ar ( t h e n y ou sh ou ld h ave

. .

f eare d) .

c. In arc h aic Lat in in le gal f o m u las t h e P e f e c t A c t i

an d r r ve I n fi n i
ti ve is o ft e n u s e d wi t h E616 or v oid i n p roh i b it ion s

C h ald aeu m n equ e m c an su lui s se ve lit ( C at o R R v let him not ven tu re to . . .

c
have on su lted a sooths ay er
n b litb dé ve lli s se ( Pl Poe n do not have t hem p lu ked
. . c .

n eq u i s h u m ass e velit A i ac e m ( H or S i i let n o on e ven tu re t o have

. . .

bu rie d Aj ax .

NEIQVIS EO RVM B C A ANAL m e ws : VELET ( S C d e Bac

. . let . no on e o f them
ven t u re to have had a p lac e f or Ba cc han alian worship .
3 08 Y
S N TA X : TH E VE R B [ g 486

d . Wit h v e rb s of wi s h i n g 1
t h e Pe rf e c t P assi ve ve ( c om
I n fi n it i
m on ly w it h ou t esse) i s oft e n u se d e m p h at i c ally in s t e ad of t h e Pr e se n t :

c c
d om es ti a ura t e le vat u m vol6 (Q . Fr ill 9. . . I wish y ou relieved o f p ri vate
ca re .

ill6 s m oni t 6s volo ( C at . 11 I wish the m thorou ghly warn ed

. .

q u i illam [p at riam ] e xst in c t am u p it ( F in i v c

who i s eager f or her . . u tter

dest ru t i on c .

i llu d t e e s s e adm on it u m volo ( C ae l . I wish y ou t o be well advised of this .

qu i S e ab om n ib u s dé s ert 6s p ot iu s q u am ab s t é det en e os e s se m alu n t ( C ae c il .

who p ref er t o be d esert ed by all rather t han to be d ef en d ed by y ou .

N O TE . c c
p art i ip le i n t h i s ase i s rat h e r i n p re d i at e agre em e n t ( wit h or wit h
-Th e c
c c
o u t e ss e) t h an u s ed t o form a st ri t p e rf e t i n fi n it i ve , t h ou gh t h e f u ll f orm c an h ard ly

b e d i st in gu i sh e d f rom t h at on st ru t ion c c .

e. I n lat e Lat in , an d in p oe t y ( oft e n f or m et ric al c on ven i en c e ) , r

r r
are ly in good p ose , t h e Pe rfe c t A c t iv e I n fi n it iv e is u se d e m p h at ic ally

in st e ad of t h e Pre sen t , an d e v e n aft e r ot h e r ve rb s t h an t h ose of wi s h

n em o e 6 ru m est qu i n 6n p eri s s e t e c u p iat ( Ve rr . ii . t here i s n o on e o f

t hem who i s n ot e ag er f or y ou r d eat h .

h au d e qu id e mp re m e n d o aliu m me e xt u li ss e ve li m ( Liv . xxu . 59 . I

wou ld n ot by r ush in g c an ot her exalt m ysel f .

s unt qu i n olin t t e ti gi s s e ( H or S i 2 t here are t hose who wou ld. . . . n ot tou h c .

c om m i si s s e c
ave t ( H or A P he is au t i ous of do in g
. . . c .

nun cq u em t eti g i s s e t im ere n t , an gu is eras ( Ov . M . viii . agai n y ou be

c am e c
a serp en t whi h t hey d read ed t o t ou h c .

frat resq u e t e n d en t es op a c o Peli on i m p os u i s se Oly m p 6 ( H or . Od iii 4 . . .

an d the brothers st rivin g to set P eli on on d ark Oly mp u s .

f . Aft e r ve r bs of f e e li n g t h e Pe rf e c t I n fi n it iv e i s u s e d, e s e c iall
p y
by t h e p oe t s, t o d e n ot e a c om p le t e d ac t ion .

S O also wit h sat is est , sat i s h abe6, m eliu s est , con t en t u s s u m , an d in

r r
a f e w ot h e c ase s wh e e t h e d i st in c t ion of t im e i s im p o t an t : r
n 6n p ae n it eb at in t erc ap ed in e m sc rib en d i f é c i s se ( F am . x vi . I was n ot

s orry t o have m ade a resp it e of writ in g .

p u de t m e n 6n p rae s t it i s s e ( id xiv . . I am asham ed n ot t o have shown .

sun t qu es p u lvere m Oly m p ic u m c ollé gi s s e iu vat ( H or . Od . i . 1 . som e

d elight to have stirred up t he d u st at Oly mp i a .

qu ié sse c rit m e lius ( Liv . iii . i t wi ll be better t o have kep t qu i et .

ac si q u is am e t sc ri p s i ss e ( H or . S i 10 . than if on e shou ld hoose to have

. . c
id s olu m di xi sse sat is b e b e o ( Vell . u . I am c on t en t t o have said on ly
this .

1 V016, an d le ss f re qu en t ly u 616, 1115 16, an d c

u pi6.
3 10 S YNTA X : TH E VER B 4 90 4 93 —

2 . At t e m p t e d ac t ion

C F lam in io re st it it agru m Pic e n t em di vide n t i ( C at M

. . . he resi sted F la
m in in a when att emp t in g to d ivid e t he Pi e n e terri t ory c .

3 . R are ly ( i n
p oe t y r an d late r Lat in ) f u t u it y r or p u rp ose , w it h a
ve rb of m ot ion

Eu rypylu m nt em
sc i t a Ora c u la m it t i m u s ( Ae n . 11 . we sen d Eu ryp y lu s t o
c on su lt the ora cl e .
[C f .

491 . Th e Pe r fe c t Par t ic iple of a fe w d ep on e n t v e rbs is use d

n ea rly in t h e se n se of a Pr e se n t .

Su c h are , re g u la rly rat u ,

s
,
s olit u s , verit as
; c om m on ly , arbit ré t u s,

fi en e au s u s, sec fi t u s, an d oc c asion ally ot h e s, r e sp e c ially in lat e r

re m in c ré d ib ile m
( S all C atrat i t hin king t he t hin g i n credible
. . .

i n sid ias v e rit as ( B G ii f earin g an ambu sc ad e

. . . .

c oh ort at u s m i li tes d oc u it ( B C iii en c ou rag in g the m e n, he showed

. . . .

i rat u s d ix ist i ( Mu r y ou sp oke i n a p assi on

. .

ad p ugn am c on gressi ( Liv i v m e eting i n fi ght . . .

492 . Th e Lat in h as no Pr es e n t Par t ic ip le in t h e p assiv e .

Th e p lace of s u c h a f orm i s s u pp lie d u su ally by a c lau se wit h du m

01 c u m
‘

ob iere du m c alc i an t u r m at ut i n o d u o C aes ares (Plin . N . H . v n . two

C cesa
rs di ed whi le havi n g thei r shoes p u t on i n the m orn i n g .

m equ e ist a d é le t an t c c um Lat i n é dic u n t u r ( A ad i c . . those t hin gs p leas e

m e when they are sp oken i n Lat in .

N O TE c c
Th e se on st ru t ion s are oft e n u se d wh e n a p art i i ple m igh t b e e m ploy e d
. c
di c , h osp e s, Sp artae n os t é h i c vi d is se i ac e n t i s , d u m san t i s p at ri ae lé gi b u s ob se c
qu im ar ( Tu sc i t ell i t , st ran g er, at Sp art a, th at y ou saw u s ly i n g h e re
. .

obe di e n t t o ou r ou n t ry s s a re d laws
’
c c
[H e re d u m ob se qu im u r i s a t ramela . .

t ion of t h e Gree k p re sen t p art i ip le r e t dbue uou ] c

d u m [U li xes] sibi , d u m so ii s re d i t u m parat ( H or Ep i 2 c Uly sses , while . . . .

c
se u ri n g t h e re t u rn of h i m se l f an d his om p an i ons [I n Gree k : dp vt ne vosj c .

493 . Th e Lat in has no P er fe c t Par t ic iple in t h e ac t i e v v oic e .

Th e de fi c ie n c y is su pp li e d
1I n d ep on e n t s by t h e p e rf e c t p assi
. ve f or m w it h it s re g u la r ac t ive
m e an in g
n am sin gu las [n avi s] n ost ri c bn s e c t at i e xp fi gn avé ru n t ( B G iii f or . . . ou r

m en , havin g overtaken them on e c

by on e, ap tu red t he m by boardin g .

N O TE — Th e p e rfe t p art i ip le
. c c of s e ve ral d ep on e n t ve rb s m ay b e e it c
he r a t i v e or

p assi v e in m e an i n g b) .
 493 —
4 95] U S ES OF PA R TI CIP LES 3 11

2 . In ot h e r v e rb s , e it h e r by t h e p e rf ec t p ass iv e p art ic ip le i n t h e
ab lat i ve ab solu t e 42 0 . N .
) or by a t e m p oral c lau se ( e sp e c ially w it h
c u m or pos t qu am )
i taqu e c on voc at i s c en t u ri bni bu s m i lit es c ert iOrés c
fa i t (B . G iii
. . an d so,
havi ng call d th c e e e n tu ri on s togeth er, he i nf or ms t he sold iers
(t h e c entu

rion s h avin g b e e n c alle d t oge t h e r ) .

cum v é ni s s e t an im ad ve rt it c olle m
( id . vn . havin g c om e (wh en h e h ad
c om e ) , he n oti ed a c hi ll .

pos t qu am id ani m um adverti t c Op ias su as C aes ar in p rox im u m olle m s u b d uc it c

(B G i . h avi n g observed thi s ( af t e r h e h ad ob se rve d t h is) C aesar
. .

led his t roop s t o the n earest hi ll .

Uses of Pa t ici p les r

494 . The Pr e s e n t an d P e rfe c t Par t ic ip le s are som e t im e s u se d

as at t ribu t iv e s , n ea rly lik e j

ad e c t i e s : v
ae ger e t flagran s an im u s ( Tac . An n . iii . h is si ck an d p ass ion at e m i n d .

c u m an t i q u iss im am se n t e n t iam tum c om prob at am ( D iv . i

. a vi e w at on c e

c
m ost an i ent an d well ap p roved .

si gn a n u m qu am fe re m e n ti e n tia ( id i . . s ig n s hardly ever de c itf

e ul .

au sp ic n s fi t u n t u r c oac ti s ( id i they . . u se f orc ed au sp i esc .

a. Part i c ip les of t en be c om e c om p le t e j
ad e c t i e s, an d m ay v be c om

pa re d ,
or u s e d as n ou n s

qu o m u lieri e sse t res c au t i or ( C ae c . t hat the matt er m ight be m ore s e u re c

f or the wom an .

in illis art ib u s p rae st an t i ssim u s (D e Or i . .

p reem i n en t i n t hose arts .

sib i in d u lge nt é s e t c orp ori dé s e rvi e n t é s ( Le gg . i . t he self -in du lgen t , an d

slaves ( in d u lgin g t h e m selve s an d se rvin g t h e b ody )
to th e body .

rec te f ac t s p aria e sse d eb e n t ( Par right d eeds t h in gs righ t ly d on e ou ght

( ) .

to be like i n value (s e e 3 2 1 b) . .

m ale p art a m ale di lab u n t u r ( Ph il ii i ll got ill sp en t ( t h in gs ill ac qu ire d . .

,

are ill sp e n t ) .

c on su et udo valen ti s ( D e Or 11 the habi t of a m an i n health . . .

495 . Par t ic ip les are oft e n u se d as Pr e di c at e A dj e c t iv es . As

su c h t h e y m ay be j oi n e d t o t h e su bj ec t by esse or a c op u lat iv e v e rb
( see 283 )
Gallia e st divi s a (B G i Gau l i s d ivided. . . .

c c
lo u s qu i n u n s ae p t u s e st ( Liv i t he p la e whic h i s n ow en losed . . c c .

vid é t is u t sen e c t ii s s it Op e rosa e t se m p er ag é n s aliq u i d e t m oli en s ( C at M

‘

. .

y ou se e how bu sy old age is , alway s aim i n g an d try i n g at som et hin g .

n em o ad h ii c c on ve n i re me volu it cui fu e ri m oc c u p at u s
( id . n obody

h itherto has [ e ve r ] wished to c on verse with m e, to whom I have been

”
en g ag ed .
312 S Y NTA X : THE VER B 495 , 496

N or m — F rom t hi s p re di at e u se ari se t h e om pou n d t e n se s of t h e p assive — t h e

c c
c c c c
p art i iple of om p le t ed a t i on w it h t h e i n om p le t e t e n se s o f es se d e ve lop in g t h e id e a
of p ast t im e : as , i n t erf ec t n s e st , h e was ( or h as been ) kille d , lit h e i s h avi n g -beenr kille d .

( i e alre ady slain )

. . .

c c
Th e p e rfe t p art i ip le u se d wit h f u i e t c w as p e rh ap s orig in ally an in t en sifi e d e xp res
.

c
sion i n t h e p op u lar lan g u ag e f o r t h e p e rf e t , p lu p e rf e t , e t c c .

c
At t im e s t h e se fo rm s i n d i at e a st at e of aff ai rs n o lon g e r e xis t in g :
c c
ot e m qu oq u e eod e m lo o sit am f u i sse m e m oran t ( Li v i 36 t h ey say t h at a . . .

c
wh e t st on e w as (on e) d ep osi t e d i n t h is sam e p la e [At t h e t im e of writ i n g c .

i t w as n o lon g er t h e re ]
arm a q u ae th at i n p ari e t i b u s f u eran t , h u m i in ven t a s u n t ( D i v i t h e arm s . .

c
wh i h h ad been f as t e n e d on t h e walls were f o u n d u p on t h e g rou n d .

Bu t m ore f re qu e n t ly t h ey are n ot t o b e d ist i n gu ish e d f rom t h e f orm s wi t h su m e t c .

c c cc
Th e on st ru t ion is f ou n d o asi on ally at all p e riods , b u t is m os t om m on i n Li vy c
an d lat e r wri t e rs .

496 . Th e Pre sen t an d Pe r fe c t Par t ic ip le s are oft en u s e d as a

p r e di c at e Wh e r,e i n En glish a ph r ase or a su bo rdin at e c lau se wou ld

b e m or e n at u ral .

I n t hi s u se t h e p art i c ip le s r
e xp e s s t i m e, c a u se , oc c as i on , c on d i t i on ,

c h a ra c t eris t i c d esc rip t i on ) , m an n er, m ean s,

c on c ess i on ,
( or a t t e n d an t

c i rc u m s t an c es

volve n t é s h ost ilia c ad ave ra am i c u m re p e rié b an t

C at whi le rollin g ( Sall . .

c
over t he orp ses of t he en em y t hey f ou n d a f rie n d [Tim e ] .

p au lu lu m c om m orat u s , sign a c an e re iu b e t ( id af ter delay in g a litt le whi le , .

he ord ers the m to give the s ign al [Ti m e ] .

lon gius p rose qu i verit u s , ad C ic e rOn e m p e rven it ( B G v be au se he . . . c

f eared t o f ollow f u rther, he am e to C i ero c
[ C au se ] c .

q u i sc i re t lax as d are i u ssu s h ab é n as ( A e n i who m ight kn ow how to . .

g ive t he m loose rei n whe n bidd en [O asion ] . cc

dam n at u m p oen am se q u i Op ort eb at ( B . G i
. .
if c on de m n e d , p u n ishm ent
m ust overt ake him [C on d it ion ] . .

salfi t e m i n s p é ran t ibu s ( Marc

re d did ist i
y ou have restored a s af et y f or
.

wh ic h we did n ot hop e ( t o [u s] n ot h op in g) [ C on c e ssion

] .

D ard an ius c ap u t e cc e p u er dé t é c t u s ( A e n x th e Troj an boy with h is . .

head u n c overed [D esc ri p t ion ]

. .

n ec t re p id es in fi su m p osc e n t i s aevi p au c a H or Od 11 ll be n ot an xi ou s
( . . . .

f or the ne eds of age that d em an d s little [C h arac t e rist ic ] . .

in cit at i f u ga m on ti s alt issim Os p e t eb an t ( B 0 iii in head lon g flight t hey . . .

m ad e f or t he h ig hest m ou n t ains [Man n er ] . .

m ilit es s ublevat i alii ab alii s m agn am p art e m i t in e ris c On fi c ere n t ( id i . .

t he sold i ers, h elp ed up by ea ch other, a cc omp lished a c on si derable p art o f

t he rou t e .
[Mean s ]
h Oc lau dan s , P om p é ius id e m ifi ravi t ( id i ii 8 7 . . ap p rovin g this , P om p ey took
t he sam e oath . C ir u m st an e
[A t t e n d an t c c ]
au t se dé n s au t am b u lan s d isp u t ab am ( Tu se i . . I c on d u ct d e t he d iscussion
eit her sitt in g or walkin g [A t t e n d an t C ir
. c u m st an c e ]
3 14 S YNTA X : TH E VERB 497-4 99

p rae fec t b s su b s m u lt i m i se be f é c é ru n t ( Ve rr . iii . c

m an y dis harged thei r
ofi i c ers ( m ad e d ism iss e d ) .

h i c t ran s ac t u m re dde t o m n e ( Pl . C ap t . he will get it all done (re st ore it

fi n ish e d ) .

adé m p t u m t ib i i am f ax c) om n e m m e t u m ( Ter H au t I will relieve y ou

'

. .

of allf ear ( m ak e it t ak e n away ) .

c
illam t ib i in en s am dabb ( Te r Ph I will m ake her angry with y ou
. . .

c
N O TE — S im ilarly v ole ( wi t h i t s om p ou n ds) an d u p io, wit h a p e rf e t p art i ip le
. c c c
wit h ou t e sse ( c f § 486
. . d) .

d . A ft e r ve r b s d e n ot in g an ac t ion o t h e p re se n t p a t i c i
f the s ens es r
p le in agree m en t wit h t h e j
ob e c t i s n e arly e qu i ale n t t o t h e in fi n i t iv e v
r
of in d i e c t d is c ou se r b u t e xp resse s t h e ac t ion m ore v iv idly
u t cum n ém o u m qu am in e q u o s e de n t e m vi d e ri t ( Verr . v
. so that no one

ever saw h im s itt in g on a horse .

[Cf . Tus e iii . .

c c
N O TE — Th e sam e on st ru t ion i s us e d aft e r fac ib, in d fi cb, an d t h e lik e , w i t h t h e
.

n am e of an au t h or as su b j e t : as , — c X
e n op h on f a i t Se c rat e m d i spu t an t en ( N D i c . . .

X en op h on rep rese n t s S o rat es d isp u t i n g c .

re Part ic iple ( Act ive) Fu t u

498 Th e Fu t u r e Par t i c iple (e x c e p t f ut fi ru s an d ven t fi ru s) is

.

rarely u se d in sim ple ag re em e n t wit h a n ou n e xc ep t by p oe ts ,

an d lat e r w r it e rs .

a . Th e f t r e p a t ic ip le i s c h i e fly u s e d wit h t h e f o m s of e s e
u u r r s

e i fi n i t iv e i h e Ac t iv e P e ip h ast ic C on j ga
( of t e n om i t t e d i t h )n t n n r r u

t ion ( se e
'

m orere , D iag ora, n On e n im in c aelu m ads c é n s fi ru s e s (Tu sc . i . di e ,

D iagoras, f or y ou li kely t o rise to heaven
are n ot .

sp erat ad u lé sc en s d in s é vi c t uru m ( C at M the y ou n g m an hop es to live . .

lon g ( t h at h e sh all live lon g) .

n e qu e p e t it fi ru s u m q u am c On su lat u m vid é ré t u r ( Off i ii an d d id n ot seem . .

likely ever t o be a an didat e f or t he on su lship c c .

b . W it h t h e p ast t e n se s o f es se in t h e i n d ic at iv e , t h e f u t u e p art i r
c ip le is v
of t e n e qu i ale n t t o t h e p lu p e rf ec t su b u n c t iv e 5 17 d) j . .

F or fu t u ru m f u i s s e, see 5 589 b . .

499 . By lat e r wr it e rs an d t h e p oe t s t h e Fu t u r e Part ic ip le is

o ft e n u s e d in s im p le a r e e m e n t w it h a su bst an t i v e t o e x p r e ss
g
1 . Lik elih ood or c e rt ai nt
y
re m an su s p lus f am ae h abit fi ram ( Liv . havin g dared a t hi n g whi h wou ld c
have m ore rep u te .
 499, 500] GER UN D I VE 3 15

2 . P u rp ose , in t e n t ion , or re ad in es s

c
egred it u r as t rie R om an u s vallu m i n vas fi ru s ( Liv iii 6 0 . . . the R om an c om es

ou t o f the cam p with the i n t en t i on of att a cki ng t he ram p art .

di spe rs os pe r agros m ilit es e qu it ib us i n vas fi ri s ( id xxx i whi le the horse . .

c
were ready to att a k the sold i ers s att ered throu gh the fi eld s c .

8 1 p e ri t fi ru s ab i s ( Ae n ii if y ou are g oin g away to p erish

. . .

3 . Ap od osis
d e dit m ih i qu an t u m m ax im u m p ot u it , dat fi ru s am p liu s si p ot u isse t ( Plin Ep . .

ii i 2 1 . . c
h e gave m e as m u h as he ou ld , read y to g i ve m e m ore if he c
had been able .
[Here dat uru s is e q u ivale n t t o de di s s et .
]

Ge ru n dive ( Fu t u re Pass ive Pa t ic ip le) r

N O TE .
— Th e p art ic ip l i de c mmn - u s, o on ly c ll d t h G
a e e e run d iv e , h as t wo d ist in t c
u se s :

c
( 1) I t s p red i at e an d at t rib u t e u se as Par t ic ip l A d j ct i
e or e ve

( 2) I t s u se wit h t h e m e an in g of th e Ge ru n d Th i s m ay b e c
alle d i t s g e ru n
di ve u se .

500 Th e Ge ru n di v e wh e n
. u se d as a Par t ic ip le or an A dj ec t iv e
is always p assi ve , d e n ot in g n e c essi ty, oblig at i on , or p rop ri e ty

I n t his u s e of t h e Ge r u n di v e t h e followin g p oin t s are t o b e

obse rv e d :
1 Th e ge ru n d ive is som e t im e s u s e d, lik e t h e p re se n t
. an d pe rf e c t
p art i c ip le s, in s im p le agree m e n t w i t h a n ou n

fort e m e t c on servan du m viru m ( Mil . a brave m an , an d worthy t o be p re

served .

gravis in iiiria fa t a est e t c n On f e ren da ( F la cc . a grave an d i n tolerable

wron g has bee n don e .

2 .Th e m o st fre qu e n t u se of t h e ge ru n div e i s wi t h t h e f orm s of e s se

in t h e S e c on d ( o r p ass ive) Pe rip h rast ic C on j u gat ion ( s e e 1 96)

n On agit an da res e rit
( Ve rr . v . wi ll n ot th e t h in g have to be ag it ate d ?

3 . Th e n eu t e r geru n d iv e o f v
b ot h t ran sit i e an d in t ran s it iv e ve rbs
m ay be u sed i m p e rson ally in t h e s e c on d p e rip h ras t ic c on u gat ion j .

Wi t h ve rb s t h at t ak e t h e d at ive or ab lat i ve , an j
ob e c t m ay b e e x

p re sse d ih t h e ap p rop riat e c ase ; wit h t ran s it i ve v e rb s, an j

ob e c t in
t he ac c u s at iv e is s om e t im e s f ou n d
t e m p ori s e rv ien du m e s t ( F ain . ix 7. . on e m u st obey the t i m e .

legib u s pare n du m es t , t he laws m u st be obey ed .

fi t e n du m e x e rc it at iOn ib u s m odic i s ( C at . M . we m u st u se m oderat e exer is e c .

agit an du m s t vi gilias
( Pl . Tri n . I h ave g ot to stan d gu ard .

vi a q u am n db i s in gredi en du m sit ( C at M . . the way we have to en ter .

3 16 S YN TA X : TH E VER B —
503

4 . A ft e r ve rbs s ig n ify in g t o gi ve, d e live r, a gre e f or, h ave, rec eive,

u n d e rt a ke, dem an d, 1
a ge ru n di v e in r
ag e em e n t w it h t h e Ob e c t
j is u se d

to e xp e ssr u
p pr os e

re d em p t or q u i c olu m n am illam c on d uxerat f ac ie n dam ( D iv 11 . . t he c on

c
tra t or who had u n d ertaken to m ake that olu m n [Th e regu lar c . c on st ru c

t ion wit h t h is las s of verb s ] c

ae de m C ast oris h ab u it t u e n dam ( Verr . 11 . 1 . he had the te mp le of C astor
to t ake are of c .

n avis at qu e on e ra adse rvan da c urab at ( id . v . he t ook ca re that the ship s

an d ca g r oes shou ld be kep t .

GERUN D

501 . Th e Ge r u n d is t h e n eu t e r of t h e Ge r u n d iv e , u se d su b

s t an t iv e ly in t h e Ge n it iv e , D at iv e , A c c u s at iv e , an d A blat iv e .

502 . Th e Ge r u n d r
e x p e ss es an ac t ion of t he v e rb in t he form
of a v e rbal n ou n
As a n ou n t he g e ru n d is it self g ov e rn e d by ot h e r words ; as a

verb it m ay t ak e an obj e c t in t h e p rop e r c ase :

are b e n e di sseren di f als a dii ii dic an di ( D e Or 11

e t vé ra ac . . t he art o f dis
c ou rs ing well, an d d isti n gu ishi n g t he tru e an d t he f alse .

N O TE — Th e N om in at iv e o f t h e g e ru n d i s su pp li e d b y t h e I n fi n it ive Th u s in t h e
. .

c
e xam p le ab ov e , t h e v e rb al n ou n s di s ou rsi n g an d di st i n g u i shi n g , i f u se d in t h e n omi

n at i ve , w o u ld b e e xp re ss e d b y t h e in fi n i t iv e s d i sse re re an d di i fi d ic are .

Th e Ge ru n d i s t h e n e u t e r of t h e ge ru n di ve u se d i m p e rson ally , b u t re t ain in g t h e

c
v e rb al id e a su ffi i e n t ly t o g ov e rn an ob j e t c
I t m ay t h e re fore b e re gard e d as a n ou n
.

( c f m i t fi ri t b Opu s est , § 497 a) wit h a verb al f or e ( c f i st an c t ac t i b, p 240, foot n ot e )

. . c . . .

GERUND AN D GERUN DI VE

503 . W h e n t he Ge ru n d w ou ld h av e an ob e c t j in t h e A c c u s a
tive , t h e G e r u n div e is ge n e rally
2
u se d i n st e ad Th e ge ru n div e
.

ag r e e s w it h it s n ou n , w hi c h t ak e s t h e c as e t h at t h e g e r u n d wou ld
h av e had
p arat iOres ad o m n ia p eric u la s u b e u n da (B G . . i . readier to u n d ergo all

d an gers .
[Here agre e s w it h p e ri c u la
s u b eu n da , c
wh i h is i t self gove rn e d
by ad . Th e ( in ad m issib le ) c on st ru c t ion wit h t h e ge ru n d w ou ld b e ad
s u b eu n du m p e ri c u la ; ad gove rn in g t h e geru n d , an d t h e ge ru n d govern in g
t he a cc u sat ive p e ri c u la
] F o r d e t ails .
. se e 5 04— 507 .

1 Su h c v e rb s are ac c i p i b, s an ot o, at t ri b u b, c on d fi c b, cu b
d é n bt b , dép osc b, d b, di vid o,
r ,

d bn b , é di c b , é d oc eb , t erb , h ab eb, loc 6, m an d d, ob i c i b, pe rm it t b, p et b, p bn b, prbpiin b,

reli n q u b, su sc ip i b,
2 Th e ge ru n d ive c on st ru ct i on i s p rob ab ly t h e ori gi n al on e .
3 18 S YNTA X : TH E VERB 504, 505

N O T E 1 — Th e g e n it ive of t h e ge ru n d or g e ru n dive is u se d ( e sp e ially in lat e r Lat in )

. c
c
as a p re d i at e g e n i t ive W h e n so u se d it of t e n e xp re sse s p u rp ose
.

q u ae p ost q u am g loriosa m od o n e q u e b elli p at ran di og n ovi t ( I u g wh e n h e c .

c
p er e i ve d t h at t h ese we re on ly b rilli an t d e ed s an d n ot li ke ly t o e n d t h e war .

A e gyp t u m p rofi c i sc it u r c bgn bsc en dae an t i qu it at i s ( Tac An n ii h e se t s ou t f or . . .

Egyp t t o s t u d y old t i m es .

b . Th e ge n it ive of t h e ge run d or ge ru n d ive wi t h cau sa or r

g at is .

e xp re s se s p u rp ose 533 b) .

p ab u lan di au t frfi m e n t an di au s a p rogressi ( B C c . . i . havin g advan ed c f or

c c
t he p u rp ose of olle t ing f odd er or sup p lies .

vi t an dae s u spi c ioni s c a a ( C at

us . i . in order t o avoid su sp c
i i on .

sim u lan di grat ia ( I u g i n ord er t o d e ei ve

. c .

e xerc e n dae m e m ari ae grat i a ( C at M f or t h e . . sake o f trai n i n g t he m em ory .

Th e gen i t iv e of t h e ge ru n d i s oc c asion ally lim it e d by a n ou n or

0.

p r on ou n
( e sp e c i ally a p e rs on al p r on ou n in t he p lural in t h e ob j e c t iv e
)
g e n it iv e in st e ad of t ak in g a d ire c t ob e c t j
ré ic ie n di t ri u m i fi dic u m p ot e st as ( Ve rr i i . . the p ower o f c hallen gin g three
c
j u rors ( of t h e re j e t in g of t h re e j u rors) .

s ui c olligen d i fa c u lt as (B . G i ii . . t he opp ortu n ity to c

re over t hem selves .

ru n dive
Dat ive of t h e Ge ru n d an d Ge

505 Th e D at iv e of t h e Ge r u n d an d Ge ru n div e is u s e d in
. a fe w

e x p r e s s io s a t e r v e r b s :
1
n f
d ie m p rae st it it ope ri f ac ie n do ( Ve rr ii 1 . . . he ap p oin ted a day f or d oi n g t he
work .

p raeesse agrb c ole n dc)

‘

( R ose . Am . t o take c ha g r e o f c u lt ivati n g t he lan d .

e ss e s olv e n db, t o be able t o p ay (to b e f or p ay in g) .

NO TE Th e d at iv e o f t h e g e ru n d wi t h
. a d i re t c ob e j ct is n e ve r foun d in cl assi c
Lat i n , cc
b u t o u rs t w i e i n Plau t u s c .

a. Th e d at ive of
t h e g e ru n d an d ge ru n d ive i s u se d af t e r adje c
e sp ec ially t h ose whi c h d e n ot e fi t n ess or a d ap t abili t y :
2
t i ve s,

gen u s arm oru m ap t u m t e ge n di s c orp ori bu s ( Liv . xxx h . a sort of arm or

su it ed to the d ef en c e o f t he body .

reliq u a t e m p ora dé m e t en di s frfi c t ib u s et p erc ip ie n di s ac c om m odat a su n t ( C at . M .

t he ot her s eason s are fi tted to reap an d gather i n t he harvest .

p e rferen di s m i lit u m m an dat i a idon e u s ( Tac . Ann . i . su itable f or c arry in g

c
ou t t he i n st ru t ion s of the sold i ers .

N O TE — Th is . c on s t ru ct i on is ve ry c om m on i n Li vy an d lat e r wri t e rs , in fre qu en t

in c c
lassi al p rose .

1 Su h c are praee s se , Ope ram d are , d i em d i ere , lo u m c c c

ape re .

2 Su h c are ac c omm od at u s , apt u s , i n ept as , b on u s , h ab ili s , i d dn eu s , par, ut ili s, i n fi tili s

Bu t t h e a cc u s at i ve wit h ad is c om m on wit h m ost of t h e se (c f 385 a) . . .
 505 - 507] A BLA TI VE OF GER UN D A N D GER UND I VE 3 19

b . Th e d at iv e of t h e ge run d an d ge ru n dive is u sed in c e rt ain le gal

p h rase s af t e r n ou n s m e an in g o fi i c ers ofi i c es , , elec t i on s , e t c .
,
t o i n d ic at e
t h e f u n c t ion or sc o e of
p the offi c e e t c : .

c om it ia c bn s u lib u s rog an di s ( D iv . i . ele ct i f or n om i n ati n g on su ls

ons c .

t riu m vir c olbnii s d é d fi c u n di s ( I u g . a tri u m vir f or p lan t in g olon ies c .

c
t riu m viri re i p ubli ae c dn s ti t u en dae ( t it le of t h e Triu m virat e ) , t riu m virs ( a c om
m iss ion of t h ree ) f or settli n g t he govern m en t .

Acc u sat ive of t h e Ge ru n d an d Ge u ndive r

506 . The A c c u sat i v e of t he G e ru n d an d Ge ru n div e is u se d

afte r t he p rep os it ion ad, t o d en ot e Pu rp ose ( cf .

§ 5 3 3)
me vo ca
s ad s c n
‘

ben du m y ou su m m on m e to write
( Or .

'
.

vi vis n On ad dé p bn e n dam s e d ad c bn fi rm an d am au d ac i am ( C at i
. .
y ou live
n ot to p u t of bu t to c on fi r m y ou r d arin g .

n ac t u s ad it us ad e a c bn an da C i havin g
(B . . .
f ou n d m ean s to u n d ertake

thes e t hi n gs .

N O TE 1 — O t h e r p rep o sit i on s app e ar in t h is

. c on s t ru ct i on ; i n t er an d oh a f e w t im e s ,
c
c i r a, i n , an t e , an d a f e w ot h e rs v e ry rarely : as , in t er ag en d um ( Ec l ix 24
) while . .

d ri vi n g .

N O TE 2 .
— Th e Acc u s at ive of t h e g e ru n d wi t h a p rep osit ion n e ve r t ak e s a d i re t c
j
Ob ec t in cla ic Lat i
ss n .

ru nd a d Geru n di ve
Ablat ive of t h e Ge n

507 Th e A blat iv e of t h e Ge r u n d an d G e ru n div e is u se d ( 1 )

.

t o e x p r e ss m an n er m ean s c au se e t c ; ( 2 ) aft e r C om p arat iv e s ;

1
, , , .

an d ( 8 ) aft e r t h e p r op osit ion s ab de ex in an d ( r arely ) p o , , , , r

( 1) m u lt a polli c en do p ersu ad e t ( I u g . he p ersu ad es by larg e p rom i ses .

Lat i n é loqu e n do c u ivi s p ar (B ru t . eq u al to an y m an i n sp eaki n g L at i n .

h i s ip sis le g e n di s ( C at M . . by read in g t hese very t hin gs .

ob sc uram at qu e h u m ile m c on c i e n do ad 8 6 m u lt it fi din e m ( Liv . i . c alli ng to

t hem a m ean an d c
obs u re m u ltitu de .

( 2) n ullu m Offi c iu m ref ere n da g rati s m agis c

n e e ss ariu m est
( Ofi . i . no du t y
is m ore i m p ortan t tha n rep ay i n g f avors .

(3 ) in re g eren da ve rs ari ( C at M . . to be emp loy ed i n c on d uc ti n g aflairs

’
.

N O TE 1 — Th e . A
b lat iv e of t h e Ge ru n d an d Ge ru n d ive i s also v e ry rarely u s e d
c
w i t h ve rb s an d ad j e t iv e s : as , — n ec c on t i n u an d é ab st it it m agi st rat ii ( Li v ix he . .

c
d i d n ot desis t f ro m on ti n u i n g h is m ag i st ra y c .

N O TE 2 —Th e ab lat ive o f t h e g e ru n d rarely t ak e s a di re t ob j e t in lass i p rose

. c c c c .

1I n t h is u se t h e ab lat ive of t h e g e ru n d i s , in lat e r w ri t e rs n e arly , an d in m ed i aav al

c
_

wri t e rs e n t ire ly , e q u ivale n t t o a p re s en t p art i i p le as , c u m uni d i éru m F L EN D O sé d i s v

se t , q u i dam m i le s ge n erbsu s i uxti e am EQU I TA N D G v en i t ( Ge s t a R o m an oru m , 66

as on e d ay sh e sat we ep i n g , a e rt ai n k n i g h t c am e ri d i n g by ( om p are § 50 7 , f ou rt h c c
e xa m p le ) c c
H e n e om e t h e I t ali an an d S p an ish fo rm s o f t h e p re se n t p art i ip le ( as m an
. c
c
d an d o, e sp eran d o) , t h e t ru e p art i ip ial form b e om in g an ad j e t i ve in t h ose lan gu ag e s c c .
3 20 S YN TA X : TH E VERB 508- 510

S UPI N E

508 Th e . S u pin e i s a ve rb al abs t ra t o f t h e

fo u rt h d e le n sio n c
94 b) , h avin g n o c .

c
d ist in t ion of t e n se or pe rson , an d li m i t e d t o t wo u s e s ( )
1 T h e f or m i n -
u m is t h e .

Acc us at ive of t h e e n d of m ot ion 428 i) ( )

2 T h e f o rm i n -t1
is u su ally D at ive of p u r
. .
'

p ose but the A

b lat i ve was e arly on fus e d wi t h i t c .

509Th e S u p in e in -u m is u se d aft e r v erbs of m oti on t o

. e xp ess r
u
p pr ose I t m ay t ake an obj e c t in t h e p r op e r c ase
.

e t s i adm on it u m ven i m u s Or
q u id est , im us n e s es su m t e, n On flagit at u m ( De .

iii . how n ow, shall we be seated thou gh we have c om e to rem i n d , n ot

to en treat
y ou .

c c
n up t u m d are ( ollo are ) , to g ive i n m arriage .

v en eru n t qu e st um in ifi rias ( Liv i ii t hey . . c am e to c om p lai n o f wron gs .

N O TE 1 — Th e su p in e i n -u m i s e spe ially om m on wit h c o, an d wit h t h e p ass i ve

. c c
i nfi n it i ve i ri f orm s t h e f u t u re i n fi n i t ive p assi ve :
c
f u ere i v es qu i re m p ubli am pe rd it u m freu t ( S all C at c t h e re we re i t i zen s wh o . . c
wen t abou t t o ru in t h e rep u bli c .

si sc i re t s é t ru c i d at u m i ri ( D i v ii if h e ( Pom p e y) h ad kn own th at h e was

. .

g oi n g t o be m u rde re d [Rare e x ep t i n C i e ro F or t h e m ore u su al way o f

. c c .

e xp re ssin g t h e f u t u re p ass i ve in fi n it i v e , s e e § 56 9 3 a ] . . .

N O TE 2 . cc
Th e su p i n e in -u m is o asi on ally u se d wh e n m ot io n is m e re ly i m p lie d .

5 10 The S u p in e ln u i s u se d w it h a fe w adj e c t iv es an d w it h
.
- 1

t h e n ou n s fas, n efas, an d opu s , t o d e n ot e an ac t ion in ref e re n c e t o

whic h t h e q u alit y is asse rt ed
re m n On m od o vi s fi foe d am , s e d e t iam au di t fi ( Ph il . ii . a t hin g n ot on ly
sho cki ng to s ee, bu t even to hear f
o .

q u aerun t qu id Op t i m u m f ac tu sit ( Ve rr n l they ask what is best to d o . . . .

s i h d c fas es t di t u ( Tu se v c if t his i s lawf u l t o say

. . .

vi d et is n ef as es se dic t a m ise ram f u isse t ale m se n e c t ut e m ( C at M

. .
y ou
see it is a sin to say that su ch an old ag e was wretc hed .

N OTE 1 .Th e su p in e in -fi i s t h u s in app earan e an b lat i ve o f Sp e ifi at ion c A c c

N O TE 2 - .Th e su p in e in -ii is fou n d espe i ally wit h su h ad j e t i ves as i n d i at e an c c c c :

e ff e c t on t h e se n se s or t h e f e e lin gs , an d t h ose whi h d e n ot e e ase , d ifi i cu lt y , an d t h e c

lik e . Bu t wit h fac ili s, d iffi c ili s, an d i fi cu n d u s , ad wit h t h e g e ru n d i s m ore om m on : c
n ec vi sa fac ilis n ec d i c t fi ad i ab ilis ulli ( Ae n iii . . h e is n ot p le as an t f or an y
m an t o look at or ad d ress .

d ifi 'i c ilis ad d i st i n gu en dum sim ilit udo ( D e O r ii . . a li ke n ess difi i c ult t o d is

t i n g u is h .

c
N O TE 3 —Wi t h all t h e se adj e t ive s t h e p oe t s of te n u se t h e I n fi n it ive in t h e s am e
.

c
se n se : as , — f a iles au re m p raeb é re ( Prop 11 2 1 i n d u lg en t t o le n d an e ar . . . .

N O T E 4 — Th e su p in e i n
. wi t h a ve rb i s e xt re m e ly ra re : as ,
— p u d et d i c t u ( Tac .

Ag r . i t i s a sh am e t o t ell [On t h e an alogy o f pu den d um d i t u ]

. c .

1 Th e on ly c om m on su p i n e s in -fi are au di t u, d ic t a, fac t u, i nven t a, m em orat a, ni t ii ,

vi sit . In cl assi c u se t h is su p in e is f ou n d in om p arat ive ly f ew ve rb s c I t i s n e ve r .

f ollowe d b y an Ob e j ct c -
ase .
322 Y
S N TA X : C ON D I TI ON A L S EN TEN C ES

( ori gin allyp ast , m e an i n g su pp ose y ou h ad as ke d [y est e rd ay ] , h e was g oi n g t o den y)

cam e t o e xp re ss an u n fu lfi lle d c
on d i t ion i n t h e p re s e n t : su p p ose ( or if ) y ou we re

n ow as ki n g , h e wou ld [n ow] d e n y —j u s t as i n En g lis h ou g h t , wh i h o rigi n ally m e an t c

o we d , 1 h as cm t
o e o e xp re ss a p re se n t ob lig at i on .

For t h e cl i fi c
ass at ion o f C on dit ion al S e n t e n e s , c se e § 513 .

PR OTAS I S AN D A P OD OSI S

5 12 . A c om p le t e C on dit ion al Se n t e n c e c on sist s of t wo c lau ses,

t he P rot asis an d t h e A p odosis .

The c lau se c on t ain i n g t h e c on di t i on is c alle d t he PR O TA SI S

the c lau se c on t ain in g th e c on c lu si on is c alle d t h e A P OD O S I S :

si qu i e xi re volu n t
[PR O TASI S ]
p ossu m [ P O D O S I S] ( C at 11
, c on i vé re A . . if
an y wi sh t o d ep art , I c an ke ep m y ey es shu t .

A
si e st in e xsilio [P R O T S I S ] , q u id am p liu s p ost u lat is [ P O D OS I S ] ( Lig A . if
he i s i n exi le , what m ore do y ou ask ?

It sh ou ld be r
c a e fu lly n ot e d t h at t h e Ap odosi s i s t h e m ai n c lau se

an d th e P rot asis t h e d ep en d en t c lau se .

a. Th e P rot asis i s re g ula ly in t rodu c e d by t h e c on dit ion al p art ic le

r

si, if; or o n e Of it s c om p ou n d s .

N O TE . c
Th e se om p ou n d s are si n , n isi , et i am si , et si , t am et si , t am en et si (se e C on d i
'

c
t ion al an d C on e ssi ve Part i le s , p c
A n I n d e fi n it e R e lat iv e , or an y re lat ive or
.

c c
on e ssive w ord , m ay also s e rv e t o i n t rod u e a c
on d i t ion al lau s e : see C on d i t ion al c c
R e lat ive C lau se s 5 19, 5 42 ) C on e ssi ve C lau se s c
b . The Ap od os is i s of t e n in t rod u c ed by s om e c o relat iv e r wor d 01

p h rase : as, it a, t u m ( r ar ely s ic

) , or ea con di c ion e e t c : .

it a e n im se n e c t fi s h on e st a e st , S i 8 5 ip sa d é fe n d it ( C at M . . on t his c on di

t i on is old ag e hon orable, if it defen ds itself .

si qu id e m m e am are t , t u m ist u c p rod e sse t ( Ter Eu n. .

if he loved m e,
then t hi s wou ld be p rofi table .

c
sic s ri b es aliqu id , si vac ab is ( Att x i i 3 8 . . .
if y ou are (sh all b e ) at leisu re ,
t he n y ou will writ e som et hing .

0. Th e A p odos is i s t h e p r in c ip al c lau se o f t h e c on dit ion al se n

t e n c e , b u t m ay at t h e s am e t im e b e su b ordin at e t o s om e ot h e r
c lau se , an d so ap p e ar i n t h e f orm of a Par t ic ip le , an I n fi n it ive , o r

a Ph rase
se p u lt ura q u oq u e proh ibit fi ri , u i rex h u m ari i ussis se t ( Q C vii i 2 i n tend . . . .

i ng also to d ep rive hi m of bu ri al, u n less t he ki ng had ordered hi m t o be

i n t erred .

Th e re was
1 a c e rt ain le n d e r wh i h c ou gh t hi m fi ve h u n dre d p ie c es . Ty n dale ’
s
N ew Test am e n t .
 5 12- 5 14] C LA SS I FI C A TI ON OF C ON D I TI ONS 3 23

qu od si p rae t e re a n em O se q u at u r, t am e m S e c u m sola d e im a le gib n e it ii ru m c

[e s se ] ( B G i 40 bu t if n o on e e lse shou ld f ollow, he wou ld go wit h
. . . .

t he ten t h leg i on alone .

8 1 qu os ad ve rsu m p roe liu m c om m overe t , ( id 40 if t he

-
h es re p e ri re p os s e . .

loss of a batt le alarm ed an y , th ey m ight fi n d, et c .

N OTE . W h en t he Ap od osi s i t s e lf i s in I n d ire t D is c c ou rse , o r i n an y ot h e r d ep en d

e nt c on st ru ci t on , t h e v e rb of t h e Prot asis i s re g u larly i n t h e c
S u b j u n t i ve ( as in t h e ab ov e
e x am ple s , see

C LA S S I FI C ATI ON OF C ON D I TI ON S

5 13 . C on di t ion s are e it h e r ( 1) Par t ic u lar or 2

( ) G e n e r al .

1 . r
A Pa t ic u lar C on dit ion re f e rs t o a d e fi n it e ac t or s e rie s of ac t s

oc c u rrin g at som e de fi n i t e t im e .

2 . A Ge n e ral C on dit ion r efe

t o an y on e o f a
rs c las s o f ac t s wh ic h
m ay oc c u r (o r m ay h av e oc c u rre d
) at an y t i m e .

Th e p r in c ip al or t yp ic al for m s
5 14 . of C on dit ion al S e n t e n c e s
m ay b e ex hibit e d as follo ws :

P AR TI CULAR CON DI TI ON S

A . SI MPLE C O N D I TI ON S n ot hin
( g im p li e d as t o fu lfi lm e n t)

1 . P rese nt Tim e

Pre s e n t I n dic at iv e i n b ot h c lau se s

si ade s t , be n e e st , if he is [no w] here , i t is well .

2 . Past Tim e

I m p e fe c t r or r
P e fe c t I n dic at iv e in b ot h c lau se s :

si aderat , be n e e rat , if he was [t h en ] here i t was well

, .

S i adfu it , be n e f ui t , if he has been [was] h ere it has been [ was ] well

, .

B FU TU R E C O N D I TI ON S e t u n fu lfi lle d
.
( as y )
r More Vivi d
a. F u t u re I n di c at i ve in b ot h c lau s e s :

( sh all b e ) here, i t wi ll be well

‘
S i aden t , be n e it,
ex if he i s .

b . Fu t u re Pe f e c t I n dic at ir ve i n p rot as is, Fu t u re I n dic at iv e in

ap o dosi s

si adf u e rit , be ne e ri t , if he is ( sh all h ave b e e n ) he re , it will [t h en ] be well .

3 24 SYN TA X : C OND I TI ONA L S ENTEN C ES [s 5 14

2 . Less Vivi d

a. P re se n t Su b j uncti ve in b ot h c lau ses

si adsit , be n e s it , if he shou ld be ( or we re t o b e ) here, it wou ld be well .

b . Pe rf e c t Su b j u n c t iv e in p r ot asis ,
Pre s e n t S u b j u n c t ive in ap od

os is
si adf u e rit , be n e s it , if he shou ld be (Sh ou ld h ave b e e n ) here, i t wou ld [t h e n ]
be well .

0 C ON D I TI ON S C ON TR A R Y
. TO FA C T
1 . P resent Ti m e

r
I m p e fe c t S u b j u n c t ivein bot h c lau s e s

si ade s s et , be ne esset , if he were [n ow] h ere, it wou ld be well ( b u t h e is N O T h ere ) .

2 . Past TM e

Plu p e fe c t Su br j u n c t iv e in b ot h c lau se s

si adfui ss e t , be n e fai s s et , if he had [th e n ] been h ere , it wou ld have been well
( b u t h e was NOT h ere ) .

N O TE .
—Th e u se of t e n ses in Prot asis i s v e ry loose in En glish Th u s if h e i s
.

ali ve n ow i s a P R ES EN T c on dit ion i n Lat i n b y t h e

, to b e e x p re sse d Pre se n t I n d i at i ve ; c
if h e i s ali ve n e xt y e ar i s a F U TU R E c
on d it ion , e xp re s se d i n Lat in b y t h e F u t u re

c
I n d i at iv e . A gai n , if h e were h ere n ow i s a P R ES EN T on d it i on on t rary t o f a t , c c c
c
an d w ou ld b e e xp resse d b y t h e I m p e rfe t S u b j u n t i v e ; if h e were t o s e e m e t h u s c
c
i s a F UTU R E on di t ion le ss v i vid , t o b e e xp re ss e d b y t h e Prese n t S u b j u n t i ve ; an d so c
t oo, if y ou ad vis ed h i m , h e wou ld at t en d m ay b e f u t u re le ss v i vid 1 .

D . GENERAL CON DI TI ONS

Ge n e r al C ondit ion s d o n ot u su ally diff e r in f or m from Part ic u lar

C on dit ion s ( A, B an d C ) , b u t are so m e t im e s dist in gu ish e d in t h e
c ases f ollowi n g

resent General Condit ion ( I d fi it Tim )

1. P n e n e e

a .Pr e se t Su b j u n c t iv e se c on d p e rso s i g u lar ( I n d e fi it e S u bj e c t )

n n n n

in p r ot as i s P r e s e n t I n d ic at i ve i
,
‘
ap o d os i s n :

si h bc di c i s , c redi t ar, if any on e [e ve r] say s t his , it i s [always] believed .

b . Pe rfe c t I n dic at iv e in p rot as is, P re se n t I n dic at i e in ap odos is : v

si qu id di xit , c ré dit u r, if he [ e ve r] s ay s an yt hi ng , it i s [alway s] believed .

1I n m ost En glis h ve rb s t h e Pret e rit e ( or Past ) S u b j u n t i ve is id e n t i al i n f orm c c

wit h t h e Pre t e rit e I n di at ive c c
Th u s i n su h a s e n t e n e as if h e love d h is f ath e r, h e
. c
wou ld n ot say this , t h e v e rb love d is re ally a Pre t e rit e S u b j u n t i ve , t h ou gh t h is d oe s c
n ot ap p e ar f rom t h e i n fl e t i on c
I n t h e v e rb t o be , h ow e ve r, t h e S u b j u n t ive were h as
. c
b ee n p rese rve d an d diff e rs i n form f rom t h e i n d i at ive was c .
3 26 S Y NTAX : C ON D I TI ON A L SEN TEN C ES [ss 5 15 , 516

a. I n t h e se c on d it ion s t he ap od osis n e e d n ot alway s be in t h e I n

d ic at iv e , b u t m ay assu m e an y f orm , ac c o din g t o t h e r s e n se

Si p la c et vi d e amus ( C at . M .
if y ou p leas e , let u s s ee .
[ Hort at ory
S ub j u n t ive , c
S i n On d u m s at is c e rn it is , rec ordam in i ( Mil .
if y ou d o n ot y et see c l a ly
e r ,

re olle t c c
[I m p erat ive ] .

S i qu id h ab es c e rt iu s , v e lim s i re ( A t t iv c . .
if y ou have an y tru st wort hy
i nf or mat ion , I shou ld like t o kn ow i t .
[Su b j u n c t ive of Mod est y , 447 l ] . .

N O TE A c
lt h ou gh t h e f orm of t h e s e on d it ion s d oe s n ot im p ly an y t h in g as t o t h e
c c c
.

t ru t h of t h e su p p osit ion , t h e se n se o r t h e on t e xt m ay of ou rse h av e som e su h i m p li

c at ion :
n b li t e , Si i n n ost ro om n iu m fi é t fi n ullam lac rim am aspe xi st i s MilOn is , h Oc m in u s

e i p ar e re ( Mil c d o n ot , if am id t h e weep i n g of u s all you h ave seen n o

.

t e ar [i n t h e e y e s] of Milo , sp are h i m t h e less f or t h at .

c
p e t im u s a v i s, i nd i é s , si q u a di vi n a i n t an t i s i n g e n ii s c om m e n dat i o d é bet
e ss e , u t c u m i n v e st ram ac c ip iat is fi d e m ( r h we as k y ou , j u dges, Ac .

if t h ere ou g h t t o be an y t h i n g i n su h ge n i u s t o re om m en d i t t o u s as c c
c
by a re om m e n d ati on of t h e g od s, t h at y ou re eive h i m u n d e r you r p ro c
t ec ti on .

I n t h ese t wo p ass age s , t h e p rot asis re ally e xp resse s au se : b u t t h e au se is p u t b y c c

t h e sp e ak e r i n t h e form o f a n on - om m it t al on d i t ion c
H is h e are rs are t o d raw t h e c .

c
in fe re n e for t h e m se lv e s I n t h is w ay t h e d e sire d i m p re ssion is m ad e on t h e i r m in d s
.

c
m ore e ffe t ively t h an i f an o u ts p o k e n au s al lau se h ad b e e n u se d c c .

Fu t u re Condit ion s

516 . Fu t u re C on dit ion s m ay be m ore vivi d o r le ss vivi d .

1 . In a mo e r v ivid fu t u re c o n d it ion t h e p ro t asis m ake s a di st in c t

s u pp os it ion of a f u t u r e c ase t h e ,
ap od osi s e xp re ssin g wh at wi ll be t h e

log ic al re s u lt .

2 . In a le ss v ivid f u t u re c on d it ion , the su pp os it ion is le ss dist in c t ,

t h e ap od osis e xp ressin g wh at wou ld be t h e re su lt in t h e c ase su p p ose d .

a. I n t h e m ore vi v id f u t u re c on dit ion t h e F u t ure I n d ic at iv e is u se d

in bot h p rot asi s an d ap od osi s

s an abim u r, Si volém u s ( Tu s c . iii . we shall be healed if we wish .

qu od si le ge re au t au d i re v olé ti s , re p eri et i s
( C at M . . if y ou wi ll
[sh all wish t o] read or hear, y ou willfi nd .

—
N O TE ~ I n En glish t h e p rot asis i s u s u ally exp re sse d b t h e Pre se n t I n d i at iv e ,
.
y c
rare ly b y t h e F u t u re wi t h S H L L A
O ft e n i n Lat i n t h e Pre se n t I n di at iv e is f ou n d in
. c
c
t h e p rot as is of a on d it ion of t his k i n d ( c f 468) .

si vin c i m u s , om n ia n Ob i s t ut a c ru n t ; Si n m e t u c esseri m u s, e ad e m illa ad vors a fi en t

( S all C at . .
c
if we on q u e r, all th i n gs will be saf e f or us ; bu t if we yie ld
t h rou g h f ear , t h ose sam e t h i n g s willb e om e h ost ile c .

Si pered , h om inu m m an ib u s p e riisse i u vab i t ( Ae n i ii I p eri sh , i t will be

. .
f
i

p le asan t t o h ave p e ri sh ed at th e h an d s of m e n .
 515] F UTUR E C O N D I TI ON S 3 27

b . I n t h e less v i vid fu t u re c on d it ion t h e Pre se n t S u b ju n c t ive is

u se d in bot h p rot asis an d ap od os is :

h ae c si c
t e u m p at ria loq u at u r, n On n e i m p e t rare dé be at
( C at . i . if y ou r
c t hus sp eak wit h y ou , ou ght she n ot to p revail?
ou nt ry shou ld

qu od S i q u is d en s m ih i largiat u r, vald e re us e m C at M
( bu t c . .
if som e

g od were t o gran t m e this , I sh ou ld sto u t ly ref use .

N O TE — Th e Pre se n t S u b j u n t ive s om e t i m e s st an d s in p rot as is wit h t h e F u t u re

. c
c
(or t h e Pre se n t ) I n d i at iv e in ap od os is f rom a h an g e i n t h e p o in t o f vie w : —1 c
Si dilige n t e r at t en dam u s , i n t elle g é m u s ( lu v 11 f we at t e n d sh ou ld at t e n d.
i ( )
c
.

are u lly ,
f we sh all u n derst an d .

n is i h Oc d i c at ,
“
c
i fi re f e i , n On habe t d c-
”
f é n siOn e m ( id i u n less he sh ould
c c
. .

“
say t h is , I a t e d j u st ifi ably , h e h as n o def e n e.

c . I f the c on d i t ion al ac t is r e ga de d asr c om

p le t ed b e f ore t h at of t h e
ap odosi s b e gin s, t h e F u t u re Pe rfe c t i s .
s u b s t it u t e d f or t h e F u t u re

I n di c at ive i n p rot asis, an d t h e P e rfe c t S u b j u n cti ve f or t h e Pre se n t

S u b j u n c t iv e
si n c u m c
po t u e rO n On vé n erb, t u m ri t in i in i c us ( A t t ix 2 . . A . bu t if I do no t
c om e when I c an , he will be u nf rien d ly .

81 a c oren a re li c t u s s im , qu e am d i ere ( Bru t

n On c
if I . shou ld be d eserted
by the ci cl
r f
e o listen ers , I shou ld n ot be able to sp e ak .

c
N O TE — Th e F u t u re Pe rfe t i s oft en u se d in t h e apod osis of a f u t u re on d it ion :
. c
as, — ve h e m e n t e r m ih i g rat u m fe eri s , Si h u n c ad u lé sc e n t e m h um an it at e t u a om p re
c c
h e n d e ris ( F am x iii y ou will d o ( will h av e d on e) m e a g re at f av or, if you re e i ve
. . c
t h i s you n g m an wi t h you r u su al ou rt esy. c .

d . An y f orm d e n ot in g im p ly in g fu t u re t im e m ay st an d i n t he
or

ap od osi s of a fu t u re c on d it ion S O t h e I m p e rat ive , t h e p art ic ip le s i n

.

d u e an d -ru s
,
an d v e rbs of n e c es si t y , p ossibi li t y, an d t h e lik e :

aliu s fi n is c bn s tit u e n du s e s t , si p riu s qu id m ax im e re p re h en d ere S ip io s oli t u s c

s it d ixe rO ( Lae l . an other li m it m u st be set , if I fi rst state what S ip io c
was wont m ost to fi nd f au lt with .

81 m e p rae c ep e rit f at u m , v OS m an d ass e m e m e n t b ( Q 0 ix 6 . . . .

if f at e ct u s

m e of too soon , d o y ou rem em ber that I ord ered t his .

n is i oc u li s vi d erit is in s id i as MilOn i a C lOd iO fac t as , n e c dé pre c at fi ri s um u a n ec

'

p ost u lat uri ( Mil 6)

. u n less
y ou see wi t h y ou r own ey es t he p lot s la id again st

Milo by C lod iu s , I shall n e ither beg n or d em an d , e t c .

n On p os s um ist u m a cc us are , si c u p iam ( Ve rr iv 8 7 I an n ot a . . c cc use h i m , if

I shou ld ( so) d esi re .

1 It d e p e n d s e n t ire ly U p on t h e vie w of t h e writ e r at t h e m om e n t , an d n ot

o ft e n

u po n t h e n at u re of t h e c
on d i t i on , wh e t h e r i t S h all b e st at e d vi vi dly or n ot ; as i n t h e

p rov e rb ial I f t h e S k y f alls, we Sh all at h lark s c c

t h e im p ossible on d it i on is i ron c
i c ally p u t in t h e vi v id f orm , t o illu st rat e t h e ab su rd i t y of s om e ot h e r su pp ose d on d i c
t ion st at e d b y som e on e else .
3 28 S YNTA X : C ON D I TI ONAL S EN TEN C ES 5 16, 5 17

e. Ra re ly r t h e Pe f e c t I n d ic at iv e is
u se d in ap odosis w it h a P es r

e t or e v en a Fu t u re ( or F u t u r e P e r f e c t ) in p ot as is t o r e p e se n t t h e
n r ,
r

c on c lu sion r h e t or ic ally as a l e ady a c mp lis h ed r co

Si h Oc b en e fixu m in an im b est , vic i s ti s ( Liv xxi if this is wellfi aed i n . .

y ou r m i nds , y ou have on qu ered c

[F or y ou will have on qu ered ] . c
si e u n d e m [an im u m ] h ab u erit is , vi c im u s ( id xxi if y ou shall have kep t . .

th e sam e sp irit , we have on qu ered c .

f . A fu t u re c on d it ion is fre qu e n t ly t h r own b ac k in t o p ast t im e,

wit h ou t im ply in g t h at it is c on t rary t o f ac t I n su c h c ases
t h e I m p erf e c t or Plu p e rf e c t S u bj u n c t iv e m ay b e u se d :

n bn p ot e rat , ni si d ec e rt are v e lle t

(B . C iii . . he was n ot able , u n less he
wish ed to fi ght .

t u m u lu s ap p aru it , S i lfi c e p alam i ré t u r h ost is p rae ve n t ilru s e rat

( Liv .

xxn a hi ll app eared

. if t hey shou ld g o op en ly by day light , t he
en em y wou ld p reven t [Th e fi rst t wo ap p ear like I n d ire t D is ou rse ,
. c c
b u t are n ot . An O b se rve r d es c rib in g t h e S it u at ion in t h e fi rst e x am p le
as p res ent wou ld s ay u bu p ot es t ni si ve li t ( se e d) , an d n o in d ire c t d is
c ou rs e wou ld b e t h ou gh t of
] .

C aesar s i p e t e re t , n On qu ic qu am p rOfi c e re t ( H or S i 3 if even C a e sar . . . .

were t o ask, he wou ld g ai n n ot hi n g [ H e re t h e on st ru t ion is n ot c on . c c

c
t rary t o fa t , b u t is sim p ly s i p e t at , n dn p rbfi c iat , t h rown in t o p ast t im e ]

Con dit ion s Cont ary t o Fact r

517 . I n t h e st at e m e n t Of a s u pp osit ion imp lie d ly f alse , t h e I m
pe rfe c t an d Plu p e r fe c t S u bj u n c t iv e in b ot h p r ot asis an d
are u s e d

a odos is
p .
l
Th e I m p e r fe c t re fe rs t o p re sen t t im e , t h e Plu p e rf ec t
to p ast :
si vi ve re t , ve rb a eiu s au diré ti s ( R ose C om . .
if he were livin g, y ou wou ld
hear h is words [Presen t ] . .

n is i t il am i s i ss é s , n u m qu am rec é p is s e m ( C at M u n less y ou had lost it , I . .

shou ld not have re overed i t [Past ]c .

S i m eu m c On S iliu m valu i ss e t , t fi h od ie e g é ré s, res p ub li a n on t ot d u es am i c c

s i s set ( Phil I I if m y j u dg m en t h ad p revailed [as it d id n ot ] , y ou
. .

wou ld this d ay be a beggar, an d the rep u blic wou ld n ot have lost so m an y

leaders [Mixe d Presen t an d Past ]
.

1 Th e i m p li c at ion of falsit y , i n t h is c
i n h e re n t in t h e su b ju n c
on st ru ct i on , is n ot

c
t ive ; b u t om es fro m t h e t ran sf er of a f u t u re on d i ti on t o p as t t i m e Th u s t h e t im e c .

c
f or t h e h ap pe n in g of t h e on dit ion h as , at t h e m om e n t of wri t in g, alre ad y p asse d ; so
c c
t h at , if t h e on di t ion re m ain s a on di ti on , it m u st b e on t rary t o f a t S o p as t f orm s c c .

c
of t h e in d i at ive i m p ly in g a f u t u re f re q u en t ly t ak e t h e p la e of t h e su b j u n t ive in c c
c c
ap od osis in t h is on st ru t i on ( se e , d , b e low, an d c
 3 80
.
S N TA Y X : C OND I TI ONAL SEN TEN C ES [s 517

c
q u od e sse apu t débé bat , Si p rob ari p osse t ( Fin . iv . what ou g ht to be the
m a in p oin t , if it ou ld be p roved c .

si it a p u t a c
ss et , e rt e op t abili u s Milen i f u it ( Mil . if he had thou g ht so, su re ly

it wou ld have been p referable f or M i lo .

c
N O TE 1 — I n Pre s en t on dit i on s t h e I m p e rf e t S u b j u n t iv e (oport éret , possem , e t c )
. c c .

c
i s t h e ru le , t h e I n d i at i ve b e in g rare ; in Past on d it ion s b ot h t h e S u b j u n t ive ( u su ally c c
c c
Plu p e rf e t ) an d t h e I n d i at iv e ( u su ally Pe rf e t ) are om m on c c .

F or pi r erat , m eliu s fu it , an d t h e lik e , f ollo we d b y t h e in fi n it ive , se e 52 1 N . .

c c c
N O TE 2 —Th e in d i at ive on st ru t ion i s arrie d st ill fu rt h e r in p oe t ry : as ,
. c
n on ali u m i ac t are t odore m , lau ru s erat ( Ge org 11 i t we re a lau rel, bu t f or g ivi n g . .

ou t a d ifi e ren t odo r
'

The p ar t ic ip le in wit h eram or fu i m ay t ake t he p lac e of

'

d .
-11ru s

an I m p e rfe c t or Plu p e rf e c t S u bj u n c t iv e in t h e ap od os is of a c on d i
t ion c on t a r ry t o f ac t

qu id en im fu t ii rum fu it fu isset ] , S i ( Li v . n . what wou ld have hap

p ened if , e t c .

re lict uri agros e ran t , n is i ad e OS Me t ellu s lit t eras m is isse t ( Ve rr iii t hey . .

wou ld have aban d on ed the irfi elds , if M stellas had not sen t them a lett e r .

n e qu e am b igi t ur q u in id f a t uras f u erit , Si ( Liv ii c

n or i s there . .

qu esti on t hat he wou ld have don e it , if, e t c

an y .
[D ire c t : f é c i ss e t .
]
ad e o p arat a sedi t io f u it u t Ot h bn e m rap t fi ri f u e ri n t , ui in c e rt a n o ct i s t im u is
sen t ( Tac . H i . . so f ar ad van c ed was the c onsp iracy that the y wou ld
have sei zed up on Otho, had they not f eared t he hazards of the n ight [I n .

a m ain cla u s e : rap u is s e n t , u i t im u i s s en t ]

e. The P r e sen t S u bj u n c t iv e i s s om e t im e s u se d in p oet ry in t h e

p r ot as i s an d a od osis of c on dit ion s c on t rar
p y t o fac t
ni c om e s adm c n eat , inru at ( Ae n . vi . had n ot c
his omp an i on warn ed him ,
he wou ld have ru shed on .
[Cf . t u si h i c si s , alit e r s ent ias Ter A n d
( . .

if y ou were i n m y p la c e, y ou wou ld thin k d ifi erent ly ]

'

N OTE 1 — Th is is p rob ab ly a re m n an t of an old c on st ru ct i ( se e

. on n e xt n o t e )
c c
.

N O TE 2 .
— In
Lat i n t h e Pre sen t S u b j u n t i ve ( as well as t h e I m p e rfe t ) is u sed
old

c c c
in p re se n t on dit ion s on t rary t o f a t an d t h e I m p e rfe t ( m ore rarely t h e Plu p e rfe t ) c c
c
in p ast on d it ion s of t h e sam e k i n d Th u s i t app e ars t hat t h e I m p e rfe t S u b j u n t ive ,
. c c
c c c
lik e t h e I m p e rfe t I n di at i ve , on e d e n ot e d p ast t im e , e v e n in on di t ion al s en te n e s c c
c c c c
.

Gradu ally , h owev e r, i n on d it i on al se n t e n e s , t h e Pre sen t S u b j u n t iv e was rest ri t e d

c
t o t h e le ss v ivid f u t u re an d t h e I m p e rfe t ( in t h e m a i n ) t o t h e p resen t on t rar t o f a t ,
y c c
c
wh ile t h e Plu p e rfe t w as u se d in p ast on d it ion s of t hi s n at u re c
Th e old on st ru t ion , . c c
h owe ve r, see m s t o h av e b e e n re t ain e d as an ar h aism in p oe t ry c .

f I n Plau t u s an d Te ren ce ab squ e m e ( is

. t é, e t c .

) so m e t im e s u se d to
in t r od u c e c on d it ion s c on t ra y r t o f ac t
ab squ e té e ss et , h odié n u squ am vi vere m ( Pl Men . .
if it were not f or
y ou , I shou ld n ot be alive t o-d ay .

ab squ e e o ess et , re te e go m ih i vidi s s e m c ( Te r . Ph . if it had not bee n f or

hi m , I shou ld have looked ou t f or m y self .
 518 ] GENE RA L C ON DI TI O N S 331

GENERAL C ON DI TI ONS

5 18 . Ge n e ral C on di t ion s 5 13 2) h av e u su ally t h e s am e for m s

.

as Part ic u lar C on di t ion s . Bu t t h e y are som e t im e s d ist in g u ish e d

in t h e follow in g c ase s

a. Th e S u bj u n c t ive is Of t en u se d in t h e s econ d p erson s in gu la r, t o

de n ot e t h e ac t of an i n d e fi n it e su bj e c t ( you a n y on e
) H ere t h e .

Pre se n t I n d ic at ive of a g en era l t ru t h m ay st an d in t h e ap odosis

vit a h um an e p rop e u t i ferrai n est : si e xe rc eas , c on t eri t u r ; S i n On ex erc eas ,
.

t s m e n rob igo in t erfi c it ( C at o d e M ) hu m an lif e is very like iron : if .

y ou u se it , it wears away ; if y ou d on t use it , ru st st ill d estroy s it .

c (
‘

virt ut e m n e e ssari o gloria, e t iam si t i i id n On ag es , c On se qu it u r Tu se i . .

g lory n e ess a y f
ril ollo c
w s v irtu e, even f th at i s n ot one s aim
i ’
.

Si p roh ib its im p un e t ran sc en de ri s , n e q u e m e t u s u lt ra n e qu e p u d or e st ( Tac

. .

A n n iii . . c
if y ou on e overstep t he bou nd s wit h i m p u n it y , t here is no
f ear or sham e an y m ore .

b . In a g e n e al c on r
dit ion in p re s en t t im e, t h e p rot asis oft e n t ake s
t h e Pe r f e c t I n dic at iv e , an d t h e ap od osi s t h e P e se n t I n dic at ive F or r .

p ast t im e , t h e Plu p e rf e c t i s u se d in t h e p rot asis, an d t h e I m p e rfe c t in

t h e ap odosis
Si qu os aliqu a p art e m e m brOru m in ut ilis n ot avé ru n t , n e c ari i n b ent ( Q C ix . . .

1 .
if t h ey [e ver] m ark an y i nfi rm i n an y p art of their li m bs, t hey
[always] t hem to be p u t to d e ath
ord er [Pre sen t ] . .

8 1 a p e rse q u e n d o h ost is d et e rrere n eq u i v e ran t , ab t erg o c irc u m v e ni é ban t (I ug .

[e ver] t hey were u n able to p reven t the en em y f rom

if p u rsu ing , they
[ alway s su rrou n ded t hem i n t he rear
] [ Past ] .

c. I n lat er w it e rs r ( rare ly in C ic e ro an d C aes ar) , t h e I m pe f e c t an d r

r
Plu p e fe c t S u bj u n c t iv e are u se d in p rot asis, w it h t h e I m p e f e c t I n r
d ic at ive in ap od osis, t o st at e a rep e a t ed or c u s t om ary ac t ion in p as t

t im e e rat ive S ubj u n c t ive)

( I t
Si q ui s a d om in o pre h en deré t u r, c on c u rsfi m i lit u m é rip ié bé t u r ( B C ii i . . .

if an y ( ru n away) was arrest ed by hi s m aster, he was ( always) res u ed by c

a m ob o
sold i ers f .

c
ac c us at Ores , S i fa u lt as in c id ere t , p oe n i s adfi c iébant u r ( Tac A n n vi the . . .

cc
a users , when ever opp ort u n i ty ofi ered , were vis it ed with p u n ishm ent
'

Si qu is c ollé gam app e llas s e t , ab e o i t a di sc é dé b at utp ae n i t é re t n On p rib ris

de c ret o s te t isse
(Liv . iii 36 . . if an y on e ap p e aled t o a c olleagu e, he

[always] cam e 07
1
‘
in su ch c a
having su bm itted t o
se t hat h e rep en t ed n ot

c
t he de ree of t he f orm er d ec em vir [C i S o rat es, q u am S e c u m qu e in
. . c
p art e m dedisset , om n iu m f u it f a ile p ri n e p s ( D e O r i ii c
i n what ever c . .

c f , he was ( always) easily the f orem ost ( if

direc t i on S o rat es tu rned hi m s el
in a ny,
332 S Y NTA X : C O N D I TI ON A L S EN TEN C ES [55

Condit ional R elat ive Clau ses

5 19 . i n t r odu c ed by 3 R elat iv e Pr on ou n or Relat iv e

A c lau se .

A dv e rb m ay e xp r ess a c on di t ion an d t ake an y of t h e c on st r u e~

l
i
t ion s of Prot as s
qui e n i m Vit u s m od u m adpé n it , is p art e m su sc ip it vit iOru m ( Tu se iv . . he
who [on ly ] sets a lim it to f au lts, takes u p the sid e of the f au lts . Si

qui s adp bn it . Prese n t , n ot h in g im p lie d ]

qui m e n t iri s ole t , p é ie rare c On su evit ( R ose C om whoever is in the habi t of
. .

ly ing , i s a cc u st om ed t o swear f als ely S i qui s sole t Pre se n t , n ot hin g

. .

im p lie d ]
qui c qu id p ot u it , p ot u it ip sa p er S e ( Le g A gr i . . . whatever p ower she had ,
she had by hersel f s i qu id pe t u it
. Past , g i m p lie d ] . n ot h in

qu od qu i fac i et , n On aegrit fi d in e S olu m vac ab it , se d , e t c ( Tusc iv an d . . .

he who does (S h all d o) t his, wi ll be f ree n ot on ly , e t c si qu i s f ac ie t . .

F u t u re , m ore vivid ]
qu is qui s hfi c v é n e rit , vap u lab it ( Pl . Am . whoever c om es here shall g et a
t hrashin g . Si qu i s v é n e ri t . Fu t u re , m ore vivid ]
qu o voles , s e qu ar ( C lu . whithersoever y ou wish ( sh all wish ) , I willf ollow .

qu avolé s
Si F u t ure , m ore vivid ]
.

p h ilosop h ia, c u i qu i p arear, om n e t e m p u s ae t at is s in e m ole st iap ossit d age re ( C at .

M .
p hi losop hy , whi h if any c one shou ld obey , he wou ld be able to mend
his whole lif e withou t vacat ion .
[
q ui s p ars at
z si . F u t u re , less vivi d ]

qu ae c u m qu e vos au s a h ue c at t u li ss et , lae t are r ( D e Or i i

I shou ld be g lad , . .

c
whatever au se had brou g ht y ou here ( i e if an y ot h e r, as we ll as t h e on e . .

wh i h d id )c si at t u li s s e t
. C on t rary t o fa t ] . c
Th e relat ive in t his r
c on st u c t ion is alway s in d e fi n it e in m ea n i n g,
an d v e ry oft e n in f orm .

520 Th e sp e c ial c on st ru c t ion s of Ge n e r al C on dit ion s are

. som e

t im e s fou n d in C on dit ion al R e lat iv e C lau s es :

Th e S e c on d P e r son S in gu lar of t h e S u bj u n c t iv e in t h e p r ot asi s
1 .

wit h t h e I n d ic at ive of a g en era l t ru t h in t h e ap od osis 5 1 8 a) : .

b on u s t an t u m m odo S egn ior fi t u bi n e gle gas , at m alu s im p robior ( I u g 3 1 . .

a good m an m erely be c om esless d iligen t when y ou don ’t wat h him , bu t a c

bad m an be c om es m ore sham eles s .
[ Pre sen t Gen eral C on dit ion ] .

2 . Th e P erfe c t or r
Plu p e f e c t I n dic at i ve
in t h e p ot asi s r an d t h e
P r esen t or r
I m pe fe c t I n d ic at i v e in t he ap odosi s 51 8 b) .

c um hfi c vé ni , h oc ip su m n ih il agere m e dele c t at ( D e Or ii when ever I . .

c om e here, this very d oi ng n othin g delight s m e ( wh e n ever I h ave om e , c

[Prese n t Gen eral C on d it ion .
]
1AS in t h e Gre ek 6: a» , t ra ,
y e t c ; an d i n st at u t e s in En glish , wh ere t h e ph rases
.

if an y p e rso n sh all an d wh oever sh all are u se d in d iffe ren t ly .

3 34 S YNTA X : C ON D I TI ONA L S ENTEN C ES 52 1, 522

N O TE — I h se ve ral p h rase s d e n ot in g n e essi ty , p rop ri e t y , Or t h e lik e , t h e I m e r

.
p c
c c c
f ec t , Pe rf e t , or Plu p e rf e t I n di at i ve o f e sse i s u se d i n t h e ap od osis of a on d it i on c
c c
on t rary t o f a t , t h e p rot as is b e i n g i m p li e d i n a su b j e t in fi n i t i ve (c f 5 17
) c . . c
q u an to m eli u s fu ers t p rdm i ssu m DOD e ss e servat u m ( Off iii h ow m u h bet t e r . . c
would i t h ave bee n if th e p rom i se h ad n ot bee n kep t ! [p rOm issu m
se rvat u m = si p rOm i ssu m n On e sse t se rvat u m ]

m ori p raec laru m fu i t ( A t t v iii 2 i t wou ld h ave be e n h on orable t o di e

. . .

c
.

s e d e rat aeq u i u s Tri ari u m aliqu id d é d i ss en sion e n ost rai ud i are ( Fin i i bu t i t . .

wou ld be m ore e q u i t able if Tri ari u s p asse d j u dg m en t on ou r d i sp u t e [Tri

c
.

ariu m iud i are = si Triariu s i ndic are t ]

sat i u s fu it am i t t ere m i lit es ( lu v u i t wou ld h ave be en be t t er t o lose t h e sold i ers
. .
.

[am i t t e re Si am i sisse t ]
Th e c on d it ion m ay b e c on t ain e d in a w i sh O
b .
( p t j
a t i ve S u b u n c t iv e
),
r
or e xp ess e d as an e x h ort at ion or c om m an d ( H ort a t or
y S u
bj u n c t i ve

or I m p e ra t ive)
u ti n am q u id e m f u i sse m ! m olest u s n ob i s n On e sse t ( F am . xu . I wi sh I
had been [c h ie f] : he wou ld n ot n ow be trou blin g u s ( i . e . if I h ad b e en ) .

Su b j u n t ive ]
[Op t at ive c
c
n at uram e xp e llas fu r a, t am e n usqu e re c u rre t
( H or Ep i JO drive ou t . . . .

c
n at u re with a p it hf ork, st i ll she wi ll ever retu rn [H ort at ory ] . .

rogé s e n i m A rist On e m , n e ge t ( F in iv f or ask A risto, he wou ld d en y . . .

m an e n t in ge m a s e n ib us , m o d o p erm an eat st u diu m e t in d u st ria ( C at M

'

. .

old m en keep t he i r m en tal p owers , on ly let t hem keep t heir z e al an d d i li

c
g en e 52 8 .
[ H o rt at ory .
]
t olle ha c n op i n iOn e m ,
luc t u m sus t uleris (Tu sc . i . rem ove t h is n oti on , an d

y ou wi ll have d on e away wit h gri ef .

[I m p erat ive ]
N O TE .
— Th e c
s o- alle d Con c c
S u bj u n t i ve wi t h u t an d n é of t en h as t h e f or e
essi ve c
of p rot asis 527 a N ) . . . as , — u t e n im rat ion e m Plato n fi llam ad ferret , ip s aau c t Ori t at e
m e f ran g e re t ( Tu sc i . . e ven if P lat o g ave n o re as on s , [st i ll] h e would ove r p ower
m e by h is m ere au th ori ty .

c . r
R a ely t h e c on d it ion t ak e s t h e f orm of an i n d ep en d en t c laus e :

ri dé s : m aiore c ach i n n o c on c u t it u r
(Inv . i ii .
y ou lau gh ; he shakes wit h
loud er lau ght er if y ou lau gh , h e sh ak es) .

com m ove : se n t e ( Tu s
i s c iv s r h
t i i m up , [a d ] y ou llj ind , e t c
. n .
’
.

as p au p ert at e ag it u r : m u lt i p at ie n tes p au p eres c om m e m oran t u r ( id iii . .

we sp eak of p overty ; m an y p at i ent p oor are m en ti on ed .

F or C on dit ion al R elat ive C lau ses , se e 5 19, 520 .

Con dit ion Om it t ed

522The Pr ot asis is oft e n wholly om it t e d bu t m ay be in fe rr e d

.

from t he c ou r se o f t h e argu m e n t
p ot erat Se xt iliu s i m p un e n e gare : qu is e n i m re d argu e re t
( Fin . S e xt i lius
n.

m ight have d en i ed with i m p u n it y ; f or who wou ld p rove him wrong ( if h e

h ad d en ie d ) ?
 522 , 52 3 ] C O MPLE X C O N D I TI O N S 3 35

a. In r
e xp e s sion s S ign ify in g n ec es si ty , p rop ri e t y, an d t he like , t h e
I n di c at iv e m ay be u se d in t h e ap od os is of im p lie d c on d it ion s, e it h e r
fu t u re or c on t a y t o f ac t r r '

c
q u od on t ra dec u it ab illo m e u m [ o rp u s c re m ari ] ( C at c . M . whereas on

the other han d m in e ou ght to have bee n bu rn t by h im .

n am n os dec é bat d om u m lfi gé re u b i e sse t aliqu is in luc e m ed it u s ( Tu se i . .

f or it were fi tt in g f or u s to m ou rn the hou se where a m an has been

born ( b u t we d o n ot ) .

q uan t o m e li u s fu e rat ( O ff iii how m u h bett er i t wou ld have been

. . c .

illu d erat apti u s , ae q uu m c u iqu e on ed e re ( Fin i v c c

it wou ld be m ore j it . .

ting to y i eld e ac h on e h is rights .

ip su m e n im e xsp e c t are m agn u m fu it ( Ph il . n . wou ld it have bee n a great

m atter to wait f or the m an hi m se l
f?
lon gu m e st ea di c e re , se d ( S e st . i t wou ld be t ed iou s t o tell, et c .

[Fu t u re
c c
N O TE 1 — I n t h is on st ru t ion , t h e I m pe rfe t I n d i at ive re fe rs to p rese n t t im e ;
. c c
c
t h e Plu pe rfe t t o S im p le p as t t i m e , lik e t h e Pe rf e t Th u s op ort é bat m e an s i t ou g h tc .

t o be [n ow] , bu t is n ot ; oport u erat m e an s i t ou g h t t o h ave bee n , bu t was n ot .

c
N O T E 2 — I n m an y ases it is i m p ossib le t o s ay w h e t h e r a p rot as is w as p re se n t
.

t o t h e m i n d of t h e S p e ak e r or n o t ( se e t h ird e x am p le ab o ve ) .

Com plex Con dit ion s

523 . Eit he r t h e Pro t as is o r t he A p o dosis m ay be a c om p le x ide a

in w hi c h t h e m ain s t at e m e n t is m ade w it h r
e x p ess e d or im p lie d
q u alifi c at ion s . In su c h c as es t he t ru e logic al re lat ion of t he
r
p a ts is som e t im es disgu ise d
Si q u is h b ru m d ixisse t si verb u m d e re p ubli a fec iss e t m u lt a p inra c
d ixisse q u am d i x isse t p u t aret u r ( R ose A m if an y of these had sp oken , . .

c
i n ase he had said a word abou t p oli ti s he wou ld be thou ght to have said c
mu ch m ore than he d id say .
[H e re t h e ap od os is of dixis s e t is t h e wh ole
of t h e f ollowin g st at em e n t (S i p u t arewr) , whi h is it s elf c c on dit ion e d

b y a p rot asis of it s own : s i verb u m ,

q u od S i in h Oc m u n d o ne ri S in e d e b n On p ot e st , h e in S p h ae rs qu id e m e Osde m
m etus d i vin e in ge n io p ot u isse t im it ari ( Tu so i
S in e n ow if t hat c an . .

n ot be done i n t his u n iverse withou t d ivin e ag en y , no m ore ou ld [A r h i c c c

m e d e s] in his orrery have i m itat ed the sam e revolu ti on s withou t divin e
gen iu s [H e re s i p ot e s t ( a p rot as is wit h n ot h in g i m p lie d ) h as for it s
.

ap od os is t h e wh ole c c
lau s e whi h follows , b u t pot u i s se t h as a on t rary c
c
t o-fa t p rot asis of it s o wn im p lie d in s i n e . . in geni o .

p er c am m ale S i n On op t im u m e rat ( Hor S . . c on ou n d

f me ( m ay I
h
p e ris w re t h c
e dly ) if i t wou ld n t be bett er
’
[H e re pe ream is ap od osis t o .

c
t h e res t of t h e se n t e n e , wh ile t h e t ru e p rot asis t o optim u m erat , on t rary c
c
t o fa t , is om it t e d ]
336 S Y NTAX : C ON DI TI ON AL S ENTEN C ES [5 1
52 5

Clau se s of Com pa ison r ( Conc lu sion Om it t ed)

524 . C on dit ion al C lau se s of C om p ari son t ake t h e S u bj u n c t iv e ,

u s u ally in t h e P r e s e n t or P e r fe c t u n less the se
qu e n c e of t e n se s
re qu ires t h e I m p e fe c t r or Plu p e rfe c t .

Su c h c lau se s are in r od u c e d by t h e c om p arat iv e p art ic le s t am qu am

t ,

t am qu am si, qu as i, ac si u t ,
i velu t s i ( lat e r velu t ) p oe t i c ceu ( all m ean
s , ,
~

in g as if ) , an d by qu am Si
( t h an if )
t am qu am cl
A sia ( Fam x ii
au sa sit as if A s ia were losed . . c .

t am q u am S i c lau du s s im ( Pl A sin j us t as if I were lam e

. . .

it a h es [h on OreS ] p e t u n t , q u as i h on e st é vix eri n t ( I u g t hey . seek them

( offi c es) j u st as if they had lived hon orably .

qu as i vero n dn S pe c i di c en t ur ( A ad ii
ie vi s a ir c . . as if f orsooth visible thin gs
were n ot j u dged by the ir app earan c e .

S im ilit e r fac is ac si m e rog é s ( N D iii . . .

y ou d o exac tly as if y ou asked m e .

c rfi d é li t at e m h orrere n t v e lu t S i oram c ade s s e t ( B G i t hey dread ed h is

. . .

crue lty ( t h ey said ) ,

as if he were p resen t in p erson .

h i e in ge n t e m p ugn am c ern im u s c eu et e ra n u squ am b ella f oren t ( A e n ll c . .

here we saw a great batt le , as if there were n o fi ght in g elsewhere .

[B u t
som e t im es wit h t h e in di at ive in p oe t ry , as id v c . .

m agis a m e ab esse vid eb are qu am S i d om i e s s es ( A t t . vi .

y ou seem ed to
be abse nt f rom m e m ore t han if y ou were at hom e .

N O TE 1 — c c
Th es e su b j u n t i ve lau ses are re ally f u t u re on dit ion s wi t h ap od osi s
. c
i m p lie d in t h e p art i le i t se lf c Th u s i n t am qu am Si c lau d u s sim t h e p rot asi s i s in t rod u ed
. c
b y Si , an d t h e apod osis im p lie d i n t am q u am .

N O TE 2 — Th e En glish idiom w ou ld le ad u s t o e xp e t t h e I m p e rf e t an d Plu pe rfe t

. c c c
c c c
S u b j u n t ive ( on t rary t o fa t ) wit h t h e se p art i le s ; b u t t h e poin t of vie w is d iff e ren t c
in t h e t wo lan gu ages c
Th u s t h e se on d e xam p le ab o v e i s t ran slat e d j u st as if I we re
.

c c
lam e , — as if it we re a p re sen t on d it i on on t rary t o fa t ; b u t i t re ally m e an s j u s t as c
[it w ou ld b e] if I sh ou ld [at som e f u t u re t im e] be lam e , an d so is a le ss v ivi d fu t u re
c on dit ion re qu irin g t h e Pre s e n t S u b j u n t i v e c
S im ilarly qu asi h on est e vi xeri n t , as if .

t h ey h ad li ved h on orably , is re ally as [t h ey w ou ld d o i n t h e f u t u re] if t h ey sh ould h ave

li ved h on orably an d so re qu ire s t h e Perfe t S u b j u n t ive 516 ) c c . c .

a. Even r r
p im a y t en se, t h e I m mrf e c t or Plu p e rfe c t Su b
af t e r a

j u n c t ive ( c on t ra ry t o f a c t
) i s of te n u s ed in c on di t ion al c lau se s of

c om p arison :

ac q u e at e p e t o ac Si m e a n egOt ia ess en t (Fam . xn i . I e nt reat y ou as m u h c

as i t were m y own bus i n ess
if .

eius n e got ium si c ve lim s u sc ip ias u t S i e s s e t res m e a ( id v . n

. 20 . I wou ld
were m y afi arir
'

have y ou u n dertake his bu si n ess as t hou gh it .

c c
N O TE - Th e p ra t i e d iffers wi t h t h e d i ff ere n t p art i le s Th u s in C ic e ro a lau se
. c . c
wit h t am qu am or quasi alm ost alway s ob se rve s t h e seq u en e of t e n ses, but wit h qu am ei c
c
t h e I m pe rf e t or Plu pe rfe t is t h e ru le c .
338 S Y NTA X : C ON C ESS I VE C L A U SES 525- 52 7

d . S in , bu t if, of t e n i n t r odu c e s a su p p osit ion c on t a r ry to on e t h at

p re c ed e s
a ccu at s or iliu m d efen d e t p ot e rit sin m in u s p ot e rit , n e gab it ( I n v n
si . .

t he ac c u ser will d ef en d hi m if he c an ; bu t if h e an n ot , he will d en y c .

e. Ni si i s O f t e n u se d loose ly by t h e c om i c p oet s in t h e s en se of on ly
wh en a n e gat iv e
( u su ally n esc io i s e xp re ss e d, o r e as ily u n d e rst ood, in
)
t h e m ain c lau s e

n es c io : ni s i m e d ix isse n em in i c ert o s c io ( T er . Ph . I don ’t kn ow on ly

I am su re t hat I have n t told an y body

’
.

C ON CES S I VE C LAUS ES

5 2 6 Th e c c i id i t h g
. on e ss ve dg l dt k
e a s ra i ty f f m e r va u e an e n era , an a es a var e o or s,
ea c h f wh i c h h i t d i t i c t h i t y S m t i m c c i i p
o as s s n s or d by t h H . o e es on e ss on s ex re sse e or

t t
a or y S bj ct i i
u un t c g m m t ic lly i d p d t
ve n a sen en eb t it i m ra a a n e en en u s ore

f q
re t ly
u en d m p c i ly
an p d by
ore d p re d t cl
se i t d c d by
ex re s s e a e en en au s e n ro u e a c on
i
c es s ve p t icl Th c c
ar ie .f c li ch i fly i t h C j ct i (wh ich
e on e ss v e or e es e n e on u n on s are
i d fi it
n e n c dit i l i igi ) d i ft m d cl
e or on on a n or by d
n ti, p an s O en a e e are r an a v e rsa ve ar
i l (t m
t c e a t é) i t h m i c l
on , c e r A th S bj
n e ct i m y b
a n d i i d p d
au s e . S e u un ve a e us e n n e en

en t cl t
au se s p c c i i t i l m p l y d i c c i cl
o ex re ss a on ess on , d s a so e o e n on e s s ve au ses , an
som wh t m
e a f q t ly t h
ore t h i d ic t i
re u en an e n a ve .

52 7 Th e Par t ic les of C on c e ss ion ( m e an in g alt h u g h g ran t in g

. o ,

t hat ) are qu am vi s , ut , lic et , et s i , t am et si , et iam si , qu am qu am , an d cu m .

S om e of t h e se t ake t he S u b j u n c t iv e , ot h e s r t he I n dic at i ve , ac

co rdin g t o t he n at u re of the c lau se whic h e ac h in t ro du c es .

Qu am vi s an d u t t ak e t h e Su b j u n c t iv e :

q u am vi s ip si i n f an t es S in t , t am e n ( O r . however in cap abl eo f sp eaki n g

they them selves m ay be, y et , e t c .

qu am vi s s c e le rat i illi f u i s se n t (D e Or i . . h oweve r g u i lty t he y m ight have

been .

qu am vi s c om i s c
in am i is t u e n d is f u e rit ( F in . n . am i able as he m ay have
been i n keep in g his f rien ds .

u t D em in e m aliu m rog asset ( Mil even if he had asked n o ot her . .

‘
at en i m n On e ic i as qu od v i s , t am en m ors u t m alu m n On S it e ffi c i es ( Tu sc i
fi . .

f or even if y ou d o n ot a om p lish what y ou wish, still y ou wi ll p rove cc

t hat de at h i s n ot an evi l .

u t rat ion e m Plat o n ullam adfe rre t ( id . i . thou gh P lato add u c ed n o reasons .

N O TE — Qu am vi s m e an s lit e rally as m u h as y ou will Th u s i n t h e fi rst e x am ple

. c .

c
ab ove , le t t h e m be as i n ap able as y ou wi ll, st ill, e t c Th e s u b j u n t ive wit h q uam vi s . c
is h ort at ory , lik e t h at Wit h n é 440) t h at wit h u t ( u t mi n ) i s of u n e rt ain origin c .

b . Licet , alt hou g h , t ak e s t h e P res e nt or Pe f e c t S u r bj u n c t ive .

lic e t o m n es m ihi t e rrores p e ri c u laq u e i m pe n de an t ( B ose . Am . though all .

t errors and p eri ls shou ld m en ac e m e .

g 527 ] C ON C ESSI VE C LA U S S E 339

N O TE Li ce t is p rope rly a verb in t h e p re se n t t e n se , m e an in g i t is g ran te d

. . He n e . c
c c
t h e s u b j un t i ve i s b y t h e se q u e n e of t e n s e s lim it e d t o t h e Prese n t an d Pe rfe t Th e c .

c on c essive c
lau se wit h li ce t i s h ort at ory in orig in , b u t m ay b e re gard ed as a e n b et s u
c
t i ve lau se se rvin g as t h e su b j e t of t h e im p e rson al v e rb c 565 N . .

c . Et s i, et iam si , t am et si, e ven if, t ak e t h e s am e c on st u c t ion s as S i r

( se e 5 14 )
e t si abe s t m aturit as , t am e n n On e s t in ut ile ( F am . vi . 18 . thou gh rip en es s

o is wan t in g, y et i t i s n ot u seless , e t c
f age .

e t si n u m q u am d u b iu m f u it , t am e n p e rsp ic io ( id v . . alt hou g h it ha s n ever

been dou btfu l, y et I p er ei ve, e tc c .

e t si s t at u eram ( id v thou gh I had d eterm in ed

. . .

e t si n ih il ali u d ab s t u li s s é t is , t am en c on t en t b s vos e ss e op orteb at ( Su ll .

even if y ou had taken away n ot hi n g els e , y ou ou ght t o ha ve been sat isfi ed .

e tiam s i q u od s c ri b as n On h ab é bi s , se ri b it o t am en ( F am x vi even if y ou . .

[sh all] have n othing to writ e, sti ll writ e .

s e d e a t am e t s i vOs p arvi pe n dé bat is ( S all C at 52 . . . bu t althou gh y ou reg arded

those things as of sm all a ou n t cc .

N OTE 1 .
— Tam et si wit h c
t h e s u b j u n t ive i s ve ry rare .

N O T E 2 — A p ro t asi s wit h Si oft e n h as a o n e ssive for e : as, -e g o , sl e sse nt inj

. c c c
m i e it iae m ihi c u m C C ae sars , t am e h h Oc t e m p ore rei p fi blic ae c On su le re
. d é b é re m
( Prov C on s . as f or m e , e ven if I h ad p ri vat e qu arrels wi t h C a
. es ar, i t would s ti ll

b e m y d u t y t o se rve th e best i n t erest s of t he s t ate at this ri sis c .

d .
Quam qu am , a lt h ou gh , in t rodu c e s an a d m i t t ed f ac t an d t ake s t h e
I n d ic at i ve
om n ib u s — qu am qu am ru itips e su is c ladib u s — p e s t e m d en un t iat ( Ph il . x iv .

t hou gh he i s breaki n g down u n d er h is d is asters , st ill he t hreat ens all

wit h d est ru c tion .

N OT E — Quam qu am m ore om m on ly m e an s an d ye t , i n t rod u in g a ne w p rop osi t io n

. c c
c
i n t h e in di at ive : as , — quam qu am h ae c
q u ide m i am t ole rab ilia v i d éban t u r, e t si , e t c .

( Mil . an d ye t t h ese , i n t ru t h , seem e d n ow be arable , t h ou gh , e t c .

e. Th e p oe t s an d lat e r writ e rs f re qu e n t ly u se qu am vi s an d qu am
qu am lik e et si, c on n e c t in g t h e m wit h t h e I n d i c at iv e or t h e S u bju n c
t iv e , ac c ordin g t o t h e n at u re of t h e c on dit ion :

q u am quam m ov é ré t ur ( Liv xxx vi . . he was m oved

althou gh .

Pollio am at n os t ram , qu am vi s e st c
rus t i a, m us am
( Ee l iii . . P ollio loves
m y m us e, t hou gh she is ru sti c .

qu am vi s p e rvé n e ras Li
( v . n . thou gh y ou had c om e .

f . Ut , as , wit h t h e I n d i c at ive , m ay b e e qu iv ale n t to a c on c es s ion

veru m u t e rrare pe t ulat i , sic d ec ip i t e n On p ot u iss e q u is n b n vide t ( F am x . .

20 . su p p ose
y ou c ou ld have be en m i staken , who does not see t hat y ou
c an not have been d e ci e ved i n t hi s way i
’

c c
F o r c u m on e s si ve , se e § 549 ; for q u i on e ss i ve , se e § 535 c c . e . Fo r c c
on e ssion e x

c
pre sse d b y t h e H ort at ory S u b j u n t i ve ( n e g at ive u s) , se e § 440 .
34 0 S Y NTA X : C LA U S ES O F PR OVI SO 528- 53 1

CLAUS ES OF PROVI S O

528 . Du m , m odo, du m m odo, an d t an t u m ut , in t r odu c in g a Pr ov is o,

t ake t h e S u b j u n c t iv e . Th e ne
gat iv e wi th t h e se p ar t ic les is né

( Off i
Od e rin t d u m m e t u an t . . let t hem hat e if on ly t hey f ear , .

valet ud o m odo b on a s it ( Bru t .

p rovided t he health be good .

dum m odo in t e r m e at q u e t e m uru s in t ers it ( C at i p rovid ed . . on ly the wall

( of t h e it y) is bet ween u s c .

t ant u m u t s c i an t A
( tt . xvi . 11 .
p rovid ed on ly they know .

m odo né s it p ec u d u m gen e re
ex ( Off i . .
p rovided [in p le asure ] he be
n ot o f the herd of att le c .

id f ac iat s as p e , du m né lassu s f i at ( C at o R . R . v. let h im d o t his of ten ,

p rovi ded he d oes n ot g et ti red .

du mm odo e a (se verit as) n é v ari et u r ( Q F r i l . . . .

p rovid ed on ly it ( st ri ct n ess )
be n ot allowed to s werve .

t an t u m n é n oce at
( Ov M . . ix . on ly let it d o no harm .

N O TE .
— Th e S u b j u n ct i ve w it h m od o i s h ort at ory o r Op t at i ve t h at wit h dum
’

an d
d u m m od o, a d e ve lop m e n t f rom t h e u se o f t h e S u b j u n c t iv e wi t h d u m in t e m poral lau se s , c
( c om p are the c olloqu i al s o lon g as m y h ealt h i s g ood , I d on t
’
c are) .

a. Th e H ort at ory S u bj u n c t i ve w it h ou t a r
p a t ic le s o m e t im e s e x

p re s se s a p rov iso
S in t Maec en at es n On d e e ru n t Marc h es ( Mart
, . vi ii . 56 . so t here be Mcec e
n ases Vi rgi ls wi ll n ot be lac kin g
, .

b . Th e S u bj u n c t iv e w it h u t ( n e gat iv e u s) is som e t im e s u se d t o de
n ot e a p rov i so, u su ally wit h i t a in t h e m ain c lau se :
i

p rob at a c on d ic iO e s t , se d it a ut ille p raesidia dé dfi c e re t ( A t t vu 14 l) , the . . .

term s were app roved , bu t on ly on c

on d it ion t hat h e shou ld withd raw t he

garrison s .

N O TE . Th is i s a d e velop m e n t of t he c on st ru ct i on of C h ara t e rist i c c or R e su lt .

For a lau se c of C h ara t e rist i c c e xp re ssin g Prov iso , see 5 35 d

. .

CLAUS ES OF PURPOS E ( FI N AL C LAUS ES )

529 . Th e S u b j u n t iv e i n t h e c cl au se of P u rp os e is h ort at ory i n orig in , c om in g

t hrou gh a k i n d of i n d ire t d is c c ou rse c c

on st ru t ion ( f o r wh i h se e c Th u s , m i si t
c
, _

i t bs q u i di c e re nt m e an s h e sen t am bassad ors wh o sh ou ld say , i s wh o

lé ga . . we re di re t ed
c
to say ; i n t h e di re t ord e rs t h e v e rb wou ld b e di c it e , whi h wou ld b e om e d i c an t i n t h e
'

c c
c
I n dire t D is c ou rse of n arrat i ve 5 88) or d i c e ren t i n th e p ast ( c f h ort at ory s u b j u n ve . ct i
i n p as t t e n se s , § 439 . b) . Th e S u b j u n t ive c w it h u t an d h e i s , in g en e ral, S im ilar in
ori g i n .

53 0 A . c lau se e xp essi n r gp p ur ose is c alle d a Fin al C lau se .

53 1 . Fin al C lau se s t ak e t h e S u b j u n c t iv e in t r oduc e d by u t (u t i) ,

ne
g at ive né
( u t né
) ,
or by a R e lat iv e Pr on o u n or A d v e rb :
3 42 S YN TA X : C LA US ES OF P UR POSE 53 2 , 533

53 2 . The p rin c ip al c lau s e , on wh ic h a fi n al c lau s e de p e n ds , is

oft e n t o be s u p p lie d fro m t h e c on t e x t :
ac n e lon gu m s it iu ssim u s ( C at iii . . an d , n ot t o be ted iou s , we ordered ,

[ S t
e tc . c
ri t ly , i n ord er n ot to be ted i ou s, I say we ord ered ]

s e d u t ad D ion ysiu m re d e am us ( Tu sc v bu t t o retu rn to D i on y siu s . . .

se d u t e od e m re ve rt ar, c
au sa h ae f u it t im Oris ( F am vi 7 bu t , t o ret u rn c . . .

to the sam e p oi nt , this was the ause of f ear c .

c c
.

sat is in onsi d e rat i fu it , n e d ic am au d a ie ( Phil x iii it was the ac t of on e . .

rash en ou gh , n ot to say dari n g .

N O TE 1 — By a s im ilar ellip sis t h e S u b j u n t ive is u se d wit h n éd u m (som e t im e s u s) ,

. c
s t ill le ss, n ot t o m e n t ion t h at :
n é d um salvi esse p ossi m u s ( C lu m u h less ou ld we be saf e . c c .

n é d u m ist i n On st at im c on qui si t uri S i n t aliq u id sc e le ris e t fl ag it i ( Le g Ag r ii . . .

f ar m ore will t h ey h u n t up at on e som e sort of ri m e an d s an d al c c c .

n éd u m in m ari e t v ia S i t f a ile ( F am xv i c
st i ll less i s i t e asy at se a an d on a . .

j ou rn ey .

q u ipp e se c u n d ae ré s s ap ie n t i u m u n im os
f at i g an t ; n é illi c orru p t i s m erib u s vic
t Oriae t em pe rare n t ( Sall C at f or p rosp e ri t y overm as ters th e sou l eve n
. .

of th e c
wise ; m u h less di d th e y wi th th ei r orrup t m orals p u t an y h e k on c c c
vi t oryc .

N O TE 22 .
— W it h n é dum the v e rb it self i s o ft e n om it t e d : as , — ap t iu s h um an it at i
t u ae q u am tot a Pelopon n es u s , n é d u m Pat rae ( Fam . v 11 28 . .
f or you r refi n e
m en t th an all P elop on n esu s , t o say n othi n g of P at rae .

For S u b st an t ive C lau se s in volvi n g p u rp ose , se e 56 3—566 .

533 . Th e P u rp os e of an ac t ion is e xp esse d r in Lat in in v ariou s

ways ; bu t ne v e r (e x c e pt in idiom at ic e xp e ssi on s an dr rar ely in
p oe t ry) by t he
‘

S im p le I n fi n it iv e as in En glish
Th e se n t e n c e , t h ey c am e to se e k p e ac e, m ay b e re nd er e d
( 1) p a e m p e t e re n t
ven eru n t u t c
[Fin al c lau s e wit h u t 53 1 . .

c
( 2) vé n é ru n t qu i p a e m p e te re n t [F inal c lau se wit h R e lat ive 53 1 . .

( 3 ) [ven eru n t ad p e t en du m p ac e m ] N ot fou n d wit h t ran sit ive ve rb s ( § 506 .

,

N b u t c f ad p are n du m s e n at u i
. .
[Ge ru n d wit h ad .

4 d t n d am p ac e m [Geru n d ive wit h ad

( ) ve n eru n t a p e e .

n t p ac e m p e t e n d i c aus a ( gra i
( )
5 v en eru t a) [Ge m of Ge ru n d wit h c au s a .

504 .

( 6) ven é ru n t c
p a is pe t en d ae ca u sa.
( g rat ia) .
[ Ge n . of Ge ru n d ive wit h san d

504 .

( 7) ven eru n t p a e m p e t it uri c .

[F u t u re p art ic iple 499 . in lat e r writ ers ]
(8) ven eru n t p ac em p e t it u m .
[Su p in e in u m -

Th e se form s are n ot u se d in d iffe r en tly , bu t

a. The u su al way of e xp re s sin g u
p pr os e i s by ut
( n e gat i ve né
) ,

r
le ss t h e p u p ose i s c lose ly c on n ec t ed wi t h som e on e word, in wh ic h
r
c ase a e lat iv e is m o e c om m on r
 ass- 53 5] CLA U S ES OF C H A R A C TERI STI C 3 43

legat os D u m n orige m m it t u n t , u t e o d ep re c at Ore a S equ an is im pe t rare n t

ad

(B G i
. t hey sen d en voy s t o Du m n or ix, i n order t hrou gh his i n t erc es
. .

si on to obt ain ( t h is favor) f rom the S equ an i .

m i lit es m isit qu i f uge ran t p e rs e q u e re n t u r ( id

u t e OS . v . he sen t t he sol

d iers to f ollow up those who had fled .

C urio p rae m i t t it e qu it es qu i p ri m u m im p e t u m su st in e an t ( B C . . 11
. C u ri o
c
sen ds f orward avalry to withstand t he fi rst attac k .

b . Th e Ge ru n d Ge ru n dive c on st r u c t ion s O f p u rp o se are u s u ally

an d

lim it e d t o S h or t e xp re ss ion s, wh e r e t h e lit e r al t ran slat ion , t h ou gh n ot

t he En gli sh id iom , is n e ve rt he le s s n ot h ar sh or st ran ge .

c Th e Su p in e i s u sed t o e xp re ss p u rp ose on ly w it h v e rb s O f m ot ion ,

.

an d in a fe w id iom at ic p re ss ion s
ex

d . Th e F u t u re P art i c ip le u sed t o e xp e s s r pu rp ose is a lat e c on

st ru c t ion of i n f e ior r au t h orit y 4 99 .

c
F or t h e p oe t i al I n fi n it ive of Pu rp ose , se e § 460 . c . For t h e Presen t Part i ip le in c
c
a se n se ap p roa h in g t h at O f p u rpo se , see § 490 3 . .

CLAUS ES OF CHARAC TERI S TI C

534 . Th e cl c c
C h ara t e rist i wit h t h e S u b j u n t ive is a de velop m e n t
re lat i ve au s e o f c
c
p e u liar t o Lat in c
A re lat i ve lau se in t h e I n d i at ive m e rely st at es som e t h i n g as a
. c
c c
f ac t Wh ic h is t ru e of t h e an t e e d e n t ; a h ara t e rist i lau se ( in t h e S u b j u n t i ve)
’
c cc c
c
defin e s t h e an t e e d e n t as a pe rson or t h in g of su h a h ara te r t h at t h e st at e m e n t c c c
m ad e i s t ru e o f h im or i t an d of all ot h e rs b e lon gi n g t o t h e s am e lass Th u s , n on c .

pot est exerci t u m i s c on t i n é re im pe rat or qu i sé i pse nbn c on t in et ( i n di at ive) m e an s s i m p ly , c

c
t h at om m an de r wh o d oes n o t ( as a f a t ) re st rai n hi m sel c
f an n ot re st rai n his arm y ; c
wh e re as n bn pot est exerc i t u m i s c on t i n é re im p erat or qu i sé i p se n bn c on t i n eat ( su b j u n t ive ) c
c
wou ld m e an , t h at om m an d er wh o i s n ot su h a m an as t o rest rai n h i m s elf , e t c , c .

t h at is , wh o is n ot h ara t e ri zed by sel c

f c
-rest rai n t .

c c
Th is on st ru t ion h as its o rigi n i n t h e p ot en t i al u se of t h e su b j u n t ive c
Th u s , i n t h e e xam p le j u s t gi ve n , q u i Se i pse n bn c on t in eat wou ld m e an lit e rally , wh o
would n ot re st rai n hi m self ( in an y s u p p osab le ase ) , an d t h i s p ot e n t ial id e a p asses c
o ve r e as ily in t o t h at o f g en e ral q u ali t y o r h ara t e ri s ti c
Th e h ara t e riz in g f o r e c c . c c c
is m ost e asily f e lt wh e n t h e an t e e d e n t i s i n d e fi n it e or g e n e ral c B u t t h is u s ag e is .

e x te n d e d i n Lat in t o c c
ase s wh i h d i ffe r b u t sligh t ly f rom st at e m e n t s Of fa t , as in c
som e of t h e e x am ple s b e low
c c
.

Th e u se of t h e S u b j u n t iv e t o e x p re ss Re su lt om e s f rom i t s u se in C lau se s o f
c
C h ara t e rist i c
Th u s , n dn sum i t a h eb e s u t haec di cam m e an s lit e rally , I am n ot d u ll
.

c
i n t h e m an n er ( d e g re e) i n whi h I sh ould s ay t his , h e n e , I am n ot so d u ll as t o say c
t his . c c c c
S in e , t h e n , t h e h ara t e ris t i of t e n ap pe ars i n t h e fo rm o f a supp ose d resu lt ,
c c
t h e on st ru t ion re ad ily p asse s ove r in t o P u re R e su lt , w it h n o id e a of h ara t e ri st i ; c c c
as , t an t u s in c uri a c lam or fact u s est u t pop ulu s c on cu rreret ( Ve rr i i su h an ou t cry . . c
was m ad e i n t h e sen at e-h ouse th at th e p eop le h u rri e d t oge th e r .

535 A R elat iv e C lau se w it h t h e S u bj u n c t iv e is oft e n u se d t o

.

in dic at e a c harac t eristic of t h e an t e c e de n t , esp ec ially whe re t h e

an t ec e de n t is o th e r wis e wn defi n ed
 S Y NTA X : C LA U S ES OF C H AR A C TER I S TI C

n e q u e e n im t u is es qu i as s ei as ( F ain . v . 12 .
f or y ou are n ot su ch a one as

n ot t o kn ow .
[ H e re i s is e q u ivale n t c
t o su h , an d is d e fi n e d on ly by t h e
re lat i ve cl au se t h at f ollows ]
m u lt a d i c u n t q u ae vix in t e lle gam ( Fin . iv . they s ay m an y t hin gs whi h c
( s c
u h as) I hardly u n d erst and .

p a c
i q u ae n ihil h ab it ura s i t in sid iaru m se m p e r est c on su le n d u m
( Off i
. .

we m ust alway s ai m at a p eac e whi h shall have n o p lots c .

a. A R elat iv e C lau se of C h ar ac t e rist ic is u se d af t e r ge n e ral e xp re s

sion s of e xis t en c e or n on -exis t en c e, in c lu d in g q u est ion s whi c h im p ly

a n e gat iv e .

So e sp e c ially wit h s u nt qu i, t h ere a re

[ som e
] wh o ; qu i s est qu i , wh o
is t h e re wh o
aun t qu i d isc e ssu m an im i a orp ore p at e n t ess e m orte m ( Tu sc i c there are . .

som e who thi n k t hat the d ep artu re of sou lf rom body on stit u t es d eat h c .

e ran t qu i c é n s é re n t ( B C i i there were som e who were of the op in ion , e t c

. . . .

e ran t qu i H e lvid iu m m i s e rare n t u r ( Tac . Ann . xvi . t here were som e who
p it ied H elvid ius [C f e s t c u m ( N .
3
. .
,

qu i s e stqu i id n on m ax im is e tr et at lau d ib u s Lae l

( . who is there that d oes
n ot ext ol it wit h the h ighe st p rai se

n ih il vid e oqu od t im e am ( F ai n. ix 16 . . I see n othi n g to f ear .

n ih il est qu od ad ve n t u m n ost ru m e xti m é s c as F

( ain . ix 26
. . t here i s n o rea

son why y ou
dread m y om i ng shou ld c .

u n de agge r c om p ort arl p os s e t n ihil e rat reliqu u m ( B C n . . . t here was n oth

c
i ng lef t f rom whi h an e m ban km ent ou ld be g ot t ogether c .

N OTE 1 .
— A ft
g e n e ral n e g at iv es lik e n ém b e st q u i , t h e S u b j u n t ive is re g u lar ;
er c
aft e r ge n e ral affi rm at i ve s lik e su n t qu i , i t i s t h e p re v aili n g on st ru t ion , b u t t h e I n d ie c c
cc
at ive som e t i m e s o u rs ; aft er m u lt i ( n a n n fi lli , q u i d am
) su n t qu i , an d s im ilar e xp re s
c c
sion s i n wh i h t h e an t e e d e n t is p art ially d e fi n e d , t h e h oi e of m ood d ep e n d s on t h e c c
c
s h ad e o f m e an in g wh i h t h e w rit e r w i s h e s t o e xp re ss :
su n t bé st iae qu aedam i n qu i b u s i n est aliq u id s im ile v irt ut is ( F i n v th e re are . .

c ert ai n an i m als c
i n whi h t h e re i s m th i g li k so e n e vi rt u e .

Bu t , — in ve n t i m u lt i su n t qu v a r u n e re r a ria parat i e ssen t ( O ff i

i it m p bf d p op t . .

m an y we re f ou n d of su a ch ch ct
ara e r as o e re ad y t o g i ve t h e i r lives f or
t b
t h ei r ou n t ry c .

NO TE 2 -~ C h ara t e rist i
. c cc
lau ses wit h su n t qu i e t c are som e t im e s alled R e lat ive . c
A c
Clau ses wit h an I n d e fi n i t e n t e e d e n t , b u t are t o b e are fu lly d ist in g u ish e d f rom t h e c
I n de fi n i t e R elat i ve in p rot asi s
NO TE 3 — Th e p h rase s e st c u m , fu i t c u m , e t c are u se d lik e e st qu i , su n t q ui : as ,
. .

ac fu it c u m m ih i q u oq u e in i t i u m re qu i é sc e n di fore i fi st u m arb it rarer ( D e O r 1 l) , an d . .

th ere was a t i m e wh e n I th ou gh t a begi n n i n g of rest wou ld be j u st ifi able on m y p art .

b . A R elat i v e C lau se of C h arac t e ri st ic m ay f ollow fi rm s an d s olu s :

n i l ad m i rari p rop e res e s t fi ns .
q u ae p os s it fa e re
sola u e q c e t se rvare b e at u m
( H or . Ep 1 6
. . . to won de r at n othin g i s alm ost t he sole an d on ly th i ng
t hat c an m ake and keep on e hap p y .

s blu s e s e fi i u s c
in Vi t oria c ec iderit n ém o n isi arm at u s (B e lot .
y ou are the
on ly m an in whose vi tory c n o on e has f allen u n less arm ed .
 846 S YN TA X : C LAUSES or R ES ULT 58 54 53 7

id b n eu s qu i im pe t ret ( Man il 5 7 .
fit to obtain .

in d ign i u t re dim eré m u r ( Li v m m . . 59 . u n worthy to be ransom ed .

c c
N O TE 1 — Th is on st ru t ion is som e t im e s e xp lai n e d as a re lat iv e lau se of p u rpose ,
. c
c
b u t i t i s m ore losely re lat e d t o h ara t eris t i c c c .

N O TE 2 — Wit h di gn u s e tc , t h e p oe t s of t en u se t h e I n fi n it ive :
. .

fen s ri vo dare n om e n id On e u s ( Hor Ep i 16 a sou r e fi t t o g ive a n am e t o a . . . . c

st re am .

ae t as m ollis e t ap t a regi ( C v A i . . A
a t i m e of lif e sof t an d e asy t o be g uid e d
. . .

vi v ere di gn u s e ras ( O v M x you we re worth y t o li ve

. . . .

CLAUS ES OF R ES ULT ( CON S ECUTI VE CLAUS ES )

5 36 . Th e S u b j un ti ve in C on se c c C lau se s i s
u t i ve a d e ve lop m e n t of t he u se of t h at
m ood in C lau se s of c
C h ara t e rist i c ( as exp lain e d in

53 7 . C lau s e s of R esu lt t ake t h e Su bj u n c t iv e in t rodu c e d by u t , so

t hat n e at iv e , u t n on , or b r e lat iv e p r on ou n or r elat iv e adv e r b
( g ) y a .

1 . Pu re C lau se s of Re su lt , w it h u t or u t n on , e xp r e ss t he r e su lt of

t h e m ain v e rb in t h e f orm of a m odify in g c lau s e

t an t a vi s p rob it at is est u t c am in h ost e dilig am u s ( Lae l . so great i s t he

p ower of g oodn ess that we love i t even i n an en em y .

p ugn at u r ac ri t e r ad n oviss i m u m agm e n , ad e b u t p ae n e t e rga c on vert an t

( B C i . t h.ere i s.sharp fi ght in g i n the rear, so ( t o su h a d egree ) t hat c
t hey alm ost t ake flight .

m u lt a rum or ad fi n geb at , ut p ae n e b e llu m c On fe c tu m vi dé rét u r ( id 1 . .

ru m or add ed m an y f alse rep orts , s o t hat t h e war see m ed alm ost ended .

2 . R e lat iv e C lau s e s of R e su lt are in t r odu c e d by t h e re lat iv e p ro

n oun qu i or a relat iv e ad v e rb ( u bi, u n de, qu b, Th e an t e c e de n t i s

e xp re ssed or im p lie d in t h e m ain c lau se .

Th e R e lat iv e in t h is c on st ru c t ion i s e qu iv ale n t t o u t wit h t h e c orre

sp on d in g de m on st rat iv e : qu i u t is u bi u t ibi, an d so on

n am e s t in n o c
t alis an im i qu ae n oc e at n em in i ( Tu so i ii
e n t ia affe c t ib . .
f or
c c c
i n n o en e is su h a qu alit y of m in d as to do harm t o n o on e .

su n t alia c a e u s ae qu ae p lan e e ffi ien t ( Top c . t here are oth er ca u ses su ch a s

t o brin g to p ass .

nfi lla qu ae p os s it c u m an im i c ele rit at e on t en d e re ( Tu sc i

est c e leri t as c . .

t here i s n o swiftn ess whi h c an om p are with the swift n ess of the m in d c c .

q ui s n avigavit qu i n on s e m ort is p e ri u lo c om m i t t eret ( Man il who wen t to c .

sea who did n ot in c ur the p eril of death 7

N O TE 1 . c c
S in e t h e re lat ive lau se of R e su lt i s a d e velop m e n t f rom t h e relat ive
c laus e of C h ara t e ri st i c c n o sh arp lin e c an b e d rawn b e t wee n t h e t wo c on st ru c

t ion s . c
I n d ou b t fu l ases, i t is b e t t e r t o at t e m p t n o dis t in t ion or t o d e s rib e t h e lau se c c c
as on e of C h ara t e ri st i c c .

N O TE 2 . C lau s es of Res u lt are oft en in t rodu e d b y su h orrelat ive word s as t am , c c c

ti li s, t ant u s, i t a, si c , ad eb, fi sq u e eb, wh i h b e lon g t o t h e m ain laus e c c .
 63 7 , 588 ] C LA US ES or RESULT 3 47

a. A N e gat ive R e su lt is in t rod u c ed by u t n dn, u t né m b, qu i n dn , e t c , .

n ot by ne z

m u lt is gravib usqu e voln e rib us c On fec t us u t iam se su st in ere n én posse t ( B G . .

ii u sed up wi th m an y severe wou n ds so that he ou ld n o lon g er stan d

. c .

t an t avi in Po m p ei e q u ites im p e t u m f ac eru n t u t e b ru m n é m b cbn s i s t e re t ( B C . .

iii a . m c
they tta ked P o p ey s avalry wit h suc h vig or that n ot one of
’
c
them stood his g rou n d .

n em o es t t am se n e x q ui s e an n u m n an p ut e t p osse vive re ( Cat M . . n obody

is so old as n ot to t hi n k that he c an live a y ear .

N O TE — Wh en t h e resu lt im p lie s a n ej e t i n t e n d ed ( n ot a s im p le p u rp ose ) , u t c 116

or 115 i s som e t im es u s e d as b e i n g le ss p osi t i ve t h an at abu z— [lib ru m ] i t a co rrigas

. n6

m ih i n oc eat ( C as i n a, F am vi 7 c orre t t he book so t h at i t m ay n ot h u rt m e

. . . c c .

b . F r e qu e n tl
y a c lau se of r e s lt
u r
o r c h a ac t e rist ic is u se d in a re

s t ri c t ive s en se , an d so am ou n t s to a P roviso ( c f . 5 35 d ) : .

h bc ita est fi t ile u t n é plan e in lfi dam ur ab ac c us at Orib u s ( R ose A m this . .

is so f ar usefu l that we are n ot u tterly m o ked by the ac u sers ( i s u s e fu l c c . .

on ly on t h is on d it ion , t h at , c
n ih il au t e m est m ole st u m qu od n On d é s i d eré s ( C at M bu t n othing i s . .

t rouble som e whi h c

p rovide d t h at ) y ou do n ot m iss .

c . Th e c lau se of re su lt is som e t im es e xp re sse d in En glish by t h e

I n fi n it i ve wi t h T O or so A S T O or an e q u iv ale n t :

t am lon ge abe ram u t n b n v id é re m , I was too f ar away to see ( so far t hat I

d id n ot s e e ; cf . 53 5 . c) .

N O TE .
—Re su lt is n e v e r e xp re ss ed by the In fi n it iv e in Lat in ex e p tc b y t h e poe t s in
a. fe w p ass ag e s 46 1 . a) .

53 8 . Th e r
c on st u c t ion s of P u rp ose an d R e su lt are p r e c ise ly
alike in t he fi irm at ive
a
( e xc ep t som e t im e s in t en se s e u en c e,
q
4 85 . c
) ; bu t , in t h e n eg at ive, Pu rp ose t ak es 116, Re su lt ut n un

e tc .

c fi st b di t us es t n é e ffu ge re t , he was g u arded i n order that he M I G H T n ot es ap e c .

c us t od i t u s e st u t nan e fi u ge re t , he was gu ard ed so that he m n n ot es ap e c .

S o in n e gat iv e r
P u p ose c lau se s n é qu i s, 116 qu id, n é ii llu s, n é qu d, n é
quan do, n ecu b i, e t c . are alm ost alway s u se d i n n e g at iv e R e su lt c lau se s,
u t n é m b, u t n ihil, u t n ullu s, e t c : .

( 1) c e m e re n é qu i s e 6 s , n eu q u i s c on t in ge re p osse t ( Ae n i . . t hat n o on e

m ight see t hem , n o one to u h them c [Pu rp ose ] .

né quan dali b eri s p rOsc rip t Oru m b on a p at ri a re d d an t u r ( R os c . Am . lest

at som e t i m e t he p at ri m on y f the
o p rosc ribed shou ld be restored to thei r
c
hildren .

ipse né qn b in c i d e rem , re ve rt i F orm ias ( A tt viii 8 . . . t hat I m ight not com e

u p on him an y where, I ret u rn ed to F orm tte .
34 8 S YNTA X : C A U S A L C LA US ES [ gg see—540

d isp osit is e xp lbrat b rib u s n é c u bi R em an i c b p ias t rad uc e ren t (B G. . vu .

havin g stat i on ed s ou ts c here and there i n order that t he R om ans m ight

lead their troop s ac ross an y where
n ot .

c
( 2) m u lt i i ta sun t im b e illi se n es u t n unu m ofii c i m un u s e xse q ui p ossin t ( C at .

M m an y old m en are so f eeble that they an n ot p erf orm an y dut y to

. c
so c i ty
e .
[ R esu lt j
qu i su m m um b on u m si c i n s t it u it u t ni h il h ab e at c um virt ut e c on iun c t u m

who has so sett led t he h ighest good t hat i t has n othin g

( Off . i . in c om

m on with virt u e .

c
For lau se s of Re su lt or C h ara t e rist i wit h qui n c c se e 559 F or S u b st an t ive C lau se s
567 —
.

Res ult , s ee 57 1 .

CAUS AL C LAUS ES

5 3 9 C ausal C lau se s
. t ak e e it h e r t h e I n d i at iv e c or t h e S u b j u n t ive , a c cc ordin g to
t h eir c on st ru ct i on c
; t h e i d e a of au se b e in g on t ai n e d , c n ot i n t h e m ood i t se lf , b u t i n
t h e f orm of t h e arg u m e n t ( b y i m p li at ion ) , in an an t e c c e den t of c
au sal m e an in g (lik e
p rept erea) , or i n c
t h e on n e t in g p art i le s c c .

Qu ed is in orig in t h e relat iv e p ron ou n (ste m qu o u sed ad verb ially in t h e a u sat ive cc

n e u t e r (c f § 214 d ) an d grad u ally s in k in g t o t h e p osi t i on of a
. . olorle ss re lat ive c on c
j u n ct ion (c f En glish . t h at an d p arti le i s an e arly
see .
It s us e as a c au s al c
c
sp e i al d e velop m en t Qu ia i s p e rh ap s an a u sat ive p lu ral n e u t e r of t h e relat ive st e m
. cc
c
q u i an d se e m s t o h av e d e velop e d i t s au sal s e n se m ore d i st in t ly t h an q u od , an d at c
an e arlie r p e ri od I t i s u se d ( ve ry rarely) as an i n t e rrog at i ve , wh y ? ( so in lass i al
. c c
Lat in wit h nam on ly) , an d m ay , lik e qu an db, h ave d e ve lop e d f rom an in t e rrog at i ve t o
’

a re lat iv e p art i le c .

Qu on iam ( for q u om i am ) is also o f re lat ive origi n (qu om b e in g a ase-form of t h e c

p ron om in al st e m q u o cc
I t o u rs in old Lat in i n t h e se n se of wh en ( c f qu om , c u m ) , .

c c
f rom wh i h t h e au sal m e an in g is d e ri ve d ( of c u m au sal) Th e S u b j u n c t ive wi t h q u od . c .

c
an d qu ia d e p en d s on t h e p ri n ip le of I n form al I n di re t D is ou rs e c c
Qu an d b i s p rob ab ly t h e in t e rrogat ive q u am ( h ow om po u n d e d wi t h a f orm of t h e c
p ron om in al st e m ( f m b ) I t origi n ally d e n ot e d t im e ( fi rst in t errog at ively ,
d u d -n ec
do c . .
,

t h e n as a relat i ve) , an d t h u s am e t o sig n i fy au se c

U n lik e q u od an d q u i a, i t i s n ot c .

u se d t o st at e a re ason in in f orm al in d i re t d is ou rs e an d t h e re f ore is n e v e r f ollowed c c

b y t h e S u b j u n t i ve c .

540 Th e C au sal Part ic le s qu od an d qu ia t ake t he I n dic a

. t iv e ,
wh e n t h e re ason is giv e n on t h e au t h orit y of t h e writ e r or
s
p ea ker ; t he S u b j u n c t iv e , wh e n t he r e ason i s g iv e n on the
au t h o rity of an ot her

1 . I n dic at i ve
cum t ib i agam grat ias qu od m e vi ve re c oegis t i ( Att . iii . when I m ay than k
y ou t hat y ou have f or ed m e to live c .

our igit u r p a e m c n eloqu ia t u rp is e s t ( Ph il . vn . why then d o I not wish

f or p ea c e c
B e au se it is disgrac ef u l .

it a fi t u t ad sin t
p rOp t e re a qu od ofi ic i u m t ac e an t au t e m qu ia p e ri
s e q u u n t u r,

c u lu m vi t an t ( R ose A m . . so it happ en s t hat t he y att en d bec au se t hey

f ollow du ty , bu t are si le n t ca
be u se t hey seek t o avoid danger .
350 S Y NTA X : TEMP OR A L C LAU S ES 54 0- 542

b . C au sal c lau se s in t rod u c e d by qu od, qu ia, qu on iam , an d qu an do

t ak e t h e S u bj u n c t ive in I n dire c t D is c ou rse , lik e an y ot h e r d ep e n d e n t
c lau s e
( se e

c . A R e lat iv e , wh e n u se d to e xp re s s c au s e, re gu la rly t ak e s t h e Su b
j u nc t ive ( see 53 5 . e
) .

d . Cu m c au s al t ake s t h e S u b j u n c ti ve ( see
For S u b st an t i ve C lau se s wi t h qu od , se e § 57 2 .

TEMPORAL CLAUS ES
54 1 Te m p oral C lau ses are
. c
i n t rod u e d b y p art i les wh i h are alm ost all of rela c c
t i ve origi n c
Th e y are on st ru e d lik e ot h e r relat ive lau se s, e x e p t wh e re t h e y h ave
. c c
d e ve lope d in t o Sp e ial i diom at i con s t ru t ion s 1 cc c .

F or list of Tem poral Part i le s, s ee p 138 c . .

Te m p oral C lau s es m ay b e c lassifi e d as follows

I C on d it ion al R elat ive C lau se s : u b i , u t , c u m , q uan db, i n Prot as i s
.

II C lau se s wi t h p ost quam , u b i , e t c ( I n di at ive) ,

. . c
1 Cu m t e m poral 545
I I I C lau ses m m c u m
.

2 Cu m au sal or on e ssive . c c c
I V C lau se s wit h an t equ am an d p ri n squ am ( I n di at iv e or S u b j u n t ive)
. c c
V C lau s es wit h d u m , d bn ec , an d qu oad ( I n di at ive or S u b j u n t ive)
. 55 2 c c
Condit ion al R elat ive Clau ses

542 . Th e p art i c le s u bi , u t , cu m , qu an dd, e it h e r alon e or c om

p o u n de d w it h - u m ue
c q , m ay be u se d as I n de fi n it e Re lat iv es ( in t h e
se n se of when ever) , an d h av e t he c on s t u c t ion s of r Pr ot asis ( cf .

c um id m alu m neg as esse , c ap ior ( Tusc . when ever y ou ( t h e in d i

n .

vi du al d is p u t an t ) d en y it t o be an evil, I am m is led [Prese n t gen e ral .

c on d it ion
]
q u od p rofec t b c um m e n ulla vi s c ag eret , fa e re n On au d ere m c ( Ph il . v
.

c
whi h I wou ld s u rely n ot ve ntu re to d o, as lon g as n o f or e c c om p elled me .

c
[Presen t , on t rary t o fa t : c f c .

c u m vide as e b s fran gi , d eb e as e xist i m are , e t c ( Tu sc n

d olOre n dn when . . .

y ou see that those are not broken by p ai n , y ou ought to i nf er, e t c [Pre s .

e n t ge n e ral on dit ion cf c 5 18 a ] . . .

c u m ros am vi derat , t u m in c ip e re ver arb it rab at u r ( Ve rr v 2 7 when ever he saw . .

a rose he t hou ght sp ri n g had begu n [Pas t gen e ral on d it ion c f 518 b ] . c . . .

id u bi di xis set , h ast am in fi n is e c ru m em i t t eb at ( Liv i 3 2 when he had . . .

said this, he wou ld c

ast t he sp ear i nt o t heir t erri tori es [Pa s t Ge n e ral .

C on dit ion , re p e at e d a t ion : se e 518 e ] c . .

1 Wit h all t e m p oral p art i le s t h e c c

S u b j u n t i ve is oft e n fou n d d e p e n d in g on som e

ot h e r p ri n i ple c of c on st ru ct i on .
( S ee I n t e rm ed iat e C lau se s,
 P OS TQUA M, UBI , ETC .

Tem po ral Clau se s wit h p os tqu am , u bi , et c .

Th e p ar t ic le s post qu am ( post eaqu am ) , u bi , u t (u t p ri m u m , ut

sem el
) , s im ul at que
( s im u l ac , o r s im ul alon e ) , t ake t h e I n dic at i ve
( u su ally in t he p erfe c t or t he hist ori c alp resen t ) :
m i lit es p os t qu am vic t Oriam ade pt i s u n t , n ih il re liqu i vi
fec é re ( Sall C at ct i s . .

when the sold iers had won the vi tory , they left n othi n g to the vanqu ished c .

pos t e aquam for um atti gis t i , n ih il fec ist i n isi, e t c ( Fam xv 16 s in e y ou . . . . c

c am e to t he f orum , y ou have d on e n othin g ex ep t , e t c c .

u bi om n is id e m s e n t i re in t ellé xit , p o st e ru m d ie m p fi gn ae c b n st it u it ( B G . .

iii when he
. u n derst ood t hat all agreed t h ou gh t t h e sam e t hin
( g) , he
ap p oi n ted th e n ext d ay f or the battle .

c
C at ilin a, u bi e ds on ven iss e vide t , s ec edi t ( S all C at when C at i lin e sees . .

th at they have om e tog ether, he ret ires c .

Pom p eiu s u t e qu it at u m su u m p u lsu m vi dit , a ie e x c e ssit ( B C iii when c . . .

P om p ey saw h is avalry be ate n , he left the fi eld c .

at se m e l e Pi rae e o eloqu e n t ia é ve c t a e st ( B ru t . as soon as eloqu en e c had

set sail rom f the P irceu s .

n ost ri s im u l in arid o c bn sti t é ru n t , in h ost i s i m p e t u m fec eru n t (B G . . IV .

ou rm en , as soon as t hey had taken a p osit ion on dry g rou n d , m ad e an

c
atta k on the e n em y .

s im u l at qu e in trbd u c t u s e s t , re m c b n fec it ( C lix . as soon as he was brou ght

i n , he di d the j ob .

a Th e se p art ic le s le ss
. c om m on ly t ak e t h e I m p erf e c t o r P lu p e rf e c t
I n dic at iv e . Th e I m p e rf e c t d e n ot e s a p as t s t at e of t hin gs t h e Plu

p e rfe c t , an ac t ion c om p le t e d in p ast t im e :

pos t quam s t ruc t i u t rim c

q u e s t aban t , d u es in m e diu m p rbc é d u n t ( Liv i . .

when they s tood i n array on both s id es , the g en erals ad van e i n to c

t he m idst .

c
P Afri an u s p os t e aqu am b is on su l e t en sor f u e rs t ( Gasoil
. c c . whe n Af ri
c an us had been ( i e h a d t h e d ign it y of h avin g b e en ) twi
. . c c
e on su l an d

c ens or .

pos t qu am id d ifii c iliu s vi su m es t , fac u lt as

n equ e
p e rfi c ien di dab i t ur, ad P o m
p é iu m t ran sieru n t ( B C iii . . . whe n t h is seeme d t oo hard , an d no m eans
f eflec tin g it were
’

o g i ve n , they p assed over to P omp ey .

pos t d ie m qu i n t u m qu am it e ru m b arb ari m ale p fi gn averan t vie t i s u n t ] ,

legat i a B oc c h o ve n iu n t ( I u g t he fi f t h d ay aft er the barbarian s were .

c
be ate n th e se ond t im e , en voys om e f rom Boc c hu s c .

c
h ae iu ven t fi t e m , u bi f am iliares op es dé fé c eran t , ad fac in ora in c e n d eb an t
( Sall C at when the i r i n heri ted resou r es had given ou t , e t c
. . c .

u bi p eri c u la virt ute p rbpu le ran t ( id when t hey had d i sp elled the d ang ers by .

their valor .

For t h e u se of u b i , u t , eit h er alon e o r c om poun d ed wit h -ou mq u e , as I n defi n it e R ela

ti ves , se e 542 .
852 S YN TA X : TE M POR AL C LAUSES 544 , 545

US ES OF C UM

5 44 . Th e c on u n j ct i on cu m ( gn om ) is a
p ron ou n qu i It c ase -form o f t he re lat ive .

c
i n h e rit s f rom q u i i t s s u b o rd in at i n g for e , an d in g e n e ral s h are s it s on st ru t ion s c c .

c
Bu t it was e arly spe ializ e d t o a t e m p o ral m e an in g ( of t u m , d u m ) an d its ran g e o f u s ag e .

was t h e re fore le ss w id e t h an t h at of q u i ; it ould n ot , f or e xam p le , i n t rod u e lau ses c c c

o f p u rp ose or of re s u lt .

c
Wit h t h e I n di at i ve , b e sid e s t h e sim p le e xp re ssion of d e fi n i t e t im e ( orrespon d i n g t o c
s im p le re lat i ve c c
lau se s wi t h t h e I n d i at i ve ) , i t h as a f e w sp e i al u se s , — on di t ion al, c c
c
e xp li at ive , c u m i n ve rsu m all e as ily d e riv ed f rom t h e t e m p o ral u se .

W it h t h e S u b j u n t i ve , c
h ad a d e v e lop m e n t p arallel t o t h at of t h e q u i- lau se of
cum c
c c
C h ara te rist i , — a d e v elop m e n t n ot le ss e x t e n si ve an d e q u ally p e u li ar t o Lat i n c .

c
F rom d efi n i n g t h e t im e t h e c u m - lau se p asse d o ve r t o t h e d es rip t io n o f t h e t im e b y c
m e an s of i t s at t e n d an t ci c r u m st an c es of c au se or c c i
on e ss on (c f . si n e ,c wh ile) .

c
I n p art i u lar, cum w i t h t h e S u b j u n t ive w as u se c
n n arrat i ve ( h e n e t h e p ast d i c
c
t e n se s , I m pe rfe t an d Plu p e rfe t ) as a d e s ri p t i ve c
au s e of t im e As , h ow e ve r, t h e c cl .

c c
p re se n t p art i ip le i n Lat in i s rest ri t ed in i t s u se an d t h e p e rf e t a t iv e p art i ip le is c c c
c c
alm ost wh olly la kin g , t h e h ist o ri al or n arrat i v e c u m -c lau se am e i n t o e xt e n siv e u s e c
t o s u pp ly t h e d e fi i e n y c c c c
I n lass i al wri t e rs t h e n arrat i ve cu m - lau s e ( wi t h t h e S u b
. c
c c c
j u n t i ve) h as p u sh e d b a k t h e d e fi n in g lau se ( wit h t h e I m p e rf e t or Plu pe rfe t I n d i a c c c
t i v e) i n t o c om p arat i v e i f q
n re cy d i
u en , an s its elf f re ely u se d wh e re t h e d e s c ipt i
r ve o r

ch c
ara t e ri z in g f or c e is s ar e c c ly p c p t ib l er e e ( cf . t h e q u i ~c lau s e of C h ara t e ri s c t i c § 534)
,

Cu m Tem po al r
545 . A t e m p oral c lau s e w it h cu m , when , an d s om e p as t t e n se o f
t h e I n d ic at i v e d at es or d efin es t he t im e at whic h t h e ac t ion of t he
m ain v e rb oc c u rre d :
c c)
'

[lit u o] region es d i rex it t u m c u m u rb e m c on di dit ( D iv . i . he tra c ed w ith

it the qu arters [of t h e sky ] at the tim e he f ou n ded the c it y .

c um oc c i di t ur . c
Se x R os iu s , i bi d e m f u é ru n t s e rvi ( R os e A m when . .

R os i us c was slain , t he slaves were on the sp ot [oc c i dit ur is h istori al . c

p re se n t ) .

'

q u e m q u id e m c um e x u rb e p ellé bam , h bc p rb vid é b am an im b ( C at iii

-
. .

whe n I was t ry in g to c c
f or e h im ( on at i ve i m p e rfe t ) f rom the ity , I c c
looked f orward to th is .

fulge n t i s glad ios h ost iu m vid é b an t D e c n c u m in ac ie m oru m inru é ban t ( Tusc c .

ii the De c ii s aw the flas hing swords of t he en e m y when t hey ru shed

.

u p on the ir li ne .

t u m c u m in A s ia res m agn as p e rm u lt i am i s eran t ( Man il at t hat ti m e, .

when m an y had lost great f ortu n es i n A sia .

NO TE
1 — Th is i s t h e re gu lar u se w it h all t e n se s i n e arly Lat in , an d at all t im e s
.

c
wit h t h e Pe rfe t an d t h e H ist o ri al Prese n t ( as wi t h post qu am c
W i t h t h e I m pe r
c c
fec t an d Plu p e rf e t t h e I n d i at iv e u se i s ( in lass i al Lat i n ) m u h les s om m on t h an c c c c
c
t h e S u b j u n t iv e u se d e fi n ed b elow
NO 2 —TE c c
This on st ru t ion m u st n ot b e on fu se d wit h t h at of c u m , wh e neve r, in
. c
Ge n eral C on di t ion s
3 54 S YN TA X : TEMPO R A L C LA U S ES 546—549

d ies n bn d u m c
d e e m in t e rc e sse ran t , c u m ille alt er filius i n fan s n e c at u r ( Clu .

ten d ays had n ot y et p assed , when t he other i nf ant son was ki lled .

[I n ste ad of when ten d ays had n ot y et p assed , e t c ] .

iam qu e lux ap p areb at c u m p rbc é dit ad m ilit es ( Q C vu 8 an d d ay was . . . .

already d awn i n g when he ap p ears bef ore the sold i ers .

c
h b c fa e re n oc t u app arab an t , c u m m at res fam iliae re p e n t e in p ub li u m p ra c
c urré ru n t (B G . . vn . t hey were p rep ari n g t o d o thi s by n ight , when the
wom en su dd en ly ran ou t i n t o t he streets .

54 7 . Pr e se n t t im e wit h cu m r
t e m p o al is de n ot e d by t h e P res
en t I n dic at iv e ; fu t u r e t im e , by t h e F u t u r e or Fu t u re Pe rfe c t
I n dic at iv e :
in c id un t t e m p ora, c u m e a, q u ae m axi m e vid e n t u r d i gn a e ss e inst o h om in e .

fi u n t c on t raria ( Off when those t h i n gs whi h see m

. i
. t im es o cc ur c
c
esp e i ally wort hy of the
u p rig ht m an , be om e the op p osite c .

n On d u b it ab o d are Ope ram u t t e vid eam , c u m id s at is o m m od e fa e re pot e r6 c c

( Fam xiii l ) , I shall n ot he sit ate to take p ain s to see y ou , when I c an do
. .

it c on ven i en tly .

lon gu m illu d t e m p u s c um n b n e re (At t . xn . that lon g t i m e whe n I s hall

be no m ore .

c um ven e ris , c og n os ce s ( Fain . v . 7 . when y ou c om e (sh all h ave c om e

) ,

y ou willfi n d ou t .

548 . Cu m , whe n e ver, t ake s t he r

c on s t u c t ion of a re lat iv e c lau se
in a g e n eral c on dit ion ( se e

r
F or p e se n t t im e , e it he r t he Pre s e n t or t h e P e rf e c t I n dic at i ve is
u se d ; f or
p as t t i m e, r e gu la ly r r
t h e Plu p e f e c t I n d i c at iv e .

For est c u m e tc .
, s ee 55 35 a . . N .
3.

Cu m Cau sal or Concess ive

549 . Cu m c au sal or c on c e ss ve i t ake s t h e S u b j u n c t iv e

i d d iffi c ile n d n est , c u m C iii
t an t u m e q u it at ii vale am u s
this is n ot (B . . .

d iflic u lt sinc e we are so stron g in avalry [C ausal ] c . .

c u m s olit ud o i n sid iaram e t m e t us p len a s it , rat io ip s a m on e t am i c it i a e c om

p arare ( F in i c
s i n e solit ude is f u ll of trea hery an d f ear, reason it
. . c
self p romp ts us to on tra t f ri endship s c
[C au sal ] c . .

c u m p ri m i Ord in é s c on c i dis s e n t , t am e m a e rrim e re liq u i resis t é b an t

(B G c . .

vii . thou gh the fi rst ran ks had f allen , sti ll t he others res isted vigor

ous ly .
[C on c essive ] .

b revi sp at i o le gion es n u m ero h om in u m e xp leverat , c u m in it io n On am p liu s

d ab b us m ilib us h abui s set ( S all C at i n a short ti m e he had fi lled . . ,

o u t t he leg i ons with the ir om p lem en t of m en , thou gh at the start he had c

n ot had m ore than two thousan d
[ C on ess ive
] . c .
 549-55 1] A N TE QUA M A N D PRI US QUA M 3 55

Cu m c au sal m ay u su ally be t ran slat e d by s i n c e ; cu m c on c e s si e v by

a lt h ou gh or w h i le ; e it h e r, oc c as i on ally , b y w h e n .

N O TE 1 .
—Cum in t h e se u se s i s Oft en e m p hasiz ed b y u t , u t pot e , q u i p pe , p raese rt im :
as , — n ec re p re h e n d b : q u i p p e c u m ip se ist am rep re h é n siOn e m n On ffi gerim ( At t x 3 A ) , . .

Ifi n d no f au lt ; si n ec
I m y se lf di d n ot es ap e t h at blam e c .

c c c
N O TE 2 — Th e se au sal an d on essive u ses of c u m are of re lat ive orig in an d are
.

c
p arallel t o q u i au sal an d on e ssi ve 5 35 e ) c c
Th e at t e n d an t i r u m st an es are re . . c c c
c c
g ard e d as t h e au se O f t h e a t ion , or as t en din g t o h i n de r i t .

N O TE 3 I n e arly Lat in c u m ( qu om ) au sal an d on e ssive u su ally t ak e s t h e I n d ie

. c c c
at i ve : as, —qu om t u a ré s d i st rah i t u r, u t in am v id e am ( Pl Tri n si n e you r p rop . . c
c
e rt y i s bei n g t orn i n p i e es, 0 t h at I m ay see , e t c . .

a. Cu m wit h t h e I n dic at ive f re qu e n t ly i t

n r od u c e s an ex
p lan at o y r
st at e m e n t , an d is som e t im e s e q u i vale n t t o qu od, on t h e g rou n d t h a t :

c um t ac e n t , clam a when t hey are s ilen t , they c ry

nt ( C at . i . ou t (i . e . t h e ir
c
si le n e is an e m p hat i c
e xp re ssi on of t h e ir se n t im e n t s
) .

g rat u lor t ib i c u m t an t u m valé s ap u d D olab e llam ( F am ix 14 . . . I c ong rat u

late y ou t hat y ou are so stron g with D olabe lla .

N O TE — Thi s is m e re ly a sp e ci al u se o f c u m t e m po ral e xp ress in g c i cid

o n en t t im e
545 a) . .

b . Cu m t u m , sign ify in g bot h a n d , u su ally t ak e s t h e I n d ic a

tive ; bu t wh en c u m app roac h e s t he se n se of w h i le or t h ou gh , t he Su b
j u n c t ive is u s ed 549)
c um m u lt a n On probe, t u m illu d in p ri m is ( Fin i . . while there are m an y
thin gs I d o n ot ap p rove, there is t his i n h ief c .
[I n di at ive ] c
c um d iffi c ile e st , t um n e ae qu u m q u id e m (Lae l . n ot on ly i s it d ifiic u lt
bu t e ven u n u st j .

c u m ré s p u e rili t e r, t u m n é e fi i c it q u id e m qu od vu lt (F in l
t et a fi c t a sit
“

. .

c
while the whole thi ng i s hi ld is hly got u p , he does n ot even m ake h is p oint
( acc om p lish wh at h e wish es ) .
[S u b j u n ct ive ; app roa h in g c u m c ca usal
]
‘
A n t e gu am an d P rzu squ am

5 50 An t equam an d p ri n squam , bef ore , i n t rod u e C laus es of Tim e wh i h rese m b le

. c c
t h ose wi t h c u m t e m p oral in t h e i r on st ru t ions c c
Pri u sq u am on s ist s of t wo p art s ( oft e n . c
writ t e n b y ot h e r words ) , t h e om p arat ive ad ve rb
sep arat e ly an d so m e t i m es se p arat ed c
c
p ri u s , soone r ( bef o re ) , wh i h really m od ifi e s t h e m ain v e rb , an d t h e re lat ive p art i le c
c c
quam , th an , wh i h in t rod u e s t h e su b ord i n at e lau s e Th e lat t e r is t h e re fore a rela c .

c c
t ive lau se , an d t ak e s t h e I n d i at iv e or t h e S u b j un t i v e (lik e ot h e r relat i ve laus e s) c c
cc
a ordin g t o t h e sen s e i n t en d e d Th e S u b j u n t ive wit h p ri n sq u am i s re lat e d to t hat of
. c
p urp o se 5 29) an d i s s om e t i m e s alle d t h e c
n t i ip at ory or Prosp e t i ve S u b j u n t ive A c c c .

c
An t equ am , lik e p ri u sq u am , on si st s of t wo word s , t h e fi rs t of wh i h i s t h e ad ve rb an t e , c
bef ore , m od i fyi n g t h e m ain ve rb c
I t s on s t ru t ion s are t h e sam e as t h ose of pri n squ am ,
. c
c
b u t t h e latt e r is om m on e r i n lass i p rose c c .

55 1 . An t equ am an d p rin squ am t ake som e t im es t h e I n dic at i e, v

s o m e t im e s t he S u b j u n c t iv e .
 3 56 Y
S N TA X : TEMPOR A L C LA U S ES 55 1

a. Wit h ant equam or prin squam t h e Pe fe c t I n dic at ir ve s t at es a

f ac t in p ast t im e
an t equ am t u as lé gi lit t e rae , h om in e m i re c u p ieb am (At t . u . 7 . bef ore I
read y ou r let te r, I wis hed the m an to g o .

n e qu e ant e di m isit e u m quam fi d e m d e di t ad u lé sc e n s ( Liv xxx ix . . an d

she d id n ot let t he y ou n g m an g o t ill h e p ledged hi s f ait h .

n equ e p riu s fu ge re d est it é ru n t qu am ad flum en p erv é n é ru n t ( B G i . . . n or

d id they st op ru n n in g u nt i l they reac hed the ri ver .

c
N O TE — Th e Pe rfe t I n di at ive in t h is on st ru t ion is re gu lar wh e n t h e m ain
. c c c
c laus e is n e g at ive an d t h e m ain ve rb i s i n an h ist ori al t e n se Th e I m p e rfe t I n di at i ve c . c c
i s rare ; t h e Plu pe rfe t I n d i at i ve , ve ry rare c c
Th e Pe rfe t S u b j un t i ve is rare an d . c c
c c c
an t e- lass i al, e x e p t i n I n dire t D is ou rse c c .

b . Wit h an t equ am or p rin squ am t h e I m p e rf ec t S u b u n c t iv e i s c om j

m on wh e n t h e su b o r v r
d in at e e b im p lie s p u rp os e or exp ec t an c y in p ast
t im e , or wh en t h e ac t ion t h at it de n ot e s d i d n ot t ake p la c e
an t e p ugn ari c oep t u m e st qu am sat is i ns t ru eré t ur a ies ( Liv xx u 4 c . . . the
fi ght was begu n before the lin e ou ld be p rop erly f ormed c .

pri n s qu am t ii su u m sib i ven deres , ip se p ossedit ( Ph il ii

‘

before y ou . . c ou ld

sell h im own
p rOp erty, h e took p ossessi on of i t him self
his .

c
p ri n squ am t é lu m ab i i pos se t au t n ost ri p rop in e ac c ed e re n t , o m u le Vari a ies c
t e rga vert it ( B C i i before a weap on ou ld be thrown or ou r m en
. . . c
ap p roac hed n earer, t he whole li n e abou t Varu s tools flight .

N OT E 1 — Th e Plu p e rfe t S u b j u n t ive is rare , e x ep t i n I n dire t D is ourse b y se

. c c c c c
q u e n c e o f t e n se s f or t h e F u t u re Pe rf e t I n d i at i ve 484 ) : a s ,
— c
an t e qu am h om in é s c . c
n e faru d é m e b ad ve n t u au di re p ot u i sse nt , in Mac e d on i am p e rré xi ( Plan e bef ore .

c
t h ose e vil m e n ou ld learn of m y om i n g , I arri ved i n Ma ed on i a
. c c .

N O TE 2 . c
Aft er an hist ori al p re sen t t h e Pre sen t S u b j u n c t i ve is u se d in st ead of t h e
M pe rfec t : 213 , — n e q u e ab e b p ri u s D om it i an i m i lites d isc é d u n t q uam i n c On spec t u m
C aesaria d é d fi cat u r ( B C i an d th e soldi ers of D om i t i u s did ( do) n ot leave h i m
. . .

u n t il h e was ( is) on d u t e d i n t o C a c ’
es ar s p rese n e c S o , rare ly , t h e Pe rfe t S u b j u n t i ve c . c c
( as B G iii . . .

An t equ am an d p rin squ am , wh e n

c . refe r in g t o f r u t u re t im e, t ak e t h e
r
P e se n t or Fu t u re P e rfe c t I n di c at ive are ly t h e P
r re se n t Sub j u n c t ive
p rin s qu am d e et e ri s reb us re s pon deé , c d e am i c it ia p a u ca d i c am ( Ph il . u .

before I rep ly to the rest, I will s ay a litt le abou t f ri end ship .

n bn d efat igab or an t e qu am illfi ru m an c ip it es vias pe rc é p e ra ( D e Or iii . .

I shall n ot weary t ill I have t ra ed ou t their dou btf u l way s c .

ant equ am v eniat lit t e rae m it te t ( Le g A gr ii bef ore he om es , he wi ll se nd . . . c

a letter .

N OTE 1 .
— Th e
F u t u re I n d i at ive is ve ry rare c .

N O TE 2 c
I n a f e w ase s t h e S u b j u n t ive of p rese n t ge n e ral on di tion is fou n d wit h
. c c
an t eq uam an d p ri n sq u am ( c f § 518 a) : as , — in om n ib u s n e got ii s p ri n sq uam aggred iat e ,
. .

adh ib en da e st p raep arat io di ligé n s ( Off i

' ' ‘

i n all u n dert aki n gs , bef ore you p ro ee d

'

. .
- -
c
c c
t o a tion , aref u lp rep arati on m us t be u sed .
3 58 S YNTA X : TEMPO R A L CLA USES 5 54- 556

N O TE .
— Du m , u n t il, wi t h t h e Pe rfe t I n d i c c at iv e is rare : as , —m an sit in c on d i

c io i sq u e ad e u m
ne r f i n e m d u m i udic é s réi ec t i su n t ( Ve rr i . . he rem ai n e d t ru e t o t h e
ag re e m e n t u n t il the j u rors we re h alle n g e d c .

555 . Du m , donec , an d qu oad, as lon g as, t ake t he I n dic at i ve

du m an im a e s t , sp é s esse d i c it u r ( A t t ix 10 . . . as lon g as there is life , there
to be hop e
is said .

du m p raesidia ulla f u é ru n t , in S u llae p rae sidi i s fu it ( R ose A m . . so lon g

as t here were an y g arrisons , he was i n t he g arrison s of S u lla .

du m lon gi u s am un i t ion e aberan t Galli , p lus m u lt it ud in e t elc ru m p rc fi c ié b an t

( B G vn . so lon g as t he Gau ls were at a d istan e f rom the f ort ifi c a
. . c
t ion s, t hey had the ad van t ag e be au se c o f their m issi les .

dane c grat u s eram t ib i , Pe rs aru m vi gu i rege b e at ior ( H O T Od . . iii . 9 . as

lon g as I en oy ed
j t hy f avor, I flou rished hap p i er t han t he kin g f the
o

P ersians .

qu oad p ot u it fort issim e res t it it ( B G iv . . . he resist ed bravely as long as

he c ou ld .

. c
N O TE 1 — D6n ec i n t h is u se i s on fi n e d t o p oe t ry an d lat e r w rit e rs .

N O TE 2 — Qu am d id , as lon g as, t ak e s t h e I n d i at iv e on ly : as, —s é opp ido t am di u

. c
t e n u it qu am d id i n p rOvi n c ia Part hi fu é ru n t ( F am xii h e kep t hi m s elf wi t h i n t h e . .

t own as lon g as t h e P art hi an s we re i n th e p rovi n e c .

5 56 . Du m , whi le, regu larly t akes t he P re se n t I n dic at iv e t o de

n ot e c on t in u e d ac t ion in p as t t im e .

In t ran slat in g t h e En glish ,

I m p e rfe c t m u st ge n e rally be u se d :

du m h cg t C ae i fie ru n u r, aes ar n n t iat u m e st (B G . . i . while this was g oin g

on , a m essag e was brou g ht to C aes ar .

h ae cd u m ag u n t u r, i n t e re a C le om e n es iam ad B lb ri li t u s p e rvé n e rat ( Ve rr v . .

while t h is was g oi n g on , C leom en es m ean whi le had om e d own to t he c

c oast at Eloru m .

h b c du m narrat , f ort e au d ivi ( Ter H au t

. . I happ en ed to hear t hi s whi le
she was tellin g i t .

N O T E — Th i s
. c on st ru ct i on c
is a sp e ial u se of t h e H ist ori al Pre se n t c
a. A p ast t en se w it h du m ( u su ally s o lon g as) m ak es t h e t im e e m
p h at i c b y c on t ras t ; b u t a f e w i r re gu lar c as e s o f du m w it h a p ast t en se

oc c u r wh e re n o c on t rast i s in t en d e d :

n e c e n im du m eram vob i s u m c ,
an im u m m e u m vid eb at is ( C at M . .
f or
while I was with y ou , y ou ou ld n ot c see my sou l [H ere
. t h e t im e wh e n
h e was alive is on t rast e d wit h t h at c aft e r his d e at h ] .

c obrt a e st p ugn a, p ar du m c an s t ab an t 5 rd in es ( Liv . xxii . 47 a c on fli ct b ga e n,

well m atc hed as lon g as the ran ks stood fi rm .

Bu t , — du m oc u lds avert e rat ( id xxxn

h ost iu m c
while the
e rt am en . .

st ru ggle kep t the ey es of the en em y t u rn ed away .

du m un u m ad sc en dere grad u m c an at u s e s t , ven it in p eri u lu m ( Mur c .

c
while he attemp ted t o li m b on e step [in ran k ] he f ell i n to dan ger .
 656- 55 8] C LA U S ES WI TH QUI N A ND QUOMI N US 359

N O TE I n lat e r wri t ers , du m som e t im es t ak es t h e Su b j u n t i ve wh e n t h e lassi al

. c c c
c
u sag e w ou ld re qu ire t h e I n d i at ive , an d d bn ec , u n t i l, i s f ree ly u se d i n t h i s m an n e r
c
( es pe ially b y Ta it u s) c
d um e a i n S am n io gerere n t u r, in Et ru ria i n t e rim b e llu m i n g é n s c on c i t u r ( Li v x . .

wh ile t h is was bei n g do n e i n S am n i u m , m e an while a g reat war was

s t i rre d up i n Et ru ri a .

illa q u id e m d u m t é fu g eret , h y dru m n On vi d i t ( Georg i v wh i le sh e was fleei n g . .

f rom y ou sh e d i d n o t se e t h e se rp e n t
. .

c
d u m p er vi os d ep ort aré t u r, c o n d orm ié b at ( S u e t A u
g while h e was be i n g c ar . .

ri e d t h rou g h t h e s t re e t s h e us e d t o f all d e ad as le ep .

Rh é n u s se rvat n Om e n e t vi ole n t i am u rsus ( q u a Ge rm an iam p rae v e h i t u r) d on ec c

c
O e an ?) m i sc eat u r ( Tac An n i i t h e Rh i n e ke ep s i t s n am e an d rap id ou rse
. . . c
( wh e re i t borde rs Ge rm an y) u n t il i t m i n gles wi th th e o e an c .

t e m po rib u sq u e A
u g u st i di c e n d i s n On d é f u é re d e ora i n g e n i a d bn ec gli sc e n t e ad u c
lat iOn e d ét erré re n t u r ( id i f or d e s ri bi n g t h e t i m es of A u gu s t us t h e re
. . c
c
was n o la k of t alen t u n t il i t was f ri gh t e n e d away by t h e i n re asi n g se rvili t y c
of t h e ag e .

For d u m , p rovide d t h at , se e 528 .

C L A U S ES W I TH Qv AND QUOMI N US
55 7 . Th e orig in al ? wh y n o t ? ( q ui -n é ) , an d wh e n
m e an i n g of qui n is how n ot

c
u se d w it h t h e I n d i at ive or ( rare ly) wit h t h e S u b j u n c t ive i t re u larly i m plie s a g e n e ral
g
n e gat i ve Th u s, qu i n eg o h oe rog em ? wh y sh ou ld n t I ask t h is ? im p li e s t h at t h e re is
.
’

n o re aso n f or n ot ask in g Th e i m p lied n e g at ive was t h en e xp re ssed i n a m ain lau se ,

. c
c
lik e n ulls au sa e st or fi eri n on p ot e st
. H e n e om e t h e variou s d ep en d e n t on st ru e . c c c
c
t ion s i n t rod u e d b y q u i n .

Qu om inu s i s re ally a p h rase ( qu o m i n u s) , an d t h e d e pe n d e n t o n st ru t io n s wh i h it c c c

c
in t rod u e s h ave t h e i r origin i n t h e re lat ive lau se o f p u rp ose wi t h qu b an d a c om c
p arat ive ( s ee 53 1 a) . .

55 8 . A j
su b u n c t i ve wit h qu i n is us e d aft e r v e rbs an d
c lau s e

ot h e r e x p e s s ion s r of hin derin g, re sist in g , ref u sin g , d ou bti n g , d e

lay ing , an d t h e like , wh e n t h e se are ne

gati ve d , e it h e r r
e x p e s sly or

by im plic at ion
n On h u m an a ulla n e qu e d i vi n a O b st an t qu i n s o ios am i c Os t rah an t e xs c in dant c
( S all Ep Mit h
. n o hu m an or d ivi n e laws p reve n t t hem f rom t aki n g
. .

cap ti ve an d eat erm in at in g t hei r f rien dly allies .

ut né Su ession es q u id e m d et e rrere p ot u e rin t qu in c u m h is on s e n t ire nt ( B G c . .

ii . t hat t hey were u n able to hin d er even t he S u ess ion es f rom m akin g
c om m on ca u se with t hem .

n On p osse m ilit es c on t in é ri qu i n in u rb e m i n ru m p ere n t (B C . . n . t hat t he

soldi ers c ou ld n ot be restrai n ed f rom bu rstin g i n t o the c ity .

n On re c fi s at qu in i fi dic é s ( D e iot he d oes n ot obj e t to y ou r j u dg in g

. c .

n eq u e re c usare q u in arm is c on t e n de n t ( B G i v an d t hat they d id . . . n ot

f
re use toj ight .

p ot n i qui n s c ribe re m ad t é ( C ae sar ap C ic A t t ix 6 ) 1 c ou ld

p rae t e ri re n on . . . . A ,

n ot n egl c
e t t o writ e to y ou .
3 60 SY NTA X : D EPEND ENT C ON STRUC TI ON S [glass

Tr6veri t Ot ius h ie m is n ullu m t e m p u s in te rm i sé run t q u in legat os m itt e re n t

(B G v . the Treveri let n o p art of the win t er p ass wit hou t se n di ng
. .

am bas sad ors [C i B G v 53 ; B C i

. . . . . . . .

n On c u n c t an d u m e xi s t i m avit quin p ii gn a dé c e rt aret ( B G in he thou ght . . .

he ou g ht not t o delay ri ski ng a c

de is ive batt le .

p au lu m afu it q u in v aw m in t erfi c ere t C ii (B . . . he j u st m i ssed k illing

c
Varus ( it la k e d lit t le b u t t h at h e sh ould kill) .

n e qu e m u lt u m at ait q u in c ast ri s e xp e lle ren t u r ( id i i

-
. . they c am e n ear bein g

dri ven out of the amp c .

c
fa e re n On p ossu m qu i n c ot idié ad t e m it t am ( A t t . xn . 27 . I c an n ot help
to y ou every day
sen d i n g .

fi e ri n ullo m od o po t e rat qu i n C le om e n i p arcerét u r ( Verr . v . i t was ou t

of t he qu estion t hat C le om en es shou ld n ot be sp ared .

u t e fii c i n On p ossit qu in e os bderim ( Ph il . xi . so that n ot hi n g c an p reve n t

m y hat i n g t hem .

a. Qu in i s e sp e c ially c om m on w it h n on dubi t o, I d o n ot dou bt , n on

est du biu m , t h ere i s no dou bt , an d s im ilar ex p re ss ion s .

n On d u b it ab at qu in ei c ré de rém u s (Att . vi . 2 . he d id n ot d ou bt that we

believed him .

illu d c aved u b ites qu i n e go om n ia f ac iam ( F am . v . 20 . do n ot d ou bt th at

I wi ll do all .

qu is ign brat qu in t ria Grae c Oru m ge n e ra s i nt (Flacc . who i s ig n oran t

that t here are three ra es of Greeks c
n b n e ra t d u b iu m
qui n H e lvet ii p lurim u m pos s e n t ( c f B G i . . . . there was no

d ou bt that the H elvet ian s were m ost p owerf u l .

n e qu e C as sare m fe fellit qu in ab lis c oh ort ib u s in it iu m vic t Oriae orirét u r ( B C . .

i ii . s c
an d it d i d n ot es ap e C ae ar s n oti e that the beg in n in g of th e vic
’
c .

c
t ory am e f rom t hose ohorts c .

N O TE 1 — Dt
. b wit h ou t a n e at iv e i s re u larl f ollowe d b an I n dire t Qu es
g g y y c
t i on ; so som e t im e s n 5u d u b i t o an d t h e lik e
n On n ulli d u b it an t an pe r S ard in i am ven iat ( F am ix som e d ou bt wh e t h e r h e . .

c
is om i n g t h rou g h S ardi n i a .

d u b it at e , si pot e st is , a qu b sit S ex R os iu s oc c i su s ( Bos Am . c

dou bt , if you c . .

c an , by wh om S e xt us R os i u s was m u rde re d c .

d u b it ab am t u h as ip sas li t t e ras essé sn e ac c e p t fi ru s ( At t xv I d ou bt whe t h er . .

c
you will re e i ve t h i s ve ry le t t e r [Ep i st olary I m p e rfe t 47 9)
. c
qui li s sit i n t urn s , n é VOS q u id e m d u b it at is ( B C ii an d wh at i t ( t h e ou t om e )
. . . c
will be , y ou you rse lve s d o n ot d ou bt .

116 11 d u b it fi qui d Ben t ian t ( F am x v I d o n ot dou b t wh at th ey thi n k

. . .

d u b i u m illi n on e rat qu i d fu t uru m esset ( id vi i i 8 i t was n ot d ou btf ul t o h i m

. . .

wh at was goi n g t o h app e n .

N O TE 2 — N 6n d u b it o in t h e sen se Of I do n ot h e si t at e om m on ly t ak e s t h e I n fi n i
. c
t ive , b u t som e t i m e s q u i n w it h t h e S u b j u n c t iv e
n ec d u b it are illu m app enare sap i e n t e m ( Lae l 1) an d n ot t o h e si t at e t o allhi m a s ag e. c .

du b it an du m n On e xi st i m avi t qu i n p rofi c i sc eré t ur ( B G ii h e d i d n ot t h i n k he . . .

ou gh t t o h es i t a t e t o se t ou t .

q u i d d u bi t as fi t i t e m p oris op po rt un it at e ( B C u wh y d o y ou he si t ate t o t ake

. . .

advan t ag e of the f avorable m om en t ? [ qu e sti on im p lyin g a n eg at ive ] A

3 62 S YNTA X : SUB STANTI VE C LA USES m 560-563

S UBS TANTI VE CLAUS ES

560 cl wh ich i
. A au se S u b stan t ive C lause , as
s u se d as a n ou n m ay b e c alled a
c t i l t i cl
e r a n re a ve au ses are som e t im e s alle d ad j e t i ve lau ses c
B u t in p ra t i e t h e c c . c c
t m i
er t i ct d t cl
s res r e o c
au se s wh i h rep re sen t a n om in at iv e or an a us at i ve as e , t h e cc c
cl w h ic h t d f
aus e s s an or an ab lat i ve b e i n g so m et im e s alle d ad ve rb ial lause s c c .

E wit h t h i lim i t t i
v en s a on th e t erm is n ot q u i t e p re i se ( see p 367 , foot n ot e Th e c .

f ct i
a th
s ra t hat t h cl
er e au se an d t h e le adin g v e rb are m u t u ally om p lem e n t ary ; ea h c c
i f c
re n or esth th
e o Th
er e sim p le s t an d p rob ab ly t h e e arliest f orm O f su h se n t e n es
. c c
c c
i s t o b e f ou n d in t h e p arat a t i u se ( see § 268 ) of t wo ve rb s lik e v olO abeas , di c am u s
ad eam Opt im u m est . c
F rom s u h v e rb s t h e u sage sp re ad b y an alogy t o ot h e r
v e rb s ( see list s on pp 363 , 367 , foot n ot e s) , an d t h e om p le m e n t ary relat ion of t h e
. c
c c c
lau se t o t h e ve rb am e t o re se m b le t h e om p le m en t ary f or e of t h e a u s at ive , espe c cc
c ially t h e a cc
u sat ive of o gn ate m ean in g c
56 1 . A c lau se u s e d as a n ou n is c alle d a Su bst an t iv e C lau se .

a. A S u b st an t iv e C lau se m ay b e u se d as t h e S u bj e c t or Obj ec t of
a v e rb , as an Ap p osit iv e , or as a P re d ic at e N om in at ive or A c c u sat iv e .

N O TE 1 —Man y id e as wh i h in En glish t ak e t h e f orm of an ab st ra t n ou n m ay b e

. c c
ren d ere d b y a su b st an t ive lau se i n Lat in c
Th u s, h e d em an ded an i n vest ig ati on m ay
.

b e post u labat u t quaest ib hab éret u r Th e om m on En gli sh exp re ssion f or wi t h t h e

. c
c
i n fi n it ive also orrespon d s t o a Lat in su b st an t ive lau se : as , — i t rem ai ns f or m e to c
c
sp e ak of t h e p i rat i war, reli qu u m e st u t d e b ell?) di c am pi rat i c o .

N O TE 2 — Wh en a S u b st an t i v e C lau s e i s u s ed as su b j e t , t h e ve rb t o whi h it is
. c c
c c
s u b j e t i s alle d i m p e rson al, an d t h e s i n of t h e
g on st ru t ion in En glish i s om m on ly c c c
c
t h e so- alle d e xp le ti ve I T .

562 . S u bst an t iv e C lau se s are c lassifi e d as follo ws

1 . c
S u b j u n t ive C lau se s a Of p u rp ose ( om m and , wis h, f ear
.
) 563 , c
( nt , n é , u t n an , b Of re su lt ( hap p en , effe t , e t c )
. c .

2 . c
I n d i at ive C lau se s wit h quod : F a t , Sp e ifi at ion , F e e lin g c c c
3 . c c
I n dire t Qu e st ion s : S u b j u n t ive , in t rodu e d b y an I n t errogat ive Word c
5 73
a . W it h ve rb s of orderin g , wishin g , et c .

b . c
I n d ire t D is c ou rse 57 9
N O TE Th e I n fi n it i ve wit h S u b j e t
.
c Acc
u s at ive is n ot st ri t ly a lau se , b u t i n Lat i n c c
it h as u n d e rg on e s o e xt e n si ve a d e velop m e n t t h at i t m ay b e so lassed Th e u se s O f c .

t h e I n fi ni t iv e C lau se are o f t wo k in d s : ( 1) in on st ru t ion s i n whi h it re la e s a s u b

p c c c c
c c
j un t ive lau se wit h u t e t c ; ( 2) in t h e I n dire t D is ou rse Th e fi rst lass wi ll b e d is
. c c . c
c c c
u sse d i n on n e t ion wit h t h e app rop ri at e s u b j u n t ive on st ru t io ns 563 ) for I n di re tc c c c
c
D is ou rs e , se e 57 9 ff .

S u b st ant ive Clau se s of Pu pose r

563 . Su bst an t iv e C lau se s of Pu rp ose wit h u t (n egat iv e 116) are
u se d as t h e Obj e c t Of v e rbs den ot in g an ac t ion direc t e d t oward t he
§ 563 ] S UB STA N TI VE C LAU SES OF PU RPO SE 3 63

Su c h are , v e rb s m e an in g to ad m on is h , as k, ba rg ai n , c om m an d , d e
c ree , d e t e rm i n e , p erm i t, p ersu a d e, res olve, u r e, an d
g w is h 1

m on e t om n es sus p i c iOn es vi t e t
ut
(B G . . i . he warns h i m t o avoid all
s usp i c i on .

h ort at u r e os n é an im o defi ien t c (B . C i . . he u rg es t hem not t o lose he art .

te rogo at q u e Orb u t e u m i nvé s ( F am . xi ii . I beg an d p ray y ou t o aid hi m .

hi s n ti c on q u ire re n t im pe ravit (B G . . i . he ordered the m to sear h c .

p e rsu ad e t C as t ic o u t regn u m oc c u p are t ( id . i . he p ersu ad es C ast ion s to

u su rp roy alp ower .

su is i m p e ravit q u od o m n in o t elu m re i c eren t

né
( id . i . he ordered his m en
n ot to c
throw ba k an y weap on at all .

N O TE — Wit h an y ve rb of t h e se las ses t h e p oe t s m ay u se t h e I n fi n i t ive ins t e ad

. c of
an ob j e t c clau se :
h ort am u r fi ri ( Aen 11 we u rg e [him ] t o sp e ak
. . .

n é q u ae re d o et i ( id vi c se ek n ot t o be t old
. . .

t e m p t at p raevert ere ( id i sh e at t em p t s t o t u rn , e t c
. . .

c
For t h e S u b j u n t ive wit h ou t u t wit h v e rb s O f om m an d i n g , se e § 565 a c . .

a. I u bso, ord er, an d v et o,

f orbi d , t ake t h e I n fi n it ive wi t h S u b j ec t
Ac c u sat ive
Labié n u m in gu m m on t is as en de re iu b e t c (B G . . i . he orders Lab ien u s to
c
as en d t he ridg e of the h ill .

lib erbs ad S e addfi c i iu ss it ( id i i . . he ordered c

t he hi ldren to be brou g ht to hi m .

ab op e re c
legat os dis edere ve t u e rat ( id i i . . h e had f orbidd en t he lieu te n ant s
t o leave the work .

ve t u ere [bona] re ddi ( Liv ii . . they f orbad e the retu rn o f the g oods ( t h at t h e
good s b e re t u rn e d
) .

NO TE . c
S om e ot h e r ve rb s of om m an d i n g e t c oc asion ally t ak e t h e I nfi n it ive : . c
pon t e m i m p e ran t fi eri ( B C i t h ey ord e r a bri dg e t o be bu ilt
. . . .

ré s m o n e t c av é re ( S all C at 52 t h e o asi on warn s u s t o be on ou r gu ard

. . . cc .

b . Ve rb s of wis h i n g t ake e it h e r t h e I n fi n it ive or t h e Su b j u n c t iv e .

W it h v olo
( n Olo, m ale) an d cu p io t h e I n fi n it iv e is c om m on e r, an d
t he j
su b e c t Of t h e in fi n i t i ve is rare l
y e xp re sse d wh e n i t wou ld b e t h e
s am e as t h at Of t h e m ain v e rb .

Wit h ot h e r ve r bs of wis h i n g t h e S u b j u n c t iv e is c om m on e r wh en
t he j
su b e c t c h an ges , t h e I n fi n it i v e w h e n i t re m ai n s t he sam e .

1 . Su b j e t c of de p en de n t v e rb sam e as t h at Of t he v e rb O f wi shin g
au gu r fi e ri volu i ( F am xv 4 I wished t o be m ad e au g u r
'

. .
. .

c u p i o vigiliam m e am t ib i t radere ( id xi . I am e ag er to h an d
. over my watc h
t o y ou .

1 Su h c p h rase s are i d ago, ad i d ven it) , av ea ( n é) , c é n seo, ag e, c on

verb s or v erb al c c
c
c edb, cbn st i t u b, e uro, d é c ern b , edi t) , fli g it o, h ort or, i m pe rb, i n st b, man d d, m e t n o ( n E
),
m on e5, n eg ot iu m as, Op eram as, orb , pe rsu ad ed, pe t b , post u lo, p raec i p io, p rec ot , p rOn un t i b,
quaerii , rogb , sc i sc b, t i m e o ( n é) , vere or ( n é) , vi d eb, volb .
364 S YN TA X : SUB STA N TI VE C LA US ES [ 5 56 3

ifi dic e m m e d oc t Ore m volO I wish to be a j u d ge,

'

e s s e , n On ( Or . n ot a
teac her .

m e C ae saris m i lite m di i volu i ( B C I I c . . . 32 . I wished to be call d a e soldi er

of C aesar .

c u p io m e e s s e c lem e n t e m
( C at . i . I des ire to be m er if u l c .
[B u t re gu larly ,

c u p iO e sse C lem en s (se e

om n is h om in es , q u i s es e st u d e n t prae s t are et e ris an im alib u s ( S all C at c . .

all m en who wish t o ex el oth er li vi n g reat u res c c .

2 . S u bj e t c of d e p e n de n t ve rb d ifi e re n t from t h at Of the v e rb of wishin g

volo t é s ci
ix 2 4 l) , I wish y ou to kn ow
re ( F am . . . .

vim volu m u s e xs tin gu i ( S est we wish violen e to be p u t down . c .

0

t é t u a frui virt ute c u p im us ( Bru t we wish y ou to reap the f ru its .

f
o y ou r
virtu e .

c u p io u t im p e t ret ( Pl . C ap t . I wish he m ay get it .

nu m qu am Op t ab b u t au diat i s ( C at 11 I will n ever d es ire that y ou

. . shall

hear .

F or volb an d it s c om pou n ds wit h t h e S u b j un c t ive wi t h ou t u t , s ee

§ 565 .

c , Verb s Of p erm i t t i n g t ak e e it h e r t h e Su b j unc tiv e or t he I n fi n i

t i ve . Pe t iot t ake s r egu larly t he I n fi n it iv e w it h S u b j ect A c c u sat ive ;
s o Of t e n s i n o i

p e rm is it u t fac e ret ( D e Or 11 . .
p erm itt ed him to m ake .

c on c ed e t ib i u t e a prae t erea
is ( R ose A m I allow y ou to p ass by these
. .

m att ers .

t abe rn ac u la s t at u i p assu s n On e st (B . C . i . he did n ot allow te n ts to be

p i t hed c .

vin u m im port ari n On sin u n t

(B . G iv. . t hey do n ot allow wi n e to be i mp orte d .

d . Ve rb s Of d et erm i n in g, d ec reei n g, res olvi n g, ba rga i n i n g, t ake

e it h e r t h e Su b j u n c t ive or t h e I n fi n it iv e
c On st itu eran t 111: L B est ia qu ererét u r ( S all C at
. . . t hey had d et erm i n ed that
Lu iu s c B est ia shou ld om p lain c .

p roe lio s u pe rs e dé re st at u it ( B G n . . . he d et erm in ed t o ref use batt le .

d é b on is regis qu ae re ddi c é n su e ran t ( Li v ii abou t the ki n g s g oods , wh i h

. .
’
c
they had dec reed shou ld be restored .

d ec e rn it u ti c On su les d i lec t u m h abe an t ( Sall C at . . de c rees that the c ons u ls

shall hold a levy .

edi t o c q uis in iu ssu p ugn are t

né ( Liv . v . havin g c om m an ded that n one

shou ld fi ght withou t ord ers .

N O TE 1 — D ifi e re n t v e rb s
. o f t h e se cl
w it h t h e sam e m e an i n g vary i n t h e ir
asses
c c
on st ru t ion ( se e t h e Le xi on ) c . For v e rb s o f barg ai n i n g e t c wi t h t h e Geru n d ive , se e .

N O TE 2 .
—Ve rb s of d c e re ei n g an d vot i n g of t e n t ak e t h e I n fi n it ive of t h e S e c on d
c
Pe rip h rast i c on ju g at ion z— Reg u lu s c ap t i vbs redd en dbs ( esse] n On c é ns u it ( Off i . .

c
R eg ulu s vot ed t h at t h e ap t i ves sh ou ld n Ot be re t u rn ed .
[H e said i n gi vi n g h is form al
,

Op i n ion : c apt i vi n on redd en di su nt ] .

3 66 S Y NTA X : S UBSTA N TI VE C LA USES 565 , 56 6

N O TE 1 .
— In ch c
su is n o e llip sis O f u t
ase s t h e re Th e e xp ression s are idiom at i . c
re m n an t s of an O c c c
e r on st ru t i on i n w h i h t h e su b j u n c t ives w e re h ort at ory or op t at i ve
ld
an d t h u s re ally i n d ep e n d e n t of t h e ve rb of wi sh i n g e t c I n t h e lassi al p e riod , h ow . c c
e ver, t h ey w e re d ou b t less f e lt as s u b ordin at e C om p are t h e u se O f c ave an d t h e su b .

c
j u n t ive ( wit h ou t n é ) in Proh ib it ion s wh i h app e ars t o follow t h e an alogy Of fac c
N O TE 2 — Li et m ay t ak e ( 1) t h e S u b j u n t i ve , u su ally w it h ou t u t ; ( 2) t h e S im p le
.

. c c
I n fi n it ive ; ( 3) t h e I n fi n it i ve wit h S u b j e t c Acc
u sat i ve ; ( 4) t h e D at ive an d t h e I n fi n i

t ive ( see § 455 . c

Th u s , I m ay g o is li et eam , lic et i re , lic et m e i re , or lic et m i h i i re .

c c
F or li c et i n on e ssiv e lau se s , se e § 5 27 b c . .

N O TE 3 - Op ort et m ay t ak e ( 1) t h e S u b j u n t i ve w it h ou t u t ; ( 2) t h e sim p le I n fi n i
. c
t ive ; ( 3 ) t h e I n fi n it i ve w it h S u b j ec t u sat i ve Acc
Th u s I m u st g o is Op ort et eam , Oport et .

i re , or Op ort et m e i re .

a. Ve rbs of c om m an di n g an d t h e lik e Of t e n t ake t h e j

su b u n c t i e v
Wi t h ou t ut z

hu i c ma n d at R em os ad e at ( B G iii
. . . he ord ers h im t o vi s it the R em i .

rogat f in e m f ac iat ( id i
hi m to ease . . he asks c .

c
Mn est h e a vo at , c lassem apt en t so ii ( A e n iv he c . . c all s Mn est heu s [an d
c
ord ers t h at ] h is om rad es shall m ake read y t he fl eet .

N O TE .
—Th e su b u n j ct i c c
i n t h is on st ru t ion i s t h e h o rt at ory
ve su b u n j ct i ve use d t o
exp re ss a c om m an d i n c
I n d i re t D is ou rse c

S u bs t ant ive Clau se s of Pu rp ose w it h Pas s ive Ve bs r

5 66 . A S u bst an t iv e C lau se u se d as the j
O b e c t of a v e rb be c om e s
the su b e c t j wh e n t h e v e rb is p u t in t h e p assiv e (I mp e rson al Con

C aesar ut p ost u lat u m e st ( B C i

e bgn bs e ere t C aes ar was requ est ed to . . .

m ake an i n vest ig at ion ( it was re qu e st e d t h at C aesar S h ou ld m ake an

in ve st igat ion ) .

S i e rat H era lio abc se n at u m an d at u m u t e m ere t ( Verr . iii .

if H eracliu s
c
h ad bee n i nstru t ed by t h e sen at e t o bu y .

S i p ersu as u m e rat C lu v iO u t m e n t i ré t u r ( R ose C om . .

if C lu viu s had been
p ersu aded t o lie .

c c
p u t o on ed i n Ob is op ort ere Gra o ve rb o ut am u r ( Fin iii
ut cc . . I t h in k
we m u st be allowed to u se a Greek word .

n é qu id e is n oc e at u r a C ae sare e avet u r B C i
( C aesar takes . . . ca re t hat no

harm shall be d on e t hem ( are is t ak en b y C aesar le st , c

a. Wit h verb s Of ad m on is h i n g, t h e p e rson al j
Ob e c t b e c om e s t h e
j
su b ec t an d t he j
Ob e c t c lau se is ret ain e d
ad m on iti su m u s u t c avé ré m u s ( A t t viii 1 1 D we were warn ed t o be caref u l
. . . .

cum m on eret u r ut c au t ior esset D i v i

( when he was advised t o be m ore
. .

ca u t i ou s .

m on é ri vi su s e st n é id fac eret (id . he seem ed -

t o be warn ed n ot t o do it .
55 566 -568
] S UBSTA N TI VE C LA U S ES OF R ES ULT

b . S om e ve rbs t h at t ake an in fi n it iv e in s t e ad of a su b un c t i v e j
are u s e d im p e rson ally in t h e p as siv e , an d t h e i n fi n i t i v e b e c om e s t h e

j
su b e c t of t he sen t en c e
'

loqu i n On c o n c ed it u r (B G . . vi . it i s n ot allowed to sp eak .

c W it h iu beb ve t o an d c Ogb t he s u bj ec t a c c u s at ive of t h e in fi n iti ve

.
, , ,

be c om e s t h e s u bj ec t n om i n a t ive O f t h e m ain v e rb an d t h e in fi n it iv e is ,

re t ain e d as c om p lem en t ary ( P e rson al C on s t ru c t ion ) :

ade s s e iu b e n t ur po st ri d ie ( Ve rr . 11 . t hey are ord ered to be p rese nt on t he
f ollowi n g day .

i re in e xs iliu m i u ssus e st ( C at . 11 . he was ordered

t o g o i n to exile .

S im on id es ve t it u s e st n avi gat e ( D iv . II . S im on id es was f orbidd en to sai l .

Man d u hu e xit e c Ogu n t ur (B G . . vii . the M and u bii are omp elled to g o ou t c .

S u bst ant ive Clau se s of R es u lt ( Con secu t iv e Clau ses )

56 7 . C lau se s of R es ult m ay b e u se d s u b st an t i ve ly , ( 1) j c
as t h e ob e t of fac i b e t c .

( 2) as t h e s u b e j ct of t h e se s am e ve rb s i n t h e p ass i v e , as w e ll as of ot h e r ve rb s
an d verb al p h rase s (3) i n app o s it i on w it h an ot h e r su b st an t iv e , or as p red i at e c
n om in at ive e t c .
( se e 57 0,

5 68 S u bst an t iv e C lau se s of Re s u lt wit h u t (n eg at iv e u t n on )

.

are u se d as t h e O bj e c t of v e r bs d e n ot in t h a c c om lishm en t o
f
g e
p

Su c h are e sp e c ially fac ib an d it s c om

p ou n d s ( efli c io, c en fi c i o, e t c
) :

e ffi eiam ut in t e lle gat i s ( C lu I wi ll m ake y ou

. 7 u n d ersta n d
(lit . e ff e ct t h at
y ou , [SO , fac iam u t in t e lle g ati s ( id .

c om m e at us ut p ort ari pos s e n t e ffi c ieb at (B . G . 11

. m ad e it p ossible t hat
sup p li es c ou ld be brou ght .

pe rf é ei ut é reg n o ille di s c é de re t ( F am . xv . 4 . I brou ght about his d ep artu re

f rom t he kin gdom .

q u ae lib ert as u t lae t ior e s s e t regis su pe rb ia f eee rat ( Liv . n . the arrog an c e

of t he kin g had m ade t his li berty m ore wel om e c .

evi n c u n t i n st an d o ut lit t e rae daren t u r ( id . 11 . by i ns istin g they gain t he ir

p oin t , t hat lett ers shou ld be se n t .
[ H e re é vin c u n t e ffi c iu n t .
]

1 c c
I n all t h ese ase s t h e lau se is n ot st ri t ly s u b j e t o r ob j e t c
Th e m ain ve rb orig c c .

i n ally c c
on ve y e d a m e an in g s u ffi i e n t in i t s e lf , an d t h e re su lt lau se w as m e rely c om c
p le m e n t ary Th is i s se e n b y t h e f req u en t u se of it s an d th e lik e w it h t h e m ain ve rb
.

( it a acc id i t u t , I n lik e m an n e r p u rp os e lau se s are on ly ap p aren t ly su b j ec t or c

c
ob j e t of t h e v e rb w it h wh i h t h e y are onn e t ed c c c .

2 Ve rb s an d
p h rases t ak i n g an u t -c lau se of resu lt as s u b j e t or Ob j e t are ac ced i t , c c
acc i di t , ad d it u r, alt era e st ré s , c om m i t t o, c an se q u or, con t i n gi t , effi c i b, Even i t , f ac i b, fi t , fi e ri

pot e st , fore , i m pe t rb, i n t egru m est , m os e st , m un u s est , n e esse est , prop e e st , ré c t u m est c .

re li n qu i t u r, re li qu um e st , rest at , t ant i e st , t an t u m s h est , an d a few o t h e rs

 ‘
x suss mm vs
'

s YNTA CLA USES

‘

:
[ sg

N or a 1 . Th e e xp ress ion s fa c e re u t ,
c omm it t ere ut , wit h t h e su b j un ct i ve , oft e n form
a p e rip h ras is fo r t h e sim p le ve rb : as , — in vi t u s F lam in iu m é se mat u é i c erem
f éc i ut
( C at . M . i t was wi t h relu ct can e t h at I e xp elle d F lam i n i u s f rom th e s en at e .

569 S u bs t an t iv e C lau se s of R esu lt are u s e d as t he s u b e c t of j

‘

t h e followin g

1 . Of p assiv e ve rbs den ot in g t he ac c omp li sh m en t o

f an e
fi ort

i m p e t rat u m e st at in se n at fi re c it i re n t u r
( litt e rae ) ( B C i they su cc eeded . . .

i n h avin g the let t er read i n t he sen at e ( it was b rou gh t ab ou t t h at ,

i ta e fi i c it u r u t o m n e c orp u s m ort als s i t ( N D iii i t theref ore i s m ade

. . .

ou t that every body is m ortal .

2 Of I m p e rson als m e an in g i t h ap p en s, i t rem ai n s , i t f ollows, i t is

.

n ec es s ary, i t is a dd ed , an d t h e lik e 5 68, f oot n ote )

ac c id it u t e s se t lfi na p len a ( B G i v . . . it hap p en ed to be f u ll m oon ( it h ap
p e n e d t h at it was , [ Here u t e sse t is su b j e t of ac c i di t
] c .

re liqu u m est u t offi c iis c e rt é m u s in t er n os ( F am . vii . it rem ai n s f or u s to

with ea h ot her i n ou rt esies
vie c c .

rest at u t h d c d u bit é m u s R osc A m i t is lef t f or t o dou bt t h is

( . . us .

se qu it u r u t doc e am ( N D n t he . . . n ext th i n g is to s how ( it f ollows ,

N O TE 1 — Th e i n fi n it ive som e t im e s o cu rs : as p —D e e n im ac c id erat m ihi op u s

. c c

esse ( F ai n v i 11 1) , f or i t h ad n ot h app e n e d t o be n e ess ary t o m e

. . . c .

c
N O TE 2 — N e esse e st oft en t ak e s t h e su b j u n t ive w it h ou t u t z as, —
. c on é d as n e ess e c c c
e st ( Rosc Am .
you m u s t g ran t
. .

3 . Of e st in t h e se n s e o f i t i s t h e f ac t t h a t etc .

( m ost ly p oe t ic
) :

e st u t viro vir lat in s brdi n et arb us ta ( H or C d m 1 i t i s t he f a t that . . . . c on e

m an p lan ts hi s vi n ey ards i n wid er rows than an other .

a. Fore ( or fu t u ru m e s se
) ut w it h a c lau se of re su lt as s u b e c t j is
of t e n u se d in st e ad of the Futu re I n fi n it iv e ac t ive or p as sive ; so

n e ce ss a rily in v e rb s wh ic h h ave n o s u p in e s t e m

c
‘

sp ero fore u t on t in gat id n db i s ( Tu sc . i . I h op e that will be ou r hap p y lot ,

c u m vid ere m f ore u t n on p ossem ( C at . 11

. when I saw t hat I shou ld n ot be able .

570 A . su bst an t i ve c lau se of re su lt m ay be in app osi t ion wi t h

an ot h e r su bs t an t i ve (e sp e c ially a n eu t e r p ron ou n ) :
illu d e t iam rest it e rat , u t t o in ius édfi c ere nt ( Qui n e t . t his too re m ain ed

f or them to d rag y ou in t o c ou rt .

57 1 . A su bs t an t i ve c lau se resu lt m ay se rv e
of as p r e dic at e
n om i n at i ve aft e r m os est an d s im ilar e x p r e ss ion s :

li n t e u n d e m p lurib u s reb u s e xc elle re

e st m bs h om in u m , ut no ( Bru t it i s
'

the way of m en t o be u n willin g f or on e m an to ex el in several th in gs c .

3 70 S NTAY X : S UBSTA N TI VE C LA USES 5 7 2 , t 7a

Op p ort un iss im a res ac c id it

qu od Germ an i vé n é ru n t ( B G iv . . . a very f or
tu n ate thin g happ en ed , ( n am ely ) t h at t he Germ ans am e c .

p rae t e re o qu od e am sibi d om u m s ed e m q u e dé lé git ( C lu . I p ass over the

f act that she c hose that hou se an d hom e f or herself .

m it t o qu od posse s s a p er vim ( F lacc . I d isregard t he f ac t th at they were

seized by violen e c .

N O TE — Lik e ot h e r su b st an t ive clau ses t h e clau se wit h q u od m ay b e u sed

.
, as su b
j ce t ,
as ob j ec t as ap posit ive e t c
,
b u t it i s c om m on ly e it h e r t h e su b j ec t or i n
, .
, ap p osi
t ion wit h t h e su b j ec t .

a. A su b st an t i ve c lau se w it h qu od som e t im e s ap pe a s as an r ac c u ~

s at i v e o
f sp ec ifi c a t i on , c or r e sp on d in g t o t h e En glish w h ere a s or a s

t o t h e f ac t t h a t

qu od m ihi d e n ost ro st at u grat ulari s , m in im e m i ram u r t e t u i s p rae c laris op e ri

b u s lae t ari ( F am i 7 7 as t o y ou r ongrat u lat i n g m e on ou r on di t ion ,
. . . c c
we are n ot at all su rp ri sed t hat y ou are p leased with y our own n oble works .

qu od d e d om o s c ribis , e go , e t c .
( Fam . x iv 2
. as t o what y ou writ e of the
.

hou se, I , e t c .

b . Verb s of f ee li n g an d the e xp res s ion f f

o e eli n g t ak e e it h e r qu od
( q u ia) or t h e ac c u sat iv e an d in fi n it iv e
( I n dire c t D i sc ou rse)
qu od s c ribi s gau d e o ( Q F r iii 1 I am glad t hat y ou write
. . . . .

c
fa io lib e n t er qu od e am n On pos s um p rae t e rire ( Legg i I am glad t hat I . .

c
an n ot p ass it by .

quae p erf ec t s e s s e veh e m e n t e r lae t or ( R osc . Am . I great ly re oi e

j c t hat
t his is fi n ished .

qu i q ui a n On h ab u it a m e t u rm as e qu i t u m fort assa su sc en se t ( A t t vi 3 who . . .

p erhap s f eels an gry that he d id n ot re e ive squ ad rons of c avalry f rom m e c .

m olest e t uli t é c
at ai grat ias n b n egi sse ( Fam
s h . x . 27 . I was d isp leased
t hat y ou d id n ot retu rn t han ks t o t he se n ate .

N O TE — M1ror an d
‘

s im ilar ex p re ssion s are som e t im e s follow ed b y a lau se w it h si 1 c

—
. .

Th is i s ap p are n t ly su b st an t ive , b u t re ally p rot asis ( c f § 56 3 e N Th u s , m i ror . . . .

si q u e m q u am am i c u m h abe re p ot u i t I wo n der if h e c ou ld e ve r h ave a f ri en d .

[O ri gi n ally , If this is so, I won de r at i t ] .

I ndi rect Qu est ion s

5 73 . A n I n dir e c t
Q u e s t ion is an y s en t e n c e or c lau se whic h is
i n t r odu c e d by an in t e rr og at iv e wor d (p ron ou n ad v e rb an d , ,

wh ic h is it s e lf t h e su bj e c t or obj ec t of a v e rb or d e p e n d s on an y ,

e x p r e ssi on i m plyin g u n c e r t ain t y o r dou bt .

I n gram m at ic al form exc lam at ory s e n t e n c e s are n ot dist in ,

u is h e d fr o m i n t errog at i ve s ee t h e t h ir d e x am le b elow
g ( p ) .

1 C f t h e Gree k da uud fw c l
. .
 57 4, 57 5] I ND IR EC T QUES TION S 371

57 4 . A n I n dir e c t Q u es t ion t ake s it s v e rb in t h e S u bj u n c ti v e

qui d ip s e s e n t iam e p n am ( D iv . i . I will exp lain what I thi nk .
[D irec t
qu i d s e n tib

id pos s et n e fi e ri c en sulu it ( id . i . he c ons u lt ed whet her it c ou ld be don e .

[D ire t : p ot e s t n e c
qu am s i s au d a
i n t elle ge re p ot u erun t ( R ose A m
x om n es . . c
all ou ld u n der
stand how bold y ou are [D ire t : qu am e s au di x l] . c
dole am n eon e dole am n ih il in t e re st ( Tu sc ii
'
it is of n o a . . cc ou nt whet h er I
saf er or n ot [D ou b le q u e st ion ]
.

qu aesi vi a C at ili n a in c on ven t fi ap u d M Las am f ui ss e t n e c n e ( C at 11 . c . . I

asked C at ilin e whether h e had been at t he m eet in g at Mar us Lte c a s
’
c or

n ot .
[Dou b le
qu e st ion ] .

rogat m e qu id s e n t iam , he asks m e what I t hin k m e s e nt e n t iam , he

.
[C i . rogat

asks m e m y op in i on ]
h bc d u b iu m e st , u t er n ost ru m s it in ve ré c u n d ior ( A ad ii c . . th is is dou bt
f u l whic h of
, us two is t he les s m od est .

in c e rt i qu at e n u s Vole rb e xerc é re t vic t d riam ( Liv . u . u nc ertain how f ar

Volero wou ld p us h vi ct ory .
[A s if d u b itan t é s qu at en u s , e tc .
]
N O TE . c
An I n di re t Qu est ion m ay b e t h e su b j e t of a v e rb ( as i n t h e fou rt h e xam c
p l e ) ,
t h e d i re t ob j e tc( as i n t h e c
fi rs t ) , t h e se on d ary ob j ec t ( as in t h e sixt h ) , an ap po si c
t i ve ( as in t h e se ve n t h ) .

5 75 Th e S e qu e n c e of Te n ses in I n dir e c t
. Q u est ion is illus
t rat e d by t h e follo win g e x am p le s
di c b qui d f ac iam , I te ll y ou what I am doi n g .

c
di t) qu id f ac t dru s s im , I te ll y ou what I wi ll
”

( shall) do .

di ce q i d f é u I te ll y ou what I d id ( have d one , was do i ng)

c e rim ,
.

dixi c
qui d t e erem , I t old y ou what I was doi n g . .

dixi q u i d f é c i s s e m ,
I to ld y ou w h at I h ad d o n e ( had be en d oi n g) .

dixi u i d f a c t fi r u s a s s e m I to ld y ou what I wou ld ( shou ld ) d o ( w as goin g t o d o)

q
.
,

dixi id f a c t fi ru s f i s se m I t old y ou what I wou ld ( shou ld ) have d on e

q u u .
,

a. I n di re c t Qu e st ion s e fe rin g t o f u t u re t i m e t ak e t h e r r su b u n c j
t ive of t h e F irst P e ip h rast ic C on u gat ion r j
p resp ic ib qu i c on cu rs fi s f u t uri s int ( Gas oil . I f ores ee what t hron gs t here
wi ll be .
[D ire c t : qu i c ru n t

qui d s it fu ge qu ae re re ( H or O d i 9
fu t uru m eras, f orbear t o ask what wi ll . . . .

be on t he m orrow [D ire t : q u id e t i t o r fu t uru m e s t

ost ha c n d n sc ri b am a d t e
p q
. c
u i d f ac t fi ru s s im s e d q u id fec e rim ( A t t x
. .
,

h ereaf te r I shall n ot write to y ou wh at I am g oi n g to do, bu t what I have

d on e .
[ D ire t c : qui d fa ies c ( or f ac t fi ru s e ris ) qu id f é ci sti
c
N OT E — Th is Pe ri p h ras t i F u t u re avoid s t h e am b igu it y whi h w ou ld b e
. c c
au sed by
c
u s in g t h e P rese n t S u b j u n t ive t o re fe r t o f u t u re t im e i n su h lause s c c .

b . Th e De lib e rat ive S u b j u n c t ive 44 4) re m ain s u n c h an ged in an

I n direc t Qu e st ion , e xc e
pt s om e t im e s in t e n se
372 Y
S NTA X : S UBS TA N TI VE C LA US ES 5 75 , 6 76

qu b m e ve rt am n e s io ( C lu c
I do n ot kn ow whi h way t o tu rn .
[Dire t c . c
qu d m e vert am
n e qu e sat is c dns t ab at quid age re n t ( B G iii an d i t was not very lear what . . . c
they were to d o [D ire t : qu id agam u s
. c
n ec q u i sq u am s at is c e rt u m h ab e t , q uid au t s pé re t au t t im e at ( Liv xx n 7 . . .

n or is an y on e we ll assu red what he shall hop e or f ear [ H ere t h e fu t u re .

p art i c ipl e wit h s it c ou ld n ot be u se d

]
in c e rt o q u id p e t eren t au t vi t are n t ( id . xxviii . 36 . s in e c it was d ou btf u l
b l i b lu t e ) what t hey shou ld seek or shu n
( a at ve a so .

c . I n di re c t Q u e st i on s of te n t ak e t h e I nd ic at iv e in ea rly Lat in an d

p o e t r
y
vi n e am qu d in agro c en s eri oport e t si c ob se rvato ( C at o R R 6 . . . i n what
soi l a vi n ey ard shou ld be s et y ou m u st obs erve thus .

d .Nesc ib qu i s, wh en u se d in an in d e fi n it e s e n se
( som e bod
y or ot h er
) ,

i s n ot f ollowe d by t h e S u b u n c t ive j .

So also n esc io qu d ( u n de, e t c .

) an d t h e f ollowin g idiom at ic p h as e s r
whic h are p rac t c a i lly ad e v rb s
m i ru m ( n im i ru m ) q u am , m arvellou sly ( m arvellous h ow) .

m i ru m q u an t u m , t re mend ou s ly ( m arve llou s h ow m u h ) c .

im m an e q u an t u m ,
m on st rou sly ( m on st rou s h ow m u ch ) .

s an e q u am , i m m ens ely .

vald e qu am , en orm ous ly .

Exam p les are

qu i istam n e s c ib quam in d ole n t iam m agn Op ere lau d an t ( Tu s o iii . . who

great ly ext ol t hat f reed om f rom p ai n , what ever i t is .

m iru m qu an t u m p rof u it ( Liv ll it he lp ed p rodig iou s ly . . .

it a fat e qu d c on t igiss e arbi t ror ( F am x v

n e sc id . . I thin k i t hap p ened so

by som e f at alit y or other .

n am su bs valde qu am p au c Os h ab e t
( i d x i 13 A . . .
f or h e h as c
u n om m on ly

f ew of hi s own .

sane qu am su m g avisu s ( id xi 13 A I was i m m ens ely g lad

. . . .

im m an e qu an t u m d isc rep at ( H or Od i 2 7 i s m on strou sly at . . . . vari an e c .

576 . In c ollo qu ial u sa e

g in p oe t ry t h e su bj ec t of an I n
an d

dire c t Q u e s t ion is o ft e n at t rac t e d in t o t h e m ain c lau s e as obj e c t

( A c c u sat ive of A n t ic ip at ion )

n est i marc ellum qu am t ard u s s it ( F am . vii i . 10 .
y ou kn ow how s low Mar
c ellu s is .
[F or n osti qu am t ardu s s it
'

Marc e llu s . Cf I kn ow t h ee wh o
.

t h ou
C f p ot e st n e igit u r c aru m ré ru m , qu are fu t ure s s in t , ulla e sse p raesen sio ( D iv
.
.

ii c an t here be , t hen , an y f orekn owled ge as t o t hose t hings, why they

.

cc
will o u r ? [A s im ilar u se of t h e Ob j e t ive Ge n it ive ] c
3 74 SY NTA X 57 7 —
‘
S UBS I A NTI VE C L A USES 580
'

se n te n e s c I t is p rob ab le t h at t h e su b j u n t iv e in i n d ire t q u est ion s

. 57 4) in inf orm al c c
in di re ct
d is ou rse c an d in lau se s of t h e i n t eg ral p art c
593 ) rep resen t s t h e
earlie st s t e p s of a m ov e m e n t b y wh i h t h e su b j u n t i ve b e am e in som e d e gree a m ood c c c
o f s u b o rdin at io n .

c
Th e S u b j u n t ive st an din g f or h o rt at ory f orm s of sp e e h in I n dire t D i s ou rse i s c c c
sim p ly t h e u su al h ort at ory su b j un t i ve , w it h on ly a c
h an g e of p e rson an d t e nse ( if c
c
n e e ssary ), as in t h e
’
rep ort e r s st y le .

57 8 . A D ir e c t Q u ot at ion g iv e s t he e xac t wor ds of t he o rigin al

s
p e ake r or wri t e r ( Orat io R e c t a
)
' '

A n I n dir e c t Q u ot at ion adap t s t h e w ords of t h e sp e ak e r or

writ e r t o t h e c on st r u c t ion of t h e s e n t e n c e in w hic h t h e y are

u o te d Oratio Obli u a
( g )
'

q
'

. c
N O T E — Th e t e rm I n dire t D i s ou rse (6rdt i6 o bli q u a) is u sed in t wo sen ses c In .

c c
t h e wi d er se n se i t in lu d e s all lau se s — of wh at e ve r kin d — w h i h exp ress t h e word s c
c
or t h ou gh t of an y p e rson i n di re t ly , t h at i s, i n a f orm d i ff ere n t f rom t h at i n whi h t h e c
p e rson said t h e word s or on e ived t h e t h ou gh t c c
I n t h e n arrow e r sen se t h e t e rm I n d i .

c c
re t D is ou rse i s re st ri t ed t o t h ose c
ases i n wh i h som e om p le t e p rop osi t i on i s it e dc c c c
c
in t h e f orm of an I n d ire t Qu ot at ion , wh i h m ay b e e xt en d ed t o a n arrat ive or an c
ad dress of an y len g t h , as in t h e s p ee h e s rep ort ed b y C ae sar an d Livy c
I n t hi s b ook .

t h e t erm is u s ed in t h e rest ri t e d sen se c .

FO R MA L I N D I R EC T D I S C O U R S E

57 9 . Ve rbs an d ot h e r r
e x p e ssion s of kn owing , t hin-king , t e lling ,
g, go v e rn t h e I n di re c t D isc ou rs e
1
an d e rc e ivin
p .

N OTE .
— In quam , s aid I (e t c ) . t ak e s t h e D i re t D i sc ourse c ex ep t c in poe t ry .

r
Dec la at ory Se nt en ces i n I n direc t Di sc ou se r
580 I n I n dir e c t D isc ou rs e t h e m ain
. c lau se o f a D e c larat ory
S e n t e n c e is p u t in t h e I n fi n it iv e wi t h S u b j e c t A c c u sat iv e . All
su bordin at e c lau s es t ak e t h e S u bj u n c t iv e

s c io m e p ac ue in c red ib ile m re m
p olli c é ri ( B C iii
. . . I kn ow that I am
p rom is in g an alm ost i n c red ible t hi ng .
[D ire c t : p ollic e or ] .

n bn arb it ror t é i t a s e n t i re ( Fam . x . 26 . I do n ot su p p os e that y ou f eel

t hu s .
[D ire c t : s en t i s .
]
sp ero m e li b erat u m [e s s e ] d e m e t u ( Tusc . II . I trus t I have been f reed
f rom f ear .
[D ire c t : lib erat u s sum .
]

1 Su h c ( 1) kn owi n g sc io c og n osc d c om p ert um habe o, et c ; ( 2) t hi n ki n g p u t o

are : , , , ,

c
.
,

exi st i m o, arb it rer e t c ( 3 ) t elli n g d i e n II n t io refero p olli c eor p rom i t t d c ert i drem fac io
'

, .
, , , , , , ,

et c c
(4) p e r e ivi n g , sen t id, c om pe ri d vi d eo au d io e t c S o i n g en eral an y word t h at , , , .

de n ot e s t h ou gh t o r m en t al an d v isu al pe r c pt i e on or t h eir exp re ssion m ay gove rn t h e

c
I n dire t Disc ou rse .
g 580] I ND I R EC T D I SC OUR SE 3 75

[di c it ] es se n on n ullos qu oru m a u t orit a c

s p lfi rim u m vale at ( B G i . . . he
say s t here are som e , whose influ en c e m ost p revails
[D ire t : s u n t . c n dn

n d lli vale t ]
ni s i ifi ras s et , sc e lus sé f ac t fi ru m [e s s e ] arb it rab at u r ( Ve rr . II . 1 . he
thou ght he shou ld in c ur gu i lt , u n less he should take t he oath .
[D ire t c :

ni si i fi ri verb , f ac iam
] .

a. Th e v e rb of s ayi n g e t c . is of t e n n ot e xp e s se d, r bu t im p li ed in
s om e wo d r or in t h e ge n e ral d rif t of t he se n t e n c e .

c d n su lis alt e ri us i n vi su m c i vit at i fu it

n Om e n : n
i iu m Tarqu ini os
m regn o

ads u é s s e ; c c
a Pris o f a t u m ; reg n as se d e in S er Tu lli u m , e t c
ini ti u m . .

i
( v II
L . . c
the n am e of t he ot her ons u l was hat ef u l t o the st ate ; the Tar
qu in s ( t h e y t h oug h t ) had bec om e t oo m u h c cc a ust om ed t o roy al p ower, etc .

[H e re i n vi s u m im p lies a t h ou gh t , an d t h is t h ou gh t is add ed in t h e
f orm of
I n d ire t D is ou rse ] c c
Oran t es u t u rb ib us s alt e m iam e n im agros deplorat ds es s e op e m se n at u s

ferre t ( id xli p ray in g t hat t he s en ate wou ld at least bri n g aid t o the
. .

c
ities —f or the fi e lds [t h e y said ] were alre ad y g iven u p as lost .

b . Th e v e rb n egd, d en y, is c om m on ly u se d in p re fe re n c e t o dic e wi t h
a n e gat i e :v
[St oic i ] n e gan t qu i dqu am [e s s e ] b on u m n isi
q u od h on est u m s it ( F in . ii .

t he S toi c s ass ert t hat n ot h in g is g ood bu t what i s right .

0. Ve rb s Of p romi s i n , h o i n , e x e c t i n g, t h re a t en i n g, s w e ari n g,
g p g p
an d t h e lik e , r e g u larly t ak e t h e c on st ru c t ion of I n d i e c t D isc ou s e , r r
c on t ra ry t o t he En gli sh id iom
m i n at u r s es e abire ( Pl A s in . . he t hreat ens t o go away .
[Dire c t : abe b,

I am g oin g away ]
sp eran t 8 6 m ax im u m frfi c t u m e s se c aptures ( Lael . t hey hop e to g ain the
u t m ost advan t age .
[D ire c t : cap ié m u s . ]
sp erat s é ab s old t um iri ( Su ll . he hop es t hat he shallbe cq
a u i t t ed .
[D ire c t
ab s olvar .
]
qu em in im i c issim u m f u t urum e s s e p rdm itt o ac sp on d e o ( Mu r . who I
p rom ise an d warrant will be th e bitterest of en e m i es .
[D ire ct : exit ]
d olor fort i t fi d in e m sé deb ili t at fi ru m m in at u r ( Tus e v . .
p ai n t hreat ens to
wear d own f ort itu de [D ire t : débili t abo ]. c .

c c
on fi d o m e q u od veli m fa ile a t e im p et rat fi ru m ( F am xi 16 l ) , I tru st 1 . . .

s hall e as ily obtai n f rom y ou what I wish [ D ire t : q u od volb, im pe . c

t ri b e]

N O TE —Th ese ve rb s, h owe ve r, o ft e n t ak e a sim p le C om p le m en t ary I n fi n it ive 456)

So reg u larly i n early Lat in ( e x e p t sp éro) : — 1 c
po llic e n t u r ob sidé s dare (B G i v th ey p rom is e to gi ve ho s t ages
. . . .

I p rom i se d t o gi ve aj ar of win e
’

p rom i si doli u m vi ni d are ( Pl C is t . . .

1 C om p are t h e Gree k ao rist in fi n it ive aft e r sim ilar ve rb s .

376 Y
S NTA X : S UB STA NTI VE C LAUSES 580, 58 1

( I. v erbs an d e xp r e ssion s m ay b e u sed e ith e r as v e bs f

S om e r o

ay i g or as v e b s of m m a d i g fi c t i g an d t h e lik e Th e s e
'

s n ,
r co n n , e e n , .

t ake as t h e ir obj e c t e it h e r an I n fi it iv e w it h s u bj e c t ac c u sat ive or a n

S b st an t iv e c lau se of P u rp ose or R esu lt ac c o d in g t o t h e se n se

u ,
r .

1 I fi n it iv wit h S b j c t A cc at i
. n e
( I di c t D i c u
) e us ve n re s ou rse

lau dem sap ie n t iae st at u e e s s e m ax im am ( Fam v . . I hold t hat t he g lory o f

wisd om i s t he great est [I n dire t D is ou rse . c c ]
res ip sa m on eb at t e m p u s e ss e ( At t x 8 l ) , t he t hin g i tse lf warned t hat i t . . .

was ti m e [C f m on é re u t , warn t o d o som ethi n g ]

. .

fac m ih i pe rsu as u m ( N D i
e s se . . . sup p ose t hat I am p ersu ad ed of t hat .

[C f fac ere u t , brin g it abou t t hat

.
]
h dc volu n t p e rs u ad ere , n an in t erire anim as ( B G vi . . . t hey wish t o c on

vin e c t hat sou ls do n ot p erish .

2 . Su b j c t iv
un e
( S u b st an t ive C lau se of Purp ose or R e su lt )
st at u u n t u t de c em m i lia h om in u m m it t an t u r ( B G vi i . . . t hey resolve t hat
m en shall be sent .
[Pu rp ose c lau se ( c f .

hu i c p ersu ad e t n ti ad h ost is t ran se at ( id iii . . he p ersu ades hi m t o p ass

over t o t he enem y .

Po m p eius p rae d ixe rat u t C aes aris i m p e t u m e xc ip ere nt ( B C iii

su is . . .

c
P om p ey had i n stru t ed his m en bef orehan d t o await C aesar s att a k’
c .

d en un t iavi t u t e s sen t an im o p arati ( id iii he bad e t hem be alert an d . .

ste ad ast f ( re ady in sp irit ) .

N O TE Th e in fi n it ive wit h a u sat ive in t hi s su b j e ct cc c on st ru ct i is I n dire t D is c

“

. on

cou rse , an d i s t o b e dist in gu i sh ed f rom t h e sim p le infi n it ive som et im es fou n d wit h t h ese
ve rb s in st ead of a su b j u n t ive lau se 56 3 d) c c . .

581The Su bj e c t A c c u sat i v e of t h e I n fi n it iv e is r egu larly e x

.

p r e sse d in I n dir e c t D isc ou rs e , e v e n if i t i s w an t in

g in t h e di r e c t

Orat or su m , I am an orat or ; d i it c s é e sse OratOre m , he say s he is an orator .

N O TE 1 .
— Bu t t h e s u b j ec t i s oft en om it t e d if easily u n d erst ood

I gn bsc ere i m p rnd en t iae di xi t h e sai d h e p ardon e d t h ei r rash n ess

(B G . . iv . .

e ad e m ab alii s q u ae rit : re p e rit e sse vera ( i d i he i n qu i res abou t thes e s am e . .

t hi n g s f rom oth e rs h e fi n ds th at t h e y are t ru e .

N OTE 2 - Af t e r a relat ive , or quam ( th an ) , if t h e verb wou ld b e t h e sam e as t h at of

.

c
t h e m ain lau se , i t i s u su ally om it t ed , an d it s su b j e t i s at t ra t ed i n t o t h e a u sat ive c c cc
te su sp ic or ei sd e m reb u s q u ib u s m e i p su m c om m ov é ri ( C at M I ) , I s u sp e t t h at . . c
you are dis t u rbed by t h e s ame t h i n gs as I .

c c
on fi do t am e n h ae q u oq u e t ib i n d n m in u s grat a q u am i p sbs li b ros f u t fi ra ( Plin .

Ep iii 5 I t ru s t t h at t h ese f a t s t oo will be n o less p le asi n g t o y ou t h an

. . . c
t h e books t h e m selves .

N O TE 3 — I n po e t ry , b y a Greek id iom , a Pred i at e N ou n or dj e t ive in t h e in di

. c A c
c
rec t d i s ourse som e t im e s ag ree s wi t h t h e su b j e t of t h e m ai n v e rb : c
v ir b on u s e t sap ien s ait e sse parat u s ( H or Ep i 7 a g ood an d wis e m an says
. . . .

he i s p rep are d , et c .
[In p rose : ai t se esse pe t i t u m ] .

sens it m e dic s d emp su s in h ost i s ( Aen i i he f ou n d h i m self f allen am on g t he

. .

f oe .
[I n p rose : sé esse d éldp su m ]
3 78 S Y NTA X : S UB S TA NTI VE C LA U SES 588 , 584

N O TE .
— Su ch cl c
in t h e in di at ive i s n ot regarde d as a p art of t h e I n d ire t
a au se c
c
D is ourse ; b u t it of t e n d ep e n d s m e re ly u p o n t h e f ee lin g of t h e writ e r wh e t h e r h e sh all
c
u se t h e I n d i at ive or t h e S u b j un t iv e ( c f 591 c .

a. A su b ordin at e c lau se in I n d ire c t D isc ou rse oc c as ion all

y t ak e s
t h e I n dic at iv e w h e n t h e f ac t is em p h as i ze d :

c
fa t u m é iu s h ost is p eri ulu m c
c u m , C im b ris e t Te u t onis
p u lsis , n on
m in ore m lau de m e xe rc it u s q u am ip s e im p e rat or m e rit u s vi dé b at u r B G
( . .

i t hat a t rial of t his en em y h ad bee n m ad e wh en , on t he d ef eat of t he

.

C im bri an d Te u ton i , the arm y seem ed to h ave d eserved n o less redit t han c
t he c om m an d er h im s elf .

b . C lau se s in t rod u ce d by a r e lat ive wh i c h is e q u ivale n t to a

d e m on st rat ive wit h j
a c on u n c t ion are n ot r
p op e rly su bord in at e , an d

h en c e t ake t h e A c c u sat iv e an d I n fi n it iv e r
i n I n d i e c t D i sc ou se r ( se e
Marc ellu s d i c it ur A rc h im é d e m illu m , qu em c u m au di sse t in t e r
re qu isi sse

f ec t u m p e rm ole s t é t u lis s e ( Ve rr i v Mar ellu s is said t o have sou ght

. . c
f or A rchi m edes, an d when he heard t hat he was slain , t o have been great ly
distressed .
[qu em et e u m .

c é n se n t u n u m qu e m qu e n os t ru m m u n d i esse p art e m , ex qu a et ex eO ]
illu d n at u re c 6n s e qu i ( Fin iii
. t hey s ay that ea h on e of . . c us i s a p art
f
o th e u n iverse , f rom whi h t his c n atu rally f ollows .

N OTE . Re ally su b ord in at e cl au se s o cc as ion ally t ak e t h e a cc u sat ive an d in fi n it i ve :

— q u em ad m od u m si n On dé dat u r ob ses p ro ru p tO foed us s é h a bi t fi ru m , si c d é d it am

in v iolat am ad su Os re m i ssfi ru m ( Li v ii [h e say s] as i n

. . c ase t h e h os t ag e i s n ot
c
gi ve n u p h e sh all on s id er t h e t re at y as b roken , so if gi ven u p h e wi ll re t u rn h e r

u n h arm ed t o he r f ri e n ds .

c Th e in fi n it iv e
. r
c on st u c t ion is re
gu larly c on t in u e d af t e r a c om
p arat i ve w it h qu am
ad d it s é p riu s oc c i su m i ri ab e o q u am m e vi olat u m i ri A tt 11 2 0 ( . . . he adds
t hat he h i m self wi ll be killed by h i m , bef ore I shall be i nj u red .

n On n e ad f i i m avi q u id vi s m e pot i n s p e rp essuru m qu am e x I t alia exit fi ru m

( F am . 11
. 16 d id I n ot assert t hat I wou ld e n d ure an y thin g rat her
.

t han leave I t aly

N O TE .
—Th e j
su b u n t ive c wit h or w it h o u t c
u t also o c u rs wit h qu am ( se e § 535 . c) .

Ten ses of t h e I n fi n it i ve i n I n direc t Di scou rs e

584 . Th e P re s e n t , t h e Pe rfe c t , or t h e Fu t u re I n fi n it iv e l
is u se d

in I n dire c t D isc ou rse , ac c o rdin g as t h e t im e in dic at e d is p re sen t ,

p ast , o r f u tu re r e fe re n c e t o
w it h v r t h e e b of say ing e t c by whic h .

t h e I n d ir ec t D isc ou r se is in t r odu c e d :

1 For variou s way s of e xp re ssing t h e F u t u re In fi n it iv e , see 164 3. . c .

55 584 , 585 ] TEN SES IN I N D I R EC T DISC OUR SE 379

cado I , am f allin g .

c
d i it sé cd a ere , he say s he is f alli n g .

d ixit s é c da e re , he said he was f allin g .

c adé bam , I was f allin g ce cidi , I f ell, have f allen ;

cec i de ram ,
I had f allen .

c
d i it s é c e c idi s s e , he he was f allin g , f ell, has f allen , had f allen
say s .

d ixit s é c ec i di s se , he said he f ell, had f allen .

cadam , I s hall f all .

c
d i it s é c fi s fi ru m [e sse ] , he he shall f all
s ay s .

d ixi t s é c as fi ru m [e sse] , he said he shou ld f all .

c e c i de ro, I shall have f allen .

c
d i it f ore u t c ec ide rit [rare ] he says he shall have f allen
, .

d ix it fore ut c e ci di s s e t [rare ] he said h e shou ld have f alle n

, .

a. All varie t ie s of p as t t im e are u su all

y e x p re sse d in I n di rec t
D i sc ou rse by t h e P e rf e c t I n fi n i t ive , whic h m ay st an d f or t h e I m p e r
f e c t , t h e P e rfe c t , or t h e P lu p e rf e c t I n d ic at iv e of t h e D ire c t .

c
N O TE — C on t in u ed or rep e at ed a t ion i n p ast t im e is som e t im e s e xp re ssed b y t h e
.

c c c
Pre se n t I n fi n it ive , w h i h i n su h ase s st an d s for t h e I m p e rfe t I n di at iv e of t h e Di re t c c c
c c
D is ou rse an d i s of t e n alled t h e I m p e rf e t I nfi n i t i ve c .

c c
Th is i s t h e regu lar on st ru t ion aft e r m em i n i wh e n re ferrin g t o a m at t e r o f a t u a l c
c
e xp e rie n e or ob se rvat ion : as , -t
é m e m ini h ae di c ere , I rem e m b er you r s ay i n g t his c
( t h at y ou said t h is) . c
[D i re t : di xi st i or di c ébas ] .

b . Th e p re se n t in fi n it iv e pos se of t e n h as a fu t u re s e n se

t o t i u s Galliae ses e p ot i ri poss e sp eran t (B G . . i . t hey hop e th at they shall

be able to g et p oss ess i on f all Gau l

o .

Ten s es of j
t h e S u b u n ct ive i n I n di ec t Di scou rse r
5 85 . Th e t e n s e s S u bj u n c t iv e in I n dir e c t D isc ou rs e fol
of t he
low t h e r u le for t h e S e q u e n c e of Te n ses Th ey dep e n d for
t he ir se qu e n c e on t h e v e rb of say in g e t c by wh ic h t he I n d ire c t .

D isc ou rs e is in t r od u c e d .

c
Th u s in t h e se n t e n e , di xit s é Rom ain it fi ru m u t c bn su le m vidé ret , he sai d he
shou ld g o to R om e in ord er t hat he m i ght see t he onsu l, vi dé re t follows t h e se qu e n e c c
of dixi t wit h ou t re gard t o t h e F u t u re I n fi n it ive , i t fi ru m [es se ] , on wh i h i t dire t ly c c
d ep e n d s .

N O TE — Th is ru le app lie s t o t h e su b j u n t iv e i n
. c s u bo rdin at e clau se s, t o t hat w hi h c
st an ds f or t h e im pe rat iv e e t c ( se e e xam p le s, 5 . an d t o t h at i n q u e st ion s

a. A j
su b u n c t ive d e p e n din g on a Pe rf e c t I n fi n it iv e is oft e n in t h e
I m p e rfe c t or Plu p e f e c t ,r e v en if t h e v e rb of s ay i n g e t c . i s in p a ri

m ary t e n se ( of . 485 .
j) ; so re gu la rly wh en t h e se t e n se s wou ld h a ve
be e n u se d in D i rec t D isc ou rse
 3 80 S YNTA X : SUB STA N TI VE C LA USES 5 85 , 586

Tarq u in iu m dixis se i e rn u t t u rn e xsu lan t e m sé in t e llé xi ss e qu os fi d os am i des

h ab u is s et ( Lae l . t hey t ell u s t hat Tar qu in said t hat then i n his exi le
he had f ou nd ou t what f ait hf u lf rien d s he had had [ H ere t h e m ain ve rb .

of say in g, f e ru n t , is p rim ary , b u t t h e t im e is arrie d b a k b y dixi s s e an d c c

in t e llé xi s se , an d t h e se qu en e t h e n b e om es se on d ary ] c c c .

t an t u m p rofé c i s se vi dé rn ur u t a Grae c i s n é verb Oru m q u id e m c Op iavi n c eré m u r

N D i w see m t o have advan c ed s o f ar that even i n abu n danc e of
( .e . .

words we A R E n ot su rp assed by the Greeks .

N O TE 1 — Th e c
p rop e r se q u e n e m ay b e se e n , in ea h ase , b y t u rn in g t h e Pe rfe t
. c c ‘

c
I n fi n it ive i n t o t hat t e n se of t h e I n d i at ive wh i h it rep re se n t s Th us , if it st an d s for c c .

an i mp e r c c
f e t or an h ist ori al p e rf e t , t h e seq u e n e will b e se on dary ; if it stan ds fo r c c c
c
a p erf e t defi n i t e , t h e seq u e n e m ay b e e it h e r p rim ary or se on d ary c 485 a) c . .

N OTE 2 —Th e so- alled im p e rfe t in fi n it iv e aft e r m em i n i

. c 584 a N ) t ak e s t h e c . . .

c c
se on d ary se q u en e : as , — ad In é adire q u Osd am m em i ni , qu i d i c eren t ( Fam i i i 10 I . . .

re me m ber t h at som e p e rsons visi t e d m e , t o t ell m e , et c .

b . Th e Pre sen t an d Perfe c t S u b j un c t ive a e of t en se d i d ep en d r u n

e n t c lau se s of t h e I n dire c t D i sc ou r se e ven wh en t h e v e rb of s ayi g n

et c . i s in a s e c on d a ry t en se
d ic é b an t t ot id e m N ervi os ( pollic é ri ) q ui lon gissim e e hs int ( B G . . ii .

‘
t hey said t hat t he N ervii , who live f art hest ofi p rom ised as m an y , .

N O TE c t ct i c m f m t h t d cy f l g g t f ll t im
.
'

Th is on s ru on o es ro e en en o an ua e o re e r a e
i ti
n n arra t t h e t im f th
on p k ( p
o t d t i b) I th c e o f l g pe s ea er re raese n . n e ou rse o a on as

g i t h I d i ct D i c
sa e n e th t n f thre bj c t i ft s ou rse
y m t im f l e en ses o e su un ve o e n v ar , so e es o
l wi g t h
o n
q c d m t im ff ct d b y p
e se u en t d ti d
e , an E m pl m y b
so e es a e e re raesen . xa es a e
i B G i 13
se e n n 20 t
. . .
, VI I .
, e c .

C t i c ct i ff c t d b y p t d ti S ch t h I m p f ct
'

t
er a n on s ru on s are n e ver a e e re raesen o. u are e er e
and Pl p f c t S b j
u c t i wit h m t m p l t q m d p i q m
er e u un ve cu e ora ,
an e ua , an r n s ua .

Qu est i on s in I n direct Di scou rse

586 Q u est ion in I n dire c t D isc ou rse m ay be e it h e r in t h e
. A
S u bj u n c t iv e or in t h e I n fi n it iv e wi t h S u bj e c t A c c us at iv e .

A re al qu estion aski n g for an an swe r is g e n e r ally p u t in t h e, ,

S u bj u n c t iv e ; a rhe t oric al q u e st ion as ked for e fi ec t an d im p lyin g ,

it s o wn an s we r is p u t in t h e I n fi n i t i v e : ,

q u id sib i v elle t our in su as p oss e ss ion es ve niret (B G . . i . what d id he

wan t ? why d id he c om e in t o h is t erritories ? [ R eal qu est ion . D ire t c :

qui d vi s c ur v eni e

num re c e n t iu m i n ifi riaru m m e m oriam d ep On ere poss e ( id i

[s e] . . c ou ld

he lay as id e t he m em ory of Qu e st ion rec en t wron gs ? [ Rh et ori al c .

D ire t : n u m pos su m c
qu e m si gn u m dat fi ru m fu gie n t ib u s qu e m au s fi ru m Ale xan d re su ed ere ( Q C cc . .

in 5 who will g ive t he s ign al on the ret reat ? who wi ll dare su ceed
. . c
A lexander ? [ R h e t o i al D ire t : qu i s dahit au dé bit ] rc . c . .
3 82 SYNTA X : SUBSTA NTI VE CLA USES [g 589

a. Th e Pr e s en t Su bj u n c t i ve in t h e ap odos is of less v ivid fu t u r e

c on dit ion s 5 1 6 6) b e c om e s t h e F u t ure I n fi n it iv e like t h e F u t u r e
.

I n dic at iv e in t h e ap od osis of m ore vi vid f u t u re c on dit ion s .

Th u s t h e re is no di st in c t ion b e t we e n m ore an d le ss v iv id fu t u re
in t h e I n d ire c t D i sc ou rse
c on d it ion s .

Ex am p le s of C on d it ion al S e n t en c e s in I n di re c t D isc ou r se are

1 S im ple Pre se n t C on d it ion

. 5 15)

( d ix it ) si ip se p op u lo R em an d prae sc rib eret qu e m ad m od u m su d ifi re

n On

s es e a p op u lo R e m an d in s u b iure i m p e d i ri B G
fi t eré t u r, n On op ort é re ( . .

i . he said d i c t at e to t he R om an p eop le how t hey

t hat if he d id n ot

shou ld use t heir rights , he ou g ht n ot t o be i n t erf ered wi th by t he R om an

p eo p le i n t h e ex er i se of h i s rig h t s c [ D ire t : s i n on p rae s c ri bb . c

op ort e t ]

p rae dic av i t c
s i p a e ut i ve lin t , in i qu u m e s se , e t c ( id i he assert ed . . .

t hat if t hey wished t o j

e n oy c
p ea e , it was u nf air, et c .
[D ire c t : s i volan t

e st . Prese n t t e n se k e p t b y rep raesen t at io 58 5 b . .

2 S im ple Past C on d it i on
. 5 15)

n dn d i c am illu d q u id e m , si m axim e in u lp a f u erit A p ollon iu s , t am en in

ne c
c
h om in e m h on est issim ae i vit at is h on es t issim u m t am gravit er an im ad
ve rt i , c c
au sa in d i t s, n d n op ort u i s s e ( Ve rr v I will n ot say this . .

ei t her, t hat , even if A p ollon iu s was very

greatly i n f au lt , st i llan hon orable
'

m an f rom an hon orable st at e ou ght n ot t o h ave bee n p u n is hed s o severely

without having his ase he ard [ re t : si f u it
D i c n dn op ort u i t
] . c .

3 . F u t u re C on dit io n s 5 1 6)

( d ixit ) qu od p rae t e re an é m o
si s e qu at ur, t am s u S e cum s old
d e im a le gion e c
i t fi ru m ( B G: i .but if . n obod y els e shou ld f ollow, st ill he wou ld g o

wit h t he t en t h legi on alon e .

[D ire c t : s i s e qu é t u r i bi) . Pre se n t t e n se
by rep raesen t at io 5 85 b . .

H ae d u i s S e ob sid é s re dd it fi ru m n On e sse , n e qu e e i s b e llu m illat fi ru m , si

in s o m an ere n t , qu od c on ven isse t , st ip e n d iu m qu e q u ot an n i s p en dere n t

81 id n dn f é c i s s e n t , lon ge e i s f rat e rn u m n Om e n p op u li R em an i af u t fi
mm ( id . i . he said t hat he wou ld n ot
g ive u p the h ost ages t o t he
H aed u i, bu t w m ld n ot m ake war u p on them if t hey observed the agree m en t
c
whi h h ad been m ad e , and p aid tribu t e y early ; bu t t hat , if t hey shou ld
not do t his , the n am e of brot hers to t he R om an p eop le wou ld be f ar f rom

aid i ng t h em [Dire t : re ddam . in f ere m c

s i m an é bu nt pe n
d en t : s i n dn fé c eri n t ab e rit .
]
id D at am é s u t au d ivi t , sen sit , si in t u rb am e xi s se t ab h om in e t am n e c essa
f

rib sé relic t u m , f u t d ru m [e s s e ] u t c é t e ri co n siliu m s e qu an t u r

( Ne p . D at .

whe n D atam es heard t h is , he saw t hat , if i t shou ld g et abroad t hat he

had been aban don ed by a m an so cl ose ly c on n e cte d with him , every body
else wou ld f ollow his examp le .
[D ire c t : 9 1 e xie fi t s e qu e n t ur .
]
§ 589] C OND I TI ON S I N IN D I R EC T D I SC OURS E 3 83 .

( p u taveru n t ) n isi me ci vit at e

pos s e lic en ti am e xp u li sse n t , ob t in é re S e n dn

c u p id it at u m su aru m
(A t t x t hey thou ght t hat u n les s t hey drove m e . .

ou t of t he stat e , t hey c
ou ld n ot have f ree p lay f or the ir d es ires
[ D ire t . c
ni s i
( Ci c erbnem ) e xp u lerim u s , obtin é re n on pot erim u s ] .

b . In c h an gin g a C on d it ion c on t rary t o f a c t 5 17 ) in t o t h e I n d i

re c t D isc ou rse, t h e f ollo win g p oin t s e qu ire n ot i ce r
1 . Th e Prot as i s alw ays re m ain s u n han ge d in tens e c .

2 . c
Th e Apo dosis, if a t ive , t ake s a p e u liar in fi n i t ive form , m ade b y c c om

c
b i n i n g t h e Part i ip le i n -11ru s w it h fu i s se
‘

3 I f t h e ve rb o f t h e A p o dosi s is p assive
. or h as n o su p i n e st e m ,
t h e pe
rip h rasi s fu t ii ru m fu isse ut
( wi t h c
t h e I m p e rfe t Su b j u n t iv e ) m ust b e c u se d .

4 . A n I n di c at i ve in t he A p od os is b e c om e s a c
Pe rf e t I n fi n it ive .

Ex am p le s are :

n ec se su p e rst i te m fi liae f u t fi ru m f u i s s e , n isi sp e m u lc is c e n d ae m ort is éiu s

in auxilic) c om m i lit On u m hab u i s se t ( Liv iii 5 0 and th at h e shou ld
'

. . .

n ot n ow be a su rvivor, e t c .
,
u n less he had had hop e, e tc .
[D ire c t : n on

s u pe rst e s e s s e m , ni s i habui s s e m .
]
illu d A s ia c Ogit e t , n ullam a se n e qu e be lli e xt e rn i n e qu e dis c ordi aru m d o
m e st ic aru m c alam i t at e m af u t fi ram f u i s s e , si h Oc im p e rio n On t e n é ré t ur
(Q . Fr i 1 . . . let A sia ( p e rson ifi e d ) th i n k f this
o , t hat n o dis ast er, e t c .,

wou ld n ot be hers, if she were n ot h eld by t h is g overn m en t .

[D ire c t :
abe s s e t , s i n dn t e u é rer .
]
q u id in i m i c it iaru m c red it is [ e]
m e xc e p tfi ru m f u i ss e , Si i n s on t is lac e s si ss e m

( Q C vi 10
. . . . what
d o y ou t hi nk I shou ld have i n u rred , if
e n m it ies c
I h ad wan t on ly assailed t he i n no en t [exc é pi s se m s i lac e ssis s e m ] c .

c
in vit u m se d i e re , n e e di c t fi rum f u is s e , u i arit as re i p ub li ae vi n c e ret ( Liv c c .

ii . t hat he sp oke u n willingly an d shou ld n ot have sp oken , did n ot love

f or t he st ate p revail [Dire t : n e c dixi s s em n i vi n c eret ]
. c .

p ore qu i d am n un t ii d e C aesaris vi t ori a

n is i e o t e m e s se n t an ati , e xi st i c
m ab s u t p leri q u e f u t fi ru m f u i s se n ti [O pp id u m ] sm it t e ré t ur ( B C ii i . . .

m ost p eop le th ought that u n es s at t hat t im e rep orts of C ae ar s vi tory

l s
’
c
had been brou ght , t he town wou ld have been lost [Dire t : ni si e sse n t . c
alli t i am is s u m e s se t ]
qu oi u m st ae t as p ot u i s s e t esse lon g in q u ior, f u t uru m f u i s s e u t om n ib u s pe r
'

f e c t i s art ib u s h om in u m vit a é ru di ré t u r ( Tu so iii if life ou ld have . . c

bee n long er, h u m an exis ten e wou ld have been em be lli shed by every art i n c
it s p erf e t i on c
[D i re t : s i p ot ui ss et
. c
é ru di t a e s s e t ]
at p leriqu e e xist i m an t , si se rin s i n s e qu i v olu i s s e t , b ellu m e o d ie pot u is s e
fi n i re ( B C iii bu t m ost p eop le thin k t hat , if he had ho
. . . sen to f ollow c
u p t he p u rsu it m ore vig orous ly , he ou ld have en d ed t he war on t hat d ay c .

[D ire c t : si volu is s e t pot u it

. . .

C ae sar re sp on d it s ib i c On sc ius fu is se t , n on fu i s s e d if
si alic fi iu s i n iuriae

c
fi c ile avers ( B G i C aes ar rep lied t hat if [t h e R om an p e op le ] had
. . .

been aware of an y wron g ac t , it wou ld n ot have been hard f or them to take

c
p re au t i on s [ D irec t : s i fa i sse t.
, nan diffi i le f ui t ( 5 5 1 7 . c .
 ‘
3 84 S YNTA X S UB S I A N TI VE CLA US ES
'
:
: see- 59 1

NO 1 —~I n I n d ire t D is o u rse Prese n t C on dit ion s on t rary t o fa t are not d is

TE . c c c c
t in gu ish ed in t h e ap od osis f rom Pas t C on d i t ion s on t rary to f a t , b u t t h e p rot asis m ay c c
k ee p t h em d ist in t c .

N O T E 2 — Th e p e rip h rasis f u t uru m f u i ss e u t is so m e t im es u se d f rom h oi e wh en

. c c
c
t h e re i s n o n e e ssit y for re sort in g t o i t , b u t n ot i n C ae sar o r C i e ro c .

N O TE 3 — Very rare ly t h e F u t u re I n fi n it i ve is u se d i n t h e I n d ire t D is ou rse t o e x

. c c
p ress t h e p od os i sAo f a P re se n t C on d it ion on t rary t o f a t O c
n ly fou r o r fi ve ex am p le s c .

of t h is u se o u r in cc c c
lassi au t h ors : as, — Ti t u ri u s c lam ab at si C aesar ad esset n equ e
C am u t é s, e t c , n e q u e Eb u rb n é s t an ta c u m c o n t e m p t ion e n ost ra ad ast ra vent ures esse
. c
( B G
. v . T i.t u ri u s r i e d ou t t h at c
if C es ar we re p rese n t , n e i t h e r wou ld th e C ar
a

n u t es , e tc , n or wou ld t h e Ebu ro nes be

. om i n g t o ou r amp wi t h s u h c on tem p t c c c .

[D ire t c : si ad esset v e ni ren t .

]

590 The followi n g

. l
e x am
p e illus t r at es som e of t h e for egoin g

p rin c ip le s in a c on n e c t e d add re ss :

I N D I R EC T D I S C O U RS E D I R EC T D I S C O U R S E

c
S i p a e m p op u lu s R om an u s c u m
‘
Si p a e mc p op u lu s R om an us c u m
H elvé ti is f aceret , in e am p art e m it fi rfi s H e lvet iis fac ie t , in e am p arte m ib u n t
atq u e ib i f u t ures Helvé ti os , u bi e ds at qu e ib i e ru n t H e lveti i , u bi e bs ta
C ae sar c on stit ui s se t at qu e esse volais c on s tit u e ris at q u e e sse volu e ri s sin

set : h ello p e rs e qu i pe rs e verare t ,

si n b e llo p e rse qu i p e rs e vé I abis , re m ini s c e re
rem i n i s c e ré t u r e t ve t e ris in c om m odi [in qu it ] e t ve t e ris in c om m odi p opu li
p op u li R om an i , et p ri st in as virtut is R om an i , p ri s t in ae virt ut is H e lve
et

H elvet i oru m Qu od im p rovise fi n u m

. t ieru m .
Qu od im proviso fi n u m p agu m
p agu m adort u s e s s et , c u m c i q u i fi um en ad ort u s e s , c u m e i qu i fi u m en t ran s ie

t ran si s s e nt su i s au xili u m f erre n on p os ran t su i s au xili u m ferre n b n pos sen t , n e

s en t , n e ob e arn re m au t s u ae m ag n o ob e am re m au t t u ae m agn o op ere vir

op ere virt ut i - t ri bu e re t ,
au t ip s os des pi t ut i t ri b u e ri s , au t n os dé s pe x e ri s : n os
c eret : it a a p at rib u s m ai Orib us qu e
sé it a ap at rib u s m aIOrib us qu e n ost ri s didi
s ui s
‘
didi c is s e , u t m agis virtut e qu am cim as , u t m agis virt ut e qu am d olo con
d olo c on t en deren t , au t i n sid iis n i t eren t en dam u s , au t i n s id iis ni t am u r Qu are .

t ut .
Qu a re n é c om m i t t eret , u t i s lo c us noli c om m it t ere , u t h i c lo c u s u b i c on sti

u b i c on s t i ti ssen t ex c alam it at p op u li
e t im u s ex c alam it at ep op u li R em an i e t
R em an i et in t ern ec ibn e e xe rc it us n o in t ern ec ion e e xe rc it us n om en es pie t ,

m en cap ere t , au t m e m oriam proderet . au t m e m ori am prodat .

B . G i
. .

I N TER MED I A TE C LA U S ES

A Su bor din at e c lau se t ake s t h e S u b j u n c t iv e

1 . Wh e n it r
e xp e ss e s t h e t h ou gh t of s om e ot h e r p e r son t h an t h e
sp e ak er or wr ite r ( I nf orm a l I n d i re c t D isc ou rs e) , or
2 . Wh e n it i s an in t e gral p art of a Su bj u n c t ive c lau se or e qu iva

len t I n fi n it iv e ( At t rac t i on ) .
l

1 Se e n ot e on c
I n d ire t Dis c ourse
3 86 Y
S N TA X : I N TER MED I A TE C L A U S ES
[ g 593

S u bju n ct ive ract ion) of r

I nt eg al Pa t r ( At t
593 A c lau se de p en din g u p on a S u bj u n c t iv e c lau se Or an
.

e qu i v ale n t I n fi n it iv e will i t s e lf t ake t h e S u bj u n c t iv e if r e ar de d

g
as an in t eg ralp art f
o t hat c lau se -1

i m p e rat , d u m res indi c et u r, h om in e m ad se rve n t

ind i at a s it , ad s é u t : cum c
add u e n t ( Verr iiic ‘
he ord ers t hem , till t he afi air shou ld be d e ided ,
. .
‘

c
to keep the m an ; whe n it i s j u dg ed , t o brin g h i m to him .

e t e n i m q u is t am d iss olut o an i m o e st , q u i h ae c u m vi de n t , t a ere ac n e le e re

g g c c
p ossit ( R ose A m f or who is so rec kless of sp irit that , when he sees
. .

these thing s, h e c an keep s ile nt an d p ass t hem by

c
m es est A t h en is lau d ari in on t ien e c os q u i s in t in p roe ln s in t e rfe c t i ( Or .

c
it is the u stom at A then s f or t hose t o be p u bli ly eu log ized who c
have been slain i n bat t le [H ere lau dari is e qu ivale n t t o u t lau den t u r ]
. .

a. Bu t a d ep en d en t c lau se m ay b e c lose ly c on n e c t e d g ram m a t i c a lly

wit h a Su bj u n c t iv e or I n fi n it iv e c lau se, an d st ill t ake t h e I n d ic at ive,
if it is n ot r egard ed as a n e c e ssary logi c a l p art of t h at c lau se °

qu od am m od op ost u lat u t , q u e m ad m od u m es t , sic e t iam ap p e llé t ur , t y rann us

(A t t x i n a m an ner he d em ands that as he is , so he m ay be alled ,
. . c
a t yrant .

n at nra f ert u t eis fave am us q u i e ad e m p eri c u la qu ib us n Os p erf fi n c ti s um u s

in gre d iu n t ur ( Mu r . n at u re p romp ts u s to f eel f rien dly towards t hose
who d an gers whic h we have p assed t hrou gh
are en t erin g on t he sam e .

11 6 h os t es, qu od t an t u m m ult it udin e pot e ran t , su es c irc u m ven ire p osse n t

( B G ii . lest the en em y , be au s e they were so st ron g i n n u m bers, shou ld

. . c
be able to su rrou nd h is m en .

8 1 m e a in t e e sse n t o ffi c ia s olu m t an ta q u an t a m agi s a t e ip s e p rae d ic ari

q u am a m e p on d e rari s olent , ve rec u n dius a t e p e t e re m ( F am ii . .

c
if m y g ood servi es t o y ou were only so great as the y are won t rather to
be c all d by y e ou t han t o be est im at ed by m e , I shou ld , e t c .

N O TE l .
—Th e u se of t h e I n di at iv e in su hc c cl au ses som e t i m e s se rves t o e m p h asiz e
c
t h e f a t , as t ru e i n d ep e n d en t ly of the st at m e t c en o n t ain ed in t h e su b u n j ct i
ve or in fi n i
t i ve cl au se Bu t i n m an y ase s n o su
. s n c
on i s p e r e p t ib le ch di ti ct i c .

c
N O TE 2 — I t is O ft e n d iffi u lt t o d ist in gu ish b e t we e n I n form al I n re
. D is ou rse di c t c
an d t h e I n t egral P art Th u s i n i m pe ravi t u t ea fi eren t q uae Op u s e sse n t , e sse nt m ay
.

c
st an d for sun t , an d t h en will b e I n d i re t D is ou rs e , b e in g a p art of t h e t h ou gh t , b u t c
n ot a p art of t h e ord e r ; or it m ay st an d for eru n t , an d t h e n w ill b e I n t eg ral Part , b e in g
.

a. p art of t h e ord e r it self c

Th e d iffi u lt y of m ak i n g t h e d ist in t ion in su h ases is
. c c c
c c
e vid e n e of t h e los e re lat ion sh ip b e t w een t h e se t wo on s t ru t ion s c c .

1 Th e j
su b u n ct i
i n t hi s u se i s of t h e sam e n at u re as t h e su b j u n t ive in t h e m ain
ve c
c lau se c c
A d ep e n d e n t lau se i n a lau se of p u rp o se is re ally a p art of t h e p urp ose , as
.

i s see n f rom t h e u se of sh ou ld an d ot h e r au xiliari es i n En gli sh In a resu lt lau se t h is . c

c c
is les s le ar, b u t t h e re su lt on st ru t ion is a b ran h o f t h e h ara t e rist i c to c c c c
c
whic h c at e gory t h e d epe n de n t lause in th is ase evid en t ly b e lon gs wh en it t ak es t h e c
§ 594 ] S Y NTA X : I MP O R TA N T R ULES 3 87

594 . I MPOR TAN T R ULES OF S YN TAX

I . A n ou n u s e d t o de s c rib e an o t h e r, an d de n ot in g t h e S am e p e rson or

t h in g, agre e s wit h it i n C ase

2 . c
A dj e t ive s, A dj e t ive Pro n o u n s, c an d c
Part i ip le s agre e wit h t h e ir
n ou n s i n Ge n d e r, N u m b e r, an d C ase

3 . S u pe rlat ive s ( m ore rare ly C o m p arat ive s) d e n ot i n g o rde r an d su e s cc

si on — als o m e d iu s , c ét e ru s , re li qu u s — u su ally d e sig n at e n ot what
( )
ob e
j ct ,
b u t what p art f
o it, is m e an t

4 . Th e Person al Pro n ou n s h ave t wo f orm s for t h e ge n it ive p lu ral, t h at

in -
um b e in g u se d
p art it i ve ly, an d t h at i n -
i of t e n e st ob e c t i ve ly
j
( g 2 9 5 . b) .

5 . Th e R e fle xi ve Pro n ou n ( ) SE , an d u su ally t he c orresp on d i n g p osse ssive

( su n s
) , are us e d i n t h e p re di c at e to re f e r t o the su b e j c t O f t h e se n
te n c e or c la u se

6 . To e x p re ss Posse ssion an d si m ilar i de as t he Posse ssi ve Pron ou n s

m u st b e u se d , n ot t h e ge n i t ive Of t h e p e rson al or re fle x ive p rO
n ou n s 3 02 . a
) .

7 . A Posse s sive Pronou n or an c

A dj e t ive im p lyi n g p osse ssion m ay t ak e
an appo siti v e in t he ge n i t ive c
ase agre e in g in ge n d e r, n u m b e r, an d

ca se wi t h an i m p li e d n ou n or
p ron ou n 3 02 . e
) .

8 . A R e lat iv e Pron ou n agre e s w it h it s A n t e c e de n t i n Ge n d e r an d Nu m

b e r, b u t it s C ase d e p e n ds on it s c on s t ru ct i on in t he c la u se in
c
whi h it st an ds
9 A F in it e Ve rb agre e s wit h it s S u b j e t in N u m be r c an d Pe rson

A dve rb s are u se d t o m od ify Ve rb s, A dj e c t ives, an d ot h e r Adve rb s

A Qu e st io n Of s imp le f a ct , re q u iri n g t h e an swe r yes or n o, i s f orm e d

b y addin g t he e n lit i c c -
ne to the e m p h at i wo rd c
Wh e n t he en clit ic -
ne is ad de d to a n e g at ive word, as in n bnn e ,

an a fiirm at ive an swe r is e xp e ct ed . Th e p art i le c num su gge st s a

ne
gat ive an s we r 332 b) . .

Th e S u b j e t c of a fi n i t e v e rb is i n t h e N om in at ive

Th e Vo c at i ve i s t he case o f di re t c ad d re ss

A n ou n u se d t o li m it or de fi n e an ot h e r, an d n ot m e an i n g t h e sam -
e

pe rson or t hin g, is p u t i n t h e Ge n it ive

Th e Possess ive Ge n it ive de n ote s t h e p e rso n or t hi n g t o whi h an c

c
Ob j e t , qu ali t y, f e e li n g, or a t i on be lon gs c
3 88 S YNTA X : I MP OR TA N T R ULES 594

The ge n it ive m ay d e n ot e t h e Su b st an c e or Mate ri al of whi c h a

t h in g c on si st s

The ge n it ive i s u se d t o d e n ot e Qu ali t y, b u t on l

y wh e n t h e qu ali ty is
m odifi e d b y an ad e t ive j c
Words de n ot in g a p art are f ollowe d b y t h e Ge n it ive of t h e who le t o
c
wh i h t he p art b e lon gs ( P artiti ve Gen itive,
N ou n s of ac tion , agen c y, an d f eelin g gove rn t h e Ge n i t ive of t he Ob e j ct
O
( j
b c
e t ive Ge n it ive ,

Ad j c t iv
e d e n ot in g d esire , kn owledg e , m em ory, f atn ess, p ower, sharin g ,
es

g u ilt, an d t h e ir Op p o sit e s p art i ip le s i n -n s wh n u

e c
se d as adje t ive s ; c
an d ve rb als in i x, gove rn t h e Ge n it ive 3 49 . a, b, c) .

Ve rb s of re m e m berin g an d f orgettin g t ak e e i t h er t he A cc u s at ive or

t h e Ge n it ive of t he ob e j ct
Ve rb s of re m in d in g t ake wit h t h e A cc u sat ive O f t h e p e rson a Ge n it ive
Of t h e t hin g

Ve rb s of c
a c us in g, c on de m n in g, an d a cq u itt in
g t ake t h e Ge n it ive of

t he c ha g r e or
p e n alty
Th e Dat i ve is u se d Of t he Ob e j ct in dire c tly a fi ec te d by an a c ti on

( I jc
n di re t Ob e t, c
Man y verb s sign ifyin g t o f avor , help , p le ase , t rus t, an d t h e ir c on t rari e s

also,t o belie ve , p ersu ad e, c om m an d , obey, s e rve , resist, e n vy, thre ate n ,

p ardon , an d sp are, t ake t he D at ive

Man y ve rb s c p ou n de d wit h ad,
om an t e , con , in , in t e r , ob ,post , p rae ,
p ro, s ub , s u pe r, an d som e wit h c ircu m , ad m i t t he Dat ive o f t h e
i n dire t Obc j cte

Th e Dat ive i s u se d wi t h esse an d s im ilar words t o d e n ot e Posse ssion

Th e D at ive of t h e A ge n t i s u se d wi t h t h e Ge ru n dive , t o de n ot e t h e

pe rson on wh o m t h e n e e ssi ty re st s c
The D at ive O f te n d ep e n d s, n ot on an y p artic u lar word , b u t on t he

g e n eral m ean in
g of t he se n t e n c e
( D ati ve of R ef ere n e, c
Man y v erb s of t akin g away an d t h e lik e t ake t h e D at ive ( espe c ially
of a p erson
) i n ste ad Of t h e A b lat ive of S e p arat ion

Th e D at ive is u se d t o de n ot e t h e Pu rp ose or En d, O ft e n wit h an ot h e r

D at ive of t h e pe rson or t h in g aff e t e d c

The D at ive is u se d wit h ad e j ct i ve s
( an d a fe w ad verb s
) Of fi tn ess ,

ne arness , likeness, se rvi e , c in c lin at ion , an d t h e ir Opp osi t e s

89 0 S YNTA X : I MP OR TA N T R ULES 594

A cc omp an im e n t is de n ote d b y t h e Ab lat ive , re g u larl

y wit h cu m

W it h C o m p arat ive s an d word s i m p lyin g c om p ariso n t h e Ab lat ive is

u se d t o d e n ot e t h e d eg re e f d ifi ere n c e
'

Th e qu ality of a . t hi n g i s d e n ot e d b y t h e Ab lat ive wit h an ad j c t iv

e e

or ge n i t ive Modifi er
Th e p ri c e of a t h i n g is p u t i n t h e Ab lat i ve

Th e Ab lat ive of Sp e ific c at i on d e n ot e s t h at in res c

p e t to whic h an y
t h in g is or is d on e

Th e ad ej c t iv es di gn u s an d in dig n u s t ake t h e A b lat ive 4 1 8 b) . .

A n ou n or p ron ou n , wit h a c
p art i ip le i n agre e m e n t , m ay b e p u t i n
t he Ab lat ive t o d e fi n e t h e t im e or c irc u m stan es of an a t ion c c
A blative A bsolu t e ,
(
An j c
ad e t ive , or a se on d n ou n c , m ay t ak e t h e p la c e of c
t h e p art i ip le in t h e
ablat ive ab solu t e con st ruct i on 419 a) . .

Tim e whe n , or within which i ,

s den ot e d b y t h e Ab lat ive ; t im e how
lon g b y t h e A cc u sat i ve

R e lat i on s of Plac e are e xp re ss e d as f ollows

1 . c
Th e p lac e f rom whi h, b y t h e Ab lat ive wit h ab , d é, ex .

2 . c
Th e p la e t o whic h ( or e n d of m ot ion ) , b y t h e A cc u sat ive wi t h
ad or in .

3 . Th e p la c e where , by t h e Ab lat ive wit h in ( Lo c ative A blat ive ) .

Wit h n am e s of t own s an d s m all islan ds, an d wit h dom u s an d rfi s , t he

re lat i on s o f p la c e are e x p resse d as f ollows

1 . Th e p la c e f rom c
whi h, b y t h e Ab lat ive wit h ou t a p re p osit ion .

2 . Th e p la c e to cc
wh ic h, b y t h e A u s at ive wit h ou t a p re p osit ion .

3 . Th e p lac e whe re, b y t h e Lo c at i ve .

Th e H ort at ory S u b j cti

un ve is u se d i n t h e p re s e n t t e n se t o e xp re ss

an e xhortat ion , a c om m an d , or a c c on e ss ion 4 3 9,

Th e O p t at ive S u b j ct i
un ve is u se d to e xp re ss a wish . Th e p re se n t
t e n se d e n ot e s t h e wish as c
p oss ible , t h e i m p e rf e t as u n a c omp lishe d c
in p re se n t t im e , t h e c c
p lu pe rf e t as u n ac omp lishe d in p ast t im e

Th e S u b j ct i
un ve is u se d
in qu e st i on s i m p lyin g ( 1) d ou bt, in dign ation ,
2 imp ossibility of t h e t h in g s b e in g d on e ( D elibe rative S u b
’
or
( ) an

j u n c t ive ,
 Y
S NTA X I MPO RTA NT R ULES

Th e Pot e n t ial S u b j ct i
un ve is u se d to su gge st an a cti on as p ossible or

c on c e ivable

The I m p e rati ve is u se d in c om m an ds an d e n treaties

Proh ib i t ion is re g u larl

y e xp resse d in c la i c p
ss ro se
( 1) by n Oli wi t h t h e
c
I n fi n it iv e , ( 2 ) b y avé w it h t h e Pre se n t S u b j u n t ive , c ( 3) by né w it h
c
t h e Pe rfe t S u b j un t ive c
Th e I n fi n it ive , wit h or wit h o u t a su b e j c t acc at i m ay b us ve , e u se d

wit h e st an d sim ilar ve rb s ( 1) as t he S b j c t ( 2 ) i App i t i

u e , n os on wit h
t he j ct ( 3)
su b e ,
or as a Pre d i c at e N om i n at ive

Ve rb s wh i c h im p ly an othe r ac t ion o f the s am e s u b e t t o j c c p le t e t h e i r

om

m e an in g t ak e t h e I n fi n it ive w it h o u t a su b e j c t acc u sat ive

( C omp le

m e n tary I nfi n it ive ,

69 . Th e I n fi n it i ve , wit h sub e j c t acc u s at i ve , is u se d wit h ve rb s an d ot h e r

e xp re ssi o n s of kn owin g, thin ki n g , te llin g, an d p er c e i vin g

( I n d ire c t
D is c ou rse , se e

Th e I n fi n it ive is o ft e n u se d f or t he I m p e rfe t I n d i at ive in n arrat ion , c c

j c
an d t ak e s a su b e t in t h e N om i n at iv e ( H istori al I nfi n it ive , c
S EQU EN C E OF T EN S ES . In c
p le x se n t e n
om c e s, a p rim ary t e n se i n
t h e m ain cl au se is f ollowe d b y t h e Pre s e n t or c
Pe rfe t S u b j u n t ive c
i n t h e de pe n de n t laus e ; c c
a se on d ary t e n se b y t h e I m p e rf e ct or

Plu pe rfe t c48 3 )

c
Part i ip le s d e n o te t i m e as p rese n t, p ast, or f u t u re wit h re sp e ct t o t he
t im e of t h e ve rb in t h e ir lau se c
Th e Ge ru n d an d t h e Ge ru n dive are u se d , in t h e ob li qu e ca se s , in
c
m an y of t h e on s t ru t io n s o f n ou n s 5 01 c
Th e Su p in e i n -u m is u se d aft e r ve rb s of m ot ion t o e xp re ss Pu rp ose

Th e S u p in e in -1I
‘

is u se d wit h a fe w ad e j ct i ve s an d wi t h t h e n ou n s

fit s , n e fas , an d Op u s, t o d e n ot e S p e i fi c c at io n

Du m , m odo, du m m Od O, an d t an t u m ut, i n t rod u i n g c a Pro viso, t ake

t h e S u b j u n t ive c
c
Fin al lau ses t ake t h e S u b j u n t ive i n t rodu e d b y u t ( u t i ) , c c n e gat ive

u t n é , or b y 3 R e lat ive Pron o u n o r R e lat i ve A d ve rb

né
( ) .

A R e lat ive C lau se wit h t h e S u b j u n t ive i s o ft e n u se d t o i n d i at e a c c

c c c c
hara teris t i o f t h e an t e e de n t , e sp e ially wh e re t h e an t e e d e n t is c c
o t h e rwise u n d e fi n ed
Di gn u s , in di gn u s , ap t u s , an d idOne u s , t ake a Sub j ct i
un ve c la u se wit h
a re lat iv e ( rare ly w it h ut
) 53 5 .
f) .
3 92 Y
S NTA X : I MPO R TA NT RULES 5 94

80 Clau se s
. of R e sult t ake t h e Su b ju n t ive i n t rodu c c ed by ut, so that

( n e gat ive , u t n On
) , or by a R e lat ive Pro n ou n or R e lat ive A dverb

( s 53 7 )
Th e C au sal Part i le s qu od, qu ia, c an d qu oniam t ake t h e I n di at ive c
whe n t h e re aso n is give n on t h e au t h orit y of t h e writer or sp e aker ;

t he Su b ju n c t ive whe n t he re ason is give n on t h e au t h orit y of

another

c
Th e p art i le s post quam ( post ei qu am ) , u b i, u t ( u t p rim u m , u t sem el) ,
s im u l at qu e
( s im u l ac , or s im ul alon e ) t ak e t h e I n d i at ive
( u su all
y c
in t he p erf ec t or t h e his toric al p rese n t)

c
A Te m p oral lau se wi t h c u m , when , an d som e p ast t e n se of t he I n di a c
t ive d ates or d efi n es t he t im e at whi h t h e a t ion of t he m ain ve rb c c
o cc
u rre d

84 . c
A Te m p oral lau se wit h cu m an d t he I m pe rfe t or Plu pe rfe t Su b c c
j c c
u n t ive d es ribes t he c ir u ms tan c es t h at a c
om p an i e d or p re e de d cc c
c
t h e a t i on of t h e m ai n v e rb

Cu m C au s al o r C on c e ssive t ak e s t h e S u b ju n t ive c
F or oth er c c
on ess ive c
p art i les , see 5 27 .

I n I n dire t D is c c ou rse t h e m ain c laus e o f a c

De larat ory Se n t e n e i s c
p uti n t h e I n fi n i t ive wit h S u b j ec t A cc u sat ive All s u bord in ate
.

c laus es t ak e t h e Su b u n t ive j c
87 . f ct
Th e Pre se n t , t h e Pe r e , or t h e F u t u re I nfi n it ive i s u se d in I n dire t c
cc
Disc ou rse , a ord in g as t h e t im e i n di at e d is p rese n t, p as t, or f ut u re c
c
wit h re fe re n e t o t h e ve rb o f sayin g e t c b y whi h t h e I n d ire t Dis . c c
c ou se r i s i n t rodu c ed

I n I n d ire t Dis c c ou rse a re al qu e stion i s ge n e rally p u t in t h e S u bju n c

t ive ; a rhetori c al
qu e stion in t h e I n fi n it ive

All I m p erat ive form s of sp e e ch t ake t h e Su b j c t iv

un e i n I n dire t c
D is c
o u rse

c
A S u b ordin at e lau se t ake s t h e S u b u n t ive wh e n it e xp re sse s t h e j c
t h ou gh t of so m e ot h e r pe rson t h an t h e wri t e r or sp e ake r ( I nf orm al
c
I n dire t D is c ou rse,

c j c
A lau se d e pe n din g on a Su b u n t ive lau se or an e qu ivale n t I n fi n i c
c
t ive will i t se lf t ake t h e S u b ju n t ive i f re garde d as an in t eg ral p art
of t h at c
lau se ( A t tra tion , c
F or Pre pos it ion s an d t h e ir ase s , se e 220, 221 c .

For C on d it ion al S e n te n es , s ee 5 12 ff c
( S h e m e in . c
For w ays of exp re ss in g Pu rp os e, see 55 33 .
3 94 OR D ER OF W OR D S [g 597

GA UL, l in the wid est sens e, is di Gallia o m n is

di visa in p art is
e st

vi de a
“ i n t o t h re e p ar ts ,
3 wh i h are c t ri s , qu aru m i mam in c olu n t B e lgae ,
i n habited 4 f l l w )
5 b t he aliam A q u i tan i , t ert iam qu i ip S Oru m
( as o o s : on e y
B elgian s , b y t h e A q u it an i ,
an ot h er 6 lin g u a C e lt ae , n ost ra Galli ap p e llan
t h e t hird b y a p e op le alle d i n t he ir c tu r H i om n es lin gu a, i n st itfi t is , legi
.

own " lan gu age C e lts , i n ou rs Gau ls . b us in t e r Se d iffe ru n t . Gallos ab

T H E S E ii in t h e ir lan u a
g g ,e
9 in s t it u t i on s
,
A q u i t an is Garu m n a fi fi m en , a Be lgis
an d law s are all of t h e m
10 d iff e re n t . Mat ron a e t S é qu an a di vid it H Oru m .

d 12 om n i u m B elgae , p rop
f ort is si m i su n t
Th e GA U LS 11
( p op e
r r are s e)p arat e

f rom t h e Aqu it ani b y t h e rive r Garon n e, t e re a qu od 9 c ult u at q u e h um an it ate

.

f rom t h e Be lgian s b y t h e Marn e and

S ein e O f.TH E S E )
13 TR I B ES t h e b rav
(
est oi all 1 4 are t h e B el i ans
g ,
f or t h e
15 awa
re aso n t h at t h ey live f art h e s t y

1 GAU L : e m p h at i c as t h e s u bj e t of c di c s ou rse , as w it h a t it le or t h e lik e .

2 Di vi d ed : opp ose d t o t h e false c c pti

on e on ( im p lied in t he u se Of om n i s ) th at t h e
c oun try cGallia b y t h e R om an s i s on e
alled Th is app e ars m ore le arly f rom t h e f ac t
. c
t h at C aesar lat e r sp e ak s of t h e Galli i n a n arrowe r se n se as d ist in t f rom t h e ot h er t wo c
t rib e s , wh o wi t h t h e m in h ab i t Galli a i n t h e w id er se ns e .

3 P art s c
on t in u in g t h e e m p h as is b e g u n i n d i vi sa N ot th ree p art s as opp osed t o .

an y ot h e r n u m b e r, b u t i n t o p art s at all .

4
I n h abi t ed c
e m p h at i as t h e n ext su b j ec t , The i n h abi t an t s of t h ese p art s are , e tc .

5 On e :
giv e n c
m ore p rom in e n e t h an i t ot h e rwise wou ld h av e on a oun t of it s lose cc c
c c
on n e t ion wi t h qu i ru m .

6 A n ot h e r, e tc . Op p o se d to one .

7 Thei r own , ou rs st ron g ly opp osed t o e a h ot h e r c .

8 TH ES E ( t ribes) t h e m ai n su b j e t of d is ou rse ag ain , c c c olle ct i n g un d er on e h ead

the p re v ious ly m e n t ion ed
n am es .

p rom in e n t id e as, as g i vin g t h e st rik in g p oin t s

9 Lan ua e e t c : t h e se are t h e m ost
g g , .

c
wh i h d ist in gu ish t h e t rib e s Th e e m p h asis b e om e s n at u ral i n En glish i f w e say
. c ”
t h ese h ave a d iff e re n t lan g u ag e , d iff e re n t i ns t i t u t i on s , d iff e ren t laws .

10 A ll of t h em : t h e e m
p h as is on all m ark s t h e d ist rib u t iv e h ara t erof t h e adjec c c
t ive , as i f i t w e re e ve ry on e h as it s own , e tc .

A
11 G ULS : e m h at i as re fe rrin
p c
g t o t h e Gau ls p rop e r i n di st in t i on f rom t h e ot h e r c
12 c
S ep arat e d : t h ou gh t h i s w ord on t ain s an i n d isp e n sab le id e a in t h e on n e t ion , y et c c
i t h as a su b ordi n ate p osit ion c
I t is n ot e m p h at i i n Lat i n , as is se en f rom t h e f a t t h at
. c
c
i t an n ot b e m ad e em p h at i in En glish c
Th e se n se i s : Th e Gau ls lie b et we en t h e
.

A qu i t an i on t h e on e sid e , an d t h e B elgi an s on t h e ot h e r .

13 Of TH ES E : t h e su b j e t Of d is ou rse c c .

14 All : e m h as iz i n t h ey , as Gau ls, are assu m e d

p g t h e su pe rlat iv e id e a in b rav est
t o b e w arlik e , b u t t h e m ost so of all of t h e m are t h e B e lg i an s .

15 F art h e st awa : on e m i h t e x e t ab sou t

y g p c
( are away) t o h av e a m ore e m p h‘ at i c
c c
p la e , b u t i t i s d w arfe d in im port an e b y t h e p red om i n an e of t h e m ain id e a, t h e efl e m i c
c c
n at i n g i nfl u e n e s f rom w hi h t h e B e lg ian s are said to h a f re e I t is n ot t h at t h ey live .

f arth est 017 t h at i s in sist e d on , b u t t h at t h e i viliz at i on of t h e P rovi n e e t c , wh i h c c . c

c
wo u ld sof t e n t h e m , om e s less i n t h e ir w ay I t i s t o b e n ot i e d also t h at ab su n t h as
. c
alre ad y be e n an t i ip at ed b y t h e c c c
on st ru t ion of on lt fi an d st ill m ore b y lon gi ssim é , so

c
t h at wh en it om e s it am ou n t s on ly t o a form al p art of t h e se n te n e Th u s, b e au se c . c
c c
th e c i vi li zation e tc of t h e Provi n e ( wh i h wou ld sof t e n t h em ) i s f arth es t f rom t h e m
.
”
.
5 59 7 ] OR D ER OF W OR D S 3 95

from t h e C I V I LI Z A TI O N an d R EP I N E M EN T p rOvin c iae lon gissi m e ab su n t , m in i m e

of t h e Provin c e, an d be c au se t h e y are q u e ad e os m e rc at Ores s ae p e om m e c
L EA sr l of all of th em su b e j ct to t he an t at qu e ea q u ae ad e fi em i n an d Os
vis it s of trad ers , 2 an d t o t h e ( c ou se an i m Os p e rt i n e n t i m p ort an t , p rox i m i
i m p ort at ion of s u c h 3
qu en t ) t hin g s as qu e su n t Ge rm an is , qu i t ran s R h é n u m
t e n d t o s of te n 4 t h e ir warlik e sp irit ; c
i n olan t , q u ib u sc u m c on t in e n t e r b el
an d are als o n e are s t 5 t o t h e Germ ans , lu m g e ru h t Qu a d é au sa H elvet ii
. c
wh o live ac ross the Rhi n e ,6 an d wit h q u oq u e re liqu OS Gallos vi rt ut e p rae c e
w h om t h e y are i n essan tly 7 at w ar c . d u n t , qu od fe re c ot id ian is p roe liis cum

F or t h e s am e re as on t e Hh E L V E I
‘
I A N S , as
'

C orm en is c on t e n d u n t , c u m au t su is

w ell, are su p erior t o all t h e other Gau ls f in ib u s e OS p rohi b e n t , au t ip si in e Oru m

c
in valor, b e aus e t h e y are e n g age d in f i n ib us be llu m ge ru h t EOru m i m a .
'

alm ost dai ly b at t le s wit h t h e Ge rm an s , p ars, q u am Gallos ob t in é re c

d i tu m
e i t h er d e fe n d in g t h e ir own b ou n d arie s e st , in i t iu m c ap it a fi h m in e R h od an O
from t hem , or t h e m se lves m akin g w ar c on t in et u r Garu m n a fi fi m in e , O e an o, c
on those of t h e Germ an s O f A L L TH I S . f in ib u s B e lgaru m ; at t in git e t iam ab
c oun t ry , on e p art
— t he on e c
wh i h , S eq u an is e t H elvet iis flfi m en R h é n u m
as h as be e n said , t h e Gau ls ( p rop er) ve rgit ad s e p t e n t rion es B e lgae ab .

o cc u py — B EG I N S at t h e rive r Rh on e . e x t rem i s Galliae fin ib u s oriu n t u r :

I t s bou n darie s are t h e rive r Garon n e, p e rt in e n t ad i n f e ri ore m p art e m fi a
t he c
o ean , an d the c on fi n es of t h e Be l m in is Bh en i sp e ct a nt in sep t e n t rio

gian s I t e ven R EA C I I ES on t h e s id e
. n em et orie n t e m S ole m . A q u i t an ia
of t h e S equ an i an d H e lveti an s t h e rive r a Garu m n a fi um in e ad Pyren a s

R hin e I t s general d ire ti on is t oward s

. c m on t i s et e ar
n p art e m O c e an i q u ae
t h e n ort h Th e B E LG I N S b e gin at
. A e st ad H isp an iam p e rt in e t ; sp e c tat

the ext re m e lim its of Gau l ; t h ey re ac h in te r oc c asu m solis e t s e p t e n t rion es .

( on t his sid e ) as f ar as t h e lowe r p art

of t h e R h in e Th e y sp read t o t h e n ort h w ard an d
. e ast ward .

A QU I T A A NI e xt e n d s from t h e Garonn e t o t h e Pyre n e e s, an d t h at p art of the

c
o e an t h at lies t oward s S p ain I t ru n s off west ward an d n ort h w ard
. .

b . im p ort an t word is n e ve r p la e d las t for e m p h asis

Th e m ore Th e c .

ap p aren t c
ase s of t h is u sage ( w h e n t h e e m p h asis i s n o t m is on e iv e d) are c c
case s wh e re a w ord is ad de d as an af t e rt h o u gh t , e i t h e r re al or aff e t e d, an d c
so h as i t s p os it ion n ot in t h e se n ten c e c
t o wh i h it i s ap p e n de d , b u t , as it
we re , in a n e w o n e .

1 LEA m d ST : a e e m p h at i ch
b y a om m on Lat in ord er, t h e hi as m u s
ere c 598 f ) c .

2 T d
ra e rs : th c
e f ou rt h m e m b e r o f t h e h i as m u s , op p osed t o c u lt fi an d h um an i t at e .

8 u S ch t h i g c
n s as : t h e im p o rt an e o f t h e n at u re o f t h e i m p ort at ion s ove rsh ad ows t h e

c
fa t t h at t h e y are i m p ort e d , w h i h fa t is an t i ip at ed i n t rade rs c c c .

4 S o t e n : c f wh at i s sai d i n n ot e 15
f .
, p 3 94 T h e y are brave b e au se t h e y h ave . . c
less t o sof t e n t h e m , t h e ir n at iv e b arb arit y b e in g t ake n f or g ran t e d .

5 N eare st : t h e sam e i d i om at i
p ro m i n e n e a s i c c
n n o t e 1 ab ov e , b u t varied b y a sp e ial c
usag e c m b i i g ch i m
o n n as us an d an ap h ora 598 .
f) .

6 Ac t h R hi
ross i e ne e an d so are p e rfe t sav age s c .

I c tly t h c c c
. .

7 ti e of t h e w arfare b e om es t h e all i m p ort an t id e a, as

-
n e ssan : e on n u an

if it we re an d n ot a d ay p asse s c
i n w h i h t h e y are n ot at war w it h t h em
”
.
3 96 OR D ER OF W OR D S 598

598 . Th e m ain ru les for t h e O r d e r of Words are as follows :

a. In an y p h rase t h e d e te rm i n in g an d m t ig i fi c a t W d c m
os s n n or o es

fi rst
1 . Ad j ct i
e v e an d N ou n
om n i s h om in es d ec e t , EVER Y m an ou ght ( op p ose d to som e wh o d o n ot ) .

Lu ius c C at ilin a ge n e re n at us f u it , m ag n a vi e t an i m i e t
nob ili orp o ris , c
s e d in ge ni o m alO p raq ue
( S all C at Lu iu s C at i lin e was born of a . . c
A
N O B LE f am ily , with G R E T f or e of m in d an d body , bu t with a N TU R E c A
t hat was evil an d dep raved [ H e re t h e adj e t ive s in t h e fi rst p art are
. c
c
t h e e m p h at i an d i m p ort an t word s , n o an t it h e sis b e t we en t h e n ou n s
b e in g y e t t h ou gh t of ; b u t in t h e se on d b ran h t h e n ou n is m e an t
as c c
t o b e Op p ose d t o t h ose b e fore m e n t i on e d , an d im m e d iat e ly t ak e s t h e
p rom i c
n e n t p la e , as is se e n b y t h e n at u ral En glis h e m p h as is , t h u s m ak

in g a c hia ms us 1 .
]
2 . W ord wi t h m odifyi n g ca se

qu id m agis Ep am i n On d am , Th é ban Oru m im p erat Ore m , qu am Vic t oriae Th e

b an Oru m c On su le re d e c u it ( I n v i what shou ld Ep am in on das , c om . .

A
m an d er of t he TH EB N S , have aim ed at m ore than t he VI C TO R of t he Y
The ban s 7
lac ri m a n ih il c it ius aresc it ( id i . . n ot hin g dries qu i ker than a TE R c A .

n em o fe re lau di s c u p id u s ( D e Or i . . h ard ly an y on e d es irous of G L O R Y

(c f Man il
. . 7, avi di lan dis , E G ER A f or g lory) .

b . N u m eral ad e j ct i v e s, ad e j ct i ve s of
q u an t i t y, d e m on st rat ive , re lat ive ,

an d in t e rrogat ive p ron ou n s an d adve rb s, t e n d t o p re e de t h e w ord c or word s

to c
wh i h t h e y b e lon g :
c u m ali qui
p ert u rb at iOn e ( Off i . . with SO M E d istu rban c e .

h i m fi n d p rae st am u s ( D e Or i . . in TH I S on e thin g we exc l e .

c é t e rae f e ré art es , t he O TH E R arts .

N O TE — Th is h ap pe n s b e au se s u h word s
. c c are u su ally e m p h at i c; bu t of t e n t he
c c
word s on n e t ed wit h t h em are m ore so, an d in su ch c ase s t h e p ron oun s e tc .
y ie ld t h e
em p h a t ic p l c a e:
c au sa aliqu a (D e O r . i . s om e C A SE .

st ilu s ille t u n s ( id i . . th at well-kn own S T L E of you rs ( in an an t it h e sis ; see Y

p assage) [Ille . is c
i diom at i in t h i s se n se an d po sit ion ] .

Rém am qu ae ap p o rt at a su n t (V e rr . iv . wh at we re c arri e d t o R O M E (in c

on t rast

t o wh at rem ain ed a t Sy c ra u se ) .

c . W he n su m is u se d as t h e S u b st an t ive v e rb 2 8 4 b) , i t
. re gu larly

st an d s fi rst , or at an y rat e b e f ore i t s su b e j ct

e s t viri m agn i p un i re sc u t is ( Off . i . it is the du t y of a great m an to p an
i sh the gu ilty .

1 c
S o alle d from t h e Greek le tt e r X ( ch i) ,
‘
on a cc ou n t of th e c riss- ross c arran ge m en t
of t h e word s Th us , gxfI (
. see b elow) f .
3 98 ORDER OF WORDS 598, 599

g . A m odifi e r of a p hrase or s o m e p art of it i s of t e n e m b od ie d wit h in

t h e p hrase ( c f a) .

c
d e o m m un i h o m in u m m e m oria ( Tu so i . . in reg ard to the U N I VE R S A L

m em ory of m an .

It . A favorit e ord e r wit h t h e p oe t s is t h e in t e rlo ked , b y wh i h t h e c c at t ri

bu te of o n e p ai r c o m e s b e t we e n t h e p art s of t h e ot h e r ( syn hysis

) c
e t su p e riec t o p avid ae n at aru n t ae qu ore d am m ae ( H or Od i 2 11
) . . . .

N O T E — Th is is . of t e n j o in ed w it h ch i asm u s : as , — arm a n On d u m e xp i ati s fi n c ta

c ru Orib us ( i d ii 1
I
. . .

i .
p ort an t words follow in t h e t rain o f m ore e m p h at i
Fre qu e n t ly u n im c
c
on e s wit h wh i h t h e y are gram m at i ally o n n e t e d , an d s o a qu ire a p ro m i c c c c
n e n c e o u t of p rop ort ion t o t h e i r i m p ort an e c
d ic t it ab at sé h ort u lOs aliq u Os e m e re v e lle ( Off . iii . he g ave ou t that he
wan ted t o bu y s om e g arde n s [H ere aliqu Os is le ss
. e m p h at i t h an e m ere , c
b u t p re c e d es it on cc
a ou n t of t h e e m p h as is on h ort u lOs .
]
j . c
is ge n e rally f e lt t o b e of s o lit t le im p ort an
Th e op u la c et h at it m ay
c om e i n an ywh e re W h e re it sou n d s we ll ; b u t u s u ally u n d er c ove r of m ore

e m p h at i word s : c
co n su l e go qu ae si vi , c u m VOS m ih i e sset is in on silio ( R e p iii c . . as c on su l

I held an i n vest ig at ion i n wh i h y ou atten d ed m e i n ou n il c c c .

f alsu m e st id t ot u m ( id . 11 . t hat is allf alse .

70 . Man y e xp re s sion s h ave a cq u i re d an i n vari ab le ord e r

ré s p ub li ca ; p op u lu s R om an u s h on oris ca u s a; c
p a e t an t i Viri .

N O TE — Th e se h ad , no p h as is w h i h re qu i red s u h an
d ou b t , orig in ally an em c c
c
arran ge m e n t , b u t i n t h e ou rse of t i m e h av e h an g ed t h e ir sh ad e o f m e an in g Th u s, c .

se n at u s p Op u lu sq u e R aman u s origi n ally s t at ed w i t h e m p h asis t h e offi i al b od ies , b u t c

c
b e am e fi xe d so as t o b e t h e on ly p e rm issi b le form of e xp re ssion .

l . The R om an s h ad fon d n e ss f or e m p h asiz in g p e rson s,

a so t h at a n am e

a p ro n oun oft e n st an d s i n an e m p h at i p la e c c
[dixit ] ven ali s qu ide m s é h ort Os n On h ab é re ( Ofi . iii . said
[ ] that he d id n ’t
h ave an y garden s f or sale , to be su re .

m . Ki n dre d word s oft e n c om e t o ge t h e r ( fi gura e tym olo

gic a)
it a s en si m sin e sen s u ae t as se n es c it ( C at M . . t hu s gradu ally , wit hou t
i c
be n g p er eived , m an s lif e g rows
’
old .

S pec ial R u les

599 . Th e followin g are s p e c ial r u le s of arran ge m e n t

a. Th e n e g at i ve p re c e de s t h e w or d it p c i ally aff c t ; b t if i t b
es e e s u e lon
gs
to no wo rd in p art i u lar, i t ge n e r
on e c ally p c d th re b ; i f it i
e es e ve r s e sp e

y g c
c i all e m p h at i , i t b e i n s t h e se n t e n e c ( S x am pl 5 98 f )
. ee e e, . . N .
 599—
601] STR UC TUR E OF TH E PERI OD 3 99

b . I taqu e re
gu larl y c om es fi rst i n its se n te n c e or c la u se ; e n i m , au t e m
-

vé ro, q u oq u e , n e ve r fi rs t , bu t u s u ally s e c o n d , som e t im e s t hird if t h e c

se o n d
wo rd is em c
p h at i ; q u i de m n e ve r fi rst , b u t af t e r t h e e m p h at i c wo rd ; i git u r
u su all se
y c on d ; n é q u ide m i n lu d e t h e
p h at i w ord or c em c word s .

6 I n q u am , in qu it , are always u se d p are n t h e t i ally, f ollo w in on e or m o re

.
g c
W o rd s S o oft e n c ré dO, Op in or, an d i n p o e t ry so m e t i m e s p re ot
. c .

d ( l ) Pre p osit io n s ( e x e p t t e n u s an d ve rsu s re gu larl

.
) c y p re e de t h e ir c
n ou n s ; 2
( ) b u t a m on os llab i
y p re p o si t i on i s o ft e n c
p la e d b e t we e n a n ou n c
c
an d i t s adj e t i ve or lim it i n g ge n it iv e

q u e m ad m od u m ; q u am Ob re m ; m agn o cum m et u om n ib u s c u m c op us
n ulls in re ( c f § 598 i ) . . .

e . I n t he arran ge m e n t of c la u se s , t h e R e lat ive cla u se m ore of t e n c om e s

fi rst in Lat in , an d u su ally c on t ain s the c

an t e e d e n t n ou n

qu es am i s im us i vi s , c e Os Mart is vi s p e rc u lit ( Marc . 17 thos e c it i z en s whom

we have lost , e t c .

f . Pe rson al or d e m on s t rat ive p ron ou n s t e n d t o s t an d t oge t h e r i n t h e

se n t e n c e :

cum VOS m i hi e sset is in co ns ili o ( R ep . iii . wh en y ou att en d ed m e i n

c ou ns el .

St ru c t ure of t h e Peri od

600 Lat in , u n lik e m od ern lan g u ag es, e xp re sse s t h e re lat ion o f word s t o e a h ot h e r
. c
c
b y i nfl e t i on rath e r t h an b y p osi t i on c
H e n e i t s st ru t u re n ot o n ly ad m its of g re at
. c
v arie t y i n t h e arran g e m e n t of w ord s, b u t i s e sp ec i ally f av orab le t o t h at f orm of se n
c c
t e n e w h i h is alled a Pe riod c I n a p e riod , t h e se n se is e xp ressed b y t h e se n t e n e as a
. c
wh ole , an d i s h eld i n su spe n se t ill t h e d eliv ery of t h e last word .

c
An En gli sh se n t e n e d oe s n ot O ft e n exh ib i t t h i s f orm of st ru t u re I t was i m i t at e d , c .

som e t im e s wi t h g re at sk ill an d b e au t y , b y m an y of t h e e arli er w rit e rs of En glish p rose ;

b u t it s effe ct i s b et t e r se e n i n p oe t ry , as i n t h e follow in g p assage :

H igh on a t h ron e of roy al s t at e , wh ic h f ar
O u t sh on e t h e we alt h o f Orm u s an d o f I n d ,
O r wh e re t h e gorg e ou s Eas t wit h ric h e s t h an d
S h owe rs on h e r kin gs b arb aric p e arl an d gold ,
S at an e x alt e d s at P ara d i se Lo s t , ii
. .

Bu t in argu m e n t or n arrat iv e , t h e b es t En g li sh writ e rs m ore om m o n ly g ive sh ort c

c c c
le ar s e n t e n e s , e ac h d ist in t f rom t h e re st , an d say in g on e t hi n g b y it se lf I n Lat in , .

on t h e c
on t rary , t h e st o ry o r arg u m e n t i s vi ewe d as a wh ole ; an d t h e log i al re lat i on c
c
am on g all it s p art s i s are fu lly in d i at e d c .

601 . In t he s t ru c t ure of t he Pe riod, t h e followin g ru les are to

be obse rv e d :
a. I n ge n e ral t h e m ain su b e j ct or ob e j ct i s p u t in t h e m ain c la u se , n ot

in a su b ord in at e on e :

H an n ib al c u m re c ens u iss e t au xilia Gad es p rofe c t u s e st ( Liv . xxi . when

H an n ibal had revi ewed t he au xi li ari es , he set ou t f or C ad iz .
4 00 OR D ER OF WOR D S [ g 601

Vols ci e xigu am sp e m in arm i s , alia u n diqu e ab s ci ss a, c u m t e n t asse n t , p rae

t er c et c
lo o qu oqu e in i q u o ad p ugn am
e ra ad ve rs a, c on gressi , in iq u iOre

ad fu gam , c u m ab om n i p arte c ae d e re n t u r, ad p re es a e rt am in e versi c c

d edit o i m p e rat ore t rad it isq u e arm is , s u b in gu m m issi , c u m s in g u lis
ve s t im e n t is , i gn Om in iae c lad isqu e p len i d i m it t u n t u r ( Liv iv . .
[He re
t h e m ain fa t is th e c retu rn o f the Vols i ans cB u t t h e s t rikin g
. ci cr um

s t an c es of the s u rre n d e r e t c .
, c
wh i h in En glish wou ld b e d e t aile d in a.
n u m b e r of b rie f in d ep e n d en t se n t e n c e s , are p u t i n t o t h e se ve ral su b or
c
d in at e lau se s wi t hi n t h e m ain cla u se so t h at t h e p assage gives a c om
c
p le t e p i t u re in on e s en t e n e ] c
b C lau se s are u su ally arran ge d in t h e
. orde r of p rom i n e n c e in t h e m i n d
of t h e spe ak e r ; so, u su ally, au se b e fore c res u lt ; p p ose,
ur m an n er, an d t h e
like , b e f ore t h e ac t .

0. In c oord i n at e c la u se s, th e c op u lat ive c j cti

on u n a f on s re re qu e n t l
y
om it t e d ( asyn d e ton
) . In su ch c a se s the c on n e c t i i m ad cl a
on s e e r by som e

an t it h e si s in di c at ed b y t h e p osit ion Of word s .

( 1. A c h an ge of su b e j ct
wh e n re qu ire d, i s m ark e d b y t he in t rod u t ion
, c
c
of a p ron ou n , if t h e n e w su b je t h as alre ady b e e n m e n t i on e d Bu t su h . c
c h an ge i s of t e n p u rp ose ly avoide d b y a h an ge i n st ru c t u re , — t h e le ss c '

i m p ort an t b e in g m e rge d in t he m ore i m p ort an t b y t he ai d of part i ip le s c

or of su b ord in at e p hrases
c
qu e m u t b arb ari in e n d iu m e fffi gisse vi d eru n t , t é li s em in u s m issi s in t e r
f ec eru n t ( N e p A lc when the barbarian s saw that he had es ap ed ,
. . c
TH E Y
t hrew darts at H I M at lon g ran g e an d killed H I M .

c e lerit e r c On f e c t o n e gOt iO, i n h i b e rn a legion es re d uxi t ( B G Vi the m at . . .

ter was soon fi n ished, A ND he led the legions , et c .

So t he rep e t it i on of t he s u b st i t u t ion of a
6. a n ou n , o r p ron ou n for it,
is avoi de d u nle ss a d iffere n t ca se is re q u ire d

d olOre m S i n On p ot u e ro fran ge re oc c u lt ab o ( Ph il x n if I an n ot onqu er . . c c

the p ain , I wi ll hid e I T [C f if I an n ot onqu er I will hid e the p ain ]
. . c c
f . Th e R om an s we re ca re fu l to cl ose a p e riod Wit h an agre e ab le s u cc es

s i o n of lon g an d sh ort syllab les . Th u s,

q u od sols n ih il p rOd e st , qu od n e se is m u lt u m ob e s t ( Or . what y ou kn ow
is of n o use, what y ou d o n ot kn ow d oes great harm .

c c
N OTE — I n rh e t ori al writ in g , p art i u larly in oratory , t h e Rom an s , in fl u e n ed b y
. c
t h e ir s t u d y of t h e Gree k orat ors , g ave m ore att e n t ion t o t h i s m at t e r t h an i n ot h e r
c c
.

form s of om p osit ion Qu in t ilian ( ix 4 7 2) lay s d own t h e g en e ral ru le t h at a lau se

. . .

sh ou ld n ot ope n with t h e b egi nn in g of a vers e or lose wit h t h e en d of on e c .

4 02 PR O S OD Y QUA NTI TY 803

N OT E —
m an y Gree k words are m ore
Bu t or less Lat in iz ed in t h is resp e ct : as ,

A
.

c ad emi a, c h orée , Malea, p lat éa .

5 . I n di n s , in E
he u us u ally , an d s om e t im e s in Diana an d bh e , t h e fi rs t vowe l is
lo n g .

Dip h t h on gs
b .
A Dip h t hon g is lon g : as, fcfi d u s , u i , Eu la
. c l
'

Ex ep tion c Th e p rep os it ion p rae i n om p ou n ds is ge n e rally sh ort e n e d b e fore

.
c
a vo we l : as , p rae-u s t i e
( A e n vu p rae-e u n t e
( id v . . . .

N O TE .
— U followi n g q, s , or g , d oes n ot m ak e a d ip h t h on g w it h a f ollowin g Vowel

( se e 5 . N . F or 5 -15, m a-i or, p é -i or

, e
t c , s ee 1 1 d an d N
. . .

e. C ont ra t ion c . A f orm e d b y on t ra t ion

v ow e l c c (c rasis
) i s lon g : as, n il,

fro m n ih il ; c OgO f or Too ago; m ale for m ei

-

N O TE . N d iff e re n t sy llab les m ay b e ru n t oge t h e r w it h ou t f u ll c on

o vow els o f
c
t ra t i on ( sy n i ze sis , as , d elu d e ( f o r d e i n d e ) , In c as ( f or m e ds) ; an d of t e n t wo

sy llab les are u n i t e d b y Sy n se re sis 642 ) wi t h ou t on t ra t ion as wh e n parI E t i b iis is c c .

p ron ou n c ed p ary et i b us .

d . A v owe l b e f ore u s, n f, gn , i s lon g : as, in st b, in fan s, s i gn u m .

Q u an t i t y of S y llable s

e. A syllab le i s lon g i f i t c on t ain s a lon g v owe l or a d ip ht h on g : as,

ca-
ru s, O-m e n , foe-du s .

f . Pos it ion . A syllab le is lon g b y p osit ion if i t s v owe l, t h ou gh sh ort , is

follo we d b y t wo c on son an t s o r a d o u b le ons on an t c . as, adve n t u s ,
_
co tr ex .

Bu t if t h e t wo c on so n an t s are a m u te f ollowe d b y l or r t he syllable m ay

be e it h e r lon g or sh ort ( c om m on ) as, ale t is or ale t is c c ; p at ris
_ _
or p at ria .

Vo wels sh ou ld b e p ro n ou n c e d lo n g or sh ort in a cc ord an c e wi t h t h e ir nat

u ral q u an t it y wi t h o u t re ard
g t o t h e le n g t h of the syllab le b y p osit ion .

N O T E 1 — Th e ru le s of Posit ion d o n ot , in g e n eral, apply t o fi n al vowels b e fore a

.

w ord b egin n in g w it h t wo o n so n an t s c .

N O T E 2 - A syllable i s lon g i f i t s v ow el is follow ed b y on son an t i ( e x ep t in

. c c
bi i u g i s , qu adri i u gi s) : see 11 d . .

N O TE 3 — C om po u n d s of i ac io, t h ou gh writ t en w it h on e i , om m on ly re t ain t h e

. c
lon g vowel of t h e p repo sit ion s wi t h wh i h t h e y are om p ou n d e d , as if b e fore a c o n c c
son an t , an d , if t h e vow e l of t h e p rep os it ion i s sh ort , t h e fi rst sy llable i s lon g b y posi
t ion on t h e p ri n ip le of 11 e c . .

ob i c i s h ost i ( at t h e e n d of a h e x am e t e r A e n i v . .
,

i n i c it et salt fi ( at t h e be gin n in g o f a h exam e te r, A e n ix . .

— c
p rc i e t éla m an fi ( at t h e b e g in n i n g of a h e x am e t er, Ae n vi . .

c
_

Lat er p oe t s som e t im es sh ort e n t h e p re pos it ion i n t risyllab i fo rm s, an d p re po si .

t ion s e n din g I n a v owel are som e t im e s o n t ra t e d as if t h e ve rb b e gan wi t h a vowel c c .

( 1) our an ID OS Obi lc is ( C lau d i v C H . . .

c
( 2) rei e c alp ellas ( Eel i ii 96 , at e n d)
‘

. . .

N OTE 4 Th e y or w sou n d result in g f rom sy n te re si s

. 64 2 ) h as t h e e ff e t of a c on c
son an t i n m ak in g p os it ion : as , ab i et i s ( aby e t i s) , fl11v i6ru m ( fl u vy éru m ) C on ve rsely , .

c —
_ _ _ __

wh en t h e se m i vowel b e om e s a vowel, p os it ion is lo st : as , silfi ae , f or Bi lv ac .

1 Rarely d iss y llab i c clii ( as Mart . i 104

. .
5 604] F I NA L S YLLAB LES 4 03

F I N AL S YLLABLES
604 . Th e Q u an t it y of F in al Syllable s is as follows :
Mo n osyllab le s e n din g in a vowe l are lon g : as, m e, hi hi ,
'

a. , ne .

1 . Th e at t a ch ed p art i cl es 4 6, - ué
q , w e, -c e
,
-
pt e, an d ré ( ré d are sh ort ; 3 6

( sed an d di are lon g . Th u s , s é c é di t , s é di t ib, e xe rc it um qu e ré d fi ci t , di m i t t o . Bu t

te is oft e n lon g i n reli gie ( re lli giO ) , ré t uli
(rett u li ) , rep u li ( re pp u li
) .

b . N ou n s an d ad e j cti ve s of on e s l
y lab le are lon g : as, S CI, 08 ( Ot i s , bbs,
)
par, vas ( vasis ), vér, vis .

c
Ex ep t ion s .
— c 6r ,
fel, 111 51, 69 ( os s is ) , Vas ( vadis ) , vi r, t ot , qu bt .

0. Most m o n osyllabi c Pa t i cl r e s are sh ort : as, an , in , c is , n ec . Bu t c ras ,

c ur, En , n On , q u in , sin
— wit h adve rb s in c : as , h i c , h uc , si c — are lon
g .

d . F i n al a in word s d e lin e d b y c ca se s is sh ort , e x e p t c in t h e ab lat ive s in

gu lar of t h e fi rst d e le n sio n ; in all c ot h e r word s fi n al a is lon g . Th u s, ea

st e lla ( n om in at i ve ) , cu m ea st ella
( ab lat ive
) ; frfi st ri , vo ca ( im p e rat ive ) ,

Exc ep tio ns — é ia, i t a, quia, p ut a ( supp ose) ;

. an d , i n lat e use , t rigin t a e t c .

6 . Fin al e i s sh ort : as in n ubé , dfi c it é, sae pé .

Exc ep t ion s — Fi n al e is lon g . 1 I n ad verb s form e d f rom ad j e t ives of t h e . c

c c
fi rs t an d se on d d e le ns ion , wit h ot h e rs of lik e form as , alt é , lon g é , m i seré , ape rt é ,
sae pi s s im é S O f eré , f e rm é
. .

Bu t it is sh ort in be n 6 , m ale in fern e, s u p em é .

2 In n oun s of t h e fi ft h d e le n s ion : as , fi dé
. c ( also c
f am é ) , fa ie, h odié , qu aré

( qui ré l
3 . I n Gre ek n e u t ers p lu ral of the se c on d c
d e len sion : as , cet e ; an d in som e

ot h er Gre ek w ord s Ph oe b e, Circ e, An drom ac h e,

: e tc .

4 . In t h e im p erat i ve s in gu lar of t h e se on d c c on u gat ion

j as , vidé .

Bu t som e t i m e s c aVE, habé , t ac e, vale; Vide (c f § 62 9

. . b l) . .

f . F in al i is lon g : as in t urri, fi li , au di .

c
Exc ep t ions — Fi n al 1 is om m on i n m ihi , ti bi , s ib i , ibi , ub i ; an d sh ort in ni si ,
.

quas i , si c u tI , c u i ( wh e n m akin g t wo s y llab le s) , an d in Gre e k vo at ive s : as , A le xi c .

g . Fin al 0 is c om m on : b u t lon g in d at i ves an d ab lat ive s ; also i n n o u n s

o f t h e t h i rd d e le n sion c . I t is alm ost in vari ab ly lon g in ve rb s b e fore t h e
t im e of Ovid .

Exc ep t ions . c it b, m od o ( du m m od b) , im m b, p rof e ct li , e gb, du b, c ed b ( th e im pe ra

t ive ) s o som e t im es oc t 6, i li e, c et c .
,
c
p art i u larly in lat er writ ers .

h . F in al u is lon g . Fin al y i s sh ort .

e
i . F in al as, e s , 05 , are lon g ; fi n al i s , u s, y e, are sh ort : as , n e fas , rap s,

se rvos
( ac c us at ive
) , b on bs ; h ost is , am i cus , Teth ys .
4 04 PR OS OD Y : QUAN TI T Y 604 —
606

c
Ex ep tion s — 1 . . as is sh ort in Greek p lu ral a cc usat ive s : as , lam padas ; an d
in anas .

2 . es is sh ort in t h e n om in at ive of n ou n s of t h e t h ird d e len sion c ( lin gu al) h av

in g a s h ort vowe lin the st e m 1 : as , m iles -i ti s) , ob S ES - I di s) , c
e x e p t ab ié s , ari é s ,

parié s , p é s ; in t h e p rese n t of e s se ( es , ades ) in t h e p re posit ion p en es , an d in t h e

p lu ral of Gre ek n ou n s : as , b et ws , lam p adEs .

3 as is sh ort in c om pb s , im p os in t h e Gre ek
. n om in at i ve en din g : as , b arbit
in t h e old n om in at ive of t h e se on d d e le n sion c c as , s ervos ( lat e r s erv u s ) .

4 . c
i s in p lu ral as e s is lon g : as in b on i s , n abi s , Vobi s , om ni s ( acc u sat ive p lu ral) .

5 . i s is lon g in t h e ve rb f orm s fi s , s i s , vi s ( wit h qu i vi s v e li s , m ali s , n Oli s ,

e di s c
; in t h e se on d p erson sin gu lar of t h e p re se n t in d i at ive a ti ve in t h e fou rt h c c
c on j u gat ion : as , au di s ; an d som e t i m es in t h e f orm s in -eri s f u t u re p erfe t in di a
( c c
c
t ive or p e rf e t su b j u n t ive ) c .

6 .is lon g in t h e ge n it ive S in gu lar an d n om in at ive , a u sat ive , an d vo at ive

us cc c
c
p lu ral of t h e fou rt h d e le n sion ; an d in n ou n s of t h e t h ird d e le n sion h avin g Ii c
( lon g) in t h e st e m : as , virt us -
ut i s ) , in c fi s -udi s ) . Bu t p e e d s , -fi di s .

j . Of ot h er fi n al syllab le s, t h os e e n din g in a si n gle c on s on an t are sh ort .

Th u s, am at , amfi t fi r ; dOn éc , fac , p roenl, iu b ar .

Exc ep t ions .
— hi c ( also hi e) ; alle c; t h e ablat ive s i116c , et c . c
; e rt ain ad ve rbs in
-c : as
, illi c , i st uc li é n , an d som e Greek n oun s : as , sex, ae t h ér, rat er c .

Perfec t s an d Perfect Pa t ic ip les r

605 . Pe rfe c t s an d Pe rfe c t Par t ic ip les o f t wo syllable s h av e t h e
fi rs t syllable lon g : as, i uvi , ifi t u m ( iii )
vo , vi di , vi su m
(v i deo
); fugi

( fri gi d); Vén i

(
ven i b
) .

c
Ex ep tions — bib i , . d edi , fi di , s c i di , s t et i , s t i t i , t uli ; c i t am , dat u m , i t um , li t u m ,
q u it u m , rat um , rli t um , s at um , si t u m , s t at um . In som e c
om p oun d s of s t O, s t at u m

is f ou n d ( lon g) , as p rae st at u m .

a. In re d u p li at e d c c
p erf e t s t h e vowe l o f t h e re d u p li at io n i s sh ort ; t h e c
v owe l o f t he followi n g syllab le i s, also , u su ally sh ort : as, e idi ( cadb) , cc
didi i c ( d i sc b , p iipii gi
) ( p u n go , c ii c iirri
) ( c u rrO) , t ét en di ( t en dO , m bm brd i ( m or
)
deb) . c
B u t ec idi from c ae db, p epédi f rom ped b .

606 . R u le s for t h e Q u an t it y of D e riv at iv e s are :

a. F orm s from t h e sam e st e m h ave t h e s am e q u an t it y : as , 5 1116, 5 1115

vi sti ; gen u s, g en e ris .

Exc ep t ions . 1 . has , lar, m as , p ar, p es , 8 511, als o arbes , — h ave a lon g vowe l
in t h e n om in at i ve , t h ou gh t h e st e m -vowe l is s h ort ( of gen it ive bevi s .

1 Th e qu an t it y of the st e m -vowel m ay b e seen in t h e ge n it ive sin gular .

4 06 PR OS OD Y RH YTH M [gs 607 ,
6 08

sh ort ( se e § 608 . c , d) . S om e t im es a syllable n at u rally sh ort se e m s t o h ave b e e n

s ligh t ly p rolon g ed , so as t o re p res e n t a lon g , th ou g h in m ost ( n ot all) ases t h e ap p ar c
e n t i rre g u larit y c an b e ot h e rwise e xp lai n ed I n a fe w ases , also, a p au se t ak es t h e . c
c
p la e of o n e or m ore syllab le s to fi ll ou t t h e req u ired le n gt h o f t h e m e asure Th is .

cou ld , of c c
ou rse , t ak e p la e on ly at t h e e n d o f a w ord : h en e t h e im p o rt an e o f c c
Ca e s u ra an d D i a eres is in p rosod y 611 b , ) . c .

Measu res
608 Rhyt hm c on sis t s Of t h e di v ision O f m u sic al
. sou n d in t o
e q u al in t e rv als of t im e c alle d Me as u r e s or F e e t .

Th e m ost n at u ral div isio n of m u sic al t im e i s in t o m e asu re s c on

si sti n g of e it h e r t wo or t h re e e q u al p art s . Bu t t h e an c i e n t s also

dist in gu ishe d m e asu re s Of fi ve e qu al p art s .

N O TE — Th e d i vision s
. of m i c l t im
us m k d by
a e are ar e a st ress of voi e on on e or c
th e ot h e r p art Of t h e m e su re a Th i t
. i c ll d th l t
s s res s s a e e o us ( be at ) , or m e t ri c
al a cc en t

( see 5 611 . a) .

a. The un it of le n gth i n Prosody is on e short syllable . Th is i s c all d e

a Mora . I t is rep re se n t e d by t he sign u , or i n m u si c al n ot at i on b y t he

e i gh t h n ot e or qua ver
E
( ) .

b . A lo n g syllab le is re gularly e q u al t o t wo m orae , an d is re p re se n t e d

ch t (
by t he sign b y t h e qu art e r
r
n o t e or c rot
or e
) .

c .A lo n g syllab le m ay b e p rotra ct e d , s o as to o cc u py t h e t im e of t hre e

c
.

or f o u r m orse S u h a syllab le , if
. e qu al t o t h re e m ora
e, is re re se n t e d
p
if
t h e sign
r
by ( or d ot te d q u art e r )
'
e q u al t o f ou r, b y u ( or t h e h alf
n ot e or m in im ,
F) .

d . A lon g syllab le m ay b e c on tra te d, so as t o t ake p ra t i ally t h e t im e c c c

of a sh ort o n e . c
S u h a syllab le i s som e t im e s re p re se n t e d b y t he sign
e. c
A sh ort syllable m ay b e on tra t e d so as t o o u py le ss t h an o n e m ora c cc .

f A p au se so m e t i m e s o u rs
. cc at the e n d o f a v e rs e or a s e rie s of ve rse s,

to fi ll u p t h e t i m e A p au se of . on e more in a m e as u re is i n di c at ed b y t he
S i gn A on e of t wo m orse b y t he sign X .

gO n e or m ore syllable s are som e t im e s p la ed b e f ore t h e p rop e r b e gi n

. c
n in
g o f t h e m e as u re S u h syllab le s are . c
alle d an A n a rusi s or p re lu d e l c c .

c
Th e an a ru si s i s re gu larly e qu al t o t he u n a e n t e d p art of t h e m e asu re ,
cc .

1 Th e sam e t h in g o cc
in m od ern p oe t ry , an d in m od ern m u s i an y u n a e n t ed
u rs c cc
syllables at t h e b e gi n n i n g are t re at ed as an an a ru si s , i s t h e y m ak e an in om p le te c . . c
m e asu re b e fore t h e fi rs t b ar Th is w as n ot t h e as e i n an ie n t m u si
. Th e an ie n t s c c c . c
cc
see m t o h ave t reate d an y u n a en t e d syllable at t h e be gin n in g as b e lon gin g t o t h e fol
c
lowi n g a c e n t ed on es , so as to m ak e wi t h t h em a foo t or m easu re Th u s it wou ld see m .

t h at t h ere w as an ori gin al form of I n d O-Eu rop ean p oe t ry wh i h w as i am b i in it s c c

c c cc
st ru t u re , or wh i h , at least , a e n t ed t h e s e on d sy llab le rat h er t h an t h e fi rst c .
 609] MEASUR ES 4 07

609 . The fee t m ost fre qu en t ly e m p loy e d i n Lat in v e rse , to

g e t h e r wit h t h e ir m u sic al n ot ati on , are t h e follo win g

a. TR I P L E OR UN EQU A L MEA S U R ES ( i f
1 . c
Tro h e e ( . L as , régis .

2 . I am b us as, d i c es .

3 . Trib ra h c 2
(u u u as ,
’
hbm i n is .

b . DO U B L E OR EQU A L MEA S U R ES
1 . cy
Da t l u v as, c en sulis .

2 An ap ae st (u
’
. u as, m on it os .

3 . Sp on de e as, rég és .

c . SI X -
TI M ED M EA S U R ES ( i )
l . I on i cd m dib re u u f
as, c b n é c érdt
’ ’

2 . I on i c ci m in ere (u u as, rétii liss e n t

’

3 . C h ori am b us u u as , c on tuléran t
'

d .
Q UI N A RY OR H EM I O LI C " ME A S U R ES
( i)
1 . C re t i c ‘
as, c On szZ les
‘

2 . Pee on p ri m us u u u as, c On siZ libiis .

3 Pse o n qu art u s
’

.
( V V V as, i tin éri .

4 . Ba cchi us as , dm t c os .

1 c
C alled dip lasi , t h e t wo p art s ( Th e si s an d A
rs is) b e in g in t h e rat i o of 2 t o l .

2 N ot fou n d as a fu n d am e n t al f oot , b u t on ly as t h e re so lu t i on of a Tro h ee or I am bu s c .

8 c
C alled he m i oli , t h e t wo p art s be in g in t h e rat io of 1 t o 15, or of 2 t o 3 .
4 08 PR OS OD Y: R H Y THM [5 609

N O TE — S everal om p ou n d fe e t are m e n t ion ed b y t h e g ram m arian s, viz P yrrhi

c . c
( u v ) ; A mp hi bra h ( u c
u ) ; A n t i ba hius u ) ; P ro e leu s m at i (u u v ); cc c c u
t h e Molossus t h e 2 d an d 3d P seo n , h avin g a lon g syllable in t h e 2d o r 3d
'

c
p la e , wit h t h ree sh ort on es ; 1st , 2 d , 3d , an d 4 th Ep i t ri t u s , havin g a sh ort syllab le in
t h e lst , 2 d , 3d , or 4th p la e , wi th t hree lon g on es c .

I rrat ional Feet

e. qu an t it ie s do n ot always o u p y e qu al t i m e ,
Fe e t wit h t h e se ap p are n t cc
c c
b u t m ay b e on t ra t e d or p rolon ge d t o s u i t t he s e rie s i n whi h t h e y o u r c cc .

c
Th ey are t h e n alle d irration al, b e au se t h e t h e sis an d arsis d o n ot h ave c
t h eir n orm al rat io .
1
Su h c are :

I rrat ion al Sp on dee

( in c
p la e of a Tro h e e ) c
( in p la e c
of an I am b u s
) _ L

C y li c c Da t yl ( i c n p la c e of a Tro h e e ) c
’
-
W or V v

C y li c cA e st
n ap a
( i n p la c e of an I am b u s)

!
V

Th e app are n t d a t yl c 6 u , as a su b s t it u t e for an i am b u s, an d the

app are n t an ap a
es t ,
k}
l
v as a s u b st i t u t e f or a t roc h e e , o cc ur fre qu e n t ly
i n t he d ram at i wri t e rs c .

N O TE — N arrat ive
p oe t ry was w rit t e n f or rh yt h m i al re i t at ion , or h an t , with c c c
c
in st ru m e n t al a c om p an im e n t ; an d Ly ri al p oet ry for rh y t h m i al m elod y , or s in gin g c c .

c
I t m us t b e b orn e i n m i n d t h at i n an ie n t m u si — wh i h i n t h is diff e rs wid e ly f rom c c
m odern — t h e rh y t h m of t h e m e lod y w as i de n t i al wit h t h e rh y t h m of t h e t ext
c Th e .

ly ic p t y w
r oe r t b asg ; th p t w
o m ic i
e su n d c mp w ll
e th
oe as us an an o ose r, as e as au or .

T thi d y
o s p t i
a a id c oe ti lly t
s sa i g on ven on a o s n .
”

Th c c t d ta d i g f t h h y t h m ic l t ct
u s a. orre un ers f th
n n gi
o th e r a s ru u re o e ve rse ve s u s e

tim th
e, gh out th t no t wh ic h i t w
e ct lly g Th
u n e, o c t t im h w as a ua su n . e ex a e, o e ve r,
as i dic t d b y t h
n a e cc i f l g d h t yll b l w
e su e ss on o i d cc d i g t on an S or s a es, as v ar e a or n o

c t i lw f —
er a n a c ll d Rh y t h m ic
s o so will b
a e pl i d b l w I di g ci t
,
”
as e ex a ne e o . n re a n an en
v e rse it i c y t b i m i d t ly t h
s n e e ssar o i ti i th
e ar n l ti l gt h f
n no on e v ar a on s n e re a ve en o

s y ll b l
a b t th
es , ucc i l p e o c y t fi ll t t h m
as on a ; d t m mb
au se n e essar o ou e e as u re an o re e er

t h t th
a h y t h m i c l cc t i t h
e r ly
a a f im p t a c en th gh t h w d
s e on h ld b on e o or n e, ou e or s s ou e

d i ti g i h d c
s n u s e f lly d th
are u p d P t y h
,
an ld t b c d b t
e se n se re se rve . oe r s ou no e s an ne ,
u

re ad m t i c lly e r a .

1 It se e m sp rob ab le t h at b ot h t h e sis an d arsis of an i rrat ion al foot were aff e te d b y c

the ne c es sity of p re s e rvi n g t h e rh yt h m i al t im e of t h e f oot c .
 41 0 P RO S OD Y : VER SIF I C A TI ON 612

VER S I FI CATI ON

TH E VER S E

6 12 . A s in gle lin e of p oe t ry t h at is, a se ries of fee t set in a

r ec ogn iz e d or de r — is c alle d a Ve r se
l
.

N M t f th c
O TE . os o e om m on v erse s orig in ally c on sis t ed of t wo se ries ( h em is t i hs ) , c
b u t t h e j oin t b e t wee n t h em i s oft e n ob s u red I t is c . m ark ed in I am bi an d Tro h ai c c c
Te t ram e t e r b y t h e D iae resis , i n D a t yli H exam e t e r b y th e C aes u rac c .

a. A ve rse c
la k in g a syllab le at the en d is c all d C at al c t ic
e e , t h at i s, h av
in g a p au s e t o fi ll t h e m e asu re ; wh e n t h e e n d syllab le i s n ot la kin g, t h e c
ve rse c c
is alle d A at ale t i , an d h as n o su h p au sec c c .

b . A fi n al syllab le , re gu larly sh ort , is s om e t im e s le n gt h e n e d b e fore a

p au se
9
i t is t h e n sai d t o b e lo n g b y D ias tole

n ost ror
um
ob ru im u r, —orit urqu e m ise rrim a c ae d é s .
— A en . n . 4 11 .

c . Th e last syllab le of an y ve rse m ay b e i n di ff e re n t ly lon g or sh ort

( syllaba an c ep s) .

Sc an sion an d Eli sion

d . To divid e t h e v e rse in t o it s ap p rop riat e m e asu re s, a cc ordin g t o the

ru le s of
q u an t it y an d ve rsifi c at ion , is c all d e s c an n in
g or s c an s ion

a c lim bin g or adv an c e b y ste p s, from c

s an do
) .

N O TE - n
. c
I re adi n g v erse rh yt h m i ally , are sh ou ld b e t ak e n t o p re se rve t h e m eas c
u re or t im e of t h e sy llab le s, b u t at t h e s am e t i m e n ot t o d est roy or on f u se t h e w ord s c
t h em se lves, as i s oft en d on e in s an n i n g c .

e. In c
s an n in g, a v owe l or d ip h t h on g at t he e n d of a word ( u n les s an

in t e r j ct i
e on
) is p art ially s u pp re sse d wh e n t h e n ext word be gin s wit h a vowe l
or wi t h h . c
Th i s i s alle d Elisio n ( bru is in g) .
3

In re adin
g it i s u su al e n t ire ly t o su p p re ss e lide d s yllab le s . St ri t ly, h owc
e ve r, t h e y sh ou ld be sou n de d ligh t ly .

Th e word Ve rse ( versus) sign ifi es a t u rn i n g ba k, i e t o b e gin again i n lik e

1
c . .

m an n e r, as opp ose d t o Prose ( p rors as or p rbversu s ) , wh i h m ean s s t rai h t ah e ad

g c .

9 Th is u sa e i s
g om p arat ive ly rare , m ost cas es wh ere it app ears t o be f ou n d b e in g c
cau se d b y t h e re t e n t ion of an origi n ally lon
g q u an t it y .

8 Th e
c c
p ra t i e of Elision i s f ollowed in I t ali an an d F re n h p oe t ry , an d is som et im e s c
ad op t e d in En glish , p art i u larly i n t h e old e r oe ts
p c
"
in ve igle an d in vi t e t h ’
’
I un wary se n s e . Cam us 538 .

In e arly Lat in p oe t ry a fi n al syllable e n d in g in s of t e n lo ses t his letter e ven before a

c on son an t ( c f 15 7 ) . .

se n i b c bn f e c t u ' q u i é sc i t .
—En n ( C at M . . .
 6 12—
6 15] Y
D A C T LI C HE A METER X 41 1

N o rm — Elision is som e t im es c alled

b y t h e Gre ek n am e Syn aloep h a ( s m e ari n )
g .

Rare ly a sy llab le is e lid ed at t h e e n d of a ve rs e wh en t h e n ext ve rse be gin s wit h a

c
vowel : t h is is alled S yn ap h e ia ( bi n d i n g) .

f . A fi n al c
m , wit h t h e p re ed i n g vo we l, i s s u p resse d i n li ke m an n e r
p
-

wh e n t h e n e x t w ord b e gi n s wi t h a v owe l or h : t h i s i s alle d E t h li s is

p
c c
s u e ez in
( q g ou t
)
m Ons t r um
h orre n dwm , in f orm ", in gé n s , c ui lum en ad é m p tu m .

— A e n iii 658 . . .

N OTE 1 — Fi n al 111 h as a f e eb le n as al sou n d , so t h at it s p art ial su p p re ss ion be fore

. .

t h e i n it ial v owe l of t h e followi n g word w as eas y .

N O TE 2 — Th e m on osy llab les d b , d em , 5 pé , spe m , sim , st d, st em , qui ( plu ral) , an d

.

c c
m on os yllab i in t e rj e tion s are n eve r e lid ed ; n or i s an iam b i word e lid ed i n d ac t y li c c
ve rse . Elision is oft e n e vad ed b y skilf u l ollo at ion of words c c .

9 Eli s io n i s so m e t im e s om i t t e d wh e n a word e n d in g i n a vowe l h as a sp e

.

c i al e m p h asis , o r is s u ee d e d b y a p au se cc Th i s o m ission is alle d H i at u s . c

( gap in g)
N OT E .
— Th e fi n al v owe l is som e t im m s h orte n ed in su ch c ases .

F ORMS OF VERS E

6 13 . A v e rse rec e iv e s it s n am e from it s d om in an t or fu n da

m e n t al foot : as, D ac t y li c , I am bic , Troc hai c , A n ap ce st i c ; an d fr om
t he n u m be r of m e as u re s (sin gle or d ou ble ) whic h it c on t ain s

as , H exam e t e r, Te t ram e t er, Trim e t er, Di m et er .

N O TE —Troc h aic I am b ic an d An ap aest ic ve rse s are m eas ure d n ot

.
, , by s in gle fee t ,
b u t b y p airs ( d ip od ia) , so t hat six I am bi m ak e a Tri m e t er .

6 14 . A S t anz a, or S t r oph e , c on sist s of a de fi n it e num be r of

v e rs es ran ge d in a
'

fi xe d o r de r .

Man y st an zas are n am e d aft e r som e e m in en t p oe t Sap p h ic

: as,

( f rom S a h
pp ) ,o A lc aic ( from A lc aeu s ) ,
A rc h i loc h ian
( f rom A c hilo r
c h u s , H orat ia n rom H orac e , an d so on
) ( f ) .

D A C TY LI C VER S E
Dac t ylic Hexam et e r
6 15 . Th e D ac t yli c H ex am e t e r, or H eroic Verse, c on sis t s t h eo
re t ic all of s ix
y dac t yls . I t m ay be re p r e s e n t e d t hu s
-f — u v
’ V
41 2 PR OS OD Y: VER SIF I CATI ON 6 15

N orm —Th e las t foo t is u su ally s aid t o be a sp on dee , b u t is in realit y a c

t ro h ee
st an din g for c c
a d a ty l, s in e t h e fi nal syllable is n ot m eas u red .

a. Fo r an y f oot , e xc ept t h e fi ft h , a sp on d ee m ay b e su b st it u t e d .

b . R are ly a sp on de e is fou n d i n t h e fi ft h f oot ; t h e ve rse i s t h en c all d e

sp on daic an d u su ally e n d s wi t h a word of f ou r syllab le s .

Th us in EC] i v 49 t h e . . ve rse e n ds wit h in c rem en t am .

cTh e h e x am e t e r h as re gu larly o n e p rin c ip al c aesu ra

. s om e t i m e s t wo
cc
alm ost always a om p an i e d b y a p au se i n t h e se n se .

1 c
Th e p rin ip al c msu ra is u su ally aft er the thesis ( le ss om m on ly i n the arsis)
. c
of the third f oot , di vid in g t h e ve rse in t o t wo p art s in se n s e an d rh yt h m See .

e xam p le s in d .

. c
2 I t m ay also b e af ter the th es is (le ss om m on ly i n the arsis) of the f ou rt h f oot .

I n t h is ca se t h e re is of t e n an ot h e r ca esu ra in t h e c
s e on d foot , so t h at t h e ve rse
is di vid e d in t o t h re e p art s

part e fé lé d én squ e boii l

arl lfs ibila — A en
r x
I] et s 06115 . . v . 2 77 .

c
N O TE — Oft e n t h e on ly i n di at ion of t h e p ri n ip al am on g a n u m b er of aesu ras i s
. c c
t h e b reak in t h e se n se .

c cc
A aesu ra o u rrin g aft e r t h e fi rst sy llab le of a f oo t is alled m as u li ne A aesu ra c c . c
occ c c
u rrin g af t e r t h e se on d sy llab le of a f oo t i s alled f em i n i n e ( as in t h e fi f t h f oot of

t h e t h ird an d f ou rt h ve rse s in d) c
A aesu ra m ay also be fou n d in an y foot of t h e ve rse ,
c c
b u t a p rop e r aes u ral p au se ou ld h ardly o u r in t h e fi rst or sixt h cc .

Wh en t h e fou rt h foot e n d s a w ord , t h e b re ak (p rop e rly a d iae res is) is som et M es

c
im p rop e rly alled bu coli cc
aesu ra, from i t s f requ e n y in p ast oral p oe t ry c .

d Th e fi rst se ve n verse s of t h e E n e id, d ivide d

. a cc ordi n g t o t h e f ore

g oin g rule s, will app e ar as f ollows Th e p rin ip al . c ca e s u ra in ea ch v e rse is

m ark e d b y dou b le li n es

A n n a vi | ru m q u e 05 a Tro| ias q u i p ri m fi s Eh I Gris

I tali | am fal t o p reffi | gu s L a| vin iaqu e ven it
um
lit era, m u lt il| l e t t e rl Hiac | t at iis (it alt 6
e
ri s

vi silp é l sae vae m em bl

l re m I fi
a n is Ob i ram ;
'
ru m

m u lt a q u b l e t b ell lo p as l su s H d u m c on d eret u rb em ,
e
q u

i n fe rl ret qu e d é Os La l n us u n de L al
l t i e , g e t i nu m ,

A b al q
l u i u e a
p l t r es , I] t
a u
e
alt ae m o u la R om ae c .

1 . Th e f em in in e c cesu ra is see n i n t h e f ollowin g

tel “
o m n i a silvae — A en
D i s gén i l é r6 :
ti p 6tfi l n en t m édi l l . . vi . 13 1 .

N O TE .
— Th e H exam e t e r is t h u s illus t rat ed in En glish verse :

Ove r t h e se a, p as t C re t e , on t h e S yrian sh o re t o t h e sou t h ward ,

D we lls in t h e we ll-t ille d lowlan d a d ark-h air e d Z Et h iO p p e op le ,
S k i lfu l wit h n e e d le an d loo m , an d t h e art s o f t h e d y e r an d c arve r,
S kilf u l, b u t f e e b le o f h e art ; f or t h e y k n ow n ot t h e lord s o f Olym p us ,
Lo ve rs o f m e n ; n e it h e r b road -b rowe d Z e us , n or P allas t h en e, A
Te ac h e r o f wisd o m t o h e roe s , b es t owe r of m igh t in t h e b at t le ;
S h are n o t t h e c u n n in g of H erm e s , n or list t o t h e son gs of p ollo , A
Fe arin g t h e st ars of t h e sky , an d t h e roll of t h e b lu e salt wat e r
K
.

— in gsle y’s A n d rom e da .

4 14 PR OS OD Y: VER S I FI CA TI ON 6 17 , 6 18

a. Th e D ac tyli cT e t ram e t e r alt ern at e s wit h t h e h e x am e te r, f orm i n g t h e

Alc m an ian S trop he , as f ollows
O forlté s p é | i Oraque p assi
c
m e u m sae p e vi | ri , n un c vi n o p e lli te cu a ;
r s

eras in l
gé n s i t é l
rabi m fi s ae qu br .

- H or Od i 7. . .
( so 2 8 ; Ep

b . c
Th e Dac t yli Pe n t he m im ( fi ve h alf -fe e t ) on sist s of h alf a pe n t am e c
t e r ve rse . c
I t is us e d in om b in at ion wit h t h e H e x am e t er t o f orm t h e F irst
A rc hiloc hian S trop he
d ifffi | gé re l
n i ves ,
‘
red eSu n t
I iam gram iu a c am p i s,

arbOri
l us qu é
b c O m ae
|
m fi t at c
t e rra vi l es He t c e n t ia
d ec res l rip as

fi fi m in a p rae t é rel
unt . H or Od iv 7 . . . .

For t h e F ou rt h Ar h ilo h i an S t rop h e c c c

( Ar h ilo ch i an h e p t am et e r, alt e rn at in g wi t h
c c
i am b i t rim e t e r at ale t i ) , see § 626 11 c c . .

I AMB I C VER S E

6 18 . Th e I am bic Trim e t e r i s t h e o rdin ary v e rse of d r am at ic

di alogu e . It c on sis t s of th re e m e as u res e ac h c on t ain in g a d ou ble
,

i am bu s ( i am bi c dip ody ) . Th e c ae su ra is u su ally in t h e t hir d foot .

3 _

NO TE . Th e sign 3 J d en ot es p oss ible su b st it u t ion

. of an irrat ion al sp on d ee
f or an iam b us

a. Th e I am b i c Tri m e t e r is of t e n u se d
i n lyri p oe t ry ( 1) as an in de c
pe n d e n t syst e m , or 2
( ) alte rn at i n g wi t h t h e Dim e t e r t o form t h e I am bic

S trop he , as follo ws

( )
1 iam iam
é fi ic fi | c i d d m an tis sc i én t iaé
s u p p léx m [I régn a per Prés érp inaé ,
é t (fil
per é t D ia
'

| n ae n 6n m 6vé n | d a n fi m in a,
p é r atq u e lfb e s c
arm i n um vi lén t i iim
’

d efix a c aé llo d évbc a| re s id erii,

’

c an tata, p arl d
v c i b us t an d em s ac ris ,
’

cé
'

c it um qu e ré t | r6 ré t rC s ol ve
| t urb in em .
- H or Ep od 17
. . . .

Th e last t wo lin es m ay b e t h us t ran slat ed , t o sh ow t h e m ov e m e n t

111 En glish

Oh l stay , C an idia, st ay t h y rite s of sor ery , c

c
Th y h arm u n b in d in g b ac k ward let t h y swif t wh ee l fly l
 g 6 18] I AMBI C TR I METER 41 5 .

(2) b eat us il| le q u i p rbc ul n egot iis ,

ut p ris c a gén s m ort a li u m ,
p st é m a
s olu t us 6m n i femOré ;
|
n eq u c
é xc i t al
t ur c la ic
ss o m iles t rfi c f,
n eq u
e
h orret il
rat um mare .
—H or Epod 2 . . .

b . I n th e s t ri ct er form of I am b i c T im r e t e r an irrat io n al sp on de e
or it s e q u i vale n t
(a c yc lic an apae s t v V
1
or an app are n t d a t l
y c J
, u ,

609 . e
) m ay be re g ularly su b st it u t e d fo r t h e fi rst i am b u s of an y dipo dy .

A trib ra h c ( u ( 5 u
) m ay st an d for an i am b u s an ywh ere e x c e p t in t h e

last p la c e. I n t he c om i c
p oe t s an y of t h e se f orm s or t he p roc e le us m at i c
(w ( 9 u
) m ay b e
‘

su b st i t u t e d i n an y f oo t e x e p t t h e last
1
c
c
O lu is al| m é re c t br Hét c a li dé
e c fis l
‘ alt ern a c ur ru s a a
l a fi l f am bie n s,
o
qu p t i m m i é r

illus t ré laé l
t is éxs éris t e rris c ap ut .

— S en . H er c . F u r 592—94 . .

qu id qu aéri s ? an a s s éx agin lt a n at iis és .

— Ter . H au t 62 . .

h bm o s
um
: hu m a]n i H i
n l a m 5 a li | en um p ii t o .

vel m e m On é rc ri p ii ta
l h Oc Hv e l p e rc en t a
l .

id 7 7 , 78 . .

c . Th e C h oli am b i c ( lam e I am bi c) su b st it u t e s a t roc h e e f or t h e last

i am b us :

“3
ae qu é est healt iis ac p bé| m a c um sc rib it
t am gaudé t in 8 6, t am qu é s? ip | sé m fratfi r .

— C at ull xxiii 1 5, 16 . . .

N O TE .
— Th e ve rse m ay also b e re gard ed as c ac wit h
t ro h i an a ru sis : as , c

d . Th e I am b i c Tri m e t e r C atale t i i s c c re p re se n t e d as follows

II 3 l —lx’x ll —| 3 L
’

I t is us e d in c om b i n at ion wi t h ot h er m e asu res

( se e 62 6 . an d is
s h o wn in t he follo wi n g
v mc én fi s arld é n s ufi rit fi c in a
Oi l s .
— Hor . Od i 4 . . .

or in En glish
O u p u rple p e aks a d ee p e r sh ad e d es c e n d in g .
— S c ott .

1 Th e g reate r freed om of su bs t it u ti on in t h e co m edy is d u e t o th e fa t t h at th e ve rse c

is regard e d as m ad e u p of separat e fee t rath e r t h an of dipod ies .
416 rs oson r : VER SI FI C A TI ON [ g 619

Ot he r I am b ic Measu re s
619 . O t h e r fo rm s of I am bic v e rse are t h e followin g

a. The I am b i c
Te t ram e t er e C at al c t ic Th is c on sist s of

se v e n an d a h alf i am b i c
fe e t , wi t h d iaere s is af t e r t h e fou rt h an d wit h t h e
s am e su b s t it u t ion s a i n I am b i
s
Trim e t e r c
am 6 fi p t ia ‘
m adp ara i s én si t
n idc irc l
arc és sor, nqu od s
U l
r .

q u ib us qu id em qu am fac i l
le p Ot u erat '
c
qu ies i s h ic q u iéss et l
—Ter An d 690, 691
. . .

Th e m e t ri cal ch s e m e of t h e se t wo ve rse s m ay b e re p re sen te d as follows

v é v v

I t s m ove m e n t i s lik e t h e follow in g

I n good kin g C h arles gold e n d ays , wh e n loy alt y h arm m e an t

’
’
s no .

Th e I am b ic Te t rame t er A at ale t i ( O ton ariu s) c c c c c si t

'

b . Th is . on s s of

e igh t f u ll i am b i c
f e e t wit h t h e s am e su b st i t u t ion s as i n I am b i c T im t
r e e r.

Like t h e S ep ten ari u s i t i s u se d i n li ve ly d ialogu e

di c at cam d a re n Os Ph Orm i Olni n u p t u m 116 su sc éns é a t ;

et m a
um
Id O ‘ si si t f am i | li a
gis ess fil l n eum ,
[I i
e
qu p ri en
— Te r Ph 72 0, 72 1 . . .

Th e m e t ri c al s c h e m e of t h e se t wo ve rses m ay b e rep re se n te d as follows

Iu _ L > u v | u — v V
I

c . c
Th e I am b i Dim e te r . This m ay be c
e i t h e r a at ale c tic or c at al ct i c
e .

1 . c
Th e I am bi D i m e te r A at ale t i on s ist s of fou r c c cc iam b ic f ee t . I t is u se d

c
in om b in at ion wit h som e lon ger ve rse ( se e 6 18 a) . .

. c
2 The I am b i D im e te r C at ale ti c ons is ts of t hree an d c c a half iam bi c feet .

I t is u se d on ly in c h ormes

qu On am c rii én l t a Maé n as ,

p rae c ép s am é lré saey O,

ra p i t ur q u Od im Ip Ot én ti
f ac in us p arat furo re? - Se n . Med . 8 50—8 53 .

N O TE c c c
Owin g to th e fa t th at in m od e rn m u si e a h m e as u re b e gin s w ith a d own
.

c
w ard be at , so m e s h olars re gard all t h e se f orm s of I am bi ve rse as Tro h ai ve rse c c c
c
wi th an a rus is 618 . c .
41 8 PR OS OD Y: VER SI FI C A TI ON 62 1-623

M I XED M EA S U R ES
62 1 Diffe ren t.m easu res m ay b e om b in ed in t h e sam e ve rse in t wo diff e ren t c
ways Eit h e r ( 1) a se ri e s of on e k in d is sim p ly j oin ed t o a se rie s of an ot h er ki n d
.

c c
( om p are th e h an ge s of rh y thm n ot u n om m on i n m od ern m u si ) or ( 2) sin gle f e e t c c
of o t h e r m easure s are c om b i n e d wit h t h e p re vailin g m e asu res , i n wh i h as e t h es e od d c c
c
f ee t are ad ap t ed b y h an gi n g t h e ir qu an t ity so t h at t h e y b e om e i rrat i on al ( see 609 e) c . .

Wh en en ough m e asu res of on e k in d o u r t o f orm a s e rie s , we m ay su pp ose a cc

c h an ge of rh yt h m ; wh en t h ey are isolat e d , w e m u st su ppose ad ap t at ion Of t h e .

in de fi ni t e nu m b er of p oss ible c om b in ati on s b u t f e w are f ou n d in Lat i n p oe t ry .

622 . Th e followin g v e rses, c om bin in g di ffe re n t rhyt hm ic al

se ries , are fou n d in Lat in lyric al p oe t ry

1 . Greate r Ar h ilo h ian c c ( D a t yli c cT e t ram e t e r ; Tro h ai c c T ip r od

y)
— —c — —c —
ll—
V
’
CU I - v v I v l ’
|l
sOlvit ii r acris té
é m s gral
hil . vi ce véris
lé t F a| v6ni .
- H or Od i 4
. . . .

N O TE —I t is p ossible th at t h e d a c ty l s we r
e cc c
y li ; b u t th e ch an ge of m eas u re
se em s m ore p rob able .

2 . Ve rse c on sis t in g of c
D a t yli Tri m e t er c c at al ct i c ( Dactyli
e c P e n them im ) ;
I am b i c D im et e r

lIJ—u v l-v I J—Il a —I a —Il

sc r ib éré vé rsic ii llfls am éré p erl
c u ls um gravi . H or Ep od . . 11 2 . .

LO GA CED I C VER S E

623 . Troc h aic

v e rses c on tain in g in re g u lar p resc ribed p osit ion s
,

irrat ion al m e asu r es or irrat ion al fe e t ( c f 6 09 e) are c alle d Log a . .

, f

( Edie The p rin c ip al log aoedi c form s are

.

1 L gaoe dic T t ap dy ( f
. o f t) G C O C
e r o ou r ee LY NI .

2 L ga d ic T ip dy ( th
. o oe f ) t P H E EC A T C
r
( ft
o t at d a a re e ee : R R I o en re e s

s n
y c p at d
o T t ap d y C at al c t ic
e
)e r o e .

3 L ga di c Dip dy ( tw f t) t h i m ay b
. o oe ga d d a a h t P h
o o ee : s e re r e s s or ere

c rat ic .

N O TE — Th ls m ixt u re of irrati on al m e asu re s gives an e ff e t app roa h in g t h at of

. c c
c
p rose : h e n e t h e n am e Logad ad ic ( 7167 6 5 Th ese m e asu re s origin ate d in t h e
c
Gre e k ly ri p oe t ry , an d w e re ad op t e d b y t h e Rom an s All t h e R om an ly ri m e t res n ot . c
c c c
b elon gin g t o t h e re gu lar iam b i , t ro h ai , d a t yli , or I on i sy st e m s , we re on st ru t ed c c c c c
on th e b asis of t h e th re e f orm s gi ven ab ove : vi z , Log aoedi s y st e m s o n sis t i n g re sp ec . c c
t i vely oi f ou r, t h re e , an d tw o f ee t Th e so- alled Log aoed i P en t ap ody on sist s of fi ve
. c c c
fee t , b u t is t o be re gard ed as om posed of t wo of t h e ot h e rs c .
 624 , 62 5] LO GA ( ED I C VER S E 41 9

624 . Eac h log aoedi c form c ont ain s a sin le

g dac t yl, wh ic h m ay
l

be e it h e r in t h e fi rs t , sec on d, or th rd Th e v e rse m ay be
i

la
p ce .

c at ale c t ic or ac at ale c t ic

Gly c on ic P here c rat ic

_ V I J- ( lii
V —
Il b u l
—V I - ( v ) ll II L
- v l
II A v I
u —
I v
'
u IJ .
(u ) |
—’v v I ( V ) II
N O TE .
-Th e
sh ort e r Ph e re rat i ( dip ody) ( fl z u I c c
if at ale t i , ap p e ars to
’
c c c
be a si m p le C h ori am b u s ( u v an d , i n g en eral, t h e e fi ec t of t h e log aoed i
_ c
f orm s i s C h oriam b i c c
I n fa t , t h e y w e re so re g ard e d b y t h e lat e r Gre ek an d Lati n
.

c
m et ri ians , an d t h ese m e t re s h av e ob t ain e d t h e ge n e ral n am e of C h oriam b i Bu t c .

c c
t h ey are n ot t ru e h oriam b i , t h ou gh t h e y m ay ve ry lik ely h ave b een fe lt t o b e su h c
c
b y t h e om p os e r, wh o i mi t ate d t h e f orm s wit h ou t m u h t h ou gh t of t h e i r origin Th ey c .

c
m ay b e re ad ( s an n ed) , t h ere fore , on t h at p ri n ip le Bu t i t is b e t t e r t o re ad t h em as c .

log aaedi c m e asu res ; an d t h at ou rse i s f ollow ed h e re c .

625 . Th e v e rses c on st ru c t e d u p on the se v eral Logaoedic form s

or m ode ls are t h e followin g

1 . Gly c on i c ( Se c on d Gly c on ic , c at al ct ic)

e

Il - L a l—b v b —V I J—ll

R dm ae p rin c ip is tim
fi rb i l .

I n En glis h
FOrm s m ore real t h an livm g m am — S helley .

N O TE -I n t h is an d m os t
. ofth e s u cc e ed in g f orm s t h e f oot p re c di
e ng c
t h e da t yl is
alway s irrat i on al in H ora e , c c on sis t i n g of an i rrat i on al sp on d ee

2 . Ari st op h an i c ( F irst P herec ratic )

—
II b u

t ém p érat Ora f rén is — H or Od i 8

[ . . . . .

N OT E .
—
I t i s ve ry lik ely th at t h is was m ad e e qu al in t im e t o th e p re c di
e ng by
c
p rotra t in g t h e last tw o syllables
—
lI ( s -L v
I lL I J-
- A II

1 D iff e re n t Gre ek p oet s ad op t e d fi x ed t yp e s i n re gard t o t h e plac e of t h e d a t yls , c

an d so a large n u m be r of ve rse s arose , ea h f ollowin g a st ri t law, whi h were im i c c c
t at ed b y t h e Rom an s as dist in t m etre s c .
420 PR OSOD Y: VER SI FI CATI ON [ g 62 5

3 . Adon i c ( First Pherec rat ic , sh ort e n e d

)
II ( J
"
vI
Térriiit urb em . H or .

O r p erh ap s
—
II 4, v I LL I A

4 . Ph ere c rat i c ( S ec on d Phere c ratic

)
|I 3 I V I L
’
I V
_
A

er sa d eadb eris h aed O — H or . .

Oft e n sc an n e d as f ollows
a l—
(J V IL

5 Le sse r As le p iadi c
. c ( S ec on d P herecrat ic wit h syn c op e an d

c ratic c
at ale t i
) c c
II > —
I 4/ V I I —
II Q V I—
I A II
C V V

Maec en a t avis régib iis — H or

‘
s a e dit e . .

6 . Gre at e r As lep i adi c c ( th e sam e as 5, wi t h a syn c op at e d Logaoedic Dipody

in t e rp ose d)
—
b u lu lI’

tfi ne qu aesieris — sc fre n ef s a— qu em m ih i , qu em t ib i — H on

7 . Le sser Sapp h ic ( Logaoedic P e n tap ody, wi t h d ac t yl i n t h e t hi rd p la c )

e

lI -v I > I ’
llw I J- v lti I c A II
in t eger vit ae sc elérisqu e p fi rfi s — Hor . .

Or in En glish
B rillian t h op es, all wOve n in gOrgeou s t issii es .
— Lon gf ellow .

8 . Gre at er S app hi c( Third Glyc on ic ; F irst Pherec ratic )

— > I —<J v l ’ —
II v f
- - v
I L—I V A II
t é d eds art Sy b arin M cu r p rOp é r s a am an d 6 .
- H or .

9 . Le sser Al ai c c ( Logaoedic Te trap ody, t wo irrat ion al d a t yls, t wo c

c
tro h ee s
-
<J U |
virgin ibus p iiérisq u e c a to —Ho
n . r.
4 22 PR OS OD Y : VERSI FI C A TI ON [g 62 6

N O TE .
— Th e S ap p h i
S t an z a i s n a c
m e d afte r t h e p oe t e ss S ap p h o of Le s bo s , an d
w as a g re at favori t e wit h t h e an ie n t s c
I t i s us e d b y H ora e i n t we n t y-fi ve Od es . c
m ore f req u e n tly t han an y o t h e r e x e p t t h e l ai c Ac c .

3 . S app hi c ( m aj or) ,
c on sist in g of on e Arist op han i c ( 2) an d on e Gre ate r
S ap ph i c 8
Lyd ia d fc , p e r Om u le
té d e bs OrO, Sy b arin c dr p rop e rz
i s am au d 6 .
- Od i 8 . . .

4 . c
As le p iade an I ( m in or ) ,
c o n s i st i n g o f Le sse r A s le p iad i c c s 5
( )
é xé gi m on u m en t w’"
aere p e ren n ius
r égaliqu e 81 t py ram id
um
alt ili s — . Od iii 3 0 . . .

( Foun d in Od i 1 ; i ii 30; iv
. . . .

5 A s lep iade an
. c I I, c on sist in g of on e Gly c on i c ( 1) an d on e Le sse r
A sc lep iadi c 5
n i vis q u ae t ib i cr éd i t um
d éb es Vé rgilium , f fn ib u s At t ic is
réd d as in c olu m é m , p re c Or,
ét s erv s e an im aé H d im id ium m e ad — Od . i 3 . .

( F ou n d i n O d i 3 , 13 , . . 19, 36 ; i ii 9, 15 , 19, 24 , 25 , 28 ; i v i ,
. .

6 . c
As le p i ade an I I I , c on s ist in g o f t h re e Le sse r A s le p i adi c c s
( 5) an d on e

G1y c on i c 1
qu is d esid erié s it p u d or ali t m odus

t am C ari ap i t is ? c
p rae ip e lflgu b rfs c
ca n t fi s , Mé lp o m e n é, c u i liq u id am p at er
véc e m c um c it h a a d r e d it .
— Od i 2 4 . . .

(F ou n d i n O d i 6 , 15 , 24, 33 ; 12 ; iii 10, 16 ; iv 5 ,

"

. . 11 . . .

7 c
As le p iade an I V, on sist in g of t wo Le sse r A s le p iadi
. c c c s on e

Ph e re rat i c c
an d o n e Gly on i
( 1) z c c
6 f On s B an d u s iae s p len did iOr vit r O,
c
d ul i d fgn e m e ré, n dn
'

S in e fi dribfi s ,
ra c
s d On a be ris h aed é
cu i frOn s t urgid a c Orn ibus .
— Od iii 13 . . .

( Fou n d in Od i 5 , 14 , 21, 2 3 ;
. . Hi . 7 , 13 ; i v .

8 . c
As le p iad e an V ( m aj or) , c on sist i n g of Gre at e r A s le p iad i c c s

Hsc ire
'
t 11 n e qu aésie ris , n ef s é l qu em m ih i , q u em t ib i
fin e m d i d e d e rin t , || Le 1f1c on oé, n é c B ab l n iO s

t en t arfs n u m er S O .
—Od i 1 1 . . .

( Fou n d in O d i 11 , 18 ; i v
. . .

9 . Alc m an i an , c on sist in g of c
Da t yli H e xam e t e r c 6 15) alt e rn at in g

wit h Te tram e t er 6 17 . a
) .
( O d i 7 ,
2.8 ; Ep od . .
§ 626] METR ES or H OR A C E 4 23

c
10 Ar h iloc hian I ,
. c on sis t in g of a c c
D a t yli H e x am e te r alt e rn at in g wit h
a c c
Da t yli Pe n t h e m im ( se e 6 17 . b) .
( O d iv . .

1 1 A c h il c h ia I V, c on sist i n g of Gre at e r Ar h ilo h i an c c h

. r o n a
( ep tam et er,
622 . follo we d b y I am bi Trim e t er c C at ale t i c c
61 8 d ) . . Th e s t an z a

c on si st s of t wo p airs o f v e rse s

s Olvi t ur c
é ris h iem s grat a vi e c Véris é t Favdn i ,
t rah un t qu e s ic c as m fic h in aé is
c arin z

ac i am s t ab u l s f gau d ét p eons , a1i t ara t or igni ,

’

n e qu e

n ec p rata c én is c
alb i an t p ru in fs — Od i 4 . . . .

12 . I am b i c T im t al r e er on e
( se e ( Ep o d .

13 . I am b i c S t p h ( ro e se e 61 8 . a
) .
( Epo d . 1
14 . Dac tyli c H x am t e e e r alt e rn at in
g wi t h I am b i c Di m e t e r :
O f u lgéb at lfi n a se r n O
é
n ox e rat , et c ae l

in t er m in Ora s id e ra,
c um t 1i , m a n um en lae s fi ra d e O
‘

gn Orfi m ru m ,

in verb a ifi rab a s m e a — Ep od 15

( So in Epod . . .

1 5 Da tyli
. c c H e x am e t e r wit h I am b i c Trim e t er 61 8)
alt e ra iam te rit ur b ellis c i vilib u s aé t a
s,

su s i et ip sa R Om a vfri b us ru m — Epod . 16 .

1 6 Ve rs e
. of F o u r Le sse r I on i c s 6 09 . c . 2)
m iseraru m e st
I n e qu
e
am Ori d are lud u m n e qu e dul i c
— Od iii 12
m ala vi n O lave re au t e x an im
| ari m e t u en t is . . . .

17 . I am b i c Tri m e t e r Da t yli c c Pe n t h e m i m 617 b) ; I am b i

. c
Di m e t e r :
Pe t t i, n ih il 1116 i
s cut an t e é iu vat
sc r ibe re vers ic u lés am ére p é rc u lsum gravi — Ep od l l . . .

18 . c c
Da t yli H e x am e t e r ; I am b i D im e t e r ; D a tyli Pe n t h e m im c c c 6 17 b) .

h orrid a t é m p es t fi s ca lum
e a
c on t r xit , e t im b res
ni vésqu e d édfi c un t I ové m n un c m are , n un c s ilii aé
— Ep od . 13 .

19 Tro h ai
. c c Dim e t e r, I am b i c T im r e t e r, e a ch c at ale c t ic ( see 62 0 . c) .

IN D E X TO THE METRES O F H OR ACE

LI B . I
. c
1 Mae enas at avi s : 4 . 8 . Lyd ia di e : 3 .

2 I am sat is t e rri s : 2
. . 9 . Vidé s u t alta: 1 .

3 Si c té di va : 5
. . 10 . c
Mer u ri fe u n d e n epOs : 2 c .

. c
4 S olvit ur a ris h ie m s : 11 . 11 . Tu n é q u ae sie ris : 8 .

5 Qu i s m u lt a: 7
. . 12 .
Qu e m viru m : 2 ‘
.

6 Sc ri bé ris VariO : 6
. . 13 . C u m t 11 Lydia : 5 .

7 Lau dab u n t alii : 9

. . 14 . O n avis : 7 .
424 PR OSOD Y: VER SIFI C A TI ON [ 5 626

Pasto r c u m t rah eret N ati s in fi su m : 1 .

O m at re p u l h ra: 1 c . Te m aris : 9 .

Vé lb x am oe n u m : 1 . I c c i beati s : 1
_
.

N ullam Vare : 8 . 0 Ve n us : 2 .

Mat e r sae va : 5 .
Qu id d edic at u m : 1 .

Vi le pet ab is : Posc i m u r : 2 .

Dian am t e n e rae : 7 . Albi n é d oleas : 6 .

I n t ege r vi tae : 2 . c
Far u s d eOru m : 1 .

Vi tas i n u leO : 7 . O di va : 1 .

Qu is dé si de riO : 6 . Et ture z 5 .

Parc ius ifi n c t as : 2 . N u n c est b ib e n d u m : 1 .

c
Mfi si s am i us : 1 . Pers icOs Odi : 2 .

L113 I I
.

Motu m ex Met ello : 1 . Qu id be llioOsu s : 1 .

N ullus arg en tO : 2 . N Oli s lon g a : 6 .

A eq u am m em en to : 1 . I lle e t n e fasti) : 1 .

c
N é s it an illae : 2 . Eh eu fu ga es : 1 c .

N On du m su bac t a: 1 . c
I am pau a : 1 .

Se p t im i Gadé s : 2 . Ot iu m di ves : 2 .

c
O sae pe m e u m : 1 . C ur m e q u e relli s : 1 .

Ella si ifi ri s : 2 . N on eb u r : 19 .

N On se m p e r im b ré s : 1 . Bac c h u m i n rem oti s : 1 .

Ré c t ius vi vé s : 2 . N On ii sit at a: 1 .

Odi p rofan u m : 1 . I n c lusam D an aé n : 6 .

An gus t am am i c é : 1 . A e li ve t us tO : l .

I ust u m e t t e n ac e m : 1 . F aun e n y m p haru m : 2 .

Dé sc e n de c ae lO : 1 .
Qu an t u m di st e t : 5 .

C aelO t on an t e m : 1 . NOn vidé s : 2 .

c
Deli t a m aiOrum : 1 . O n at a m e um c
Qu id flé s : 7 Mon t iu m c fi st c)
‘

Mart ii s c ae leb s : 2 . C aelo su pi n as : 1 .

DOn ec grat u s : 5 . I n tac t i s op u len t ior : 5 .

Ext rem u m Tan ain : 6 . Qu e m e B a h e : 5 cc .

Me rc u ri n am t i : 2 . Vi xi p u elli s : 1 .

Miseraru m e st : 16 . I m p iOs p arrae : 2 .

O fOn s B an d u s iae : 7 . Fé stO q u id : 5 .

c
H e r u lis ri t 11 : 2
‘

. Tyrrh en a ré gu m : 1 .

Uxor p au p e ris : 5 . Exé gi m on u m en t u m : 4 .

I n t e rm issa Ve n u s : 5 . N e fort e c redas : 1 .

P ind aru m qu is qu i s : 2 . O c rfi dé lis adh uc : 8 .

Qu em t a Melpom e n é : 5 . Est m ihi n On u m : 2 .

Ou alam m in ist ru m : 1 . c
I am veris om ité s : 6 .

Di vi s ort e boni s : 6 . Au di vé re Ly c é : 7 .

Di ve qu e m p rolé s : 2 .
Qu ae c fi ra p at ru m : 1 .

D ifffi gé re n ivé s : 10 . Ph oeb us vole n te m : 1 .

DOnare m p ate ras : 4 . C arm en S ae cu ld re : 2 .

 PR OSOD Y : VER SITI C A TI ON 62 8 , 62 9

all m e as u re s in e arly Lat in . Th e lon g syllab le s m ay b e re solv e d , or

m oloss us h ree lon s su b st it u t e d

( t g )
n
ft
‘
m u lt as res si m in m ed c or d e vOrsO,
I
um em
c O gi t a
m u lt I in I d blo rn dO
i I
n dip 1sc or .

egOm ét m e c ega ét m aIc erb é t d eIfat ig O ;

ma g is t e r I m ih ‘éxer c i t Or an i m us n un est
I I c .

— Pl Trin 2 2 3 22 6
. . .

c . c
Cre t i m e asu res 609 d 1) o c ur i n t h e sam e m an n er as t h e Bac
. . c
c hiac , wit h t h e sa
m e s u b st i t u t i o n s Th e last f o ot is u su ally i n o m p le t e
. c
dm br am i IC fi s m ihi n é i nas I um qu am .

h is égO d e arti bu s I grét iam f ac iO .

n il ego iS t O
I s m Oror I faéc é Os Im 6ré s — id. .

d . S at u rn ian Ve rse . In e arly Lat in 13 fou n d a ru de form of ve rs e , n ot

b orrowe d from t h e Gre ek like t h e ot h e rs, but as t o t h e p re i se c n at u re of

c c
whi h s h olars are n ot agre e d 1 .

1 . A cc ord i n g to on e vie w t he ve rse i s b ase d on q u an t it y, i s om p ose d of c

fe e t , an d i s di vide d in t o t wo p art s b y a
si x ca esu ra b e fore t h e fou rt h t he sis .

c
Ea h t h esi s m ay on sist of a lon g syllab le c o r of t wo sh ort on e s, e a ch a rsis

of a sh ort syllab le , a lon g syllab le , o r t wo sh ort syllab le s ; b u t t h e arsis,.

c
e x ep t at t h e b egin n i n g of t h e ve rse an d b e fore t h e ae sur a, c l S oft e n e n t ire ly

su pp re sse d , t h ou gh rare ly m ore t h an on e i n t h e sam e v erse c

Met elli II N aé vi O p O t ae
é
d abun t m alum .

2 . A cc ordin g t o an ot h e r t h e ory t he S at u rn i an i s m ade

wit h ou t re g ard u p,

cc
t o qu an t it y, of alt e rn at i n g a e n t e d an d u n a en t e d syllab le s ; b u t f or an y cc
una cc
e n t e d syllab le t wo m ay b e su b st it u t e d, an d re gu larly are so su b st i t u t e d

c
in t h e se on d f oot of t h e ve rse
d ab u n t m alu m Me t élli II N aévié p oét ae .

EARLY PR OS ODY

629 . The p rosody of t he ea rlie r p oe t s difi e rs in se ve ral re

sp e c t s from t h at of t h e lat e r .
2

a. At t h e en d of word s 8, b e in g on ly fe e bly sou n d e d , d oe s n ot m ak e

p os ition wit h a f ollowin g c on son an t ; it so m e t im e s d isap p e are d alt oge t h e r .

This u sage c on t in u e d in all p oe t s t ill C i c e ro s

’
t im e 15 .

1 c
Th e t wo p rin ip al t h e orie s
ly gi on are ve n . Th e re are n u m e rou s v ariat ion s , p ar
t i l ly f t h
c u ar c d th y h t t d
o e se on e or e re s a e .

2
B f th L ti l g
e ore g w d i
e a n an ua e as u se nlit e rat u re , it had b e om e m u h h an ge d c c c
by th l ef fi lc
os s o t d th h t
na on son an s an e s or e n i n g of fi n al sy llab le s u n d er t h e in fl u e n e c
o f cc
a t I m eny c .t h i ch ng w an ase s s an e as st ill i n p rog ress i n t h e t im e of t h e e arly

p t oe sTh i t d c y w
. t d by th
s en en as arre s e e s t u d y of g ram m ar an d b y lit e rat ure , b u t

h w it lf g i i t h R m
s o s se c l g g
a a n n e o an e an u a es .
5 629] EAR LY P R OSOD Y 4 27

b . A lon g syllab le
im m e di at e ly p re c e d e d or f ollowe d b y t h e i t u s m ay c
be sh ort e n e d
( iam bic shorte n in g)
1 . I n a word Of t wo sy llab le s of whi h t h e fi rst is sh ort ( t h is c e ffe ct re m ain e d in
a f e w word s like p u t a, av e, v e ld, vicd é , e b
g , m oab , d u 01 :
)
ti bi ( Te r Ph . . b On i ( id . h Om O s u svis ( id .

2 . I f it is e it h e r a m on osy llable or the fi rst sy llab le of a word whi h is p re c

c ede d b y a s h ort m on osy llab le
s éd h as t abe llas ( Pl . Pers .
q u id h i c nun c ( id Ep id
. .
p er i u p ld
viu m (Ter Ph . . ego Os t én d ere m ( id .

3 . Wh e n p re c e de d b y a s h ort i n it ial sy llab le in a word of m ore t h an t h re e

sy llab le s

vé u us i ét is ae u H ec . S én é c t fi t em ( id . Ph . syrdc usas ( Pl . Merc .

c
am i i tia (id PS . .

c . In a fe w isolat e d word s p osit ion is of t e n d isre g ard e d .

2
Su h c are ille ,
im m o, in de , ist e, bm n is, pe , q u i ppe , ii n de n ém .

d . The ori gi n al lon g qu an t i t y of so m e fi n al syllab let i s re t ain e d .

l . Th e e n d in g -or is re t ain e d lon g in n ou n s wit h lon g ste m -vowe l ( origin al r

s t e m s or origin al s -s t e m s )
c
m od o q u om d i t “ in m 5 in ge réb as Od iu m n bn u x br e ram ( PI . A sin .

c
it a m 5 in p e t ore at qu e c Ord e fa it am or in en d ium c c ( id . Me rc .

at q u e qu an t O n ox fu ist i Ri n giér h ac p rdx u m a( id A m . .

2 . Th e t e rm in at ion -e s -i t i s ) is so m e t im e s re t ain e d lon g , as in m iles , s u p ers t é s .

3 . A ll ve rb -e n d in gs in -r
,
-
s , an d -t m ay b e re t ain e d lon g wh e re t h e vowe l is

e lse wh e re lon g in in fle t ion c

ré gre d i r é au d is se m e ( Pl C ap t . . at qu e
ut q u i fu e ris e t qu i n un ( id c .

me n é m in ét h ae c ( id . Ep id iv 1 . . . i t u t s em p er ( id Po en
fac iz . .

ii . i n f u sc ab at , am ab O ( c re t i c s id C ist i
,
.
q u i am et ( id . . . Me rc .

at fi t in h é llO cap it u r alt e r filius ( id C ap t t ib i s it . . ad m e

re v s ts i i ( id Tru e
. . 11 . 4 .

e. H iat u s 6 1 2 g ) i s allowe d som e wh at fre e ly,

. e spe c ially at a p au se
in t h e se n se , or wh e n t e
h re is a h an e
g o f s
p e ake r
3
c .

1 Cf . am bb ( also a d u al, p . 59, foot n ot e) , in wh i h t h e 6 is c re t ain e d be c au se of t h e

len gt h of t h e fi rst syllable .

c
2 S h olars are n ot
y e t ag re ed u p on t h e p rin ip le or t h e e xt e n t o f t h is i rre g u larit y c .

3 Th e e xt e n t of t h i s li e n se is st ill a c
q u esti on am on g s h olars ; b u t i n t h e p rese n t c
s t at e of t e xt s it m u s t s om e t im e s b e allowed .
 MI S CELLA NEOUS 63 0, 63 1

MI S CELLANEOUS
R ec kon in g of Tim e

63 0 Th e . Rom an Y e ar was d e sign at ed , in

t im e s, b y t h e n am e s of t h e e arli e r

c
C on su ls ; b u t was aft e rwards re k on ed from t h e b u ildin g of t h e C i ty ( ab u rbe on di t a, c
an n b u rbis c on di t ae) , t h e d at e of wh i h was assig n ed b y Varro t o a p e riod orresp on d c c
i n g wit h B C 7 5 3 I n ord er, t h e re fore , t o red u e R om an d at e s t o th ose of t h e C h rist ian
. . . c
e ra, t h e ye ar of t h e c
i ty is t o be s u bt ra te d f rom 7 54 : e g A U C 691 ( t h e y e ar of c . . . . .

c '
c
C i ero s on su lsh ip) orre spo n ds t o B C 6 3 c . . .

B e fore C ae sar s reform of t h e C alen d ar ( B C

’
t h e R om an y e ar on s ist ed of 355 . . c
c J
d ays : Mar h , May , Qu i n t i lis ( u ly ) , an d O t ob e r h avin g e a h 3 1 d ay s, F eb ru ary h av c c
c
in g 28 , an d ea h of t h e re m ai n d e r 29 As t h i s ale n dar y ear w as too sh ort f or t h e . c
solar y e ar,t h e R om an s, in alt e rn at e y ears , at t h e d is re t ion of t h e p on t ifi c és , i n se rt ed c
a m on t h of vary in g len gt h ( m é nsi s i n t erc ald ri s) afte r F e b ru ary 23 , an d om it t e d t h e
re st of F eb ru ary . J
y e ar, b y C aesar s reform ed C ale n d ar, h ad 365 d ay s,
Th e u lian
” ’

d ivided i n t o m on t h s as at p resen t Every f ou rt h y e ar t h e 24 t h of F eb ru ary ( VI Kal

. . .

c c
Mart ) was ou n t ed twi e , givin g 29 d ay s t o t h at m on t h : h en e t h e y e ar was alled
. c c
bissemt i li s c
Th e m on t h Qu i n ti lis re e ived t h e n am e I dli u s ( u ly) , i n h on or of u liu s
. J J
c
C ae sar ; an d S exti lis was alle d A u g u s t u s ( u gu st ) , i n h on or of h is su e ssor Th e A cc .

J c
u li an y ear ( see b e low) re m ain ed u n h an g ed t ill t h e ad op t i on of t h e Greg orian C alen

d ar ( A D . . c
wh i h om it s leap -y ear t h ree t im es i n e very f our h u n d red y e ars .

63 1 . D at es, ac c o rdin g t o t h e R om an C ale n da r , are rec kon e d

as follows :
a. Th e fi rst d ay of t h e m on t h was c all d Kal da
e en e
( C alen ds) .

. K
N O TE — alen dae i s d e rived from alare , o c t c ll — t h Ca , e ale n d s b e in g t h e d ay on
c
whi h t h e p on t iflfs p u b li ly ann ou n ed t h e N ew c c Moon in t h e Com i ti a C ald t a Th is .

t h e y d id , orig in ally , from a t u al ob serv at ion c .

bOn t h e fi f te e n th d ay of Mar h , May, Ju ly, an d O t ob er, b u t t h e thir

. c c
t ee n th of t h e ot h e r m on t h s, were t h e Idfi s I d es , t h e d ay Of F u ll Moon
( ) .

6 O n t h e se ven th d ay of Mar h , May, Ju ly, an d O t ob er, b u t t h e fifl h

. c c
of t h e ot h e r m on t h s, we re t h e N bu ae
( N on es or n in ths) .

From t h e t h re e p oin t s t h u s d e t e rm in e d , t h e d ays of t h e m on t h we re

d .

c c
re ko n e d ba kwards as so m an y d ays b e fore t h e N on e s, t h e I d es, or t h e

C alen ds Th e p oin t of d e p art u re w as, b y R om an u st om , ou n t e d in t h e

. c c
re ck on in g, the se c on d day b e in g thre e d ays b e f ore , e tc . Th is gives t he f ol
lowin g ru le f or d et erm i n in g t h e d at e
'

I f t h e give n d at e b e C ale n ds , ad d tive t o t h e n u m b er of day s in t h e m on t h p re

cedin g , if N on es or I d e s , add on e t o t h at of t h e d ay on wh i h t h e y fall, — an d c
c
from t h e n u m b e r t h us as ert ain e d su b t ra t t h e given d at e Th u s , c .

v rn . Kal F e b . . Jan . 25 .

IV . N On . Mar . 4 .

Iv . Id . S ep t . Sep t . 10 .
430 MI SC ELLA NEOUS [gs 63 2-
636

I n t h e t h ird c e n t u ry B C . . r
t h e as w as g ad u ally e du c ed t o on e -h alf r
of it s orig in al v alu e . In r
t h e sam e c e n t u y silv e r c oin s we e in t ro r
d u c e d, —t h e den ariu s an d t h e ses t e rt iu s . Th e d en ar iu s 10asse s ;
the se st e r t iu s 21
) as se s .

633Th e S est e r t iu s was p rob ab ly in t r odu c e d

. at a t im e wh e n t h e
as h ad bee n so f ar r e du ce d t h at t h e v alu e of t h e n e w c oin asse s
)
w as e qu ivalen t t o t h e or igin al valu e of t h e as . H en c e , t h e S e st e r
t iu s ( u su ally ab re v i at e d to H8 or H S) c am e t o be u se d as t he u n it

of valu e , an d n u m m u s, c oi n , of t e n m e an s sim p ly sest ert iu s . A S t he

re d u c t ion of t he s t an d ard w en t on , t he s e st e rt iu s be c am e e qu i vale nt

t o 4 as s e s Gold was in t rodu c e d lat e r, t h e au reu s be in g e qu al t o

.

1 00 se st e r c e s Th e ap p r oxim at e v alu e of t h e se c oin s i s se en in t h e

.

f ollowin g t able

2 1} asses 1 s es t e rt iu s or n u m m us , valu e n e arly 5 c en t s

10 asse s or 4 s est e rt u 1 d en ari u s 20 ( 10

1000 sest e rt ii 1 s est e rt iu m

N O T E — Th e word sest ert iu s i s

. a sh ort e n ed f orm of sém i s-t ert i u s , t he t h i rd one , a

h alf .Th e abb revi at ion H-

S or H S '
du o et sé mi s , t wo a n d a h al
f .

634 Th e sest ert iu m

.
( p rob ably origin ally t h e gen it i ve p lu r al of S ES
t ert iu s d ep e n d in g on m ille) was a su m of m on ey n ot a c oin ; t h e word ,

i s in fle c t e d r e gu la ly as a n e t e n ou n t h u s t ria sest ert ia

r u r : ,

Wh e n s e t ert iu m i s c om bin e d w i t h a n m e al ad v e rb ce n ten a m ilia

s u r
, ,

h u n d reds o
f t h ou s an ds , i s t o be u n d e rst ood : t h u s dec ié n s s é s t ert i u m

( dec ié ns HS
) dec ien s ce n t en a m ili a sest e rt iu m r
Sest e t iu m in
t h is c om b in at ion m ay also b e in fle c te d : dec ié n s sest e rt ii ,
s é st ert ib , e t c .

I n the st at e m e n t of large su m s s es t e rt iu m is of te n om itt e d as we ll

as cen t ena m i lia : t hu s s exi g ié n s ( R os e . Am . 2) s ign i fi e s, sexagien s

[ cen t en a m i li a sest e t iu m ] r s est e c e s r ( n e arly) .

635 I n t h e
. s t at e m e n t of su m s of m y in R om an n u m erals, a
on e

lin e ab ov e the n um be r in d ic at e s t h ou san d s ; lin e s abov e an d at t h e

s ide s also, h u n dre d-t h ou san d s . Th u s Hs DC
—
= 600 sest e t ii
; Hs r DC

sest ert ii , or 600 sest e t ia ; r Hs

I I
IDC sest e rt ii ,

sest ert ia .

63 6 Th e R om an
. Me asu re s of Le n gt h are t h e f ollowi n g

12 i n h e s c ( u n c iae) 1 R om an F oot ( 1168 : En glis h in h es) c .

1} F e e t l Cu bit ( c u bit u m ) . 2 1} F ee t 1 S t ep (grad us) .

5 Fe et l Pa c e ( p assu s) . 1000 Pa c es ( m i lle p assu u m ) 1 Mile .

 636 6 38] ME AS UR ES OF W EI GH T A N D C A PA C I T Y 43 1

The R om an m ile was e q u al t o 4 850 En gli sh fe e t .

Th e iuge ru m , o r u n it of m e asu re of lan d, w as an are a of 2 40 ( R om an )

fe e t lo n g an d 1 2 0 b ro ad ; a lit t le le ss t h an 3 of an En glish a re c .

63 7 . Th e Me asure s of We igh t are

12 un c ia e ( ou n c es) on e p ou n d ( libra, ab ou t 9
;
avoird u p ois ) .

c
Fra t ion al p a t s r ( we igh t or c o in
) are

qu i n c u nzc .

sem is .

trié n s .
g , 56 3 or bess is .

Tale n t ( lale n tu m ) was a Gre e k we igh t ( raih avrov) 60 librae .

Th e Me asu re s of C ap ac it y are

12 cy athi 1 sextd ri u s ( n e arly a p in t ) .

16 sextarii 1 m od ius ( p e k ) c .

6 sextari i c
1 on gius ( 3 q u art s , li q u id m easu re ) .

8 c on g ii 1 amp hora ( 6 gallon s) .

43 2 GLOSSA R Y 63 9, 64 0

GLOS S AR Y
OF TER MS U S ED I N G R A MMA R , R H ETO R I C , A N D P R O S OD Y
63 9 . Man y of t h ese t e rm s are p ed an t ic n am es g ive n b y early g ram m arian s to form s
of Spee ch b y w rit e rs wh o w e re n ot
u sed n at u rally c c
o n s iou s t h at t h e y w e re u s in
g fig
u res at all — as , in d e ed , t h e y we re n ot Th u s wh e n o n e say s , I t g ave m e n o li t t le
.

p le as ure , he i s u n on sc io u s ly us in g c
li t ot e s ; w h e n h e say s,
“
oh n w e n t u p t h e st ree t , J
J am es d own ,
”
an t i t h es is ; wh e n h e s ay s ,
“ ”
H ig h as t h e sk y , h yp erbole Man y we re .

g i ven un de r a m i st ak en n ot ion of t h e n at u re of t h e u sage re fe rre d t o

, Th u s m éd an d .

t éd 143 a . . N .
) we re su p p osed t o owe t h e i r 11 t o p aragog e , sii m p si it s p to ep en th esi s .

c
S u h a se n t e n e as S e e m y c c o at , h ow well it fi t s ! was su pp ose d to b e an irre gu larity
cc
t o be a ou n t ed f o r b y p rolep sis .

c
Man y of th ese , h owe ver, are on ve n ie n t d es ign at ions for p h en om en a wh i h c ofte n
occ ur ; an d m ost of t h e m h ave an his t ori in t e rest , of on e kin d or an ot h er c .

640 Gram m at i cal Term s

.

c
A n a olu thon : a c ha n ge of c ons t ru cti on in t h e s am e se n t e n c e, le avin g t he
p art b roke n
fi rst or u n fi n is h e d .

A n astrop he : in ve rsion of t he u su al orde r of words .

Ap odosis : t h e c cl
on u sion of a c on dit ion al se n t e n c e
( se e P rotas is ) .

c
A r haism : an . ad op t io n of Old or ob sole t e form s .

A syn d e ton :
’
om issi on of c on u n j cti on s 3 2 3 b) . .

Barbaris m : adop t ion of fore ign o r u n au t h orize d f orm s .

c
B ra hylogy : b re vit y Of e xp re ssion .

C ras is : on t ra t io nc c of t wo vowe ls in t o on e 15 .

Ellip sis : om i ssion of a word or wo rd s n e e ssary t o om p le te t h e se n se c c .

En allage : su b st it u t ion of on e word or form f or an ot h e r .

Ep e n thesis : in se rt io n of a le t te r o r syllab le .

H ellen is m : u se o f Gre e k f orm s or o n st ru t ion s c c .

H e n diadys ( E v 8a} Svoiv) : t h e u se of t wo n ou n s, wit h a on ju n t ion , in ste ad

.
'

c c
of a sin gle m odifi e d n ou n .

H yp allage : i n t e r h an ge c of c on st ru cti on s .

Hyste ron p roteron : a reve rsin g Of t he n at u ral orde r Of i de as .

This t e rm w as ap p lied t o c ase s wh e re t h e n at u ral se q u e n c e o f e v en t s is violat ed in

c
lan gu age b e au se t h e lat e r e ve n t is of m ore im p ort an e t h an t h e e arlier an d so om es c c
fi rs t t o t h e m in d This was su pp o sed t o b e an art i fi i al e m b e lli sh m e n t in Gree k , an d
. c
so w as i m it at e d in Lat in I t i s st ill f ou n d in art les s n arrat ive ; c f
. Bred an d Born in .

a Brier B u sh ( Un le R em us ) c .

M etathesis : t rans p osition word of le t t ers in a .

P aragoge : addit ion of a le tt e r or let t e rs t o t he e n d of a word .

P aren t h esis : in sert ion Of a ph rase i n t e rru p t in g t h e c on st ru ct i on .

434 GLOSSA R Y 64 1 , 642

H yp erbole : e xaggerat ion f or rh e t ori c al e ff e ct .

I ron y : t h e u se of word s wh i h c n at urally c o n ve y a sen se c o n t rary t o wh at i s

m e an t .

Litotes : t h e affi rm in g of a t h in g b y d e n yi n g i t s c t ayon r r 326 . c) .

M etap hor: t he fi gu rat ive u se of word s, in d i c at i g an n Ob e j ct by s om e

re se m b lan c e .

M eton ym y : t he u se o f the n am e of on e t h in g t o i n di ate c som e kin d re d t h in g .

On om atop ceia : a fi tt in g of s ou n d to sen se in t h e u se of w ords .

Oxym oron : t h e u se o f c on t rad i ct ory word s i n t h e sam e p hrase

in san i é n s sapie n tia, f oolish wisdom .

P aron om as ia : t h e u se of word s of like sou n d .

P rosop op ce ia : p e rson ifi at ion c .

S im ile : a fi g urat i ve om p ari son c ( u su ally i n t rod u c ed b y like, or as

) .

c
S yn hysis : t h e i n t e rlo k e d c ord e r 598 h) . .

c
S yn ec do he : t h e u se of t he n am e of a p art f or t h e wh ole , or t he re verse .

642 . Te m sr of P rosody
c
A c atale tic : c om p le t e , as a ve rse or a se ri e s o f fe e t 6 12 . a
) .

c
A n a las is : b re aki n g u p o f rh yt h m by su b s ti t u t i n g diff e re n t m e asu re s .

Ana c ru sis : t he una cc en t e d syllab le or syllab le s p re c e d i n g a ve rse 608 g) .

A n tis trop he : a se rie s of ve rse s c orre sp on din g to on e c

wh i h h as gon e b e fore
cf he )
( . strop .

A rsis : t he una ccp art O f a f oo t

e n t ed

B asis : a c
si n gle f oot p re e d i n g t h e re g ular m ov e m e n t of a ve rse .

C azsu ra : t h e e n d ing of a word wi t h in a m e t ri al f o ot 6 1 1 b) c . .

C at alec t ic : se e C at ale x is .

C atalexis : loss of a fi n al syllab le ( or syllab le s

) m akin g t h e se rie s catal e c tic

( i n c omp le t e , 612 a) . .

C on t ra c t ion : t he u se of o n e lon g syllab le f or t wo sh ort

C orrep tion : sh ort e n i n g of a lon g syllab le , f or m e t ri al re ason s
“

c .

D ice res is : t h e c o in c id c en e of t he en d of a f oot wit h t h e en d of a word

w it h in t h e v e rse 61 1 . c
) .

D ialysis : t he u se O f i an d v as v o we ls s ilu a s ilva, 6 03

( c o n s on an t
) ( f
‘

D ias tole : t h e le n gt h en i n g of a sh ort syllab le by em p h asis 6 12 b) . .

Dim eter: c on sist i n g of t wo like m e asu re s .

D ip ody : con si st i n g of t wo like fe et .

c
D ist i h : a syst e m o r se ri e s o f t wo v e rs e s .

Ecthlip s is : t h e su pp re ssi o n of a fi n al s llab le

y i n -m b e fore a word b e ginn in g
wi t h a v owe l 6 12 .
f) .

Elision : t h e cu t t in g o ff of a fi n al b e fore a f ollowi n g in it ial vowe l 6 12 . e

) .

H ep tam e te r: c on si st in g o f se ve n f e e t .
§ 64 2 ] TER MS OF PR OSOD Y 43 5

H exame ter: c on si st i n g of six m e as ure s .

c
H exap od y : o n sist in g of s ix fe e t .

H iat us : t h e m e e t in g o f t wo v owe ls wit h o u t c on t ra ct i on or e lis ion 6 12 g) . .

c
I t us : t h e m e t ri c al a cc en t 61 1 . a
) .

I rrat ion al: n ot c on fo rm in g s t ri c t ly t o the u n it of t im e 6 09 . e

) .

Logaoed ic : v aryi n g in rh
yt h m , m akin g t h e e fi e c t re se m b le p rose
c
M on om e te r : on sist in g of a sin gle m e as u re .

M ora : t h e u n i t of t i m e , e q u al t o on e sh ort syllab le 608 a) . .

P e n tam e ter : c o n s ist i n

g of fi ve m e asure s .

P e nt ap od y : c on si s t in g of fi ve fe e t .

P en the m im eris : c on sis t i n g o f fi ve half f eet .

P rotrac tion : e x t e n sion o f a syllab le be yon d i t s n orm al le n

gt h ( 608 . c) .

R esolu t ion : t h e u se of t wo s h ort syllab le s fo r on e lon g

S t rop he : a se ri e s of v e rse s m aki n g a re ogn iz e d m e t ri al c c wh ole ( stan za ,
)
c
w h i h m ay b e i n de fi n ite ly re pe at e d .

S yn te resis : i ( vo we l) an d 11 b e om i n g c c o n so n an t s b e fore a vowe l 603 .

c . N .
, f: N .

S yn aloep ha : t h e s am e as e lisi on 612 . e .

S yn ap heia : e lisi on b e t we e n t wo Ve rs e s 612 . e .

S yn cp
o e: lo ss of a sh ort vo we l .

S yn iz esis : t h e ru n n i n
g t oge t h e r of t wo vowe ls wit h ou t f u ll c on t ra c ti o n 603
c .

S ystole : sh ort e n i n g of a syllab le re g u larly lon g .

Tetram e ter : c o n s i st i n g o f f our m e asu re s .

Te trap ody : c on si s t in g of fo u r fe e t .

Tetras tic h : a syst e m of f ou r ve rse s .

Thesis : t h e a e n t e d p art of cc a f oo t
Trim e te r : c o n sist in g of t h re e m e as u re s .

Trip ody : con sist in g o f t h re e f e e t .

Tris tic h : a syste m of t hre e v e rse s .

 I ND EX OF VERBS

R e g u lar ve rb s o f t h e Fi rst , S e on d , an d F ou rt h C on j u gat ion s are give n on ly in c

c
sp e i al as es c C om p ou n ds are u su ally om i t t e d wh en t h e y are on j u g at e d lik e t h e
. c
s i m p le v e rb s Th e fi gu res af t er t h e ve rb s i n d i at e t h e on j u g at ion
. Re fe ren c e s are c c .

t o se t ion sc c
F or lass ifi e d list s of i m p ort an t v e rb s se e § 209 ( F i rst C on j u gat i on ) ,
.

c
§ 2 10 ( S e on d C on j u g at ion ) , § 2 11 ( Th ird C on j u g at ion ) , § 2 12 (F ou rt h C on j u gat ion ) ,
191 ( D ep on e n t s) , 192 ( S e m i-D epon e n t s) .

ab -do, —
3 , d idi , -d it u m , 209 a . . N. ai -fli go, 3 , -xi , -et u m .

ah-eo, se e eo ag— g re d ior, i , g re ssu s [grad ior

- -

c
.

ah -ie ie , 3, -i
e c t u m [i ac io] ag n osc o, 3 , ag n i t u m [n os o
ah— c c c
.

igo, 3 , -egi , -a t n m [ago] ago, 3 , egi , a t n m [F or re gu lar om ps

c c
.
.
,
_

pc
ah -n u o, 3 , -r1u i , se e a -igo f or o t h e rs , s e e 06 go, ir u m
ab -o le o, 2 , -é vi , -it u m
_

.
per
ab-ole sc o, 3 , -evi , [ab oleo . aio, de f e t , 206 a . .

ah-rip io, 3 , -rip ui , -re p t u m rap io] alb e e , 2 , -u i ,

_

c c
.

ab s- on do, 3 , -d i -d idi ) , -d it u m [ on do] alé sco, 3 , -u i , -ali t u m .

ah—
.

si st o, 3 , -st i t i , algeo, 2 , als i ,

ah-s u m , ab e sse , af u i , ( afu t fi ru s) algé sc o, 3 , alsi ,
c
.

ao- e n do, 3 , -c e n di , -c é n su m al-le go, 3 , -egi , -é c t u m

c
.

ac c e rso, se e arc es so al— li io, 3 , -le xi ,

c
.

ao-c idit 207 , 208 ale , 3 , alu i , alt u m ( alit u m )

c
. . .

ao— c ido, 3 , - oi di , [ ado] am b -igo, 3 , [ago]

ao—
. .

c i do, 3 , -oi d i , -c i s u m [c ae d o] . am bio, -i re , -ii -

i vi ) , -i t u m ( am b i b at ) ,
ao-c i o, 4 , re g [c io] 203 d
c c c
. . . .

ac -c i p io, 3 , - ep i , -c e p t u m [ ap io] am ic io, 4 , am ixi -c ui ) , am i t u m

c
. .
_

ao- olo, 3 , -ui , am 6 , 180, 184 ; am ari m , am asse , am as

ao— c ré do, se e redo c s e m , 18 1 a ; am assis , 183 5
c
. . . .

ac - u m bo, 3 , -c u b u i , -i t u m an go, 3 , an xi ,
c c
.
_

ao- u rro , 3 , -c u 1 ri -c u c u rri ) , -c u rsu m an t e- e llo, 3 ,

c
.

ac é sc o, 3 , -a u i , [c o an t e~sto, 1 , -st et i ,
c
a q u i re , 3 , -q u i si vi , -q ui si t u m [qu ae re]
_

an t i-sto, 1 , -st e t i ,
c
.

a u o , 3 , -ui , -u t u m , 17 4 17 6 d . . ap e rio, 4 , ap e rui , ap e rt u m .

ad d o , 3 , -d i di , -d it u m , 209 a N ap i sc or, -i , ap t u s [ad-ipi sc or]

ap —
. . . .

ad-e o, se e eo .
p e llo , 3 ,
- u li
p , u ls u m .

j
ad-h i b eo, 2 , -u i , -it u m h ab fi ] ap -p eto, 3 , -p e t i vi -ii ) , -i t u m
c e ap —
. .

ad -igo, 3 , -egi , -a t n m amo p r im o 3 - re ssi

p - re ssu m
p [p rom o]
c cc c
.
, , ,
ad-i m o, 3 , - mi , -e m p t u m e m o] [ e ee]
_

ar eo, 2 , -u i , - r
e
cc
. .

ad -ip i sc or, -i , -e p t u s . arc e sso ( a e rse ) , 3 , -i vi , arc essi t u m .

ad-n u o, 3 , -n ui , ard ee , 2 , arsi , ( ars fi rus ) .

ad-oleo, 2 , -u i , ard é sc o, 3 , arsi ,

ad -o lé sc o, 3 , -evi , -u 1t u m . are o, 2 ,
ad -s e n t ior, -i ri , -sen su s . 3 , -aru i ,
ad sid eo , 2 , -sedi , -se ss u m [se deo]
‘

arg u o, 3 , -u i , -11 t u m
c
. .

ad— sido, 3 , -se di , ar-rigo, 3 , -ré xi , -re t um [re go

ad-sp e rgo, 3 , -sp e rsi , -sp ers um [sp argo] ar-rip io, 3 , -u i , -re p t um [rap io
c c
.

ad-st o, 1 , -st it i , a s en do, 3 , -d i , -sc é n s u m [s an do]

_

ad -s u m , -esse , -f u i , a— sp e rgo , se e ad-sp e rgo

c
.
‘
ai f ari , afl at u s , 206
- . . a -S p i c io, 3 , -e xi , -ec t u m -sp ic io] .

ai -fe ro, -f e rre , at t u li , allat u m at -t e n do, 3 , -d i , -t u m

c c c
. .

ai -fi c io, 3 , -f e i , -t e t u m [fa io] . at -t in eo, 2 , -t in u i , -t e n t am [t en c e] .

 IN D E X OF VE R BS
c on -t u n d b , 3 , -t u di , -t fi s u m [t un do] d i -rip io, 3 , -rip u i , -rep t u m rap ib]
c
. .

c oq u b , 3 , oxi , c oc t u m d i-ru b , 3 , -ru i , -ru t u m [ru b

c c
. 0

c or-rig b , 3 , -rexi , -ré c t u m [re g b] d isc b [m o] , 3 , d id i i , [S o om po u n ds ]

c
.

c or-rip io, 3 , -rip u i , -t e t u m [rap ib ] d i s- re p o, 1 , -u i or -avi ,

y c
[ru b
E
c o r-ru b , 3 , -u i , d i s- u rro, 3 , -c u rri -c u c u rri -o u t s u m .

c ré b ré sc b , 3 , -c ré b ru i , [in p er d is-i c ib , 3 , d is~i éc i , -iec t u m i ac ib ] .

c ré d b , 3 , -d idi , -d it u m , 209 a N -d b
] d i -p an db , 3 , p n su m ( p e ssu m ) [p an
- a

s
. . . .

c re p b , l , -u i -c re it u m
p i 0]
c c
.

res o, 3 , c ré vi , c ré t u m , 17 6 b 1 d is-s id e o, 2 , -sé di , [se d eb ]

—
. . . .

c rb c ib , 4 , d is s ilib , 4 , -u i ,
[t e
‘

c rfi d é sc b , 3 , -c r11d ui , d is-t e n d b , 3 , -d i , -t u m
c
.

c u b b , 1 , -u i ( u b avi) , -c u b it u m di-sti n gu b , 3 , -s t i nxi , -st i n c t u m

c
. .

1 di , - us u m [i n -c fi d b ] d i—
‘

c fi d b , 3 , -c r sto, 1 ,
c
.

-c u m b b C U B
] ( see ac -c u m b b ; om po u n ds d i t ésc b , 3 ,
wi t h é oh p ro re an d s u b la k c di— vid o, 3 , -vi si , -vi su m .

t he d b [D A ] (g i ve) , d are , d edi , dat um , 17 4,

c u p io, 3 , c u p i vi , c u p i t u m , 17 4 176 e , 202 , 209 a N ( d u im , p e rd ui m ,
c
. . . . .

-c u i sc b 3 se e c on -c u i s o
p , , p . 183 .

-d o D E A
c u rrb , 3 , c u c u rri , c u rs u m [in - c u rrb ] [ ] (p ) , ,
u t 3 -d idi -d it u m
( on ly in
c
.
,

om p , se e ah—
. d b , c ré db , v é n d b ) 209 a N . . .

d é be b , 2 , -ui , -it u m , 15 3 d oc e b , 2 , -u i , d oc t u m
d é—
. . .

c e rp b , 3 , -c e rp si , -c e rp t u m [c arp b ] d ole b , 2 , -u i , -i t f1ru s)

c c
.

d ec e t d e ere , d ec u it , 208 -d olé sc b 3 -d o ln i

[c on
d é—
. .
, , ,

c ip ib , 3 , -c ep i , -c e p t u m [c ap ib ] d om b , 1 , -u i , -it u m
d é— c
. .

c u rrb , 3 , - u rri -c u c u rri) , -ou t s u m -d orm i sc b 3 -d orm i vi

, , , [c on
d é d b , 3 , -d idi , -d it am [do] , 209 a N
s
. . . d fi c b , 3 , d nxi , d u c t u m ( d ire ,
d é fen d b , 3 , -di , -f é n su m , 17 8 b N 1 . . . d fi lc ésc b , 3 ,
d é-fe t i sc or, -i , -f essus d u ré sc b , 3 , d uru i ,
c
.

d é-fi t , d e fe t , 204 0 . .

db 6, 3, [agb] é-b u lh b , 4 , é b u lli1,

c
.

d é ec t at 208 . . e d b ( e at ) , 3 , e d e re ( é sse ) , bdi , é su m , 201 .

d é le b , 2 , -é vi , -et u m . é-d o p u t f ort h ) , 3 , -d idi , -d it u m , 209 a N . . .

d é-lib u b , 3 , -lib n i , -lib 11 t u m oi -f e rb , -fe rre , e xt u li , ela

’

tum
c
. .

d é— li gb , 3 , -lé gi , -léc t u m [le go] e i -fi c ib , 3 , -f e i , -f e c t u m [t ac ib] .

d em b , 3 , d é m p si , d é m p t u m e g eb , 2 , -u i ,
d é—
.

p e llb , 3 ,
- u li - u ls am
p , p . é -ic ib , 3 , -i éc i , -ie c t u m [i ac ib] .

d é-p rim b , 3 , -p re ssi , -p re ss u m [p re m b] . é -lic ib , 3 , -u i , -c it u m .

d ep sb , 3 , -su i , -st u m é-li g b , 3 , -légi , -I éc t u m [legb]

c
. .

é-m ic b , 1 , -m i u i , -m i c at u m .

é-m in eb , 2 , -u i , -m in e b
] .

e m b , 3 , bm i , é m p t u m , 15 11 [ad d ir-im b , .

c o-e m b] .

é n ec b , 1 , -u i -avi ), -n ec t u m -at u m ) [n ec b ]
é-S p ic ib , 3 , -sp e xi , -sp ec t u m . é n s , se e su m .

d é-S pon d e o, 2 , -d i , -sp b n su m [sp on d eb ] eb , i re , ii 203 ( i t u m es t , 203 a ;

d é—
.
‘

st ru b , 3 , -s t r11xi , -st rfi c t u m . iri , i d ; i t ar, im p e rs , 208 d ; ad-eb , ad

. . .

d é-su m , -e sse , -f u i , -f u t 11 rus ) [su m ] e or, in -eb , 203 a ; am b io, 20 3 d ; p rbd

'

. . .

d é-t e n d b , 3 , -d i ] , ~su m . eb , -i re , - ii , -i t u m , 203 S e e vé n e b

. .

d é-t in e b , 3 , -u i , -t e n t u m [t e n e b] . é-ri g b , 3 , -ré xi , -réc t u rn .

d é-ve rt or, -i , e sc it , e sc u n t ( s e e su m ) , 17 0 b N
c
. . .

di c b , 3 , dixi , d i t u m , p 87 , f oo t n ot e 4 . é su rib , 4 , é s u ri t urus , 263 4 . .

d b 2
( i xt i , 181. N.
; di c , . é -v ad o, 3 , -v asi , -v as u m ( é vi st i , 18 1 b . .

di f-t erb , -fe rre , d i st u li , d ilat u m [fe rb ] é-v an é sc b , 3 , é van u i ,

— c
.

diI -fi t eo r, -é ri , [fate or] . é ve n it 207 , 208 . .

di b sc b , 3 , -gn b vi , n osob ] é— vilé sc b , 3 , -v ilu i ,

’

di g b , 3 , -lexi , -léc t 11 m le gb ] .
—
e x c e llb , 3 , -c e llu i , -c e lsu m .

d i-lu b , 3 , -lu i , -111 tu m [lu b] e x-c ib -c ie b ) , 4 ( 2) -i vi -ii) -i t u m ( i tu m )

“

c
. .

d i-m ic b , 1 , -avi , -§ t u m . e x-c i p ib , 3 , - epi , -c e p t u m [c ap ib ] .

H
di-n osob , see di -g n b sc b e x-c lfi d b , 3 , -c lii si , -c lfi s u m e lau d b ]
c c
. .

d ir-ibe o, 2 , -i t u m
[h ab eb ] e x- olb , 3 , -u i , -c u lt u m [ olb
c c
e x—u rro, 3 , - u rri -c u c urri) , -c u rs u m
.

d i r-i m b , 3 , -é m i , -é m p t u m [e m b] .
 INDEX OF VERBS 43 9

ex-e rc e b , 2, -c ui -
,
c it u m [arceo c
i ri o, 1 , -u i , f ric t u m ( frioat u m )
f ri g eb, 2 ,
.

ex-im b , 3 , -é m i , é m p t u m [e m b
-

ex-olé sc b , 3 , -o lé vi , o lé t u m
- . I ri g é sob , 3 , -f rixi , — [p er , re
ex-p e llb , 3 , -p u li , -p u lsu m . f ri gb , 3 , t ri xi , i ri c t u m .

e x-p e rgi sc or, 3 , p e rré c t us

- i ron d eb , 2 ,
c
.

e x-p e ri or, 4 , -pe rt us . f ru or, -i , fru t us .

e x-p leb , 2 , -evi , -e t u m . f u am , -as , e t c ( se e su m ) , 170 b N

. . . .

e x- lic b 1
p , , ( u nf o ld ), -u i -i t u m
, ; (e xp lai n ) ,
i n g ib , 3 , f fi , (
f u g it u ru s)
-11 vi , 471m m f u lc ib , 4 , f 8 1 , t u lt am
'

ex-p lb db , 3 , -si , -su m [p lau do] . f ulg eb , 2 , -si ,

i u lgb , 3 ,
‘

e x-p u n gb , 3 , -p 11 nxi , -p fi n c t u m .

ex 3 , -u i -ii ) , [salib ] . fu lg u rat ( i m p e rs 20 8 a

. . .

e x-s is tb , 3 , -st it i , -st it u m . i un d b [F U D ] , 3 , fu di , ffi su m , 176 b 1 . . .

f u n gor, -1 f 11 n c t us
‘

e x- st in gu b , 3 , -sti n xi , -s ti n c t u m .

e x-s tb , 1, t u rb , 3 ,
e x-t e n d b ,3 , -di , -t u m -
su m ) . f u vim u s , i u visse t (se e su m ) , 17 0 b N . . .

e xu b , 3 , -u i , -1
i tum .

g an n ib , 4 ,
fac es sb , 3 , fac es si vi ( fa es si ) , fac e ssi t u m , c g au d e b , gau d é re , g i vi su s, 192 .

263 2 b - e m i sc b 3 - e m u i
g g
c
. .
.
, , ,

fac ib , 3 , f é c i , fa t u m , 204 ( fac , 18 2 ; f axo, g em b , 3 , ge m u i ,

-i m 183 3
; e b n -fi c ib an d o t h e r om p s c g e rb , 3 , g essi , g e st u m
c
. . .
,

i n -fi c ib , 204 a ; b e n e-fa io e t c , 204 b ; g e s t io 4 -1 vi

, 26
2 a
c c c c
.

c
. .
, , , .

c n -su é- fa io, ale-f a io, ale-fac tb , 266 gig n b [G EN ] , 3 , ge n u i , g en it u m , 1 76

o
. . .

a g li sob , 3 ,
-f actb 1 ( in c mp
o ou n d s ) 266 a g lu b b , 3 ,
c
. .
, ,

tali b , 3 , fe fe lli , f als u m , 17 7 , 17 8 b N 4 . . . . .

grad io r, -i , gre ssu s [ag— gredi or] .

farc ib , 4 , f arsi , fart u m [re-fe rc ib ] .

gran d in at ( im p e rs 208 a . . .

fat eo r, -é ri , fassu s [c b n -fi t eor] .

- ru b 3 s e e c on
g , , m -
g ru b .

fat i sc b , 3 ,
taveb , 2 , f avi , t an t u m . h ab ob , 2 , -u i , -it um [in -hi be b ; d é b eb ;
~f e n d b
, 3 ,
-f e n di
,
-f é n s u m
, s
e e d é fe n db . d ir— ib eb ]
.

t e rib , 4 , h ae re b , 2 , h ae si , h aesu m .

forb , f e rre , t u li , lat u m , 17 6 d N J, 200 . . h ae ré sc b , 3 ,

(
( fe r, 182) ab , au c b n di f e f i n h au rib , 4 , h au si , h au st um
of t e su -f e rb ] . h ave, see avé .

fe rveb , 2 , fe rvi ( fe rb ui) , als o, fe rvb , 3 . b e h ob , 2 ,

f e rvé sc b , 3 , -fe rvi -i e rb ui ) , h e b é sc b , 3 ,
fi db , fi de re , fi s u s, 192 [c b n -fi db ] . h i n n ib , 4 ,
fi g b , 3 , fi xi , fi xu m h i rrib , 4 ,
c
.

fi n db [F IB ] , 3 , fi di , fi ssu m , 17 6 2, h i sc b , 3 , [d e -hi sc b ]
c
. . .

177 . N . . h orreb , 2 , h orru i ,

fi n gb [F I G 3 , f i n xi , fi c t u m , 17 7 b N h orré sc b , 3 , -h orru i,
c c
. . .

fi b , fi e ri , a t u s , 204 ( se e fa io) ( fi t , i m
p e rs , 208 ; c
c b n fi t , d é fi t , i nfi t , e fii e ri , i c b , 3 , i c i , 1c t u m
c
. .

1n t e rfi e ri , i n t e rfi at , s u p e rfi t , 20
flec tb , 3 , fl e xi , fl e xu m
fleb , 2 , -é vi , -et u m , 1 7 6 e ( flé st is, 18 1 a)
c
4 ) . . i g n b sc b , 3 , -n b vi , -n b t u m [n bsc b ]
. il— li c ib , 3 , -le xi , -le c t u m
i l-li db , 3 , -li si , -li su m [laed b ]
. . . .

-fi i b on l in m a i -fi i b i m b u o, 3 , -ui , -u t u m
g , y o p , see g . . .

g
fi b re b , 2 , -u i , i m -m i n eb , 2 , -m in eb .

flb ré sc b , 3 , fi b ru i , i m -p e llb , 3 , -p u li , -p u lsu m p e llb ]

Hu b , 3 , fi fi xi , fi u x um , 261 N . . i m -p e t rb , l , re g -asse re ,
.

fodi b , 3 , i b di , foss um i m -p in gfi . 3 -pé gi , m e t u m [p an gé l

c
.

0 i m -p leb , 2 , -b vi , -é t u m
_

[ ]
fo r f a ri f i m
l s 1 7 9 a 2 6 ( ai -fz
i ri , p ro
c
. . .
, , , ,

f at u s , p rae in t e r-t at u r, e t c , 206 ) . . i m -p li c b , 1 , -avi -u i ) , -at u m ( i t u m ) .

fore , fo re m , e tc , see su m . . i n -c e n db , 3 , -di , -s u m .

f ove b , 2 , fb vi , f b t u m in -c e ssb , 3 , i n oe s si vi ,
A i a-c idb , 3 , -c i di , ( c a s fi ru
.

fran gb [F R G ] , 3 , t ré gi , frac t u m , 176 b l . . s ) [ead b ]

i n -c id b, 3 , -oi d i , -c i s um [c aed b
fp e r-i rin gb ] .
]
in -c i p i b , 3 , -c e pi , -c e p t u m [c a 1b ]
.

i re m b , 3 , i re m u i ,
f
.
_

i ron do, 3 , fré s u m ( fre ss u m ) . i n -c lfi db , 3 , -si , -s u m [c lau db

 44 0 I ND E X OF VERBS

c
ln -c olb , 3 , - olu i , [ olb ] c lice b , 2 , liou i ,
c
.

i n -c re p b , 1, -u i -avi ) , -it u m li e t , -é re , lic u it , -i t ii ru m ) , 207

c c c
.

in -c u rrb , 3 , - u rri -c u c u rri ) , -ou t s u m ( li it am e st , li eu s)

c
. .

-lic ib 3 f or lac ib on l i n
i n -c u t ib , 3 , -c u ssi , -c u ss u m .
, [ , y om p . s e e a]
in d -i g eb , 2 , -u i , [e ob ] . li c ib , é -1ic ib , p e l-lic i b ] .

E
in d-ip i sc or, 3 , lin b [L I , 3 , levi ( li vi) , li t u m
ih —
.

d b , 3 , -d i d i , -d it u m , 209 a N . . lin qu b LI C ] , 3 , -1i qu i , -1iot u m .

i n d u lgeb , 2 , i n d ulsi , i n du lt u m
‘
. liqu e b ,
i n d u b , 3 , -u i , -11 t um . liq u é sc b , 3 , -lic ui ,
in e p t ib , 4 , li q u or, -i ,
i n -fe rb , -f e rre , -t u li , illat u m . li ve b , 2 ,
i h -fi t , s e e f i b loqu or, -i , loc u t us , 261 N
c
. . .

in -gred i or, 3 , -gress u s [g radi or] . lu ob , 2 , 1u xi ,

i n -gru b , 3 , -u i , [g ru b] . lfi c é sc b -1u xi
,
in -hi b e b , 2 , -u i , -i t u m [h ab ob] . lu d b , 3 , 1u si , lu su m .

i n -o lé sc b , 3 , -o lé vi , lu g e b , 2 , lu xi ,
c
in qu am , d e f e t , 206 b . . lu b , 3 , lu i , -111 t u m [d é -lu b ,
'

s olvb ] .

i n -q u i rb , 3 , -q ui si vi , -q ui si t u m u ae rb ]

3
.

i n -s id e b , 2 , -sed i , -s ess u m [se d e b m ade b , 2 , m ad u i ,

in -si d b , 3 , -sedi -se ssu m . m ad é sc b , 3 , m ad u i ,
f
in -s ili b , 3 , -u i , -sult u m ] [salib] m ae re b , 2 ,
in -s ist b , 3 , -s t i t i , m alb , m alle , m alu i , , 199 ( m a volb , m a
i n -S p ic ib , 3 , -S p e xi , -s pe c t u m . v e lim , m av elle m , i d .

in -s t i t u b , 3 , -u i , -11t u m [st at u b] m an d b , 3 , m an di , m a
'

i n su m .

i n -st b , 1 , -st it i , ( st at uru s) . m an e b , 2 , m an si , m an s u m e r-m an e b]

in t e l-le gb , 3 , -lexi , -lé c t u m m an su é sc b , s e e -su é sc b
i n t e r—
.

d b , -d are , -d e di , -d at u m , 209 a N . . . m arc é sc b , 3 , -m arc u i ,

i n t e r-e s t , -e sse , -fu it 2 08 b . . m at u re sc b , 3 , m at u ru i ,
in t e r-fat u r, se e f or m e de or, -é ri ,
c
.

in t e r-fi c ib , 3 , -fé c i , -fe c t u m [f ac ib] . m e m in i , d ef e t , 205 . .

i n t e r-stb , 1 , -st e t i , 209 a N . . . m e re b o r m e reor, m ere re or Jeri , m e ri t us ,

i n -t u e or, Jeri , -t u i t u s [t u e or] . 190 g . .

irasc or, -i , i rat u s . m e rg b , 3 , m e rsi , m orsu m

i r-ru b , 3 , -ru i , [ru b] . m é t i or, -i ri , m é n sus .

m e tb , 3 , m e ssai , -m e ssu m .

i ac e b , 2 , -u i , m e t u b , 3 , -u i , -i1 t u m
c
.

i ac i b , 3 , ié c i , i ac t u m [ah -ic ib , e t c ; d is . m ic b , 1 , m i u i ,
ic ib , po rr-ic ib] .
-m in eb 2 -u i
, , , [é im p rb-m in eb] .

i u b e b , 2 , i u ssi , i u ssum ( i u ssb , 183 .

-m in i soor -i -m e n t as c om
, , [ re
i fi dic b , 1 , re g ( b ss it , 183
. . m in u b , 3 , -u i , -u t u m .

i u n g b , 3 , ifi nxi , i fi n ot u m . m i ror, m i rari , m i rz i tus .

iu ve n é sc b , 3 , m i sc e b , 2 , -c u i , m ixt u m ( m ist u m ) .

i u vb ( ad 1 , ifi vi , ifi t u m m is e re or, -é ri , m ise ri t u s ( m ise rt us ) , 208 .

b N . .

lab asc b , 3 , m ise re t , i m p ers , 20 8 b . . .

li b or, -i , lap su s . m i t é sc b , 3 ,
lac e ssb , 3 , lac essi vi , lac e ssi t u m , 263 b . . m it t b , 3 , m i si , m issam , 17 6 d N 2 . . .

lae d b , 3 , las si , lae su m [i l-li d b] . m b li or, -i ri , -i t us .

lam b b , 3 , m olb , 3 , m olu i , m oli tu m .

lan gu eb , 2 , lan gu i , m on eb , 2 , -u i , -i t u m , 185 .

lan gu é sob , 3 , lan g u i , m ord e b , 2 , m om ordi , m orsu m .

lat e b , 2 , -u i , m orior, -i -i ri ) , m ort u u s ( m orit fi ru s) .

laté sc b , 3 , -lit u i , [d b-lit é sc b

] . m ov e b , 2 , m b vi , m b t u m ( c om m b rat , 181 .
)
a .

lav b , 3 , lavi , lan t u m ( lb t um ) ( als o re g of . m u lc e b , 2 , m u lsi , m u lsu m .

1st m u lgeb , 2 , -si , m ulsu m .

leg b , 3 , lé gi , lé c t u m [for c om p oun d s see m u t t ib , 4 , -i vi ,

211 e , foot n ot e , also
. d é -lig b , di-ligb ,
i n t el-le g b , n e glegb ] . n an c i sc or, -i , n ac t u s ( n an c t u s) .

le vb , 1 , re g -assb , 18 3 n asc or, i,

- i tus
nz .

c (lib it
. .

lib e t ( lu b e t ) , -é re , -u it , 208 . u m e st ; n e ob , 1, -z vi i -
ui ) ,
-i1t u m
, 2 09 , f oot n ot e 2
libé n s) . [é-n ec b
] .
 44 2 I N DE X or VERBS

p CSC C. 3 ! p 0p 6§013 ( SO om ps ) c .
—id b
t e c 3 , reoc i di , ( rec as fi ru s) [c ad b]
, .

poss1d eb , 2 , -se d 1 , -s essu m [sed e b] re -c i d b , 3 , -oi di , -c is u m [c ae d b ]

re— c
. .

p o s s i d b ,
3 ,
-sedi -s es s u m
, . c i p i b , 3 , - ep i , -c e p t u 1n [c ap i b ] ( rec é ps b,

p ossum , po sse , p o t n i , 198 b ( pot is su m , . 183 .

p o t e s um , p ossi e m , p ot e rin t , po t isit , t e-c lud b , 3 , -si , -s u m .

p o test u r, p oss i t u r, i d , foot n ot e ) . . re d-d o, 3 , re ddidi , re ddit u m 209 a N . . .

p o t ior ,
-i ri
, p o t i t us . re d-igb , 3 , -e gi , -ac t u m [ag b

p b tb , 1 ,
J i v i , i t u m ( pb t u m )
-t . red -i m b , 3 , -é m i , -é m p t u m .

p ra e b e b ,
2 ,
-ui
,
-i t u m
[h ab ob] . re -f e llb , 3 , -f e 11i , [fallb ] .

p rae -oe llb , 3 , -c e llb

] re -f e rc ib , 4 , -f e rsi , -f e rt u m [f arc ib ]
c
. .

p rae c in b , 3 , c in u i ,
- -
[ amb ] re -f e rb , -f erre , re t tu li , re lat u m [fe rb ]
c — c
.

p r a e -c u rrb 3 - u rri c u c u rr i), -c u rsu m ré -f e rt , -f e rre , -t u lit 2 08

c
. . .
, ,

p ra e -t a t u r, 206 re -fi c ib , 3 , -fé c i , -f e c t u m
c
. . .

p rae le g b , 3 , -legi , -léc t u m [le gb] . re g b , 3 , rexi , re t u m [ar-rigb e t c ; p e rgb , .

p raef sagib , 4 , -i vi , s u rgo ] .

p rae-sen s, 17 0 b ( see s u m ) . . re -lin q u b , 3 , -li qu i , -lic t u m [li n qu b ] .

p ra e -s id e b
,
2 ,
-sé di
, [se d e b] . re -m i n i soo r, -i ,

p ra e -stb 1 -s t i t i -s t it u m
( st at u m ) (p rae re n i d eb , 2 ,
c
, , ,

st at , i m p e rs , 208 .
) . . roor, reri , rat u s .

p rae-su m ,
-e ss e fu i , ,
- re— p ellb , 3 , rep p u li ( re p u li ) , re p u lsam .

p ran de b , 2 , p ran di , p ran su m . rep e rib , 4 , re pp e ri , re p e rt u m .

p r e h e n d b (p ré n d b ), 3 ,
-d i
, p re h é n su m ré p b , 3 , rep si ,

(p ré n su m ) . re-p rim b , 3 , -p re ssi , -p re ssu m [p re m b ]

p re m b ,
3 , p r es s i , p r e ssu m [ p
r e - rim b
] . re -q u i rb , 3 , -si vi , -si t u m [q u ae rb]

p ré n d b , se e p re h e n db re -s id e b , 2 , -sedi ,
'

c
.

p rb —o u rr b , 3 ,
- u rri -c u c u rri
) , -c u rsum . re -s ili b , 4 , -u i -ii ) ,

p rb d -e b 4 -ii -it u m
, , , , 20 3 e . . re — sip i sc b , 3 , -si p i vi , [sap ib] .

p rb d -i b
g , 3 ,
-e i
g ,
-ac t u m
[agb] re-s istb , 3 , -s t it i ,

p rb -d b 3 -d idi -d it u m 20 9 a N re -sp e rgb , 3 , -si , -s u m [sp argb ]

c
. .
, , , , . .

p rb fé t u s, 206
- re-sp o n d e b , 2 , -d i , -s p b n su m [sp o n d eb ]
c
. . .

rb -fi c i b 3 -f é c i -f ec t u m re-s t at 208
p , , , . . .

p ro -fi c is c o r -i
, , p rof ec t us . re— st b , 1 , -s t it i , 209 a N . . .

-fi t e or - i -f e ssu s t e-t e n db , 3 , -di , -t u m

p rb , e r , .
-su m
) .

p rb-m i n e b , é re , u i ,
- - re -t in eb , 2 , -t in u i , -t e n t u m [t en e b ] .

p rb m b 3 -m s
p , i -m
p t u m 15 3 re -t un ab , 3 , re t t u di , re t fi n s u m -t fi su m )

[
. . .
, ,

b -sili b 3 -u i -i
vi) , sali b ] re -v e rt o r, -i , re ve rsu s , 191 ( re ve rt i , -e ram ,
p r , , .

p rb s u m , p rbd esse , p rb f u i 198 . id .

a ri d e b , 2 , ri si , -ri su m

p rb—
. .

t e n db , 3 , -di , -t e n t u s -sus) . rig e b , 2 , rig u i ,

p sa ll b 3 -i
rigé sob , 3 , rig u i ,
c
, , ,

p fi b é sob , 3 , p fi b u i , ri n gor, 3 , ri t u s .

p u de t p u dé re , p u d u i t or p u di rb d b , 3 , rb si , rb s u m .

t u m e st 208 b ( p u d e n d u s , i d
, . . ru b e b , 2 ,

p u e rasc b , 3 , ru b é sc b , 3 , ru b u i ,

p u n gb [P U G] , 3 , p u p u gi , p un t u m [c o m c ru d b , 3 , ru di vi ,

p fi té sc b , 3 , p fi t u i , ru m pb [R U P ] , 3 , rfi p i , ru p t u m
'

ru b , 3 ru i , ru t u m ( ru it uru s) , 17 6 e [di .

qu ae rb , 3 , qu aesi vi , qu aesi t um [ re-q u i rb ] c or j

(c f q u aesb )
c
. .

q u ae sb , 3 , d e fe t , 206 e ( of qu ae rb) . . . . sae p ib , 4 , sae p si , s ae p t um .

q u assb , 1 , m g , 263 2 s ag ib , 4 , see p rae-sag ib

c
. . .

q u a t i b , 3 ,
- u s si
, q u assu m [c on -c u t ib
] . sali b , 4 , s alu i ( salii ) , [s alt u m ] [d b-s ilib] .

q u eb , q u i re , q u i vi , q u i t u s, 206 d ( qu i t u r, salve, s alvero, 20 6 9

c
. . .

e tc , i d N )
. . c f n eq u eb
. . . san c ib [S A C ] , 4 , san xi , s an t u m , 17 7 b N . . .

q u e r o r ,
-i
, q
u e st as . san é sc b , 3 , -s an u i , [c on
q u iesc b , 3 , q u i é vi , q u i é t u m . sap ib , 3 , s ap ii ,
s arc i b , 4 , s arsi , s art u m .

rab b ( rah ib) 3, , s at is-d b , -d are , -d ed i , -d ii t u m , 209 a N . . .

radb , 3 , ni si , rasu m . soab b , 3 , sob b i ,

rap ib , 3 , t ap u i , rap t u m ( é ré psé m u s, 1 81 b sc alp b , 3 , sc alp si , sc alp t u m
c
. . .

N 2 [ab -ri p ib
. s c an d b , 3 , -s e n di , -sc é n su m [a
 IN D E X OF VER B S 443

sc at eb ( sc atb ) ,
-é re or -é re
, su f -forb , su ff e t t o, sns t uli su b lat u m
‘

[
.

sc atu rib , 4, s u f -fi c i b ,3 , -fé c i , -fec t u s fac ib]

sci n
’
13 N ( see sc ib ) su f-fodi b , 3 , -i b di , -f ossu m
.

ci c
. . .
.

s n d o [s c m ] , 3 , se idi , sc iss u m , 177 N s u g-g e rb , 3 , -g essi , -g e st u m

c
. . .
.

i
sc b , 4 ,
-i vi , sc i t u m ( s i n , 13
’
. sug b , 3 , s fi xi , sfi c t u m .

sc i sc b , 3 , sc i vi , sc i t u m s ii lt is si v u lt is) , 1 3 N
c
.
. .

se t i b o, 3 , sc ri p si , s ri p t u m , 1 78 b N 1 su m , e sse , f u i , ( fu t uru s , 1 70 fu i forem

. . . .
) ; ( ,
sc u lpb , 3 , sc u lp si , sc u lp t u m . fore , 1 70 a ; t sb n s, -sen s, é n s , id b ;
.
.

sé -c e rn b , 3 , -c ré v i , -e rb t u m f uv im u s , f uv isse t , sie m , f u am , fu as ,
c
.

s ob , 1 , -u i , s e c t u m ( also sec aturu s) . e sc i t , esc u n t , id b N ; h om b st , e tc ,. . . .

se d eb , 2 , s ed i , se ss u m [ad p os-s id eb , 13 .

e tc ; s u p e r-se d eb ]
. .
s fi m b , 3 , s fi m p si , sfi m p t u m , 15 11 . .

s é-ligb , 3 , -legi , -léc t u m [le g b] . su b , 3 , s u i , s fi t u m .

se n é sc b , 3 , -s e n n i , s u p e r-d b , -d are , -d ed i , d at u m , 20 9 a N
c c
. . .

se n t ib , 4 , sen si , s en s u m . su pe r-fi t , d e f e t , 20 4 . . .

sep e li b , 4 , se p e li vi , se p u lt u m su p e r-fl u b , 3 ,
.
[fl u b] .

se q u or, -i , se c fi t u s, 190 .
s u p e r-s tb , 1 , -s t e t i ,
se rb ( en twi ne ) , 3 , se ru i , se rt u m su p e r-su m , s e e s u m ( s u p e rest , im pe rs ,
c
. .

se rb ( sow) , 3 , sé vi , sat u m . 208 ) . .

se rp b , 3 , se rp si , s u rd é sc b , 3 , su rd u i ,
si d o, 3 , si d i -se ss u m . s u rg b ( s u r— rig b ) , 3 , s u rré xi , su rré c t u m
s u r—
.

s ile b , 2 , -u i , rip ib , 3 , -u i ( su rp u i ) , -re p t u m

[rap ib] .

si n g ult ib , 4 , -i vi ,
si n b , 3 , si vi , s it u m ( si ri s , e t c , 18 1 b N . . . . tzi b eb , 2 , -u i ,
s isto [S TA ] , 3 , e t it i , s t at u m . t ab é sc b , 3 , t ah u i ,
si t ib , 4 , -i v i , t ae d e t -é re t aed u it
, , pe rt ae s u m

sb d é s ( = si au d é s) , 13 N e st , 20 8 b
c
. . . .

sole b , solé re , soli t u s , 192 . t an g b [TA G] , 3 , t e t igi , tac t u m , 176 2 . .

solvb , 3 , solvi , solfi t u m , 177 e , 26 1 N [c on -t in gb ]

c
. . . .

sou b , 1 , -u i , -i t u m ( b t fi ru s) . t e gb , 3 , té xi , t e t u m , 186 .

sorbeb , 2 , so rb u i ( rare ly sorp si) , te m n b , 3 , -t e m p si , -t e m p t u m , 176 b 1 . . .

S p arg b , 3 , sp arsi , spars am [ad -sp e rgb ] . t c n db [TEN ] , 3 , t e t e n d i , t e n tu m .

s p e rmb , 3 , sp rb v i , sp ré t u m , 1 7 7 a N . . . t e n e b , 2 , t e n u i , -t e n t am [c on -t in eb ,
-S ic ib 3 -s e xi -s e c t u m t e p é sc b , 3 , t e p u i ,
p , , p , p .

Sp le n d eb , 2 , -u i , t e rg e b , 2 , t e rsi , t e rs u m .

sp o n d e b , 2 , s po p o n d i , spb n su m [re t e rgb , 3 , t e rsi , te rs u m .

s p u b , 3 , -sp u i , t e rb , 3 , t ri vi , t ri t u m .

sq u ale b , 2 , t e xb , 3 , t e xu i , te xt u m .

s t at u b , 3 , -u i , -11 t u m , 176 d [c o n -s t it u b ]
‘

. . t im eb , 2 , -u i ,
-t im u i
s te rn b , 3 , s t ravi , st rat u m , 1 7 7 a N . . .
-t i m é s c b
,
3 , ,

s t e rn u b , 3 , s t e rn u i , t i n gb ( t i n g u b ) 3 , t i n xi , t i n c t u m , 17 8 b N 3 . .

s t e rtb , 3 , -st e rt u i , t ollb , 3 , s us t u li , su b lat u m , 2 1 1 f N

c
. . .

-s t in u b 3 -st i n xi -s t in c t u m
g , , ( in om p , [at tollo]
c
. .
,

as e x t on d eb , 2 , -t o t on d i -t on di) t b n su m , 177 . .

stb , s t are , s t e t i , -s t at u m -s t i t 209 . a, t on b , 1 , -u i , -t on i t u m -t onat u m ) .

an d N . t o rpe b , 2 ,
st re 3 , st re p u i , to rqu e b , 2 , to rsi , to rt u m .

st ri e b , 2 , st ri di , t orre b , 2 , to rru i , t os t um .

, 20 9 a N
st ri do, 3 , st ri di , t rim -d b 3 -d idi -d i t u m .

c
. .
,

t
,

st ri n g b , 3 , s t ri n xi , st ri t u m t rah b , 3 , t raxi , rac t u m ( t raxe , 18 1 b

c c
. .
.

s t ru b , 3 , strfi xi , s t rfi c t u m . t ran s- u rro, 3 , - u rri -c u c u rri ) , -c u rs u m .

st u d eb , 2 , -u i , t re m o, 3 , t re m u i ,
st u p e b , 2 , s t u p n i , t rib u b , 3 , t ri b u i , t rib fi t um .

st u p é sob , 3 , -s t u p n i , t rfi db , 3 , t rb si , t rfi su m .

s u ad e b , 2 , su asi , su b su m . t u e or, -é ri , t u it u s ( t ut u s ,
s u b-d o, 3 , -d i di , -d it u m , 209 a N t n m eb , 2,
c
. . .

su b -i g b , 3 , -egi , -a t n m [agb ] t u m é sc b , 3 , -t u m u i , [in

su c — t u n d o [r u n , 3 , t ut u d i , t fi n su m -t fi sum )
[e ad b ]
]
o id o, 3 , - o i di , .

c i s u m [c aed b ]
s u c -c i d b , 3 , -oi d i , - [ o h -t u n d b

c
su c -c u rrb , 3 , - u rri , -o u t su m . t u rg e b , 2 , t u rsi ,
s u é sc b 3 , s u evi , s u é t u m
, . t u ss ib , 4 .
444 I ND E X OF VERBS

u lc is c or, J, u lt u s. vertb ( vortb ) , 3 , verti . ve rsu m , 178 b . . N .

‘
u n gé 3 , fi n xi , fi n c t u m .
( ve rt or, m i d , 156 a
. . .

u rge b , 2 , u rsi , v e scor, -i ,

am , 3 , u ssi , u st u m ( so om ps c .
, cf . also v e sp erfi sc it 2 08 a, 263 1 . .

c om b fi ro) . 3, v e t erfi vi ,
fi t Ol , i , 11 8 118
’
”
. v e to , 1 , -u i , it u m o
.

vi d e é , 2 , vi di , vi su m .

vac at 208 c
. . vid eor ( seem ) , Jeri , vi sus ( vidé t u r, im
d i}, 3 , w i sh p ers , 208 g
}
vi o
vfi s u m . . . .

Vi gi o, 4 , ii , - “
0 vi ed , 2 , [vié w -é tu m .

valet) , 2, - u i , -it um s ) . vi geé , 2 , 4 11,

v alé sc o, 3 , -u i , vi sn e , s e e v olé )
’
vi n .

vfi n é sob , 3 , [é ] 4 , vi n xi , vi n ct u m
c
, .

3 , v é xi , vec t u m . vi n c b [VI C ] , 3 , vi i , vi c t u m .
‘

v e lk) ( vollb 3 , ve lli -valsi) , vulsu m . vireb 2 , -u i ,

v é n dé , 3 , idi , -d it u m , 428 i v
. . vi sa vm ] , 3 , vi si , 263 4 N . . .

vé n eb ( be sold) , 4 , -ii , i t u m , 428 i vi vi sc é , 3 , -vixi , [re

'

c
. .

ve n ib ( om e ) , 4 , vé n i , ve n t u m , 19 , 17 4 . vi vb , 3 , vi xi , vi c t u m ( vi xe t , 181 b N . . .

vé n u m -d é , d are , -d e d i , d at u m , 209 a N «
. . . ve lle , volu i , 199 ( sfi lt is , 1 3 .

428 i ’
. 199 N ; vi n , 13
. . .

v ereor, é ri , -it as , 190

o
. volvb , 3 , volvi , volfi t u m .

ve rgo, 3 , vom b , 3 , vo m n i ,
ve rrc) ( vorrb ) , 3 , -verri , ve rsu m
‘

. vovefi , 2 , vb vi , vé t u m .
446 IND EX os WORDS A ND S UBJEC TS

aoc é d i t n t 569 2 c
i n om p s , w d at , 37 0, 38 1 ; in om p s , c
Acc c
. . . .
,

e n t , rules of , 12 ; e ff e t in m od ify in g W ac c , 3 70 b ; w ac c w i t h ad j s , 385

c
. . . . . . .

v owe ls , p 27 i t u 1 ; i n d e l I I , 49 b ; a ; e n d o f m o t ion , 426 2 , c f 363 ; w

c c c
. . . . . . .

i n om p s of ( a id, 204 b ; m u si al, 6 1 1 n am es of t own s , 4 28 a ; w n am e s o f

c
. . . . .

acc ep t um , 496 N 4 ou n t rie s , 428 0 ; m e an i n g n e ar, 4 28 d

;
c
. . . . .

acc i d i t , sy n op s is , 207 on st r , 569 2 i n e xp res sion s of t i m e , 424 e followin g

c
. . . .

acc i n gb, o n s t r , 364 i ts n ou n , 435 ; w g e ru n d , 506

c
. . . .

ac c omm odi t u s, w d at of ge ru n d e t c ,
’

ad d i t u r, on s t r , 568
c
. . . . .

ad e b ( ve rb ) , on st r , 3 7 0 b
cc
. . .

A om p an im en t abl of , 4 13 ad e b n t , 5 37 2 N 2
Acc c
. . . . .
, .

of , w -ad es
o m p lish m e n t , v h s 568 . . su i .
,
. r nym i
, p at o e n d in g , 244 .

A c c u san vs , d e fi n ed , 35 d ; i n -m an d ad i u v b , w ac c , 36 7 a
c c A c
. . . . .

-s 38
; i n -i m
, d e l I I I , 75 a, b ; i n . . d j e t ive p ro n ou n s , se e Pron ou n s
A
.
, .

is
.
7 7 ; in -a , 8 1 2 ; ac e of D J EC TI VES D e fi n it ion , 20 b ; fo rm ed
c
. . . .

d e l I V, u se d as su p in e , 94 b ; n e u t lik e n ou n s , 109 ; a an d o-st e m s , 1 10

c
. .

ac c u sed as ad v , 2 14 d , c f 2 15 1 ; f e m 112 D e le n si on , 1 10— 122 ; d ec l I an d

c
. .

c
. . . .

I I , 110—1 13 ; d e l I I I , 114—
.

u se d as ad v , id 2 12 1 ; d e l
A A
. . . . .

C C U S TI VE , S y n t ax, 386-397 ( s ee I I I , t h re e t e rm in at ion s , 1 15 ; on e t e rm i

W vh s of re m e m b e rin g , 350 an d a, , c n at ion , 1 17 , 1 18 ; variab le , i n d e lin ab le , c
c
. .

d ; an d g e n W vh s o f rem in d in g , 35 1 ; d e fe t ive , 122 C om p arison , 123—13 1 ;

c c c
. . . .

W im pe rson als , 35 4 b, 388 , 455 2 ; W d e l of o m p arat i ve , 1 20 N u m e ral

ad j s , 13 2—
. . . . . .

ad wi t h i n t ere st an d ré f e rt , 355 b ; W 137 ; d e ri vat i ve adj s , 24 2- 2 5 5

c
. . . . .

dat , 362 ; w
. om p ou n d s of ad , an t e , . AD JEC TI VES , S y n t ax Masc adj s , 122 . . . .

oh , 3 7 0 b ; vh s vary in g b e t w ee n ac e
. . . d ; ad js of c om g e n d , id ; as ad vs ,
. . . . .

of e n d of m ot i on an d d at , 363 ; W ad . . 2 14 d , e ( c f
. 290; ad j as ap p , . . .

for d at , 385 a ; aft er p rOp i ore tc , 432 a ; 2 82 b ; as n oun s , 288 , 2 8 9 ; n ou n s u s e d

c c
. . . . .

d irec t ob j e t , 27 4 , 38 7 ; W i u vo e tc , as adj s , 3 2 1 ; ad vs u s e d as ad js ,
c c
. . . . . .

367 a ; ac c o r d at w vb s , 367 b ,
. .
; . . . . 32 1 d ; p art i ip le s u sed as adjs , 4 94
. . .

ac c w vh s o f f ee li n g an d t ast e , 388 a ,
'

A g re e m e n t of adjs , 286 , 2 8 7 ; at t n b u t e
c c c
. . . . .

390 a ; W om p s o f i rc u m an d t ran s , an d p re d i at e , 2 87 u se o f n e u t ad js ,
c c
. . . . .

388 b ; og n at e ac c , 390; ad ve rb ial u se 2 89 A d j s w ad v e rb i alf or e , 290 Two

c cc c
. . . . . .

o f , 3 90 ; t wo a u A dj p ro
d a n d N 2 3 97 a om p arat ive s W q u am , 292
c c
. . . . . .
, ,

sat i ves , 391 ; p re d ac c , 3 92— 3 ; se on d n ou n s , 296- 298 Gen of ad j s o f d e l

c c
. . . . . .

ary ob e t , 394- 5 ; ac c W p ass of v h s I I I in st e ad of n om , 343 N 1 A d js

j
of as kzn g e t c , 3 96 b N ; sy n e d o h i al
. .

c c c
. .

W p art g e n , 346 2 ; w d at , 383 ; W

. . . . . .

c c
. . . . . . . . . . .

ac e ( of sp e i fi at ion ) , 3 97 b ; i n e xc lap
. . ac c , 388 d N 2 ; w in f , 46 1 ; w s u p in e
. . . . . . .

m at ion s , id d ; d u rat ion an d e xt e n t , i n 4 3 , 5 10 Pos it i on o f adj s , 598 a, b

A c
. . . . .

423 , 4 25 ; e n d of m ot ion , 426 2 ; n am e s d j e t ive p h rase , 27 7

c
. .

of t ow n s , d om u s, rfi s , 4 27 2 ; Rbm am ad m od u m , u s e , 29 1 N 1
c
. . . . .

ad arhe m , 428 b ; ac c w an t e d i e m , 424 ad m on e a, on st r , 35 1

A c
. . . . . .

y ; w p re p s , 220 a, c ; w ad or i n t o d m on ish in g , v b s of , on st r , 563

A c
. . . . . .

d en ot e p e nalt y , 35 3 2 N ; w p ri d i é , d on i v e rs e , 625 3
c
. . . . . .

p rOp i u s , e tc , 342 a ; ac e of g e ru n d , ad sp e rg b, on st r , 364

c c
. . . . .

506 ; of an t i ip at ion , 5 7 6 ; s u b j of i n f , ad d lor, on st r , 367 b

A c
. . . . .

397 455 2 , 459 ; as p red af t e r i n f , d ve rb ial acc , 390 b , , d , an d N 2 , 3 97 a

c c c
. . . . . . . . .

455 a ; su b j i n i n d d is , 57 9, 5 8 1 A d ve rb i al on j u n t io n s , 20 g N
Acc c c A
. . . . . . . .

u si n g an d a qu it t in g , vb s o f , on st r , d v e rb i al p h ras es , 2 16 , 2 77
A
. .

35 2 D V ER B S , d e fi n e d , 20 e ; form e d from
c c c c c
. .

a e r, d e l , 1 15 ; om p ar , 125 ad js , 214 an d , d , e , 218 ; as e -form s or

c
. . . .

-i ce u s , ad j e n d in g , 247 p h rases , 2 15 ; om p aris on o f ad v s , 2 18 ;

c c
. . .

aoié s , d e l , 98 a n u m e ral ad vs , 138 C lassifi at ion of

c
. . . . .

acq u ié sc d , W ab l , 4 3 1 ad vs , 2 17 ; orre lat ive f orm s of ad vs .

Ac c c
. . . .

t ion s , n am e s of , 2 37 ; n oun s of a t ion o f p la e , 2 17 N . .

W g e n , 348 AD VER B S , S y n t ax, 3 21 Ad vs u se d as

Ac c c c
. . . . .

t iv e v oi e , 154 a , 156 ; h an g e t o p as s , . . ad js , 3 2 1 d ; ad js W ad v e rb ial for e ,

. . . .

27 5 290; ad ve rb i al ab l ab s , 419 0 S p ec i al
Ac A c
. . . . .

t s , n ou n s d e n ot in g , 239 u s es , 322 , 3 26 d vs w n ou n s , 3 21
c c
. . . . . .

-a u s -i c u s) , ad orre lat i v e ad v s u se d as c on js , 323

j e n d in g , 249 . . N . . . .

ac u s , g e n d , 90 Exc f , g ; p art g e n W ad vs , 346 a 4 ; d at

c
. . . . . . .
. . .
‘

ad , u se , 220 a, i n c om p , 16 , 267 a ;
. . . w ad vs , 384 ; om p ar of ad v f ollow ed
. . . .

W ac c t o d e n ote p e n alt y , 35 3 2 N ;
. . . . . b y q u am , 406 ; ad v as p rot as is , 52 1 a . . .
 I ND E X OF W OR D S AN D SUBJEC TS 44 7

Ad ve rs at i ve c on u n j ct i on s , 223 a 2 , 224 . . . ali u s , c

d e l , 113 ; ge n , id , c f 343 ; c om
. . . c .

I b. .
p oun d s , 1 13 e ; ali u s w abl , ac , ni si , . . .

ad v e rsn s , 2 19 ; w . ac c .
, 22 0 a ; as ad v . .
, q u am 407 d . .

ali u s ali u s , 3 15 a
A
. .

ae , d ip h t h on g , 2 ; soun d o f , 6 N 3 , 8 lp h ab e t , 1 ; vo we ls an d d ip h t h on gs , 1 , 2
;
. . .

aed é s , sin g an d p lu r , 10 7 a c
on s on an t s , 3 , 4 ; e arl f orm s of le t t e rs
y
c
. . . .

,
ae ger, d e l , 112 a 1 a an d N , 6 a, b
c
.

c
. . . . . .

aem u lor, on st r , 367 b alt er, d ec l , 1 13 b ; g e n an d om p s , id

c
. .

c c c
. . . .
.

Aen ead é s , d e l , 44 0, 6 ; u se , 3 15 ; re ip ro al u se , 145

A c
. .
.

e n eas , d e l , 44 3 15 a
c c
. . .

ae q uali s , d e l , 76 a 2 ; ons t r w g en , alt er alt e r, 3 15 a

c
. . . . . . . .

385 an d 1 alt era e st res n t , 568 i t u 2

c
. . . . .

ac q u e ac , 384 N 2 alt eru t er, d e l , 1 13 6 ; u se 3 15

c
. .

A
. . .
,
aeu w om p ar , 406 a lt h ou g h , h ow e xp re ssed , 527 , 535 e
c
. . . .
. .

ae q u or, d e l , 64 . . alv os ( alvu s ) ,

g e n d , 48 Exe . . .

i é r, u s e of p lu r , 100 b
ae s , u s e o f p lu r , 10
c
. . . am se e am b
0 b -am ad v e n d in , 2 15 2
g
. . . .
, . .

ae ti s , d e l , 7 2 am b (am an i n se p arable p re fi x, 267 b

c c
. .
. .

aet h é r, d e l , 81 am bag é s , d e l , 78 1
A c c
. . . . .

ff e t in g , ac e o f , am b b , d e l ,
p 5 9 f t n ; 6 in , p 427 f t n 1
c c c
. . . . . . . . .
‘

affi n i s , d e l , 7 6 b 2 ;
on st r w g en , 385 am a t n s , d e l , 121 a 3
c c
. . . . . . . . . . .

an d 1 am pli as , w it h ou t q u am , 407
A
. . .

ffi rm at ive , e xp re ssed b y t wo n e g at iv es , am u ssim , ac c , 7 5 a 3 , 103 b 4

c
. . . . . .

3 26 ; n on n e e xp e t i n g afii rm an swe r, . an s e e am b
33 2 b ; w ay s of say in g y es , 3 36 an d a an , an n e , ann bn , i n d ou b le
q u e st ions , 335
c c
. .
.

Ag e n y , n oun s of , 236 ; re l lau s e eq ui v A n acrfi si s , 608 g

A
. . .

ale n t t o , 308 0 n ap a est , 60 9 b 2 ; an ap aast ic ve rse , 613 ,

A
. . . .

g e n t , d at of , w g e ru n d i ve s , 3 7 4 ; W
. . . 628 a . .

p e rf p art s , 3 75 ; ab l o f , 405 ; ag e n t A n ap h ora, 598 f

c c
. . . . .

re g ard ed as m e an s , id b ; an im al as an ep s , d e l , 12 1 a 3
A c
. . . . .

ag e n t , i d N 2 n c hi ses , d e l , 44
c A c c
. . . . .

ag er, d e l , 47 n d rom a h e, d e l , 44
c
. . . .

ag gre d ior, on st r , 3 7 0 b ~i n c u s ad
j e n di n g , 24 7
c
. . . . .
,

A g n om e n , 108 a N an i m al, d e l , 69
A
. . . . .

ago, form s of , o m it t ed , 3 19 a n im als , g e n d of n am es of , 32 , 34 an d

A
. . .

g ree in g , v e rb s o f , W g e run d i v e , 500 4 N 2 re g ard e d as m e an s or age n t , 40 5 b

A
. . . . . .

2
g re e m e n t , 280; of n ou n s , 28 1 ; i n ap p , N
c
. .

28 2 ; in p re d i at e , 2 83 ; o f ad js , 286 ; an i mi w ad s j 358 ; W vh s id
c
. . . . . .
, ,

of d e m on s t rat iv e p ron o u n s , 296 ; o f p o s an n ali e , de l , 76 a 2

A c
. . . .

se ssi ve p ron ou ns , 302 ; of re lat i v e s , n n alist i p res e n t , 469 a

A
. .

305 , 30 6 ; o f v e rb s , 3 16 , 3 17 n swe rs , f orm s of , 336 , 33 7

c
. .

4 1 f o r -ae , d e l I , 4 3 a ; 603 a 2 N an t en t s t e m -e n d in gs , 83 e
c
. . . . . . . .
‘
-a1ia , n oun s i n , d e l , 43 e N 2 an t e , 2 20 a ; us es , 22 1 3 ; c o m u n de d w
c c
. . . . . . . .

ai t) , p ron oun e d ai 6 v b s , 267 a i n c o m p o un s , W d at , °

c
. . . . . .

.ii i u s , n am es i n , d e l , 49 f ; -£ i u s in Pros . . 3 7 0, w ac e i d 5 ; ad ve rb i al us e of,

. .

e d y , 60 3 f N 2 . . . . 433 1 ; f ollow e d b y q uam , 434

. .

-a1, e n di n g , 254 7 ; n oun s in , 68 ft u 1 an t e d i e m , 4 24 g

— c A c 5—
. . . . . .

al an d -ar, n e u t e rs in ( d e l I I I ) , 65 b , n t e e d e n t , i t s us e w relati ve , 3 0 307

c
. . .

76 a 3 un d e fi n e d , on st r , 5 35 S e e I n d e fi n it e
c
.

c c
. . . .

alac e r, d e l , 115 a ; om p ar , 131 b an t e ed e n t

c c
. . . . . .

alb u s , n ot o m p are d , 1 3 1 d an t e c éd b, o n st r 37 0 b
c
.

Ac c
. . .

l ai v e rse , 625 9, 10 an t eeb, on st r , 3 7 0 b

c
. . . .

Alc m an ian st rop h e , 6 17 a an t e gredi or, on st r 3 7 0 b

A
. . . .

-ale n ou n e n di n g , 254 n t e p e n u lt , d e fi n ed , 12 t t u
7 ; list o f n o u n s
c
. .
. ,
,

i n , 68 ft u 2 an t eq uam , 550, 55 1 ; i n i n d dis , 585 b N .

cc
. . . . .
. .

ali é n n s , f or p os ses sive g e n of ali u s , 113 d , A n t i ba h i us , 609 d N

A c
. . .
. .

343 a n t i ip at i on , ac e of , 5 7 6 ; b ec om es n om , .

c
. . .

ali i s -q ui ) , d e l , 15 1 e ; m e an in g , 3 10, id N
gr
. . . .

l An t i t h e sis , 5 98 f
c
. .

ali qu ot , in d e lin ab le , 122 b . . an u s , g e n d , 90 Exc . . .

4 118 , i ri s , ad j e n d in gs , 248 . .
l
Jan u s , ad js in , 24 9 . .
n s o
44 8 I ND E X OF W OR D S A ND S UBJEC TS

Aori st ( = h ist p erf . . 16 1 . As yn d et on , 323 b, 601 0 . . .

apage , 206 g At , m e an in g n e ar, 428 d

c mp
. . . .

ape rt us , o ar o f , 124 a at , us e , 324 d ; at en i m , id , at v erb , 324 k °

Ap c
. . . . . .

e x, 10 N at p at ri al st e m -e n d in g , 7 1 5 ; d e l , 7 8
d cl 7 8
. . . . .

a i s,
p e 2 3 , 121 a 4
Ap d c c c
. . . . . .
,

o d e fi n e d , 5 12 ; i n t rod u e d b y
os is , i t e r, d e l , 112 a ; n ot om p are d , 131 d
c c
. . .

orre l , id b ; m ay b e su b ord , id ; an d N
c
. . . . .

f orm s of , 5 14 , 5 15 ff ; ot e n t i al su i At h e m at i v erb s , 1 7 4 2
c
. . . .
,

447 3 N su i cfm e st y , 44 7 1 ; v h s At h bs , d e l , 52
c c A c
. . . . . . . .

o f n e e ssit y e t c , 5 22 a ; o m p le x ap od t las , d e l 83 e
c
. . . . . .

523 ; ap o d om i t t e d , 524 ; ap 0d i n in d at qu e 324 b , ; aft e r ad js of li k e

c
. . . . .

dis . S ee C on d it ion al S e n n e ss , 384 N 2 ; af t er ali u s , 40

. 7 d . . .

t e n oe s at qu i , u se , 324 d
A c c
. . .

p p o in t in g , vb a of , on st r , 393 at r5x , d e l , 117 a

A A c c
. . . . . .
_

p po sit i on , se e Ap sit iv e t t ra t ion of ase of relat ive , 306 a ; of

A c c j c
. .

pp osit i ve , d e fi n e 28 2 ; agree m e n t of , ase of an t e e d e n t , id N of s u b e t 1n

c c
. .

281, 28 2 ; w i d d ; g e n as ap p i n d d is 58 1 N 2
A c c
. . . . . . . . . .

t o po sse ssi ve , 302 e ; g e n u sed f or ap p , t t ra t ion , su b j u n t ive o f , 591 2 , 593

c A c
. . . . .

343 d ; so dat , 3 73 a ; rel lau se e qu i v t t rib u t ive ad j e t iv e d e fi n e d , 285 1;

c
. . . . .

ale n t t o app 308 ; ac e as app t o a n u m b e r, 286 a ; t ak es g e n d of n e ar

c
. . . . . .

lau se , 397 f ; ap p i n ste ad o f v oc es t n ou n , 28 7 1

c c
. . . . .

340 a ; ap p i n on n e t i on wit h in f , -at u e ad

j e n din g , 246
c
. . . . .
,

45 2 an d N 2 au dac t er, om p ar , 21 8
c
. . . .

ap t u s ad , 385 a ; ap t u s w d at of g eru n d au la , d e l , 44
c
. . . . .

e t c , 50 5 a f t n 2 ; apt u s qu i , 535 f
. . . . . . au re u s , n ot om p are d , 131 d . .

ap u d , 2 0 a ; u se , 22 1 4 ; i n qu ot in g , 428
2 . . . au au e as p re s p art , 491 . . .

d N an t , u se , 3 24 e , 335 d N
c
. . . . . .

s q uali s , d e l 76 a 2 au t e m , u s e , 3 24 d , j , 5 99 b
c A
. . . . . . .
,
-ar
, n om e n din g , d e l I I I , 68 a, 65 b,
. . . . u t h o r w ap u d , 428 d N 2
. . . . .

76 a 2 ; 68 f t n 1 ; g en d , 87 Au t h ori i n Prosod y , 602

c
. . . . . . .

arbor d e l , 62 N 2 avi s, d e e , 7 6 b 1
c
. . . . . . . .

arc eb, on s t r , 364 N 2 -ax ve rb al ad

j e n din g , 251 , adjs in ,
Ac c c
. . . . . .
,

r h ilo h ian ve rse , 622 . w g e n , 349

. . . .

aret u s , g e n d , 48 Exc
c
. . .

ard eb, W ab l , 404 a bac c ar, de l , 76 a 3

cc c
. . . . . . . .

d ri a, su ffi x , 254 2 B a hi a v erse , 6 28 b
cc
. . . .

-5 ri s ad B a h i u s , 609 d
j e n d in g , 248
A c c
. . . . .
,

ri st op h an i ve rse , 625 2 . . BAi ae , d e l , 43 e N 2 . . . . .

-ari u m n ou n e n d in -b am t e n se -e n d in
g , 254 3 g , 168 b
c
. .
, , . .

-ari u s ad
j e n di n g, 250 a ; n ou n e n din g , Bargain in g , vh s of , on st r , 563 ; ge run
c
. . .
, .

di ve , 500 4 ; lau se , 563 ( 1 .

Arran g em en t of w ord s , 595 —

.

601 Base , 27
c
.

Ar sis an d t h e sis , 6 11 an d f t n bas i s , d e l , 8 2

c c
. . .

Art s , n am e s of , d e l I , 44 B e in n i n g , v h s of , on st r , 456
c c
. . . . .

art u s , d e l , 92 . . . Be i e vin g , vb s o f , w d at , 367 . . . .

as , v alu e of , 63 2 ; g e n of , 417 a b elli , loc u se of , 42 7 a

c
. . . . .

-as i n ac e b ellum , d e l , 46
p lu r of Greek n ou n s , 81 5
c
. . . . . .
,

old g en e n d in g , 43 b ; Gre ek n om b ellu s, om p ar , 13 1 a

c c
. . . . . .

e n din g , 83 e ; p at ron y m i , 244 ; g e n d B elon gi n g , adj s of , w g e n , 385

c
. . . . . . .

of n ou n s i n , 86 b ; i s, i t i s , see ar . ben e, om p ari son , 2 18 ; i n p h ras e c om

ad js in -as , 249 p o u n d s , 1 2 a Exc 1 , 266 b ; c om
c c c
. . . . . .

As le p iad i ve rse , 6 25 5 , 6 p ou n d s o f , on st r , 368 2

c
. . . . .

Ask in g , vb s of , w t wo ac c , 396 ; w ab l , B en e fi t in g , vh s of , on st r , 367

c c c
. . . . . . . .

396 a ; w su b j u n t i ve lau se , 563 -b e r n am e

s of m on t hs in , d e l , 115 a
A c
. . . . . .
,

s p irat es , 4 an d ft n 2 b i c olor, d e l , 122 a

A c
. . . . .

sse rt ion s , d i re t , i n i n d ie , 157 a b i c orp or, 119 N

c
. . . . .

A ss im ilat ion of on son an t s, 15 6 , 10; in -b i li s v e rb al ad

.
, j e n din g , 25 2 . .

p re fi xe s , 16 B ird s , ge n d of n am e s of , 3 2 . .

4 8 86 , é ssere , i n f u t p e rf , 183 5 Birt h or o ri gi n , n ou n s of , d e rivat ion , 244

c
. . . .

art i ip le s o f , w ab l , 40
— 3 24 d
ast , 3 a
p
c
. . . . . .

a t as n oun e n din g , 254 11 -bo t e n se-e n din

s er, . .
, g , 168 . .
45 0 IN D E X OF W OR D S A ND S UBJEC TS

C lasse s , n am e s of , gen d of , 30 a N 3 ; . . . . 458 ; in f p art ly su b j e t , p art ly om ple

. c c
u se d i n lu r , 101 3 m e n t ary , 454 b y an alogy , 457 a
c
. . . . .

C lau se s , e fi n e d , k in d s of , 27 8 , 27 9 re °
com p le 6, on st r , 356 , 40 9
c c
. .

p la ed b y ab l ab s , 420; u s e as C o m p le t ed a t ion , t e n se s of , 160 b ; h ow

c
. . .

n ou n s , 343 ; d e p e n d e n t , syn t ax o f , f orm ed , 17 9 f , 9 ; u se of , 47 3 ff

c c c
. . .

5 19— 593 ; on dit io n al re l , 27 9 5 19 ; C om p lex on dit ion al se n t en c e s , 5 23

— c c c
. . .
,

fi n al, 27 9 d , 5 29 533 ; on se u t i ve , C om p le x se n te n e , 27 8 b
c c
. . .
‘

536 , 537 ; au sal, 539, 540; t e m oral, c om p lii ré s , c om p ld ri a, 120

p
54 3— c
. .

556 ; s u b st an t ive , 56 2-5 88 ; i n fi n i c om pos , d e l , 121 a 4 , b 1

c
. . . . .

t i ve lau se s , 452 , 562 N ; su b st an t iv e C om posi t ion , all word -form at ion a p ro

c c c
. .

lau ses o f p u rp o se , 563 ; of re su lt , 567 , e ss of , 22 7 om p t o e xp ress re lat i o n s

c
.

568 ; i n di e W q u od , 5 7 2 ; i n d ire t qu es of W ord s , 338 , 386 S e e C om p word s

t ion s , 5 73 — c c
. .

5 7 5 ; in d d is , 5 78—
. . .

5 93 C om pou n d se n t en e , d e fi n e d , 27 8 2
c
. . . . .

c li vi s , d e l , 7 6 b 1 . . . . C om p o u n d st e m s , i m agi n ary , 255 a . .

C lose sy llables , 7 N 2 C om p ou n d su ffi x e s , 233 2 , 235

c c
. . . . .

coepi , 20 5 . C om po u n d v e rb s , 267 ; om ps of fa i6, .

C ogn at e ac c , 2 14 d N , 390 . . . . . 204 a, b . .

C og n é m en , 108 C om pou n d word s , as sim ilat ion in , 15 6 ,

'

c
.

16 ; d e fi n ed , 264 ; h ow fo rm e d , 265—
.

C olle t ive n ou n w it h s in g or p lu r vb , . . . 2 67 .

3 17 d C om po u n d s of p re p s , W d at , 3 7 0; o f ab ,
c
. . . . .

c olus , ge n d , 90; d e l , 10 5 a d é , ex, 38 1 ; W ac c , 388 b , 3 95 ; q u an

c
. . . . . . .

com ( c on om po u n d ed W vh s , 1 6, 267 t it y of , 606 0

c c
. . . . .

a ; su h m ay t ak e d at , 3 70 c on see or
n

c c
. .

C om bi n at ion s of word s , 13 C on at i ve 46 7 ; i m p e rfe t , 47 1

p rese n t ,
c c c c
. . .

c om ét é s , de l
44 on 06d 6, on s t r., 563 an d
c
. . .
,

c om i t i u m , c om i t ia, 10 7 C on essi on , h ort at o ry su i of , 44 0 ( c f

c
. . .

C om m an d , se e I m p e rat ive ; i n h ort at ory 5 26 ) p art i les of , 5 2 7 ; q u am vi s , n t , 5 27 .

su i , 439 a ; li c et , id b ; e t si e tc , id 0 ; c u m , 549 ;
c
. . . . .

C om m an d in g , vbs of , W d at , 36 7 ; W . . . . q u am q u am , 5 2 7 d , e ; q u am vi s , W i n d i . .

i n f , 563 a ; w su b v , 563 ( c f 5 80 a) at iv e , 5 2 7 e ; vb s o f , W
'

n t , 5 27 f ;

c c c
. . . . . . . . . . .

C om m an d s , e xp re ss b y i m v , 448 ; f or abl ab s f or on e ssive lau se , 420 3 °

c c c c
. . . .

on d it ion , 5 2 1 b ; in i n d d is , 588 ; in on e ssi on i m p li e d i n p art , 4 96 ; q u 1

c c c
. . . .

i n form al i n d d is , 5 92 1 on e ssive , 535 e

c c c
. . . . . .

c omm ise ror, W ac c , 35 4 a N C on e ss i ve lau ses, s e e C on e ssi on

c c c
. . . . . .

com m i tt 6 n t , 568 an d N 1 C on e ssi ve on j u n t ion s , 223 b 3 , 22 4 ,

c
. . . .

C om m on ge n d e r, 34 ; adj s o f , 122 d I I 0 ; p art i le s , u s e of , 5 27

c c A
. . . . .

, 60
C om m on s y llab le s , 11 3 f C on lu si on , see p od osis
c c
. . . .

c om m on e f ac i 6 , -fi 6, o n st r , 35 1 C on o rd s , t h e f ou r, 28 0
c c
. . .

c omm on e6, on s t r , 35 1 con c ors , d e l , 1 19, 12 1 a 3

c c
. . . . . .

c om m fi n i s , w g en , 385 C on d e m n in g , v h s of , on st r , 352
c c c
. . . . . . .

c omm fi t 6 , on st r , 4 17 b C o n d i t i on al lau se s , d e fi n e d , 2 7 9
c c c c
. . . . .

C om p arat i ve on j u n t i on s , 223 b 2 , 224 C on d it ion al on j u n t ion s , 223 b 1 , 224

c
. . . . . .

I I b ; i n on d it ions , 524 I I a , 5 25
c
. . . .

C om p arat i ve s u ffi x, 124 f t n ; o f ad vs , C on d it ion al Part i les , 524 , 5 25

c
. . . .

214 b N C on dit ion al se n t e n e s , d e fi n ed , 27 9 0 ;

c
. . . .

C om p arat i ve s , d e l , 1 20; st e rn , id b ; d e ve lop m e n t , 5 11 ; p rot asi s an d apod o

c c
. .

n e u t sin g o f c om p ar ad j u s e d as ad v , s is , 5 12 ; las s ifi at ion , 5 14 Pre s en t an d

c
. . . . .

2 18 ; m e an in g of , 29 1 ; t wo om p ara Past , n ot h i n g 1 m p11e d 5 15 ; F u t u re c on

t i ves , 292 ; om p ar an d p os it i ve W c d i t ion s, 5 16 f u t m ore v ivid , i d 2 a ; °

c
. . . . .

qu am , id a N ; ab l W om p ar , 40 6; f u t less vivid , i d 2 b ; p e rf i n d ie in
c c c c
. . . . . . . . . . .

quam W om p ar , 40 7 a ; o m p ar w fut on d , i d e ; C o n t rary t o f a t , 5 17 ;

c c c c
. . . . . . . .

quam ( u t ) , q u am q u i , 535 , 57
1 a i n d ie i n on t rary t o f a t on dit ion , id
c c
. . . . .

C om p ari son , o n j un t i on s of , 3 23 a b , c f 0 an d n ot e s , i n old Lat i n , id

c c c
. . . .

C om p arison , p art i le s o f , t am q u am , q u asi , 6 N 2 ; Ge n e ral on d it ion , 518 ; on d i

c
. .

e tc , on st r , 5 24 t ion d isg u ise d , 521 ; as p art e t c , id

c
. . . . . .

C om p ariso n of ad j s , 123 ff ; irre gu lar, a ; as e xh ort at i o n or om m an d , id b ;

c
. . . .

1 29 ; d e f e t i ve , 1 30, 1 3 1 ; w m ag i s an d .
p rot as i s om i t t e d , 522 ; Po te n ti al S u i ,
.

maxim e, 128 ; of ad vs , p re p os i 446 ; S u i of Mod es t y , 44 7 1 ; vhs

c c
. . . .

t ions i m p ly i n g , W q u am , 407 e N , 434 of n e es si t y e tc , 5 22 a ; om p le x

c c
. . . . . . .

C om p le m e n t ary in fi n i t ive , 456 ; h as n o on d it ion s , 5 23 ; lau ses o f C o m p arison

c
su b j e t , id N p red n ou n or adj aft e r,
. . . . c c
( on lu s ion om itt ed ) , 524 ; C on e ssive c
 I ND E X OF WOR D S A ND SUBJECTS 4 51

cl 52 7
au se s, Provi so , 5 28 ; u se of si c
C on t ra t in g , vh s of , W g e ru n dive , 500 4
d it c m p c c
. . . .

an s o s , 5 25 o n d it i on al re lat ive C on t ra t ion of vow els , 15 3 ; q u an t i t y ,

cl c c c
.

519 ;
ause s , t e m p o ral, 542 , 55 1 N 2 10 ; i n p rosod y , 603 ; of sy llab le s,
c d it i l c c
. . . . .

on on a se n te n es in i n d di s , 58 9 608 d
6 fi d6 c c c
. . . . .

c n t o n s r 43 1 a n d N 1 C on t rary t o f a t on di ti on s , 517 ; in i n d
c
. . .
, , .

C on j u g at ion , d e fi n ed , 22 C on j u g at ion . d is , 589 b . . .

of v e rb s , 17 1—193 ; h ow dist in gu i sh ed , c onv en i6, W ac c , 37 0 b

‘

c c
. . . .

17 1 ; re ar f orm s of , 17 3 ; m ix ed C o6 rd in at e on j u n t ion s , 223 a, 224

c
. .

form s , i p arallel f orm s, 189 ; ste m a- d ; c 05 rd lau se s , 27 8 a ; c odrd

vow e ls o f o n j u g at ion s , 1 7 1— c
w c c
. . .

17 8 ; st e m s ords wit h ou t on j , 3 23 5 ; W . on j ,
c
. . .

of t h e fou r o n j u g at ion s , h ow m od ifi ed , 1l c . .

17 9 ;
p aradi g m s of t h e fou r re gular c o n C op ula, 27 2 , 283 ; p osit ion of ,
j gu a t i on s 1 84 — 2 12 C op ulat i ve on j u n t ions , 223 a 1 , 224 Ic c
c c c
. . . . .
,

C on j un t ion s , d e fi n ed , 20 g ; lasse s of , . a ; on s t r af t e r, 323 ; om iss i on of , 3 23 b

. . .

223 ; lis t of , 224 S y n t ax, 3 23 a, 3 24 C op u lat i ve v e rb s , 27 2 , 283

c c
. . . .

a—k, 539 , 540 n ot e s ; o rre lat iv e u se , c or, d e l , 59 , 60 b , 10 3 g 2

c
. . . . . .

323 g ; c on j s re peat e d , id e ; om it t e d ,
. . . c orp u s , d e l , 64 . .

i d b ; u s ed t og e t h e r, 3 24 k C orre lat ive s , 152 , 3 23 g ; re n de re d b y

c c
. . . .

C on j u n t ive ad ve rb s 20 g N t he t he , 414 a ; ad vs of p la e , 2 17
c
. . . . . .
,

C on j u n ti ve p hr ases , 224 a ; c on js , 3 23 f , g
c
. . . .

C on n ec t ives , re lat ive s u s ed as , 308 f . . c 68 , d e l , 10 3 g 2 . . . .

c 6n or, W in f , 563 e ; c 6n or si , i d N 1 C o u n t ri es , n am es of , gen d , 32 ; as en d of

c c c c c
. . . . . . . .

C on se u t i ve lau se s , de fi n ed , 27 9 e ; us e s, m ot ion , an d p la e f rom wh i h , 428

c c c c
. . .

5364 538 ; lau se s of re su lt or h ara C ri sis , 603

c
. .

t e ri st i c , 55 9 c réb e r, d e l , 1 12 a
c c c c
. . . .

C on se u t i ve on j u n t ions , 223 b 5 , 224 c r6d i b i li , W om p arat ive , 40 6 a

c
. . . . . .

II c c ré a6 , p osit ion of , 5 99
c c
. . . .

c 6n se q u or n t , 568 C re t i foot , 609 d ; v e rse , 628

c
. . . .

c 6n si st ere , w ab l , 40 3 b i t u 2 , 43 1 C rim e or h arg e , g e n o f, 35 2

‘

c
. . . . . . . .

-c ru m , n ou n e n d i n g , 240
C onson an t ste m s of n ou n s , d e l I I I , 56
c c c
. .

64 ; on s st e m s of ad j e , 1 17 ; ase c ru x , d e l , 103 g 2
c c
. . . . . .

f orm s , 1 21 ; of v e rb s , 25 9 a 3 . . . c u um i s , d e l , 75 a . . .

C on son an t s u ffi xe s ( p ri m ary) , 234 II c uias , c diu s , b, 151 h

c c c
. . .

C onson an ts , lassifi at i on , 3 ; h an g e s , c u i c u i m od i , 151 b N . . .

14—19 ; i n se rt i on , 15 1 1 ; t ran sp o s it io n , . odiu s m od i , 345 a . .

di ssi m i lati on , 15 6 ; ass im i lafi -c u 1u m n ou n s u fii x 240

177 a N
c
.
. . . .
, ,
-c u lu s d i m e n d i n
t ion , i d 16 ; p ron un i at ion , 8 an d N , g , 243
c
. . .
.
,

11 b N c u m , g n om ( on j ) , f orm , 544 ; m e an in g ,
c
. . .

c bn sors , d e l , 1 21 a 3 544 fi ; c u m
c
. . . . .

c 6n st2 i re , W ab l , 403 b q u e n c e , 485 e N ; W lau se f or p art ,

c 492 , 4 93 2 ; t e m po ral, 545 — c
. . . . . .
. . .

c 6n st i t u 6 , on str , 563 d 548 ; aus al

c
. . . .

C dns t rfi c t ié ad sensu m , se e S y ne sis or c o n c ess , 549 ; i n i n d d is , 585 b N ; . . . .

c c
. . .

C on st ru ti on s of as es , 338-435 ( see u n de r c u m ( when ever) , 545 548

c
. .

Ab l c um 220 b ; i n om p , see com

c c
. .
.

c 6n su 6vi , u se , 47 6 j oin e d as e n lit i wi t h p ron oun s , 143 f , .

c
.

o6n su l, d e l , 6 2 150 d ; use of , 22 1 9 ; W p lnr adj , 286 . . . . .

c
. . .

c 6 n suli ris , d e l , 76 a 2 a N ; W p lu r v e rb , 3 17 N ; W ab l
c
. . . . . .

c
. . . . . .

c 6n su l6 , W d at o r ac c , 367 of m ann er, 4 12 ; W abl of ae o m . .

c
. . . . .

C on t e n t ion , w ords of , ons t r , 368 a, p a n i m e n t 413 ; W w ords o f c on t e n

c
.
. .
,

4 13 b . . t i on , 41 3 b W word s o f e x h an g e ,
. .

c on t e n t u s , W ab l , 43 1 a ; W p e rf . in f , . . . . . 417 b N . . .

-c u m u e ad d ed t o relati ve s 15 1 a an d
486 f q
c
.
. . , ,

c ont in 6ri , W abl , 403 b i t u . . . . . N ; t e m po ral p art i les W , 542

.
. .

c on t i n gi t n t , 568 -c u n d u s ve rb al ad
j e n d in g , 253 an d b .

c
.
,

c
.

C o n ti n u ed a t ion , t e n se s o f, 160, 161 cu p i6 , on s t r , 563 b

c c
. . .

c
.

C on t in u i n g , vb s of , W om p le m e n t ary . .
c fi r6 , on str , 563 ; c ars use , 44 9
. . .

in f , 456 -
c u s , s u ffi x , 23 2 N , 249
c c
. . .
. .

c on t ra, use , 220 a, 22 1 8 , 3 2 1 d ; as ad v , . . . . C us t om ary a t ion , 470, 5 18 . .

43 3 4 ; posit ion , 435

.

c ’
C on t ra t e d form s , vi n , sc in , 13
’
.

D ch an ed to s, -d old abl e n din

c c
.
. ,

in -i , d at an d abl in -i s , 49 a,
. . . de l . d e l II , . dcc l I .
45 2 IND E X OF WOR D S A ND SUBJECTS

p 34 ft n ; d e l I V, 92 f ; m 6d , t 6d , 143 c 45— 52 ; I I I , 53 — 87 ; I V, 88— 94 ; V, 95— 98 ;

c c
. . . . . .

a N ; 8 6d , 144 b N 2 ; -6 in ad v s ori gi d e l V om p are d Wi t h I , 98 0 Of

A d j s , d e l I —II , 109— c
. .

c
. . . . . . .

a N ; -d as n e u t p ron 113 ; d e l I I I ,
— 1 14 — c
. . . . . . . .

13 b ; 10 oss oi d , 3 98 122 ; of om p arati ve s , 120; of p ar

c c c c
. .

D a t y l, 609 b ; y li , i d 6 t ic ip le s , 10 9 , 117 b
c c
. . . .

D a t y li ve rse , 613 ; h exam et e r, 6 15 ; ele D e re e in g , v h s of , 56 3 d

c
c
. . .

d 6d i , q u an t it E
’

i t a a 6 16 t h f m s, 617 of p e n ult , 60 5 xe
— g a s n z ; o er or
y
c j c c
. .
,

dam , ad ve rbi al e n d in g , D e fe t ive ad e t ive s , 111 b, 122

c c c
. . .

d am nas , in d e l ad 122 b D e fe t ive om p arison , 130

c c — c
. . . .

d ap s , d efe t , 103 2 D e f e t ive n ou ns , 99 103 ; of d e l I V, 94

c c
. . . . .

D ari n g , vh s of , W c om pl in f , 456 ; of d e l V, 98 a
c
. . . . . . . .

D at e s , h OW e xp ressed , 424 f , 631 D e f e t i ve ve rb s , 205— 206

A c c c
. . .

D TI VE d efi n ed , 35 in -ai d e l d éfi c i 6 , on st r , 367 a
;
c c
. . . . .
,

a ; in -5 b u s , d ee l I , i d 6 ; in -i s f or ii s
-
D e fi n i t e p e rfe t , 161 1 , 47 3 ; sequ e n e of ,
c c c
. . . .

d e l I I , 49 f ; i n -u b u s , d e l I V, 92 485 a
c
. . . .
. .
,
in -i ( of fi n u s 113 d é fi t , 204
A c
. .

D TI VE, S y n t ax, 360—

.

385 I n dire t Ob d 6g en er, 1 19 N , 121 a 3

c
. . . . . .

c e t , 361 ; W t rans it i ve s , 362 ; w vh s D e g re e , ad ve rb s O f , 217

jI m l n m oti on 363 u se of d 6a6 e t c . . .

D eg ree o f d iff e re n c e , ab l o f , 414 ; di s

. .

p yi g ;
c
.
, ,

364 ; in p ass , 365 ; W i n t ran sit iv e s , 366 ; . . t an e e xp resse d b y , 425 b . .

w
W p h rase s, i d a ; lik e g e n , id b ; W
. . . . . D e g re e s of C om p ari son , 123 .

in t ran sit i ves , v e rb s m e ani n g f avor e t c , d ei n d e , d 6n i q u e , i n e n u m erat i on s , 322 d N

c c
. . . .

367 si m ilar v h s w ac e i d a ; vh s d 61ec t at , on st r , 388

°

c
. . . . . . . .

h avi n g d at or ac c , id b, ; W v e rb al . . . . d elec t 6, W ac c , 36 7 a . . . .

n ou n s, i d d ; W li b et an d li c e t , 368 1 ; d 61ec t or, w ab l , 4 31

c c
. . . . . .

W om p s of sati s , be n e , m ale , i d 2 ; D e li b e rat ive su b j u n ti ve , 443 , 444 ; in

c c
. . .

p o e t i u se , id a ; i n t rans vh s w ac e i n d ir q u e st ion s , 5 7 5 b in i n d di s , 58 7
c
. . . . . . . . . .

an d d at , 369 ; W om p s of p re s ad , d 61i c i u m , ia, i ac , 10 6 b

p
. .
. . . . . .

an t e , e t c , 3 7 0; W p ass ive u s ed i m p e r D e li ve ri n g , vh s of , W g e ru n di ve , 500 4

c
. . . . . .

son ally , 3 7 2 O f P osse ssi on , 3 7 3 ; W D6los , d e l , 52

c
. . . .

n 6m s u e st , id a ; W d é su m an d ab su m , d elp h i n , d e l , 83 a
A
. . . . .

id b O f t h e g e n t , 37 4 , 3 7 5 Of R e f -d em
ad ve rb i al e n d i n g , 2 15 6
c
. . . . .
,

e re n e , 3 76 , 3 7 7 of t h e p e rson j u d gi n g , D e m an din g , vh s of , W g erun di ve , 500 4

c c c
. . . .

3 7 8 ; u se d id iom at i ally , 3 7 9 ; e t h i al D e m on st rat ive ad ve rb s , as o rre lat i ve s ,

'

d at , 380 O f S ep arat ion , 38 1 O f Pu r

. . . 3 23 9 ; e q u ivale n t t o d em on st r p ro n
. . .

p ose , 382 W adj s an d ad vs , 383 ; W W p rep , 3 21 a Posit ion , 5 98 b

c
. . . . . . . . . .

ad j s of fi t n ess e t c , 384, 385 ; g e n or D e m on st rat ive p ron ou n s , 146 ; d e l id ;

c
. .

S y n t ax, 296—
. .

d at W sim ili s , 385 2 W it h words f orm at ion , i d N 1 298 ;

c c
. . . . . . . .

of on t en t ion (p oe ti ) , 413 b N Of En d of l st p e rson , 2 97 a ; of 2d p e rs , id 0 ;

c
. . . . . .

of Mot i on , 428 h ; W in fi n , 455 1 ; d at of 3d p e rs , i d b ; s u p p ly p la e of p e rs

c
. . . . . . . .

of g e ru n d , 50 5 a p ron s of 3d p ers , 295 ; i n re lat ive

c
. . . . .

D at i vus com m od i au t i n c om m o d i , 3 76 lau se , 308 d N Posit i on , 598 b

c
. . . . . .

d é , u se , 220 b , 221 10; i n om p W vb s , d 6n ari u s , valu e of , 63 2

c
. . . .

D e n om in at ive ve rb s , 258 —
. .

267 a ; i n om p W v h s , w d at , 38 1 ; 26 2
c c
. . . . . . .

i n om p w v h s , w ab l , 402 ; W ab l . . . . . . . D e p e n d e n t lau se s, s u i u s e d in , 438 b . . .

i n s t e ad of p art g e n , 346 e ; W v h s of D e p on e n t ve rb s d e fi n e d , 156 b ; h ow

c
. . . . . .

re m i n d i n g , 35 1 N ; W ab l t o d e n ot e on j u g at e d , 190; p arad ig m s, i d ; p art i

c c c
. . . . .

t h e rim e , 353 2 ; W p la e from w h i h , . . c i p le s , i d a ; f u t i n f , i d 0 ; u s e d re

. . . .

426 1 ; p osit ion of 6 6, 435 ; (16 W abl

. . . fl exi vel , id e ; i n p as sive se n se , i d f ;
y . .

of e ru n d , 50 7 li st of I rre g ular d epo n e n t ve rb s , 1 91 ;

c
.

d ea, ec l , 43 e d e fe t ive d ep on e n t s , id a ; se m i -d ep o
c
. . . .

d 6be 6, in apod , 5 17 n e n t s , 192

c
. . . .

d 6b u i , w p res W p e rf in f 1d b D e p ri vi n g , on st r w vh s of , 401
c
. . . . . . . . . .

d éce rn 6, on str , 5 63 d an d N 2 D e ri vat ion of word s , 227 - 267 .

D e riv at ive form s of n ou n s , 236 —

. . . .

d ec et , W ac c , 388 e ; W d at , id N 3 ; 241 ; of
ad js , 24 2 —
. . . . . . .

i n apod , 517 e 255 ; of v h s ,

c c
. . . . .

D e larat ive se n t e n e , 269 a ; h ow e x D e ri vat i ve v e rb s , d e fi n e d , 25 7

c
. .

p ress e d i n i n d di s , D e rivat i ves , q u an t i t y of , 606

c c c c
. . .

D e le n sion d e fi n ed , 22 ; h ara t e ris t i s -d é s n ou n s i n 244

c
.
, ,

of , 3 7 ; g e n e ral ru le s f or, 38 ; t e rm i D es ri p t ion , i m p e rf u se d i n , 47 1 a

c
. . .

n at ions , 39 Of N oun s , I , 40— 44 ; 11 ,

. D es rip ti on i m p li ed in p art , 496 . .
 4 54 IND E X OF W OR D S A N D S UB JECTS

-61u s , adj er di n g , 249 ; in p rosod y , 11 d ,

i
-
68 ge n of Gre ek
in , d e l II , 52 a , n oun s c
c
. .
.
, . .

a ge n e n din g , d e l V, 98 N
z
r N
c
. . . . .

-6i u s n m e s in , d e l , 4 9 -68 , li st of n ou n s i n
,
. .
f .
, p 30 ft n 2 ; g en d , . . . .

Qi u sm odi , 146 b , 345 a 86 ; f orm at ion , 2 38 a

c c c
. . . .

Ele t ra, d e l , 44 e sse , on j , 1 7 0; f orm s of , i n ot h e r lan

c c
. . .

Ele gi a st an za, 6 16 g u ag e s , id 5 N ; om p o u n d s of , 198 ;

c
. . . .

-6113 ad ase aft er, 284 ; d at of p oss W , 3 7 3 ;

, j e n di n g , 248 . . . . .

Elisi on , 6 12 e f u t u re p art W ( fi rst p e rip h

c
. . . . .

Elli ps is , 640 . 498 a, b ; p osit ion of fo rm s o f , 598

.
, j
. .

ellu m e tc , 146 a N . 2 e st , u n i t e d wi t h ot h e r word s , 1 3 N

. . . .
; e st . .

-e 11u s d i m i n u t iv e e n d in
g, 243 q ui e t c , 5 35 a ; e st cum , 5 35 a N 3 ; e st
c
. . . . . .
,

61u vi é s , d e l , 98 a n t , 56 9 3

c c
. . . . .

em , om b in e d w p ron s . .
( ellu m 146 . Est e em in g , vhs of , on st r , 3 93 . . .

-e st er -e st ri s
a N 2
. . . ) , ad j e n d in g , 250; a n oun .

Em b as is , 597 e n d in g , 254 11

8
. . .

en m 6 6 1 n 234 I I 13 n su ffi x , é st ur, é ss é t ur, p ass f orm s of e d6, 201 a

E clit ic cc
. . . . . .
,

n s , a e n t , 1 2 a ; q u an t it y , 604 a c t , u se , 324 a ; c t et , 323 e ; et re

c
. . . . .

1 ; c u m , 143 f , 150 b , d ; -m et , -t e , -pt e , . .

p e at e d or om it t ed , 3 23 . .

143 d an d N ; -p se , 146 N 7 , 8 ; -c c , i d
. . . . . et , -q u e , or at qu e t ran slat ed bu t , 3241d N . .

a N 1 ; -q u e , see u n d e r t h at w ord et en i m , u se , 3 24 h , k
c
. . . . .

En d of m ot ion , ac e o f , 426 2 ; W vhs . . . . Et h i al d at ive , 380 .

t h at also t ak e d at , 363 ; d at of , 428 h ; e ti am , u se , 3 2 2 a ; i n ans wers 336 a 1

c c c c
. . . . . . .
,

t wo or m ore p la es as en d of m oti on , eti am si , on e ssive , 5 27

c
.

e t si , u s e , 5 27
c
. .

En d in gs, s ig n i fi at ion of , 235 —263 ; e n d -6t u m

, n ou n e n di n g , 254 8 . .

, Gre e k n am e s i n , 5 2
-e u s
in gs of ve rb , 1 65 2 , 166 . . S ee Pe rson al e ; -e u s , p at ro .

e n d in gs , an d Te rm i n at i on s n y m ic e n d i n , 244 ; ad
g j e n din g , 247 ,
c
. .

En glish m e t h od o f p ron u n i at ion , 8 N 249, 254 10

c
. . . .

En g lish word s og n at e wit h Lat , 18 , 19 6ven i t n t , 568 ft n 2

c
. . . . .

e n i m , u se , 3 24 h ; p osit io n , 3 24 j , 599 b . . . . ex 220 b ; u se , 22 1 11 ; in om p oun ds ,

. .

-6n si m u s ( or é si m u s) , n u m e ral adj e n d . 267 a, 402 ; abl W , i n st e ad of p art

. . . .

in g , 133 N 1 ge n , 346 e ; in vh s W dat , 38 1 ; W

c
. . . . . . . . .

-6n si s , ge n t ile e n d in g , 249 ro n s e tc 4 0 3 a N 1 t o e x ress la e

p ; p p
c
. . . . .
,

En u m e rat i on , p ri m u m d ein d e , 322 d N . . . f rom whi h , 426 1 ; e xp ressin g p osi .

-6n u s ad
, j e n din g , 249 . . t io n , 429 b ; aft er i t s n ou n , 435 ; w ab l
. . .

En vy , vb s of , W d at , 367 O f g e ru n d , 50 7
c
. . . .

6 6 , us ed w s u p i n e in -u m , 428 i , 509 N 1 e x e ll6 , w d at , 368 3

c c
. . . . . . . . .

e 6, u sed W q u 6, 414 a ; W om p ar , id Ex h an gi n g , vb s O f , 417 b

c c
. .

c
. . . . .

ap p ro a h i n g ab l of au se , i d N Ex lam at ion , f orm o f , 333 N ; n om in ,

c
. . . . . .

e 6 6 asi li 6 n t , 53 1 1 N 1 3 3 9 a ; ac e in , 3 97 d ; w i n fi n , 462
‘

c c
. . . . . . . . . .

Ep i e n e n oun s, 34 N . Ex lam at ory qu est ion s , 462 a

c c c
. . .

Ep i sto la t e n se s, 479 . Ex lam at ory s e n t e n es , 269 ; n om i n , . .

e p i t om é , ee l , 44 33 9 a ; g en i n , 3 59 a ; ac e i n ,
c
. . . . . .

e p u lu m , p lu r -ae , 10 6 b Exi st e n e , ge n e ral e xp re ss ion s of , 535 a

c c c
. . . . .

eq u e st er, d e l , 115 a e xlex , d e f e t , 122

c
. . . . . .

e qu id em 3 22 f N Exp e t in g , h op i n g , e t c , vh s of , W i n d
c
. . .
, . . . .

er for es p ri m ary s u ffi x , 234 II 17 . . . dis , 580 e ; W c om p le m in f , id N

. . . . . . .

er s t e m -e n din g , 63 Exc 2 e xp én su m , 496

c c
. . .

e n din g , d e l I I , 45—
.

-e r, n om 47 ; d e l e xsi li 6 , W ab l , 404 a
c c
. . . . . . .

I I I , 61 4 , 65 a ; g e n d , 85 ; -e r, adj a i n , e xsp é s , d e fe t , 122

c
. . . . . . .

111 , 112 , 115 ; om p ar of t h ese , 125 . e xsu 1t 6, W abl , 404 a . . . .

e rga, W ac e af t er ad j s , 385 b
. . . . . e xt e ri , u se , 1 30 b . .

e rg6 , u s e , 324 i ; W g e n , 35 9 b e xt e ri or, 1 30 b

-e ri m -e r6 as t e n se — c
. . . . . . .

e n d in g , 169 , d
e xt rem as , f orm , 130 a i t u 2
c
. . . .
, , . .

-e rn u s, adj e n di n g , 25 0 e xu 6, on st r , 364
c
. . . .

ero n ou n st e m s i n , d e l I I , 50; 6ro ad j . .

s t e m s in , 111 a N F , origi n al sou n d of , 1 b N

c
. . . . . .

Es , root o f esse , 15 4 ; 17 0 b N . . . . fabe r, d e l , 1 12 a . . .

es ( os p ri m ary su fii x , 234 I I 17 fac , i m v , 182 , 204 ; fac ( u t ) , W su i

c
. . . . .
,
-6 8 , i n n om p lu r O f Gree k n ou n s, 8 1 4 ; 449 ; fac n 6, in p rohi b i ti on , 450
c
. . . . .

g en d of n ou n s in , 85
. . faci és, d e l , 98 a . . .
 I ND E X OF WORD S AND SUBJEC TS 455

r c
ac i li s , om p ar , 126 ; W s u p in e , 510 N 2 179 a, 259 184 ; vh s of, °
arad igm s ,
cc c p
. . . . . .
.

fac i6, a e n t of om p s of , 12 a Exe vh s o ow f orm ed , 259

c
. . .

Fi rs t D e le n sion , 40—
. .

form s of , om it t e d , 3 19 a ; W ab l , 403 . . . . 42 .

e; W n am es of au t h ors , 497 d N fi su s , as p re s p art , 491

c
. . . . . .

f a e re n t , 568 N 1 fi t n t , 568 ft n 2 , 569 2

c
. . . . . . .

F a t it i ve ac c , 386 ; ve rb s , 27 3 N 1 fi t n e ss , ad j e of , W d at , 384, 385 a

c c c
. . . . . . . .

-fa t 6 in om pou n d s, 266 a flagi t 6, ons t r , 563

c
. .
, . .

faen eb ri s , d e l , 115 N 1 floc c i , gen of valu e , 417 a

c
. . . . . . .

faex, d e l , 103 g 2 F or, wh e n e xp re ssed b y p r6, 3 79 N

c c
. . . . . .

fallit , w acc , 388 foras , 103 4 , 215 3

c c
. . . . . . . .

falsu s , om p ar , 131 a . . . fore , 170 a ; p e rf p art W , 164

. N ; f ore . . . . . .

f am é s , ab l Of , 7 6 b N 1 , 98 d n t , 569 a
c
. . . . . . . .

fam i li ari s , d e l , 7 6 b 2 fore m , 17 0 a

c
. . . . . .

fam i lies , i n pat er fam i lias e tc , 43 b f oré s , p lur only , 101 4 , 103 4
c
. . . . . . . .

f as, in d e l , 103 a ; w s u p in e in -ii , 5 10 F org e t t in g , v b s of , 350; W in f , 456

c c c
. . . . . . . .

fau x , d e l , 101 N 1 , 103 f 4 . . . . . . f ori s (lo at i ve ) , 103 4 , 215 4 , 427 a . . . .

F avor, vh s o f , W d at , 36 7 . . . . F orm at ion of w ord s , 2 27 —267 .

fax , d ec l , 103 g 2 F orm s of t h e ve rb , 180 ff

c
. . . . .

F e arin g , v h s o f , W i n f , 456 ; W n 6, n 6 . . . . f ors , f ort e , 103 1 . . .

n 6u , n t , 564 forsan , 447 b N

c
. . . .

feb ri s , d e l , 7 5 b , 7 6 b 1 . . . . . f orsit an ( fors si t an ) , 216 N ; W su i , . . . .

F e elin g , n ou n s O f , w g e n , 348 ; im p e r . . 44 7 a
. .

son al vb s of , 20 8 b , 354 b ; an im i W. . . . f ort asse , 44 7 b . .

v h s an d adj s
. of , 358 ; g e n W vh s . . . . F ou rt h C on j u g at ion , p rin p art s , 17 3 ; .

O f , 354 ; ac e w vh s o f , 388 a ; q u od p res st e m , h ow form e d , 17 6 a, 17 9 d ;

c
. . . . . . .

lau se W vh s of , 57 2 b . . . . arad igm , 187 ; lis t of v h s , 212 ; vh s , . .

Fe e t in Prosod y , 608-6 10 ow f orm ed , 262

c c
. .

f éli x , om par , 124 F ou rt h D e le n sion , 88 —94

c
. . .

F e m in in e , rule f or g e n d , 32 F ra t ion al e xp ress ion s, 135 e , 637

c c
. . .

fe m u r, d e l , 105 g frau s , d e l , 7 1 6
c c
. . . . . .

-fer
,
om ps of , 50; d e l , 111 a . . . . F re e d om , ad js of , w abl , 402 a ; vh s . . . . .

fe r, i m p e rati ve , 182 of , 401

c c
. .

f er6 , on j , 200; acc ep t u m ( e xp é n su m ) ferre , Fre n h , d e rivat ion s t h rou gh , 19 N 2 . .

c
. .

496 N 4 ; o m ps of , 200 a
. . . . . F req u en t at ive ve rbs , 263 2 . .

f erre , f errem , for T ferse e tc , p 110 f t n 3 f r6t u s , W ab l , 43 1 a

c
. . . . . . . . .

F est i vals , p lu ral n am es of , 101 2 ; i n -alia, F ri at ive s , 4 5

c
. . .

f rfi gi , d ef e t n oun , 103 f 1 ; as adj , 1 22

'

c c c
. . . . .

-
fi cu s , adjs in , om p aris on o f , 12 7 a b ; o m p ar , 129 ; on st r , 38 2 1 N 2 . . . . . .

c
. . .

fi d é s , d e l , 96 . . f ru or, fu n gor, w abl , 410; W ac c , id a . . . . . .

fi d 6 ( c 6n fi d 6) s e m i -d e p on en t , 192 ; W d at N 1 ; g e ru n d ive , 50 3 N 2
c
. . . . .
.
,

367 ; W abl , 43 1 fu gi t , w ac c , 388

. . . .

c
. . .

fi d u s , om par , 1 3 1 a fu i , d e rivat i on Of , 17 0 b N . . .

c
. . .

fi eri , ons t r W ab l , 403 0 F u ln ess, adj s of , 349 a . . .

c
. .

Fift h D e le n sion , 95—

. . .

97 ffi n eb ri s , d ec l , 115 N 1 . . . .

c
.

F i g fi ra e t y mo log i a, 598 m fu n g or, see f ru or

c c
.

c c
. .

fi lia, d e l , 43 e ; fi li u s , voc , 49
. . . . . F u t u re on dit ions , 5 16 ; i n i n d d is , . .

Filli n g , w ord s of , W ab l , 409 a ; W g en , . . . . . 5 89 a

. .

id N F u t u re t e n se , us e , 47 2 ; of i n f p ass , . .

c
. .

fi n al C laus es , d e fi n e d , 27 9 d ; o n st r of , h ow fo rm e d , 203 a ; o f i m v , 44 9 ; i n d
c
. . .

c
. .

530— 53 2 ; as su b st lau ses , 563 f or im v , id b ; i n i n d i re t q u est ions ,

. .

c c
. .

F in al on j u n t ion s , 223 b 6 , 224 I I e . . . . . 5 75 .

F in al s y llab le s , ru les of qu an t it y , 604 ; F u t u re I n fi n i t ive , h ow form ed , 164 3

c
. .

vowe ls , id a—h b, , 193 N ; e xp re ssed wit h f ore or

. .

c
. .

fi n i s , d e l , 7 6 b fu t fi rum esse , 56 9 a ; ( rare ly ) i n c on

c c c
.
. . .

F i n i t e ve rb , d e fi n e d , 154 N su b j o f, . . t rary t o f a t on d it ion s i n in d dis , . .

58 9 b N 8
c
. . . .

5 6, c on j 204 ; in c om pou n d s , 5 ; de
id F u t u re Part i ip le , u se , 158 b, 489, 498 , .

c
.

fec t i ve o m p ou n d s o f , i d 0 ; q u an t i ty 5 17 d ; fu t p ass p art , 500

c
. . . .
.
.

O f i in , 603 a 3 . . .
F u t u re Pe rfe t t e n se , s u fi i x of, 169 0 ; .
.

F irst C on j u gat ion , p ri n p arts , 17 3 ; p re s u se of , 47 8 ; re p res e n t e d i n su i , 484 . .

. .

st e m , h ow f orm ed , 17 6 a ; f orm at i on , . c ; in c on di t i ons , 5 16 c . .

4 56 I N DE X OF WORD S A ND S UBJEC TS

2
nt , see f ore ut ; futfi rum 502 -507 ; en of , 504 ; w d ire t ob j , . . c .

nt 58 9 b 3 an d N id a ; p u s e , p u rp ose , 1d a N 1 , w
°

c
. . . . . .
, . . .

F u tz
i ru m i n p rae te ri td, 511 ft n 1 . . . ob j g en . 1d ; d at of , 505 i n law . .
°

p h r as e s e tc id b ; ac e o f 50 6 a n d N 1
;
c c
. .
, , . .

G ( t h e h ara t er) , 1 a an d N abl of , 507 ; g e ru n d c oOrd in at ed w

c
. . . .

Gam es , p lu r n am es of , 101 2 n om in al on st r an d i n app 503 a

c
. . . . . . .

gau d e6 , on j , 192 ; W ab l , 43 1 ; W qu od N 2 ; w d i rec t ob j , 503 a N 1

c
. . . . . . . . . . .

or in d d is , 5 7 2 b . . . . Ge run di ve , m e an in g an d f orm , 155 a an d .

Gem s , g e n d of , 3 2 an d b, 48 Ease . . . ft n 3 , 15 8 d ; i n -c ad u s or -u n d u s, p 89
. . . .

Ge n d e r, k in d s of , 30; g e n e ral ru les f or, f t n 1 ; o f d e p vb , 190 d ; u se as p art

c c c
. . . . .

3 1— 34 ; om m on , e p i e n e , 34 ; h an g e or adj , 50 0; of fi t or, id 3 ; t o d en ot e
c c
. .

of g en d , p 18 f t n ; n ou n s , d e l I , p u rp ose aft er e rt ai n vb s , id 4 u se d fo r
c c c
. . . . . . .

ge n d , 42 ; d ec l I I , 48 ; n ou n s , d e l I I I , g eru n d , 503 Ge ru n di ve on st ru t ion s

t o e n d in g s , 84— c
. . . .

g e n d acc ord in 87 ; Of i n as e s , g e n , 504 ; d at , 5 0 5 ; ac c , 506 ;

c c
. . . .

n ou ns , d e l I 91 ; d e l V, 97 ; . . ab l , 50 7 . I m pe rson al w esse , w ac c ,
. . . .

S y n t ax agre e m en t i n en d 280; O f
c c
.

apposit ive s, 28 2 ; of js , 286 ; ad j e . . . g ibb er, d e l , 1 11 a . . .

W n ou n s of diffe re n t ge n d ers , 287 ( c f g i n st e m -e n d i n g , 6 1 2

c
. . . .

28 9 ) ; of rel , 306 b Giv in g , vh s of , w g eru n dive , 500 4

c c
. . . . . . . .

Ge n eralc on d 1t 1on s , d e fi n ed 513 2 on st r

°

g labe r, d e l , 112 a
c
. . . . .

of, 5 18 ; re lat ives I n , 5 20 g lac ié s , d e l , 98 a

c
. . . .

Ge n eral t ru t hs aft e r p as t t ens e ( i n g li s , d e l , 7 1 6

c
. . .

se q u en e O f t e n se s) , 485 d ; i n p res , g 16ri or, W abl , 4 3 1

c c c
. . . .

465 ; i n g en eral on dit ion , 5 18 a Gly on i ve rse , 6 23 1 , 624 , 625 1 , 12

c c
. . . . .

GEN I TI VE, de fi n ed , 35 b ; t erm i n at i on s . Gn om i p e rf e t , 47 5 .

O f , 37 ; p lu r in -u m , 38 f ; g e n i n - g , n o u n s i n , f rom ste rn gi n
- 6 61
’

ai 2;
c
. . . . .

an d -i s , d e l I , 43 a, b ; i n -i f or ~ii , gen d 86
c c c c
. . . .

de l b ; i n -i of p rope r n ou n s o f g ra ili s d e l , 122 a ; om p ar 126

c
. . . . .

d e l I I I , 5 2 a ; g e n p lu r i n -u m -om ) , Gram m ar, h ow d e v e lop e d , 268

c c
. . . .
:
for -6 ru m , 49 d ; -u 1n for -i u m , d e l I I I Gram m at i al ge n d e r, 30 b
c
. . . .

7 8 ; -68 f or -i s , 81 1 , gen plu r i n -u m . . .

grat ia, w g e n , 35 9 b , 404 .
; w g en of . . . . .

92 b ; i n -i or -6 f or é
.
_
g eru n d , 533 .

g e n p lu r wan t i n g , 103 g 2 ; o f ad js i n
. . . . g rat i fi c or, W d at , 368 3 . . . .

g rat ulor, W d at , id
-i u s 1 13 l i -i u m
, 121 b
- m
;g en p u r n o r u
— cc c c c
. . . . . . .
,

GEN I TI VE, S y n t ax, 342 356 ; g e n e ral u se , Greek a u sat iv e ( sy n e do h i al) , 397 b
c c
.

342 S u b j e ti ve ge n , 343 N 1 Posse s

. . . . . Gre ek f orm s om p are d w Lat i n , p p 13 , . .

siv e ge n , 343 ; i n ap W p oss p ron

. . . . . 14 , 19, 26 , 83 , 126, 142 ,
302 e ; c om p are d w at , 3 73 N ; g e n 143 ,
c c c c
. . . . . .

in p red i at e , 343 b, ; g e n of ad j Gree k n ou ns , d e l I , 44 ; d e l II , 52 ,

c c
. . . . .

for n eu t n om N 1 g en of s u b d e l I I I , 8 1 , 82 , 83
°

c
. . . . . . .

s tan e or m at e rial, 344 ; f or ap p , 3 43 Gre ek p rop e r n am e s, q u an t ity Of , 603 4

c c c
. . . .

d ; g en of qu ali , 345 Parti t i ve , Grou p s of word s, on j u n t ion s W , 3 2 3

c
. . . . .

O b j e t ive , 347 W adJ j s , 349 , a

c m c
. . .

; W vh s of . em ory , 350; h arg e

. Gu ilt , ad e o f , j . w g en . .
, 349 a . .

an d p e n alty , 35 2 of f e e li n g , 354 ; w
°
.

im rs , m i ec ret e t c
. 3 54 b ; w refert . . H (b re at hi n g) it t ed i n s p ellin g , , 4; om
int ere st , 355 ; O f p le n t y an d wan t , 6 d N 2 ; i n p rosody , 603 a, 612 e
c c
. . . . . .

356 ; of e x lam at ion , 359 a ; w pot i or, habe 6, W in fi n i t ive , 460 a ; w p e rf e t

c
. . . . .

357 a ; w ot h er vb s , i d b ; w eg e 6 an d p art i ip le , 497 b ; f u t u re i m p e rat i ve

c
. . . . .

i ndi ge6, 356 N ; gen f or ab l , id ; ge n hab6t 6 i n se n se of ons i de r, 449 a

c
. . . . . . . .

rep la e d b y d at , 366 b ; of valu e , 4 17 . . h ab i li s, w d at of g e ru n d e tc , 505 a f t n

. . . . . .

gen Of ge ru n dive , 504 bac t en u s, 22 1 26 N 1

c
. . . . . .

gen i u s , voc of , 49 Hadri a, g e n , 42 Exe

c
. . . . . .

Géns , or f am ily , n am es, 108 hae f or hae , 146 N 2

c
. . . .

Ge n t i le ad j e t i ves , 244 h aere6, w ab l , 368 3 N

c
. . . . . .

g en t ili s, 7 6 a 2 H ap p e n in g , vb s of , on s t r , 569 2
c
. . . . . . .

g en fi , d e l , 89 ; g en d , 91 Hav e , p erf W , origi n , 497 b f t h

c c
. . . . . . . .

g en u s , d e l , 64 hav 6 ( av é) , d e fe t i ve v e rb , 206 g
c c
. . . .

g , om p oun d s of , 50; d e l , 111 a

- er H avi n g , vb s of , w g eru n d ,
c
. . . . . .

Ge ru n d , f orm , 155 b ; m eani n g , 159 a ; . . om p ar , 124 . .

ge run dive use d in st ead , 503 S yn t ax, . H elp , vh s of, W dat , 367 . . . .
45 8 IN D E X OF W OR D S AN D SUBJEC TS

illus, d im in u t ive e n d in g, I n defi n it e su b j e t om itt ed , 3 18 5 ; u se o f c

c
.

i lld st ri s, d e l , 1 15 N 1 2d p e rson f or, 439 a ; in g e n eral c on

— c c
. . . . .

-i m
, a c e e n di n d
. e l I I I , 7 3 76 . . d it io n s , 5 18 a ; li et c larum fi eri , 455 N . . .

-i m in re s s u j v , 1 83 2 I n d e fi n i t e valu e , 4 17 an d a
c
. . . . .
,

im b er, e c l , 66 , 67 , 7 6 b . . . I n d i at i ve m ood 154 b ; h ow u se d , 157 a, . . .

im man e q uan t um , 5 75 d 43 7 ; f or En g su i , i d a ; i n ap od of
c c c
. . . . . .

im m 6, h ow u s ed , 329 on d it ion s on t rary t o f ac t , 5 17 b ,

c c c
.
.
,

I m p e rat iv e m ood , 154 b ; h ow u s ed , 157 522 a ; i n au sal lau ses, 540; i n lau se
c
. . .

; t e rm i n at i on s , 163 b, 1 7 9 e ; d i c , d d c , wit h qu od , 5 7 2 ; i n d e li b erat ive q u e s

c
. .

fac , f er, 182 ; som e vh s us e d h i e fly i n , . t ion s, 444 a N . . .

206 g ; w i am d fi dum , 4 66 N 2 ; i n i n d ig e6, w ge n , 356 N

c
. . . . . . . .

om m an d s , 448 ; 3d p e rs , 448 a ; f orm s i n di gn u s , w abl , 418 b w qu i an d su i

c
. . . . .
. .
,
i n in d d is , 588 ; fu t , 44 9 an d a ;
c
. . .

v arious p e rip h rase s f or im v , 44 9, ; I N D I R EC T D I S C O U R S E, origin e t c , 577 ;

c
. .

i m pe rat iv e as p rot as is , 5 2 1 b li st of ve rb s t h at t ak e in d d is ,
c c
. . . .

I m p erat iv e S e n t en e , 269 d ftn ; d i re t an d in dir q u o t at i on , 57 8

c c
. . . . .

I m p e rf e t t e n se , d e fi n ed , 160 a, 47 1 ; u se , Mood s in in d d is , 580; ve rb of say

c
. . .

4 70; i n d es rip ti on s , id a ; W i am di d i n g i m p lie d , i d a S u b j ac c ,

c c c
. . . . . .

et c , i d 6 ; in ep t iv e an d on at ive , i d 0 ; S u b ord lau se wh e n e xp lan at ory , 58 3 ;

c c
. . . .

W i am , id N ; of su rp ri se , id d ; i n laus e s w re l wh i h i s e u i vale n t t o
c
. . . . . .

di alog u e , i d 6 ; ould , e t c , i d f ; d e m on st r , id 5 Te n se s O i n f in in d
c
. . . . . . . .

ep i st olary , 4 7 9 an d N ; re p rese n t e d b y . di s , 5 84 ; t e ns e s of su i , 585 ; s

ui . .

p e rf su i 48 5 b 3 ; i m p e rf su i d ep en d in g on p e rf i n f , id a ; p re s
c c
. . . . . . . . . .
, ,

seq u e n e , i d g , h , 5 84 a an d N an d p e rf aft e r s e on d ary t e n se ( rey rac

c
. . . .

im 1>e r6, on st r , 5 6 3 sen t a t id) , id 5 C on d it i on al se n t e n c e s

c c c
. . . .

I n i p e rson al on st ru t ion of p as s w in fi n in in d d is , 589 ; qu est i on s, 586 d e li b

c c
. . . . .

lau se , 566 b , 58 2 an d a e rat iv e s u i 58 7 ; om m an ds , 588 ;

c
. . .
,

reon al v e rb s , syn op sis of , 207 ; lassi i 2 I n f orm al i n d

1m p r o h i b i t i on d N
c
. . . .
,

ed , 208 ; p assive of i n t rans it i ves , id d is , 5 91 l , 592

c c
. . . .

d , 3 7 2 ; im p e rson als , m i seret e t c , w I n d ire t ob j e t , 27 4 , 361 , 362, 366, 36 7

c c
. . .

ge n , 354 , b ; li b et , li et , w d at , 368 1 ; I n di re t Qu e st ion s , d e fi n e d , 330, 33 1 ; S y n

c
. . . .

ac e w d ec et e t c , 388 t ax, 3 3 1 N , 33 2 b N , 5 7 3 — 575 ; f u t

c
. . . . . . . . . .

i m pe rt i 6, on s tr , 364 t e n se in , 57 5 a ; d elib e rat iv e s u i in ,

c
. . . .

i m pe t r6, ons t r , 56 3 , 568 ft n 2 i d b ; in di e i n ( e arly 0 ; 1111111

c
. . . . . .

im pe t u s, d e fe t , 103 d i n , 33 2 b N
c c
. . . . .

im p 1e6, ons t r , 409 a N I n dire t q u ot at ion , 57 8

c c
. . . . .

i m plic 6 , on st r , 364 I n d ire t re fl e xive , 300 2 an d b

c
. . . .

i m p6n 6, on st r , 430 . . I n d O-Eu rop e an , 14 , 18 , 19 .

i m u s , 130 a N 2 i n d d c 6 , w n am e s of au t h ors, 497 d N

c
. . . . . . . .

i a n e g p re fi x , 267 d 1 i n d u 6, d ou b le on str Of , 364

i a st e m — c
. . . . . .

e n d in g , 61 2 ; i a 83 a i n e 6, on st r , 3 7 0 b
c c c
. . . . . .

in , p rep , u se , 22 0 , 221 12 ;
. om p w . . . . i n ep t as , on st r , 505 a ft u . . . .

v h s , 267 a ; in , W ac e or ab l , 25 9 e
. in e rm i s or -u s , 122 a
c
. . . . . . .

(c f w ac c , p e n alt y , N ; in fera, d e fe t , 111 b, c f p 56 f t h 2 ;

c c
. . . . . . . . . .

vh s om p wit h , w d at , 3 7 0 i n W ac c , o m p ar , 130 b
c
. . . . . . . . .

W adj e , 385 b ; i n it at ion s, 428 d N 2 ; in feri , m e an in g in p lu r , 130 b

c
. . . . . . . . .

p la e W h e re , 42 6 3 ; i n id i om s of t im e , . i n f eri or, c om ari se n , 130 b . .

4 24 e ; W ab l of g e ru n d , 507 I n fi n it i ve C au se s , as s u b j or ob j , 452 ;
c c
. . . . . .

I n e p ti ve or I n h oat iv e ve rb s, 2 63 1 w p ass vb s , 582 an d a S ee also I n

c c
. .

c c
. . . .

I n lin at i on , adj s of , on st r , 3 84 , 385 b d i re t D is ou rse C f also 459

c
. . . . . . .

i n c lu t u s , om p ar , 13 1 a I N F I N I TI VE MO OD , 154 b an d ft n ; t e n se s
c c
. . . . .

I n om ple t e a t i on , t e ns es of S ee C on o f , 164 3 b , 486 ; h ow u se d , 157 d ; p as s

c
. . . . .

t in n ed a ti on . I n -i er, 183 4 fu t in f O f d epon e n t s ,

.
°
. .

In dec lin ab le n ou n sz ge n de r of , 33 ; list 190 0 ; su b e c t i n ac c , 3 97 e

'

. . . .

o f , 10 3 a ; ad je c t lves , 122 b I N F I N I TI v E O O D , S yn t ax, 451-463 ; u se d

c
.

c c
. .

In d e fi n i t e an t e e d e n t , relat iv e wit h , W . as su b j e t , 45 2 , om p le m e n t ary in f , .

su i 5 35 a a n d N 2
456 ; vh s h avin g su b v or in f , 45 7 ( c f
c
. . . .
,

I n d e fi n it e p ron ou n s , d e l , 148—
. . . .

151 S yn i n f f or Ob
'

563 N ; W
t ax, 309—
. .

c c c
. . . . .

3 15 ; in d e fi n i t e re lat i ve m ay su b j e t ac c , 45 ase of p red i at e

c c
.

gg
od u c e on dit ion al lau se , 5 12 N , . . n ou n , 581 an d N 8 ; in f of p u rp os e , 460; . .

i w ad j e , I n poe try, 46 1 of res ult , id a ;

. . .
 IN DE X OF W O RD S A ND S UBJEC TS 45 9

as p u re n ou n , id b ; in ex cl m a at ion s, I n t ran si t ive 273 2 , 2 74 ve rbs ,

c H i t ic
. . .

46 2 482
( seq u e n s or al i nf , e im pe rson al] r in pass , 208 d ;
g
. .
, . .

463 . Te n se s of in f , 486 ; p e rf i ns t e ad . . 366 u se t ran sit iv ely , w

d at , 369 ( c f 388 a
.

Of p res , i d d , e ; f ore n t e t c , for f u t W c ogn at e ac x ,

c
. . . . . . . .

in f , 569 a
. I n f in in d d i s , 57 9 ;
. . . . . 390; havin g p as si v e sen se , w ab , 405 a . . .

t e n se s , 584 .
-
i n u s, adj e n din g , 24 9 . .

I n fi n it ive u se d as n oun , g e n d e r, 33 ; w i n d t i ii s , w d at of g eru n d

c
. . .

en , 343 0 ( S ee also I n fi n iti ve Mood , i n vi c t u s , om p ar , 13 1 a

c
. . . . . .

y n t ax ) i vi t u s , om p ar , 13 1 (1
n
c
. . . .

in fi t ias , d e fe t , 103 b 6 ; use , 428 i -i 6

n oun e n din g , 238 b ;
g en d , 86
c
. . . . .
, . . .

I n flec t ion , d e fi n ed , 2 1 ; t e rm i n at ions of -i 6

, v
h s i n , on j b 2 , form s
c c c
. .

i d b ; h ow m odifi ed , 28 ; of d e l an d
.
’

of , 17 9 , e ; p ara
d igm , 188 on j I V,
°

c
. . . .

on j , 22 17 9 d ; d e ri vat ion , 262

c c
. . . .

I nfl u e n e , vh s of , w u t - lau se , 563 focu s , p lu r i n -i or -a, 106 b

c c c
. . . . . .

I n f orm al I n d ire t D isc ou rse , 5 91 , 5 92 I on i m e asu re , 609 ; v erse , 626 16 . . .

i n fra, u se , 220 a, 2 2 1 13 i p st e m -e n d in g , 56 a
c c c
. . . . .

i n g én s, d e l , 121 a 3 ; om p ar , 13 1 b i p se , f orm at i on , 146 N 7 , 8 , d e l u se ,

°

c
. . . . . . . . .

in i fi ri a, as ab l of m an n e r, 4 12 b °
298 ; u se d i n st e ad of re fi e xi ve , 300 b
c c
. . . . .

in i u ss fi , d e fe t , 94 i ri , in f u t in f p ass , 203 a
c
. . . . . . . .

in 0ps , d ec l , 12 1 a 3 , b 1 I ron i al st at em e n t n ot d iffe ren t in form

c
. . . . .

i n quam , in d u i t , 206 b ; posit i on o f, 599 from qu est ion , 33 2 a N

c
. . . . . .

I n se parab le p art i les , 26 7 b Irrati on al m e as u res , 609 e , 623 N

c
. . . . .

I ns e rt i on of on son an ts (p in sdm p si ) , ~i s -i ss -si s d ro e d i n e f 1 8 1 b N 2

pp p r
c
. . . .
,
.

15 11, 63 9
. . i s, d e l , 146 ; u s e , 152 , 297 d e ; u sed
. . .

i n sid iae , d at W , 36 7 d e m h at ic ally , 298 a ; u se d ins t e ad O f

c
. . . . .

i n spe rg6, on st r , 364 re e xive , 30 0 b

c
. . . .

i n st ar, in d e l , 103 a ; w ge n , 35 9 b -i s n om e n d in g, g en d 86 ;
-i s
, p at ro

c
. . . .
. . . .
, ,

in st 6, on st r , 563 n ym ic , 244
c
. . .

-i s f or -i i s in d e l I 43 e N 2
I n st ru m en t , ab l of , 409 ; n om an d
c c
. . . . . .
.
, ,

I ns t ru m en t al ase , 35 N ( c f 338 , ac e p lu r , d e l II I , 7 7 ( c f O f adj s ,

c c
. . . . . . . .

as ad v , 2 15 4 ; sou r e of seve ral abl 1 17 , 121 ; Greek n om e n d in g , 83 b . . .

c c
. . . .

on st ru t ion s, 408 .
-i s
, n ou
n s in , s e e i t

in sulam , ad , 428 a I slan ds, n am e s of , Ic e u se , 427 3 , 428 e ;

c
. .

c
. .

i nt eg er, d e l , 112 a . . . from whi h , 427 1 ; t o wh ic h , id 2 . . .

g , se6 181 b
-i sse -i sse m vb en d in
I n t e gral p art , s u i of , 5 91, 593 . .
, , . . .

i n t egru m est n t , 568 ~i

sso, vh s e n d 1n g 1n 263 b
c
. . .
.

I n t e n sive p ron ou n , 146 N 7 , 8 , 298 c - f i st e , sh orte n ed t o st e , 146 N 5 ; d e l , 146 ;

c
. . .
. . . .

In t e n sive v h s , 263 2 an d b use , 297 . .

c
. . .

in t er, u se , 220 a, 221 14 ; in om p , 267 a ; . . . . a .

vh s c om p W , 3 7 0; p ositi on , 435 i n t er sé I t , as sign I m p e rson als, 207 ft n

Of
c
. .

c c c
. . .

1t - as st e m -e n d 1n g 58 b ; d e l ,
( re ip ro al) , 145 , 301 f ; in t er si cari6s,
c
. .
. .

353 2 ; i nt er, W g e ru n d , 506 an d N 1 i t a , orrel wit h at , 3 23 ; in an sw e rs ,

g
. .

c
. . .
.

i nt erc lfi d 6, on str , 364 an d N 2 336 a ; it a n t , 537 2 N

cc c
. . . .

c
. . .

i n t erdi c 6, o n st r , 364 N 1 i t aqu e , a en t , 12 a ; om p are d with .

c
. . . .

i n t ere st , o n st r , 355 ; w ad , id b ; h ow . . .
erg 6, 3 24 i ; u se d wit h erg6, i d k ; pos i
.
.

t o exp re ss d e gree of in t e res t , i d N 2 t ion o f, 599 b

c
. .

c
. . .

i n t eri or, om p ar , 1 30 a i t er, st e m of , 7 9

c
. .

c
. . .

I n t e rj e t ion s , d e fi n ed , 20; list , 226 ; W . I te rat ive su I) u n c t ive , 5 18 . .

-i t6 -s6
d at , 3 7 9 a I t e rat ve i v e r s ( ,
-
t 6 , ),
c
. . .

~it 6 vh s i n 263 2
I n t e rlo k ed orde r of words , 598 h , . . .

c
. .
,

I n t e rm ed iate lau se s, S y n t ax of , 591 -i t u s ad

j e n d in g , 246
c
.
,

5 93 .
i u bar, de l , 7 6 a 3 . . . .

I n t rrogat ive ad vs , use , 333 ; positi on , 367 a ; W in f , 563 a ; in . .

gé
. .

c
.

5 b p as s 566
c
. . .

I n t e rro gat ive p arti les , li st o f , 217 d c . iu cun d u s,

o n st r , 5
c
10 N 2
. . . .

u se , 33 1- 333 . i fi geru m , d e fe t 103 d 3 ; dec l , 105 6 ; . . . . .

I n t erro g at iv e p ro n ou ns , 148 -151 ; u se , m e asure , 636

c
.

333 ; p o sit ion , 598 b -i um

, ge
n p lu r , d e l. a ; of adj s. . .

c
. .

I n t e rrog at ive se n t e n es , 269 6 ; f orm s of, 114 6

—
. .
.

330 3 36 .
-i u m
,
n ou n en b .

in t ra ( i n t eri or) , 130 . a; de riv ation , 2 15 4 . . i u n g6, w ab l or at , 368 3 N , 413 N

. . . . . . . .
46 0 IND E X OF W OR D S A N D SUBJEC TS

I uppi t er, st e m an d d e l , 7 9 an d b ; p lu ral, c lin t er, d e l , 66 c

c c
. .

61—
.

100 a ; d e ri v at ion , 2 66 Liqu i d s, 3 , 4 ; st e ms in , d e l 64

c
. . . . .

-i u s ad j e i n -li s ad s i n
, g
e n , voc o f , 1 10 a ; fo rm a j om p ar , 126
c
. . . . .
,
. .
, ,

t ion of adjs i n , 247 Li t ot e s , 326

c c
. . .

-li u m n oun e n din g , 241

id s ( broth ) , d e l , 103 g 1 . . . .
, . .

i n s, g e n s in e n d in g , 113 ; qu an t it y , id
. . ll as st em e n d in g , 62 N 1 . . .

0, 603 a xc 1 lo ( lie ) , p ri m ary s u ffi x, 234 I I 10

c c c c
. . . . . . .

i u ssfi , d e fe t , 94 , 10 3 b 5 Lo at ive abl , 4 26 3 ; i d iom at i u s e,

c
. . . . . . .

i fi st 6, w om p ar , 40 6 a 429 3 ; ad ve rb i al form s, 2 15 5
A
. . . .

c
. . .

i u vat , w ac c , 388 LO C TIV E , d e fi n e d , 35 h , p 34 f t n (c f

c c c c
. . . . . . . .
.

i u ven i s , de l , 62 N 3 , 7 8 1 ; m as adj 360) i n ab l , 3 98 , 42 1 ; O f d e l I , 43 ;

c c c c
. . . . . . . .
.

122 d ; om p ar , 13 1
. . . . d e l I I , 49 a ; d e l I I I , 80; d eel I V
. . . .

; d eel V, 98 b ; as ad v ,
1
i n v6, w ac c , 367 a . . . .
( d om i ), 93 N . . . . .

i dxt a, p o sit i on , 43 5 . 2 15 5 ; W abl i n app osit ion , 28 2 d

. . . .
°

-i v i n p e rf , 2 11 d . . . relat ive adv u se d t o re fe r t o, 308 g . .

-i vu s
rb al ad j e n din g, 251 N an im i , 358 ; loe u s ed t o ex p re ss wh e re ,
, ve
. . . .

426 3 ; form s ( d om i 427 a

ch c
. .

J (th e ara t er) , 5 N 1 ; En g sou n d , id 1006, ab l wi t h ou t p rep , 429 1

J li c
. . . . . . .

u an C ale n dar, 630, 631 e 1006, vb , on st r , 430

c c
. . . . .

lo u m ap ere , w d at of eru n d
K c
. .

su pp lan t ed b y C, 1 a N lo u s, p lu r -i or -a, 10 6
Logace dic Ve rse , 623 —
. . . . .
,
k alen dae , 63 1 a . . 6 25 .

Kin d re d form s , Lat in an d En glish , 18, 19 Lon g an d S h ort , se e Qu an t it y

c c
. .

Kin d re d sign ifi at ion , ac e of 3 90 lon gi u s, wit h ou t qu am , 407

c
. . . .
,

Kn owin vb s of , w ac e an d i n f , ldd i c er, d e l , 112 a

c
. . . . . . .

Kn owl ge , adj e of w g en , 349 a lu é s, d e fe t , 103 d 1

c
. . . . . . . . .
,

11 0 p ri m ary su fii x, 234 I I . . 12 . 16 x, d e l , 103 g 2 . . . .

L, n ou n s in -1
ge n d 87 a dj st e m s in M fi n al elisi on o f , 612 d N f ; i n se rt e d
c
. . . . .
, , , ,

1 117 a in ve rb root , 17 6 2
c
. . . . .

Lab i als , 4 2 ; ste m s, d e l I I I , 56 an d a

. . .
-m sig n of ac c . 3 38 ; om it t ed i n in sc rip
, ,
lab6r6, w ab l , 40 4 a t ion s 46 N 1
c c
. . . . . . .
,

lac us, d e l , 89 ; d at an d ab l p lu r i n -u b u s, m ac er, d e l , 1 12 a

c c c
. . . . . . .

92 . . m ac t e vi rt ut e , u se an d on st r .
, 340 .

1aed6, w ac c , 367 a an d N
c c
. . . . .

laet or, laet u s, w ab l , 4 3 1 m ag i s , as Sign of om p ar 128 ; o m p s.

c
.
. . .
,
lam pas, d e l , 82 of , w qu am , 4 34
c
. . . .

lat e6, w ac c , 3 96 m agni , g e n of v alu e , 417

c
. . . . . .

lat et , w ac c , 388 e N 1 m ag n u s , om p arison , 129

cc
. . . . . . .

lat ifu n d iu m , 265 2 . . mai i est at i s, w word s of a u sin g e t c .

li t u s, art , d e ri vat ion , 200 f t n 2 35 2 a

p
c
. . . . . .

Le arn I n g , v h s o f , w i n f , 456 Main lau se , d efi n ed , 27 8 b

c
. . . . . .

Len gt h , e xp re sse d b y g en , 345 b m ai or n at d , 13 1

c
. . . . .

-16n s -le n t as d e n d in gs, 245

, a j
m ai6r68 , sig n ifi at ion of , 101 3 ( c f 102
c c
. . . .
,

106, d e l , 6 2 2 91 N 3
c c c
. . . . . .

Le t t e rs , lassifi at ion of, 1—5 Mak in g , vh s of , on st r , 3 93

c c c c
. . . .

levi s, d e l , 116 ; om p ar , 124 . . . m ale , om p ar , 2 18 ; om p ou n ds of , w . .

levi t er, c om ar , 2 18 d at , 368 2

c
. . . . .

m m , adj 50, 111 a m 6 16, on j , 199

c c
. . .
, . .

Libe r, d e l , 50 m alu s , om p ar , 129

c
. . . .

li b eri , n ou n , 50, 101 3 m an d 6, on st r , 563

c c
. . . .

li b e t , i m p e rs , 208 N ; w d at , 368 1 m an e , d e fe t n ou n , 7 6 N 1 , 103 b 5

c c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

li et , im p e rs , sy n Op si s, 207 ; u se , 2 08 m au e6, w ab l , 43 1
’

c
. . . . . .

N ; w d at , 3 68 1 ; w p re di at e d at , Man n e r, ad vs of , 21 7 e ; abl of , 412 an d

c
. . . . . . . . .

455 1 ; w su i , m ea
n i n g alt h ou g h , b h ard t o di st in g u ish f rom ab l of sp e i
c c c
. . . .

52 7 b ; li et eam , li et m 6 i re , li et m i h i fi c at ion , 418 a N ; m an n e r i m p lied i n

c
. . .

i re , 565 an d N 2
p art i ip le , 496
c
. . .

Lik e n e ss, ad js of , w d at 384 ; w ge n m an su ét u s , 266

c
. . . . . . .
, ,
m an u s , d e l , 89 ; g en d , 90 Exe
c
. . . .

Li m i t in g word , m ean in g of , 27 6 b . . m are , d e l , 7 6 a 3 , 7 8 . . . .

Lin g u als, 4 3 ; . st em s in , d e el III , 58 a . . . m ari , loc , 427 a . . .

4 62 IN DE X OE WOR D S AND SUBJECTS

N , 4 ; as fi n al le t t e r o f st e m 61 1 (16 6m ) n é qu i s , d e l , 3 10 a c
c
. . .
, .

re ed in st e rn vowe l of vb , 17 6 b l ; n esc i 6 an , 5 75 d
p g
c
. . . . .

I n se rt e d I n verb root ( t an g 6) , 17 6 2, n esc i6 q u i s , as in d e fi n it e with ou t su

. .
i , .

177 b N 5 75 d
c
. . . . .

ai i s, d e l , 82 -n eu s ad
j en d in 24 7
c c
. . . .
,
-nam
( e n li t i ) , in q u e st ions , 333 a N e u t e r ac e as a v , 214 d , c f b N
c
. . . . . . . .

ri am , nam q u e , us e , 3 24 h , It . . N e u t er adj e , sp e i al u se s of , 28 9 . .

N am e s of m e n an d wom en , 108 N e u t e r gen d er, g e n e ral ru le f or, 33 ;

cc c
.

N am in g , vh s of , W t wo a s , 3 93 alik e I n , 38 b ; e n d in gs of d e l I I I , 87
c c c
. . . . . . .

N asals , 4 , 6 ; i ns e rte d in verb root , 176 2 N eu t er p ron as ogn at e acc , 390

c
. . . . . . .

nat ali s , d e l , 7 6 b 2 N e u t e r v e rb s , see I n t ran sit ive Ve rb s

c c c
. . . .

nat d ( ma i or, m i n or) , 131 n eve , onn e t i ve in p rohibit i on s , 450 N 5

c c
. . . . .

ni t u s e t c , w abl of sou r e , 40 3 a n ex, d e l , 10 3 2

c
. . . . . . . .

navi s , d e l , 76 b 1 . . . . ni p rim ary s x , 234 I I 5 . . .

, vowel s
-n a -n t
h ort b e f ore , 10 e n i , n i si , 5 12 N ; use of, 5 25 a
c
. . .
, . .

-u d as
rb al ad j e n d in g , 25 3 a ; ge m u -n i a -n i um n ou n e n d i n s 24 1
, ve g ,
c c
. . . .
, ,
d ive i n , 158 d n i g er, d e l , 112 ; d is t in t f rom at e r, 131
c c
. . . .

-n o e n lit i
( ), u s e in q u es t i ons 332 a-c
;
c c c c
.
,

w for e of n 6n n e , 332
.
; orig m e an . . n ihil, in de l 103 a ; on t r to nil, 603 C
.
,
. . . .

in g , id N 1 ; in d ou b le q u e st ion s , 335 ; h i b i li , g en o f v alu e , 4 17 a

c
. . . . .

i n e x lam at ory q u est i on s, 462 a ; qu an . h i b i li an d 11 11 1116 , 103 a N 2 . . . .

t i ty , 604 a 1 . . . n i mi rum q uam ,as i n d efi n it e wi t h ou t su i ,

.

n 6 n e g of h ort at or su i , 439 ; in p ro 5 75 d
y
c c
. . . .

hib it ion s, I n on ess ion s , 5 27 a ; n i n g i t , 208 a . .

w su i of p rovi so , 528 b ; i n fi n al n i si an d si n 6n , 5 25 a ; n i si si , id 3
c
. . . . .

lau se s, 531 ; = n 6d u m , 5 3 2 N 1; in n i si v6r6 ( f ort e) , id b

c
. . . .

s u b st an t i ve lau se s, w vh s o f h in d e r . . n i t or, w ab l , 43 1
. . .

in g , 558 b ; of f e ari n g , 564 ; om it t e d

. n i x ( st e m an d 7 9 d ; p lu r , 100 b . . . .

af te r c av6, 565 N 1 . . . N o, i n answe rs, h ow e xp re sse d , 336 a 2 . .

n 6 n 6n , w vh s of f e arin. . n o ( na p ri m ar su ffi x , 234 I I 4 . . .

n6 qu i dem , u se , 3 22 aft e r n 6u , 3 27 . no ve rb s u ffi x , 7 6 b 1 . . .

1 ; aft e r n 6n m od o, 2 17 e ; posi t ion of , . E611, in p rohi bi t ion s , 450 ( 1) an d N 1 . .

u 616, 0011 ” 199 ; p art w d at of t h e p e r

3
599 b . . . . .

N e arn e ss, adj s of, W d at , 384 ; w gen , son j u in , 3 7 8 N ; w p e rf ac t in f

g g . . . . . .

c
. . . . .

385 . . in p roh i bi t I On s , 486 e ; w p e rf p as s . . . . .

n ec e n im , 3 24 h in f ( or p art ) , id d an d N
c
. . . .

ne cesse , in d e l , 10 3 N 1 ; n ec e sse est n t , N om e n , d en ot in g ge n s, 108

'

c
. . . .

568 , 569 2 N 2 n 6m en , d e l , 64 .

c
. . . . .

N e e ssit y , vh s o f , W p e rf p ass inf , n 6m en e st , w p re d n om or d at , 3 73 a ; . . . .

c
. . . . . .

486 d ; i n apod , 5 17 , 5
22 a ; w u t w ge n , id N
c
. . . . . . . . .

lause , 569 2 . . om i n al ad j e , 243 - 254 . .

nec n e i n d ou b le u est ion s, 335 an d N N O MI N A TI VE d e fi n e d , 35 a ; n om su ffi x ,

q
. . .

n 6d u m , 5 32 N 1 , 338 ; n eu t p lu r n om an d ac e alik e ,
c c
. . . .

c
. .

n efa s , in d e l , 10 3 a ; W s u p in e in 5 10 38 b ; in d e l I I , 45 a ; in d e l I I I , . . .

c
. . . . .

N e gat ion , p e rf e t p re fe rre d in, 47 5 a 56 , 58 , 61, 66 , 7 9 ; of n e u t e rs , i -st e m s ,

c
. .

N e gat ive an s we rs , 33 2 b , 336 an d a 2 68 a ; i n u -st e m s , d e l I V, 88 ; in e

c
.

c
. . . .

e gat i ve part i le s, li st of , 2 17 e ; use s t em s , d e l V, 95

A
. . .

of , 3 25 ; t w o n e t ive s , 326 ; n eg form . N O M I N TI V E, S y n t ax ( see in p re d

di ff e ren t f rom n glish , 328 ; n eg c on i c at e , 283 , 28 4 ; verb-ag re e m en t wit h ,
c c
.

di t ion , 525 a ; n eg p rovi so , 528 ; n e g 3 16 ; as su b j e t , 33 9 ; i n e x lam at ion s ,

c
. . .

p u rpos e , 5 3 1 ; n eg resu lt , 538 , 568 ; 339 a ( c f 3 97 d ) ; u se d f or v o at iv e ,

c
. . . .

p o sI t i on of , 5 99 a . . 340 a ; w Opu s in p re d i at e , 411 b ;

. . .

n eg 6, b e t t e r t han d i 06 n 6n , 328 , 5 80 b n om of g eru n d su pp li ed b y inf , 502 N

c
. . . .
. .

n eg 6t iu m d 6 n t , 563 f t n 2 . . . n 6n , d e riv at ion , 2 15 1; om p ou n d s of , .

n 6m 6, use of 314 ;
ge n an d abl sin g re 326 a, b ; in an swe rs , 336 a 2 . . .

c
. . . .
,
n 6n d u b i t 6 qu i n , 55 8 a ; n 6n d u b i t 6 w in f ,
p la e d b y n d lli u s an d n d ll6, 3 14 a ; n 6m 6 . . . .

n 6n , 326 b ; n em 6 est q u i , 535 a N 1

. . . . . id N 2 ; w i n dir q u e st , i d N 1
. . . . . . .

n eq u e ( n ee) , an d n ot , 328 a ; n equ e e n i m , . n 6u m od o, af t e r a n e g at ive , 3 27 1 .

use , 324 h ; n e qu e aft e r a m g , 3 27 2 , 3 n 6n m od o n6 q u i d em , 21 7 e . .

c c
. . .

n 6quam , i n d e l , 122 b ; om p ar of , 129 n 6n n 6m 6, n 6u n fi llu s , e t c , 326 a . . .

c
. . . .

n eq u e6, on j , 20 6 d . . .
n 6n qu ia ( qu od , q u 6,; qu in ) e t c , 540 N 3 . . . .
 I ND E X OF W ORD S AN D SUBJECTS 463

ndn sat i s , 291 c N 2 obe 6, c t 37 0 b

on s r
c
. . . .
,
. . .

N on es ( n6nae) , 63 1 O b yi g
e h
n , v s of , 367 W ac c , id a
Obj c t c
. . . . . . .

n 6nn e , i n q u e sti on s, 33 2 b e ase s, 274 a

c Ob j t cl —
. .
. .

1168 , d e l , 143 ; f o r e g o, 143 a au ses , in fi n , 45 2 ; su i , 56 1 568

. . ec
O b j ct d fi c
. . . .

nost e r, f or p oss g e n , 302 a e e n ed , 27 4 ; be om e s su b j of

c c
. . . .

c
.

n os t ri , as O b j e t i v e g en , 1 43 , 295 b p ass , 275 , 38 7 b ; ac e of d i re t W

c
. . . . . . . .

n os t ru m , as p art it iv e g e n , 143 b, 295 b ; d at of i n d i r Ob j , 362 ; se on d ary

c
. . . . . .

as ob jec t ive ge n 295 b N 1 Ob j , 3 94 ; obj of an t i ip at ion , 5 76

c
. . . . . . . .
'

oun an d ad j f orm s of v b , 166 . . . O b e c t i ve ase e xp res se d in Lat in b y gen , .

N ou n st e m , t re at ed as roo t , 176 d at 27 4 a
ac c o r abl
c c c
. . . . . .
, , , .

on u s d e fi n ed , 20 a ; i n d e l , g e n d , 33 ; O b je t ive om pou n d s, 265 3

c jc
. . . . .

d e l of , 37 - 95 ; d e rivat i v e f orm s of, 235 O b e t i ve g en it ive , m ei e t c , 143 0 ; d e

c
. . .

2 41 ; u sed as ad j e t ives , 3 21 0 ; rule of . fi n ed , 348 N ; w n ou n s, 348 ; w ad js , . . .

g re e m en t , 28 1 ; w p art g e n 346 a 1 ;
. .

. . . . . 349 .

gen , 3 48; gove rn in g ac c , 388 Obli g a ion , u nf u lfi lle d , h ortato ry su i

n i g
' . . .
,
n ou n as p ro t as i s , 5 2 1 a 43 9
c c
. .

oun s of ag e n y , 235 ; form at ion , 236 . Ob li qu e as es, 35 g ; origi n of n am es of , .

n ov e n d ec im , 133 N 2 338
c
. . . .

n ox , d e l , 7 2 ob 1i vi sc or, w ac e or ge n , 350 a, b
c
. . . . . . .

as , u i , g n , q u an ti t y of p re ed in g vowel, ob vi u s ( ob vi am ) , d e rivat ion , 21 6 an d N ; .

10 d , 603 d ob vi am as app aren t ad j , 32 1 d ; w d at ,

c c c
. . . . . . .

-
as , as ad j e t ive e n din g , 118 ; p art i ip le s 37 0
c cc c
. .

in , d e l , 1 19, 121 b 2 ; w ge n , 349 b ; O as ion , e xp re ss ed b y p art i ip le , 496

c
. . . . . . .

w ac c , i d N 1 , 2
. . . . . 6c i or, om p ar , 130 . .

nt (ont en t p rim ary su ffi x , 234 I I 18 oc t 6d eci m , 133 N 2

c c
. . . . . .

nt st e m s i n , d e l , 1 2 1 a 4 . . . . 6di , on j , 205 ; W m eani n of p rese n t , 47 6

. .

-oe for -i i n n om
nu
p ri m ary s u fii x, 234 I I 6 p lu r , e el II , 52 d
c c
. . . . . . . .
,

ad h6 s , d e l , 7 2 . . offen d 6, on st r , 37 0 b . . .

-6iu s n am e s i n 49
n d b6 , W d at , 368 3 f
c
. .
. . . .
, ,
mi nu s , d e l , 113 ; u se , 3 14 a ; c f n 6m 6 Old form s of p ron ou ns : m i s, t i s, 143 a
c c
. . . . . .

n um , f or e of , 33 2 b ; in in di re t N ; m éd , t 6d , id
qu e s . . .

t ion s , id N ollu s ( i lle) , 146 N 4

c
. . . . .

u m b e r, 35 ; n ou n s, d e f e t i n , 99 , 100, -olus d im in u t ive e n din

g,
c
.
,

101 , 103 f , g ; variab le in , 107 p ec ul O m iss ion , Of p osse ssi ve , 302 ; of an t e

c c
. .

i ar u se s, 101 N 1 , 3 17 d N 2 ; n u m b e r . . . . . e d en t , 30 7 . .

in vh s , 154 e ; ag re e m e n t i n , 280; w
. . . om n é s ; n 6s omn é s ( in ste ad of om n 6e n os
ap p osit ives , 28 2 a ; w ad j e , 286 an d b ; . . . t ru m ) , 346 e . .

W vb s , 3 16, 3 17 d 6n s t e m -e n d in g , 83 0
c
. . . . . .

N u m e ral ad v s , 138 -6n Gree k en din

g , d e l II , 52
um e rals , 132— c
. .
, . .

139 ; ard in als an d ord i 6n st em -e n d in 6 1 1, 234 I I 13

c
. . . .

n als , 13 2 , 133 ; dis trib u t ives , 136 ; ad vs , -6n e n p lu r , ec l I I , 5 2

, g

c
. . . . . .

138 ; oth e rs , 139 Positi on of n u m e ral .

-6 n n om en d in
, g , 83 .
, d
. .

ad js , 598 b . . . on t n om -6n , 83 d . . .

n um q u i s , 149 b , 310 a Ope n sy llable s , 7 N 2

cc
. . . . . .

n un , om pared W iam , 322 b Ope ra, w g e n , 40 5 b

c
. . . . . . .

n un n un c , 3 23 f . . operam d 6, w d at of g e run d e tc , 505 . . .

n uru s n d ” 90 w su i 563
gje
a
. . .
,
-n u s, e n d in g , 250 Op e rat ion s of n at u re , 208 a
c
. .

Op i n i6n o, w om p ar , 40 6 a
c c
. . . .

O for u ft er u or v , 6 a, b ; in de l II , opi n or, po sit i on of , 5 99

g c c
. . . .

N oport e t , 208 ; w ac c , 388 ; in apod ,

c c
. . . . . .

o
p ri m ary su ffi x, 234 I 1 . . . 5 17 ; im p e rfe t re fe rs t o p res en t ,
.

- ab l lu p f t o p ast , 522 a N 1 ; w su i
,

6 n om , 61 1 ; g en d , 86 ; i n f e m or
. . . . .
p . . . . . .

o f Gree k ad js , 1 11 b N In f , 565 an d N 8
c
. . . . .

-6 -6ni s n oun e n d in
, , g , 236 ,
255 . . oport u it , w p re s in f , 486 a ; w p e rf
. . . . .

6 5 1, w su i O f wis h , 442 a an d N 1 i n f , id b
c
. . . . . . . .

o-s t e m s , d e l in ad js , 111—113 ; . . opp i dum , ad , 428 b . .

vb s from o-st e m s , opp ugn 6 , w ac c , 37 0 b

c c
. . . . .

ob , u se , 220 a, 221 15 ; i n om p , 267 a ;

. . . . Op s , d e fe t , 103 f 1 . . . .

in c om p w vhs , W d at , 37 0; to e xp re ss . . . Op t at i ve , d e ri vat ion , an d c om parison

6an d N 1
. .

c ause , 404 b ; W g e ru n d 50 _
. . . . W su i
.
,
436 . .
4 64 IN D E X or W OR D S A ND SUBJE CTS

O p t at ive form s in t h e vb , 168 e N 2 , d epon e n t vb s , 190 a, b , 491 , 493 ; adjec

c
. . . . . .

169 d . . t iv e u se , 4 94 ; as n ou n s , i d a ; p re d i ate .

Op t at ive su i (wish ) , 44 1 ; W u t in am . . u se , 495 496 ; W op u s , 4 97 a ; p e rf W

, . . . .

e t c , 442 ; v eli m e t c
. W su i , eq
u iv . . . . b ab ee, i d b ; p re se n t W fac io, i d 0 ; f u t
. . .

t o , id b u re p art , 4 98 ; W p ast t e n s es of e sse ,

c
. . . .

opt im a t es, 7 1 5 , 101 3 498 b , p oe t i an d lat e u se , 499 ; g eru n d

c
. . . .

Op u s , i n d e l , 103 (1 ; Op u s an d usu s , W . . . i ve , u se as p art or adj , 500; p art as . . .

ab l , 4 11 ; as p re d n om , id b; W p rot asis , 5 2 1 a
c c
. . . . . . .

, 5 0
i l
p art ip e , 97 4 a ; W s u p i n e i n -fi
1 Part i les d e fi n ed , 23 ; f orm s an d c lass ifi
c c
. . .

or st e m -e n d in g , d e l I I I , 63 Ewe 2 . . . . at ion , 2 13 ; n ot e o n form at ion , 2 15 ,

-or
n ou n e n din g , 238 a 2 16 ; i n t e rrog at ive , 217 d ; n eg at iv e ,
c
. . .
,

or -b s , n om e n d i n g , 62 N 2 ; g e n d , 85 id ea, 325 , i n o m p s , 26 7 S y n t ax, 3 2 1

c c c
. . . . . .

O rci t ié o bli qu e , se e I n dire t D i s ou rs e 336 ; u se of i n t e rrog at ive p art i le s, 33 2

— c c
. .

O rd er o f w ord s , 595 601 a- c ; on d it ion al p art i les , 5 12 a an d

c c c
. .

O rdin al N u m b e rs , 13 2—135 ; d e l , 134 6 ; N , 5 25 ; p art i le s of om p ari son , 524

c c
. . . .

us e of e t W it h , 135 a, b Part i u lar on dit ion s d e fi n ed , 5 13

c c
. . .

6r5 , on st r , 56 3 part i er, on j , 190

c
. . . .

Orp h eu s , d e l , 5 2 e Part it i ve ap p osit ion , 28 2 a

c
. . . . .

os~, st e m of om p arat i ve s , 120 b Part it ive g e n it i ve , 3 46 ; n ost ru m e tc , 143

c
. . . .

-08 f or -u s in n om s in d e l I I 46 N 1 b ; n e u t adjs Wi t h , 346 3 an d N 1

, g , , ; . . . . . . . . . .

as Gre e k e n d in g , 5 2 ; as g e n e n d i n g in Part i t i v e n u m e rals , 1 39 0

c c
. .

Gre ek n ou n s, d e l I I I , 8 1 1 Part s o f Sp ee h , 20
c c
. . . .

08 , ossi s , s t e m , 7 9 part u s, d e l , 92
c c
. . . .

-63 , n om e n d in g , 62 N 2 ; g e n d , 85 paru xi , om p ar , 2 18 a ; m ean in g , 291

c i
. . . . . . . . .

as , Gri s , d e l , 103 g 2 . . . . N .

fi su s, -lén s , len t u s; adj e n din gs, 245 .

p arvi , ge n of v al e , u 417
c
. . . .

ovat ( d e f e t i ve ) , 20 6 f
c c
. .

ovi s , d e l , 7 6 b 1 Passi ve v oi e , 154 a ; origin , 163 ft n 2 ,

c
. . . . . . .

208 d N s ign ifi at ion , 156 ; re fl e x i v e

c
. . .

P, p aras it i aft e r m ( sam p en, 15 11 . . m e an in g , id a ; d e p on e n t s , 156 b , c om . .

pac t b, as ab l of m an n e r, 412 b p let ed t e n se s , 110W form e d , 17 9

0
. . . .

2
pae n e i n a p o d 5 17 b N p as si v e us e d im p e rson ally , 2 3 a, 208
c c
. . . . . .
, ,

paen i t et , 2 08 b ; on st r , 35 4 b, d , 372 ( c f a)
c
. . . . . .

Paeon , 609 d pat er fam i lias , d e l , 43 b

c
. . . . .

palam , as ap p are n t adj , 3 2 1 d; W ab l p at i en s , om p ar , 1 24 a

c c
. . . . . . .
,
p at i or, on st r , 563
c
. . .

Palat als , Pat ri als in -as , d e l , 7 1 5 , 12 1 a 4

c c
. . . . .
‘

p alii st e r, d e l , 115 a Pat ron ym i s -ad es , -i d es , -eu s, 244

c c
. . .

Pan t h fi s, vo at ive of , 5 2 b pau p er, d e l , 1 2 1 a 4

c c
. . . . . .

pi t , d e l , 1 19, 12 1 a 3 ; W
. . . .
g e n , 385 . . e ; pi x d e l , 103 g 2
, . . . .

W d at of ge ru n d e t c , ft n 2 p ec u, ge n d , 91 ,
cc
. . . . . .

Parallel v e rb form s , 189 . p ec u n i ae , g en , W v h s of a u sin g , 35 2 . . . .

Parat axi s , 268 a an d N

c
. .

p arat u s, W i n fi n , 460 b . . . .
p ed est er, d e l , 115 a . . .

Pardon in g , v h s of , W d at , 367 p elagu s 48 a

c c c
. . . . . .

Pari syllab i n ou n s of d e l I I I , 65 a . . .
pe lvi s , d e l , 7 6 b 1 . . . .

parit er, u se , 384 N 2 . . . Pe n alty , g en of , 352 an d N ; abl of , . . .

part e , loc at ive u se , W it h ou t p re p , 429 1

. . . . 353 2 . .

p art em , ad verb i al u se , 3 97 a Pen at es, d e al 5 ( c f 101

c
. . . . .

parti c e ps , d e l , 121 a 4 , b . . . . pe n es , followin g n ou n , 435 .

Pm ri c rr m c s, d e fi n ed , 20 b N 1 ; c om
'
. . . Pe n t am e t e r ve rse , 616 .

p ari son of , 124 a ; n u m b er of , 155 a ; Pe n u lt , d e fi n e d , 12

c
. . .

h ow u sed , 158 p enu s, g e n d , 90 Ev a ; d e l , 10 5 o

—
. . . . . .

PA a rrc re '
s, S y n t ax, 488 50 0; agree p er, p re p , 220 a ; u se , 22 1 16 ; W ac e
c A
. . . . .

m e n t , 286 an d N lau se e q u ivale n t t o of ag e n t , 405 b d ve rbi al p re fi x , W

c
. . .

p a rt , 3 08 0.
; art s i n -n
s, u s ed as adj s ,
. . . ad j s , 267 d 1 ( c f 291
. N . w vb s , . . . . . . .

w g en , 349 p art s i n ab l ab solu t e , 267 d N

c c
. . . . . . . .

419 ; m e an in g an d f orm , 488 ; t en se s , Pe r e iv in g , vh s of , on st r , 459

489— c
. . .

493 ; p rese n t i n sp e ial u se , 490; p eren d i é 98 b , 215 5

c c
. . .

p res p ass p art , h ow su p p li ed , 492 ;

. . . Pe rfec t p art i ip le , t wo u se s , 158 1, 2 ; . .

p e rt ac t , h ow sup p li ed , 493 ; p art s of

. . . of d e p on en t s , 190 b ; u se d as n ou n , .
466 I ND E X or W OR D S AND S UBJEC TS

Possess ive o m poun ds , 265 a c . . Predi c at e n ou n or ad

'

. aft e r inf .
, 452 . N 2, .

Posse ss i ve g en i t i ve , 343 an d a- c ; d at of 455 a an d N , 458 81 N 8

c
. . . . . . .

re fe re n e u s ed i n st e ad , 3 7 7 Pre p osit ion s , assim ilat i on of , 16 ; d e fi n ed ,

Posse ss ive p ron ou n s , 145 ; agre em e n t , 20 f ; de rivat ion of , 2 19 ; li st of p rep s
c
. .

302 ; in ste ad of g en , id 0 ; sp e ial m e an W ac c , 220 a ; W ab l , id b ; w e it h e r,

c c c
. . . . . . . . .

in g s , id b ; om i s sion , i d 0 ; u se d su b id ; idi om ati u ses , 22 1 ; om p w vb s

c
. . . . . .

st an t i ve ly , id d ; w ge n in ap p id e ; an d ad j s , 267 a, ; n oun W p rep , in

c c
. . . . . . . . .

u sed f or g e n 343 f or ob j g e n st e ad of ob j g e n , 348 ; in om p W

c
. . . . . . . .
,
.

v h s , w d at , 37 0, 38 1 ; ac e in
. . om p , . . .

Poss ib ili t y , vb s of, in apod osis , 395 ; w ab l of s ep arat ion , 401 ; p re

c
. . .

possu m in ap od os is , 5 17 0 . . om i tt e d i n re lat ion s o f la e , 427 1 ,

post , adve rb ial u s e of , 433 1 ; Wit h q u am , 429 an d a ; us e of , 220, 1 , 429 b , 430,
43 2 —
. .

434 435 ; prep s f ollowi n g t h e n ou n , 435 ;

c
. .

post , v h s o m p W , Wi t h d at , 37 0 us u al p o s1t ion of , 5 99 d ( S ee

c c
.

c c
. . . . . .

p ost ers , d e fe t , 111 b ; om p ar , 130 b ; . . . . Presen t p art i ip le , d e l , 119 ; u s e , 158 a . . .

post e ri , id . Pre se n t ste m , h ow form ed , 168 , 174 ; from

post eri or, 1 30 b root , 176
c c c
. . .

Pos t p osit ive on j u n t ions , 3 24 j Pre se n t su b j u n ti ve in -im , 183 2

c
. . . .

( post eaquam ) , i n t e m p oral Prese n t t e ns e , w iam d i u e t c , 466 ; o n a~

c
. .

ti ve , 467 f or fu t , 468 ; h is t ori al, 46 9 ;

c
.

post rem o, in e n u m erati ons , 322 d N an n alist i , id a ; W d um , 556 ; i n qu o

c
. . . . .

post ri di é , w 35 9 b ; W ac c , 43 2 a ; t at ions , 465 a ; seq u e n e , 483 , 485 e , i ;

a c
. . . . . .

W q uam , 4
.
p re s i n f W pot ui e t c , 486 a ; p art i ip le ,
. . . . .

post u lb ab , 396 a ; post u lo n t , 563 48 9, 490, 492 , 494 , 496 Pre s w t i n i n d

c
. . . . . .

Pote n t ial m ood , h ow e xp res se d in Lat in , d is re fe rri n g t o p as t ti m e , 5 84 a an d N

. . .

157 b Pre t e rit ive ve rb s, 205 N 2 , 47 6

c c
. . . .

Pote n t ial su b j u n t ive , 445 -447 Pre ve n t in g , vh s of , on st r , 364 N 2

c c
. . . . . .

pot i or ( adj om p ar , 130 . . Pri e , abl or g e n , 4 16 . . .

pot i or ( ve rb ) , W g e n , 35 7 a, 41 0 a ; W . . . . p ri di é , f orm , 98 b ; w g e n , 35 9 b ; w ac c , . . . . . .

abl , 410; W ac c , i d N 1 ; g e run di ve ,

. . . . . 432 a ; w q uam , 434
. . .

N 2 . Prim ary su ffi x es , d efi n e d , 233

pot i s , pot e , 122 b Prim ary t e n s e s , 482 1 , 483
c c
. . . .

poti n s, om p ar , 2 18 a . . . p ri m i pi lari s , d e l , 7 6 a 2 . . . .

pot ni , W p re s in fi n , 4 36 a P rim it iv e ve rb s, 256

c c
. . . . . .

Pra t i e , vh s of , 263 b p ri m a, prim um , m e ani n gs, 3 22 d an d N

c c c c
. . . . .

prae , 220 b ; . use , 22 1 17 . in om p .

, 291 . . p ri m bri s , d e fe t , 122 . . .

N 1 ; in in c om p ar p ri m u s , form , 130 f t n 2
c
. . . . .
,
w quam , qu an t it y of , i n o m p s p ri n ce p s, d ec l , 12 1 a 4
c
. . . .
, .

603 b Ewe Pri n ip al p art s of ve rb , 172 , 17 3

c c
. . . .

p raecé d b, o n str , 37 0 p ri or, om p ar , 130 a

c
. . . . .

praec e ps , d e l , 1 19, 121 a 3 p ri us , W q uam , 434 ; p ri n sq uam in t e rm

c c c
. . . . .

p raec ipi b, ons t r , 563 p oral lau se , 5 50, 5 5 1 ; i n in d di s ,

c
. . . .

P rae n o m en , 108 ; ab b reviat ions , i d

'

585 b N
c
. . . . .

praepe s , d e l , 121 b 1 Pri vat i on e xp re sse d b y ab l , 400

c c
. . . . . .

p rae st blor, on st r , 367 b . . .

p r5, 220 b ; use , 22 1 19 ; in
. om p s , W . .

p rae su m , w dat of
g e ru n d e t c , 505
. . . . d at , 37 0; t o e xp re ss f or, 3 7 9 N
. . .

p raet er, us e , 22 0 a, 2 2 1 1 8 p robé , W d at , 368 , 3 7 5 b N

c c c
. . . . . . .

p raet eri t , W ac c , 388 Pro e le u sm at i , 609 N

c
. . . . . .

p rec i , d e fe t , 103 f 2 p roc eru s , d ec l , 1 11 a N

c c
. . . . . . . .

p recot , ons tr , 563 p roc ul, w ab l , 43 2

c c
. . . . . .

Pre di at e , d e fi n ed , 27 0, m od i fi e d , 27 6 ; p roh i b eb , on st r of , 364 N 2

c c
. . . .

p red n ou n or ad j " ase , 284 ; Proh ib it ion s , 450; in i n d d is , 588 N 2

c
. . . . . .

p red n oun re fe rrin g to t wo or m ore Prom isin g e t c , vh s of , 580

c
. . . . .

sin g n ou ns , id
. a ; ad j e t iv e , Pron om i n al roo t s , 22 8 , 23 2 ; as p rim ary
—
.

286 a ; agree m en t in 3 ; i n rel su fi i x es , id

c c
. . .

lause , 3 06 ; p re adj in n e u t p lu r , PR O N OU N S d e fi n e d , 20 ; d ee l of , 140

c
. . . .

( 1 ; p red adj in re lat i ve

.

lau se , 15 1 ; p e rso n al, 142 , 143 ; re fl e xi ve , 144 ;

c c
. .

p red ge n , 3 43 b, ; p red ac c , . . . .
ge n , h ow use d , 143
.
, 302 a ; d e m on . .

, adj as p st rat ive , 146 ; relat ive , 147 ; in t e rrog

c c
.

an d in d e f , 148—
.

ac e b e om es p red 110m in t h e p as s q 151 ; p ron on t ai n ed in

c c
. . . . .

id a ; p red i at e u se of p art i ip le s , 496

. . ve rb e n din g, 163 i t u 1 , 27 1 a . . . .
 I ND E X OF W OR D S AND SUBJECTS 4 67

PR O N O U N S , S yn t ax, 294— 3 15 ; Pe rs onal, d e t e rm i n in g , id d ; of au t ion c e tc id

295 ; De m on st rat i ve , 296—
.
.

298 ; i d em , e ; of f eari n , 564

g
298 a, b ; i pse , 1d c —
.
f ; Re fl exi ve , 299 ; Pu rp o se or e n d , d at of, 38 2 . .

Possess ive , 302 ; Re lat ive , 303 —308 ; I n a

d efi n it e , 309—
.

3 14 Pro n s w p a t g en ,
r . . . . .

346 a 1 . Re lat i ve i n p rot as i s , 5 19

. . .
qui q u a, 323 f
c
. .

Posit ion of p rons , 598 0, l q uadru p es, d e l , 121 b 1

c
. . .
. . . .

Pron u n iat i on , Rom an m e t h od , 8 ; En g quae res ( or i d q u od ) , 307 d

c
. .

li sh m e th od , 8 N q uaerb, on st r ( ex or d é) , 396 a ; w su i
. .
. . . .

p r5n 1111t 1 5 , c ons tr , 563

' ’

. .

p rOp e , c om p r ’, 130; in apod ’ .

qu aes5 , on j , 206 e c . . .

5 17 b N g . . .
q ui li s, 15 1 i
c
. .

pr0pe est n t , 568 .

Qu ali t ie s ( ab st ra t ) , gen d , 32
c c
. .

Prop e r n am es , 108 ; Qu alit ies of an ob j e t om p ared , 292 .

Prope r n ouns , 20 a . .
Qu ali t y , ad js of , 25 1 ; ge n of , 345 , 415 a ; . . .

a N . . t o d e n ot e in d e f v alu e , 417 an d a ; abl .

.

propin qu u s, w g en , 385 0 . of , 4 15 ( c f 345

c
. . . .

prop i or ( propi u s) , on st r , qu am , d e riv ati on of , 2 15 2 ; w it h su p e r

c
. .

432 a an d N . . lat i ve , 29 1 0 ; W om p ar an d pos it i ve . . .

Propo rt ion al n u m erals , 13 9 a . . or W t wo p osit ive s, 292 a N ; c o r

c
. . . .

Prop rie ty , v b s of, in ap od , 517 0, 522 a . . . re lat ive w t am , 323 y ; W om p ar ,

c
. . . . . .

p ropri u s, w W ge n , 6 . .
407 a, 0 ; af t e r ali u s , id a ; W
. om p ar . . .

propt e r, u se , 220 a, 22 1 20, posi t ion , 435 ; of ad vs , 434 ; w an t e , post , id ; W

°
. .

c
. . . .

d e n ot in g m ot i ve , 404 b . . su i af t e r om p ar , 5 35 0 ; follow ed
c c
. . . .

Pa o so n v , 602 ru le s an d d e fi n i t i on s , by result laus e , 57 1 a ; i n in dire t

c c
.

603 -606 ; e arl pe ec u liari ti e s, 629 qu e st ion s , 5 7 5 d ; in in d d is , 58 1

y
. . . . .

prospe r( -u s) , d 111 N 2 583 0

c c
. . . .
,

p r5sp ic i5 , w d at r a e , 367 0 q uam di fi , 555 N 2

c c
. . . . . . . .

Prot asis ( see C on di t i on al S e n t e n es) , 5 12 q uam ob au sam , 3 98 .

ff , loose u se of te n ses in En g , 5 14 C
.
°
. .
quam qui , q uam u t , W s u i , 535 0 . . . .

N ; re lat i ve in p rot , 519 ; t e m p oral p r q ua m si , 524

a
c
. . .

t i c les in , 5 iz ; an t eq uam , p ri u sq 1 am , in , q uam q uam , u se , 527 d ; i n t rod u in g a

°

551 0 N fl ; p ro t in i n d d is , c p re posi ti on = an d y et , id N ; W
c c
. . . . . . .

Prot e ting , vb s of , on str , 364 N 2 su i id e

c
. . . . . . . .
,
Protra t ion of lon g sy llab le s, 608 0 qu am vi s, u s e , 527 a; su i or. in d W
c c
. . . . . .
,

prbvi deb , W d at r a e , 36 7 0 . . . . . 440 N , 5 27 a, e

. . . .

Proviso, su i u s ed m , 5 28 a an d b , i n q uan d 5 d erivat i on an d m e an

c c
. .

t rod u c ed b y m od o e t c , 528 ; h ort at ory . in g , 21 5 6 , 53 9 ; au sal( si n e ) , 540 a an d

. .

jv e 1 press in g , id a ; su w ut
ci
su b J N ; t e m p oral, 542
f c c c
. . . . . .

( or 115) , i 1 b ; h ara t e rist i 0 a quan t i , g en of p ri e , 4 17

c
. .

p ressin g , 535 d Qu an t ity , g e n o f ad j e of , d en otin g p ri e ,

c
. . . .

p roxi mb , ons tr , 432 a 4 17

c
. . . .

p roxi m u s , on st r 432 a Qu an t ity in Pro sod y , m ark s of , 10 e ;

c c
. . .

-
pse , ( en lit i ) , 143 d N , 145 a, 146 . . . . . na t u re of , 602 ; ge n eral ru le s of, 9 -11 ,
603 ; fi n al sy llables , 604 ; pe rf an d
c
.

p fi bé s, d e l l21 d c, pe rf part s , 605 ; d e rivat ive s, 606

c c
. . . . . .

p u det , 20 8 b; onst r , 354 b, an d N q uan t 5, W t an t 5, 414 a

c c
. . . . . . .
,

pu er, d e l 47 .
( c f 50 a) . . . q uan t u m ( wi t h miram ) , in in dire t q u e s
t ions , 57 5 d . .

Pun is h m e n t , abl of , 353 1 q u an t u s, 15 1 i

c
. . . . .

2
p u pp i s , d e l , 7 5 b, 7 6 b 1 . . . . . q u a s i , w i t h p ri m ary t e nses ,
5 24 N . . .

Pu rp ose , d at of, 38 2 ; i n fi n of , 460; quass5 ( in t e n sive ) , 263 2

c c c
. . .
.

e xp re ssed b y g e run d ive af te r e rt ain

- ue
q ( e n liti ) , ad d ed t o in d e fi n i te s , 15 1
c
.

vh s , 500 4 ; b y g e ru n d or g e ru n d ive g ; as on j , u se , 323 324 a ; q u an .

c
. . .
.

as p red i at e g e n , 504 a N 1 ; w ay s t it y , 604 a 1

c
. . . . . . .

o f exp ressi n g , 533 C laus es of , 279 d ; q u eé ( d e fe ti ve ) , 206 d

c
. . . .

d efi n ed an d lass i fi e d , 5 29 fi ; u se of q u es, old 11 0m p lu r , 150 0

c c
. . . .
.

q u 5 in , 53 1 a ; m ai n lau se om i t te d , 5 3 2 ; Qu es t ion s, d ire t , i n in d ie , 15 7 a 330

c
.

c
.

335 ; in di re t , 33 0 2 , 33 1 N ; do u b le
.

nE d u m , id , N 1 , 2 S u b st an t i ve lau se s . . .

c
. . .

u es t ion s 334 ; q u est ion an d an swer,

3
0 use d af t e r e rt ain vh s , 563 ; of
3 36 ; re su lt lause i n e x lam q u es t ions, c c
.

g , id b ; of p e rm i tt in g, id c ; of . . .
4 68 I ND E X OF W ORD S AND S UBJECTS

462 a ; m ood in in di r qu est i on , 5 74 ; qu 5m i n u s = ut 05 m in u s) , W vb s of bin

c c
. . . .

in i n d dis , 586 ; in in f orm al in d d is ,

. . . . d erin g , 558 b . .

592 1 . . q u on iam , origin , 539 ; m ean in g an d use ,

q u i ( ad ve rb ial) , 150 b 540 1 N 1 and a
c
. . . . . .

qui ( re lati ve ) , d e l , 147 ; ( in t e rrog an d qu oq u e , use , 3 22 a ; os it i on , 599 b

c p c c
. . . . .

148 an d b in om p ou n ds , 15 1 ; q u ot ,
in d e li n b l
a e, 22 b ;
1 orre l , 152 . .

q u i = n t i s , W su i , 53 1
2 N , 5 37 2 ; Qu ot at ion , f orm s of , w ap u d an d i n ,
c c c
. . . . . . .

q u i c au sal an d on es sive , 535 e . . 428 d N 2 ; d ire t an d lu di r ,

. . . .

q u i a , d e r iv a t i on e t c , 53 9 ; u se ,
5 4 0 N 1
; . . . q u ot u s qu i sq u e , 3 13 b N 3 . . . .

c ausa1, id ; W vh s of f ee lin g , 57 2 b ; qun ( c u 6 b

c
. . . . . .

i n in t e rm e d iat e lau se s, 592 3 . . quu m 6 b ( see cum ) . .

q u i c u m , 150 b
c
. .

qu i c u m qu e , d e l , 151 a R su b st it u t ed for 8 b et we en t wo v owels,

c
. . .

1 15 4 an d N ; r in adj st e m s, 117 a ;
qu i d , in e x lam at ion s, 397 d N
c
. . . . . . . .

qu i dam , d e l , 151 0; m e an in g of, 3 10; . . rr i n n oun st e m s, 62 N 1 . .

W ex, 346 0
. . . radi x , d ec l , 57 . .

qu i d em , u s e , 322 e ; W i s or i d em , 298 a ; . . . rast ru m , p lur i n -a an d -i , 10 6 b . . .

it iou of, 5 99 b rat i 5x1e , as ab l of m an n e r, 412 b

c
. . . . .
‘

(1111 b et , d e l , 15 1 0 ; us e , 3 12 rat u s, as p res p art , 491

c c
. . . . . .

qu in , W in d ie e qu i v t o om m an d , 449 b ; ra vi s , d e l , 7 5 a 2
c
. . . . . . . .

in resu lt laus e ( = qu i n 5n ) , 558 , 55 9 ; t e or red (p re fi x) , 26 7 b . .

W vh s of hi n d e rin g , 558 ; n 5n reap se , 146 N 7

c
. . . . .

q uin , 5 58 a Re e ivin g , vh s of, W ge ru n dive , 500 4

c c c c
. . . . . .

Qu in ary or h em ioli m e asu res, 609 d . . Re ip ro al ( ea h oth e r) , h ow exp resse d,

‘

qu in q ui t n xs, ge n d e r, 90; p lu ral only , 145 0, 3 01 f

. . .

101 2 rec ord or, W ac c , 350 d ; W gen , i d N ;

c
. . . . . . . . .

q u i ppe , W relat ive lau se , 5 35 e N 1 ; w

. . . . . W as, id N
. . .

cu m , 549 N 1 . . . rec t u m ~e st n t , 568 .

Quiri t es , 101 3 red se e t e

c c
. .

q ui s, d e l , 148 , 149 ; dist in gu ish ed from R e d u p li at ion , 17 7 0, 23 1 0 ; list of vh s ,

c
. . . .

q u i i n u se , id b an d N ; om p ou n d s of 2 11 b ; lost i n fi di
. et c , id f f t n 3 ; rule
. . . .

—
. .

( a li q u i s 1 5 1 d f , 3 10 an d b ; qn i s f or q u an t it y , 605 a
c c
. . .

W si , 1m m , as, 310 a ; in d e f u se of, 3 10 R e fe re n e , O b j e t o f, 349

f c
. . . . .

q u i s e st qu i , 5 35 a Re f e re n ce , ron ou n s of, 297 om m on ly

p
c
. .

q u i s, d at or ab l p lu r , 150 om it t e d , 1d N ; d at ive of , 3 76 ; g en of
c c
. . . . . . .

q u i snam , 148 e . . sp e ifi at ion , 349 d . .

q ui Spiam , 151 d ; u se of , 310 an d b ré fert , w g en or p oss e ssi ve adj , 355 an d

c c
. . . . .

qui sq u am , d e l , 151 d ; u s e , 311 , 3 12 a ; oth e r on st r , id b

c
. . . . . .

qu i sq u e , form an d d e l , 151 u se i n . . R e flexive p ron ou n s, 144 ; Syn tax of , 298 .

ge n eral asse rt ion s, 3 13 ; in ep e n d e n t 0 N 2 , 299-3 01 ; of l st an d 2 d p erson s,

c
. .

lause , id a ; W s u p erlat ive , i d b ; W . . . . 299 a . .

p lur vb , 3 17 e R e fl e xive ve rb s ( d epon e n t or p assi ve) ,

c
. . . .

qu i sq u is d e l , 151 b 190 e , 208 d N u se of p ass ive , 156 a ;

c c c
. . . . . . . .

q ui vi s, de l 15 1 0 ; u se , 31 2 . . . W ob j e t ac c , 3 97
. . . .

qu o ste m s 46 N 2 R e fus i n g , vh s of , W q u 5mi n u s, 558 b

c c
. . . .

Re gu lar v e rb s, 1 7 1—
. . .

q u 5, app roa h in g ab l of au se , 414 a N 189

c
. . . .

qu 5 in fi n al lau se s u t e5) w su i Re lat ion sh ip , n oun s of , 2 44

c
. .
, .

53 1 a ; n 5u ( 1115, 540 N 3 Relat ive ad ve rb s, u se d orrelat i vely , 152

c c
. . . .

qu 5 eb , 414 a ; t o d e n ot e d e g of d e m on f or re l , 308 b ; us e d t o on n e t
c c
. . . . .

di ff e re n e , id . in d ep e n de n t se n te n es , i d re fe rri n g
i d 9 ; = p ron oun w p rep , 3 21
.
f
qu oad ( in t e n t ion 553 ; ( fac t ) , 554 ; to
c
. . . .

( as lon g as) , 555 d

. a ; use d in relat iv e lau ses of p u rp ose ,
q u od f or i d qu od , 307 d N 53 1 2 ; re su lt , 537 2
’

c
. . . . . .

q u od 540 N 1 ; m ood wit h , 540 R elat ive lau se s, d e fi n e d , 27 9 a ; W re l

c c c
. . . . .

in in d di s , id b ; s u b st lause wi t h , ad vs , 308 i ; on di t i on al, 5 19 ; fi n al,

c c c
. . . . . .

57 2 ; as ace of ifi c at i on , id a ; W 53 1 , 533 ; h ara t e ris t i , 535 ; c on se c u

c
. . .

vh s of fe elin g , i b ; q u od in i n t e rm e t ive , 537 au s al, 540 0 ; t e m po ral

c c c
. .

d iat e lau se s, 592 3 an d N 541 , 542 ; rel lau s es in in d di s , 591

c
. . . .
.

Qu ed sc i am ( p roviso) , 535 d pos it ion of rel lau se , 599 0

c
. . . . .

q u od si , u se , 3 24 d , 397 a . . . Re lati ve p ron oun s , d e l , 147 form s, h ow .

qu em (see c u m ) , 6 b, 539 N . . . d ist in gui sh ed f rom in t errogati ve an d

47 0 iN D Ex OF W OR D S AN D S UBJECTS

Se c on d
De le n sion , c n ou n s , 45 —47 ; a e n t cc S ib ilan t s , 4
o f g en an d voc . . of n oun s i n -i u s , 12 . si c , c orre l , W n t , 323 g , 537 2
. . . . . W .

E230 2 si , 5 12 b
c
. . . .
'

Se on d ary ob ec t , 394 s i em ( si m ) , 17 0 b N
c S ig n ifi an t e n din gs , 235—
c
. . . .

Se on d ary 8 es , d efi n e d , 23 2 253
c
. .

Se o n d ary te nses , 482 2 ; rule f or u se o f , . S ign s of m ood an d t e n se , 169 i t u . .

483 ; pe rf d e f m ore c om m on] se c si le n ti 5, wit h ou t p re posit i on , 412 b

c
. . . .

on d ary , 485 a ; p e rf s u i -sili s ad

in au ses j e n d in g , 25 2
c
. . . .
, .

of re s u lt us ed aft e r, id 0 ; h i st p re s , . . si lvest er d e l , 1 15 a
-s im old form of
. . .

id e ; im p e rf an d p lu e rf s u i id p e rf su i , 183 3
p
c
.

c
. . . . .
, , . . .

9 , h ; p re sen t u sed as i f se on dary , b y sim ili s, om p arison , 126 ; W ge n . . an d

sy n e sis , id i d at , 385 0 2
c
. . . . . .

se u n d u m , m p , 220 a ; u se , 22 1 2 1 sim ili t er, u se , 384 N 2

c c
. . . . . .

se un d u s , e ri vat i on , 13 2 f t n S im oi s , d e l , 82
c
. . . .

se c fi ri s, d e l , 7 5 b, 7 6 a 1 S im p le sen t e n c e s , 278 1
c c
. . . . . . .

se u s om p ar , 218 a si m u l, sim u l at qu e ( ac ) , 543

c c
. . . .

se u s , in d e l n ou n , 10 3 a ; u se , 397 a . . . . s im u l sim u l, 323 f . .

se cfi t u s ( as p re s p art ) , 491 . . si m u l w abl , 43 2 0. . . .

s ed see sé si n , 512 a N
c
. . .

se d om p are d with v eru m e t c 3 24 d S in gu lar, n ou n s d e fec t in , 103 f

c
. . . . . .
,
sé d é s , de l , 78 1 S i n g u ldri a t an t u m , 99
c c
. . . .

s edile , d e l , 69 s i n i st e r, d e l , 112 a
c
. . . . .

S ellin g , vh s O f , 417 0 s in b, on st r , 563 0

c
. . . . . .

sé m e n t i s , d e l , 7 5 b , 7 6 b 1 . . . . .
-si 5
,
n ou n e n d in g , 238 b . .

S e m i-d e pon e n t s , 1 92 -si s d rop p e d i n pe rf , 181 b N 3

c c
. . . . . .

sem i n e c i , d e f e t , 1 22 0 . . . si t i s , d e l , 67 ( c f 7 5 a
. . . .

S e m i -vowe ls, i an d v ( u ) , 5 si ve ( seu ) si v e , u s e , 324

c
.

senati , sen at u os , f orm s of g en in d e l S m e ll, v h s of , W ac c , 390 a

c
. . . . . . .

IV , 92 a, e -s5
O ld f orm of fu t p e rf e t , 183 3
c c
. . . . .
,

se n ex , d e l , 7 9 an d 0 ; adj m as , 122 d ; -s5 vhs in 263 2

c c
. . . . . . .
, ,

om p ari son , 131 see m s , ge n d , 90 Ew e

c
. . . . .

S e n t en e , d e ve lop m e n t , 268 ; d e fi n e d , 269 ; s5aes ( si au d é s) , 13 N , 192 a

c c c
. . . .

s im p le or om p ou n d , 278 ; i n om p le t e , 8 51, d e l , 10 3 g 2
. . . .

3 18 , 3 19 sole5 , se m i-d ep , 192

c c
. . .

S e p arat ion , d at O f, aft er om p s O f ah , . . soli t 5 , W om p are , 40

. 6 a . . .

5 6, ex , an d a f ew of ad , 381 abl of , 400; solit u s , as p re s p art , 491

c c
. . . .

ge n for ab l , 356 N , 357 b 3 8 51113 , d e l , 113 ; W re lat ive lause of

c c c c c
. . . . . . .

S e qu e n e of t e n ses , 48 2—
. .

485 ; in in d d is , h ara t e rist i , 535 b

c c
. . . .

585 ; in on d it i on al se n t e n es i n i n d S on an t s, 3
c
.

c
.

d is , 589 b scn s , as p art i ip le of esse , 170 b

c
. . . . .

se qu est er, d e l , 10 5 b -sor se e -t or

c
.
. . .
,

sequ it u r, w n t , 569 2 Sbrac t e , d e l , 7 6 b N 2

c
. .

c
. . . . . .

se q u or, on j , 190 . . sord em , d e f e t , 10 3 f 3 . . . .

8 515 n oc t e , 293 N -s5ria, n ou n e n din g , 254 4 ; ~sbri um , n oun .

c
. .

se ri es , d e l , 98 a e n di n g , 254 5 ; -8 5ri u s, adj e n din g, . .

c
. . .

S ervi e , ad j e of , W d at , 384 250 a . .

c
. . . .

S e rv i e , d at of , 382 S bsp it a, f e m adj f orm , 121 e

c
. . . . . .

S e rvin g , vh s of , W d at , 367 S oun ds , se e Pron u n iat ion

c
.

c
. . . .

se rvu s ( se rv os) , d e l , 46 S our e , e xp resse d b y ab l , 403

sest ert i um , sest e rt i u s , 63 2— c
. . . .

634 ; h ow writ S p a e , e xt e n t of , e xp re sse d b y ac c , 425 . .

t e n in ip h e r, c S p arin g , vh s of , wit h d at , 367 . . .

se u ( si ve) , 324 f , 25 0 spé , w c o m p ars , 40 6 a

c
. . . . . . .

S h arin g , ad js of , W g en , 349 (1 Sp e i al verb form s, 181, 182

c
. . . . .

S h ou ld ( au xi li ary ) , h ow e xp ress ed in Lat spec ies , d e l , 98 a

c c
. . . .

157 b ft n 2. . . . S p e ifi at ion , en of, W adjs , 349 d ; . . . .

Sh owin g , vh s of , W t wo ac e s , 393 ac e of , 397 an d N ; ab l of, 418

c
. . . . . . .

si , 5 11 ; W s u i of Wish , 44 2 a an d N 1 ; spe u s , g en d , 90 Ere . .

c
. . .
. .

si an d it s om poun d s , u se , 5 12 a N , . . . S p e lli n g , v ariat ion s of, 6 .

525 ; 8 1 n 5n d ist in gu is h ed from ni si , id . spé s, 98 a an d ft h

. .

a 1 ; m i t or si , 57 2 b N ; si z whe t h er, S p iran t s , 4

c
. . . . .

576 a . . Spon d ai ve rse , 615 b . .

 IND E X OF WOR D S A N D SUBJECTS 47 1

Spon d ee , 609 b 3 u 563

pose ,
—566 of re su lt , 567-57 1 ;
p r ;
c
. . .

epon ti c , -e , d e fec t , 103 0 2 i n di e W qu od , 57 2 ; in d ire t q u est ion s ,

c
. . . . . .

S t an za or S t rop h e , 614 57 3 — 5 7 6 ; adj w su b st lau se s , 289 d ;

c c
. . . . .

st at u b, W v bs of p la in g , 430; W inf or
. . . . in f lause s , 452
. .

su i , 563 . d . . S u b st an t i ve u se of adjs , 288 ; of p osses .

St at u t e s , fu t im v in , 449 2 . . . . sive p ron s , 30 2 d . . .

et c f or i st e e t c , 146 N 5 S u b st an t ive ve rb ( esse) , 27 2 , 284 b

c
. . . . . .

st ella , d e l , 41 . . su bt er, u se , 220 0, 22 1 23 . . .

St e m b u i ldi n g , 25 N su ét u s , W in f , 460 b
c
. . . . . .

S t e m s , d efi n ed , 24 ; lass ifi ed , 229 ; h ow S u ffi xe s , 23 2 ; p rim ary , lis t of , 23 3 , 23 4 ;

f orm ed from root , 26, 23 0-232 ; h ow s ign ifi an t , 235 — c
255
c c
.

fou n d in n ou ns , 37 a ; a-st e m s . d e l . . su i , d e l , 144 b ; u se , 299, 300; w ge n

. . . .

I , 40; ad j s , 110; 0-st e m s , dee l II , 45 ; of g e ru n d , 504 0

c c c
. . . .

ad js 110; in d e l II I , m u t e st e m s , 56 sum , on j , 1 70; as op u la, 284 ; as su b

60; li qu id an d n asal s t e m s , 6 1—
. . .

64 ; st an t ive v e rb , id b ; om itt ed , 3 19 b ;
i-st em s , 65 -69 ; m ixed i -ste m s , 7 0—
. .

72 °
W d at of p osse ss ion , 37 3 ; p os iti on , 598
c
. . .

u-st e m s , d e l I V, 88 , 89 ; i n t u 94 ,
c
.

of v b , 1 65 1 ; p re se n t , p e rfe t , an d
. . s um m u s , form , 1 30 . a . ft n . 2; ( t op f)
o .

su p in e , 164 Pre s st e m , h ow form ed ,

. .

17 5 , 17 6 ; pe rt s t e m , 17 7 su p i n e st e m , . sun t q u i , 535 a . .

17 8 Tenses arran ged b y s te m s , syn op su ov et auri li a, 265 1

c
. . .

sis , 180 s u pellex, d e l , 7 9 0

c c
. . .
.

st 5, W ab l , 43 1 su pe r, u se , 221 2 4 ; in om p s , 267
220
c
. .

c
.
. . . ,

st ri gi li s , d e l , 7 6 b 1 a ; i n om p s , W d at , 3 70
c
. . .

c
. . . .

st ri x, d e l , 7 1 6 su pe ra, d e fe t , 1 1 1 b ( c f 130 (1 N 31) ;

c
. . . . .

c c
. . .

S t ru t u re o f Lati n sen te n es , 600, 601 om p , 1 30 b ; su p eri , id

c
.

c
. . .

st raes , d e l , 7 8 2 . . .
su pe ri or, o m p ar , 130 b . . .

st u d e5 , W d at , 368 3 . . . . S u pe rlat i ve , su ffi x, 124 ft n ; in -rim u s, . .

sui d eb , W dat , 36 7 125 ; of adjs i n -li s , 126 ; w maxim e, . .

c
. . .

su b i n om p , W ad j e , 267 d 1 , 291 0 128 ; t ak e s gen d of p art it ive , 286 b

c
. . .
. . . . . . .

W vh s , 267 a an d d N N ; o f e m i n en e , 29 1 b ; w q uam , v el,

c
. .
.

c c
. . . . .

su b , u se , 220 221 22 ; in om p s , W . . . or unu s, id 0 ; den ot i n g o rd e r, su c es .

,

d at , 37 0; o f t im e , 424 e s ion , 293 ; W q u i squ e , 3 13 b

c
. . .
. . .

su beb , W ac c , 37 0 b su perst es , d e l , 1 2 1 a 4
c
. . . .

c
. . . .

S u b j e t , 268 defi n ed , 27 0 h ow exp re sse d , S u p in e , n o un of d e l I V, 94 b , 159 b . . .

s t e m , 164 3 ; f orm ati on , 1 7 8 , 17 9 a d

—
2 71 an d a ; m odifi ed , 27 6 ; v b agree s
c
. .
.

( c f 164 ft h ) i rre g ular form s of , on j

W , 3 16 ; t w o or m ore su b j s , 3 17 ; s u b
s c
. .
. .

c
. .
.

om i tt e d , 3 18 ; ac u sat ive , 459 ; i n in I , 209 ; on j I I , 2 10; allie d w it h form s .

c
d is , 580; posit ion of su b j e t , 596 c in -t or, 236 a N 1 ; S u p in e in -u m , use . . .

c
.
.

S u b j ec t lau se s ( i nt ) , 452 1 ; .
of , 50 9 ; in 5 10; as ab l of spec ifi c a .

567 , 569 , 57 1 b t i on , 510 N 1

c
. . .

c
. .

S u b j e ti ve g e n , d e fi n ed , 343 N 1 ; use , . . .
s u pple x, d e l , 1 21 b 1 . . . .

w d at , 368 3 . . . .

S u b j u n c t i ve m ood ,
154 b ; h ow u se d an d .
s u p ra, u se , 220 a , 221 25 . . .

t ran slat e d , 157 b it u 2 ; t e ns es h ow . . .

-sura n oun e n d in
, g , 238 b . .

used , 162 ; v owe l of p res su i 17 9 a . . S u rds , 3 .

c
. .
,
-suri 5 vh s in 263 4
1, b 1, d C lassi fi at ion o f u ses ,
c
. . .
. . , ,

op t at ive
-su s h o n e t i f or m o f -t u s 94 n ou n
438 ; h ort at ory , p ,

su i 442 ; e libe rat ive , 443 , 444 ; e n d i n g , 238 b

, 441 ,
c
. .
.

ti l b j 445 446 su i o f m od 8 5 8 , d e l , 7 9 an d a
t e a su v
—
.

p o n .
. .
, ,
480 485 su u s , u se , 299
es t y , 44 7 1 ; t e nse s o f su i
c c
.

c
.
,
S weari n g , vb s of, on st r , 388 d , 580
.

d ep e n den t lauses , 481 ; su i i n in d .

. . . . .

c
.

580; in in f orm al in d d is , 592 ; . . Syllab les , rules for d i v ision o f , 7 ; ope n

; lon g an d sh ort , 603 e , j
2
of in 1 p art , 5 93 .
e tc , id N
. . .
.

su bolé s , ec l , 7 8 2 an d n otes .

c
. . .

S yn se re s is , ,f N N 4 642
S u bordi n at e lau ses , d e fi n ed , 27 8 b ; use ,
—
. . .
.
.
,

519-593 ; in in d di s , 5 7 9 593 . c . . S y n alaap h a, 61 2 e N , 642

c
Syn h y s is , 5 98 h , 641 ;
. . . .

S u b ordi n at e c on j s , 223 b ,
224 I I a -
f . . . . .
.

S u bst an c e , g e n of, 344 ; ab l of , 403 S l c o e 640

— yi g
.
.

c
. .

Su b st an t i ve lauses , 560 57 2 ; n atu re an d S y r ec oc h e , d e fi n e d , 641

c c c
.

c lasses of, 560 ( c f 56 1 , lau se s of . c S yn e d o hi al ac c , 397 b . .

47 2 m m: OF WOR D S A ND SUBJEC TS

S yn esis, 280 a ; in g en d an d n u m b e r, t enses, 47 9 of su i , 480 , 481 sequ e n e c

c
.

o f , 482—
. .

286 b ; in s eq u e n e o f t e n se s, 485 i
. . . 485 ; t e n ses of t h e in f , 486 ; t e n se .

S y n iz es is , 603 0 N , 642 e m p h at ic , 5 98 d t e n se s o f i n f in
c
. . . . . . .

Syn ops is of t e n se s (am5) , 180; of im pe r i n d dis , 584 ; t e n ses of su i i n in d

c c
. . .

d is , 585 ; aff e t ed b y rep raese n t c t id,

'

s on al vh s , 20 7
c cc c c
. . .

S yn t a t i om pou n d s , 267 id b an d N ; in on dit ion i n i n d d is ,

Y A c
. . . . .

S N T X, 268 -6 01 ; h ist ori al d e velop m e n t 589 N ote s on orig in of sy n t ax, 436 , 464
c
. .

of, 268 I m port an t ru le s of S y n t ax , 594

. . t en u s , ons t r , w g e n , 35 9 b ; W ab l , . . . . . .

22 1 26 ; posi t ion , 43 5 , 599 d

ch c
. . .

T an ge d t o s , 15 5 , 17 8 : t p re e din g . t er (t or t é r t 5r t r p rim ary su fli x,

st e m -vowel of v b , 17 6 b 1 ; t (s . . . 234 I I 15
. . .

-t e r ad v e n d in
su p i n e st e m -e n d i n g , 17 8, 17 9 a 2 , b 2 , g , 214 b, 0
c
. . . . . .
,

0 2, d Te re n e , ab squ e 1115 e t c , 517 f ; p rosod ial

c
. . . .

t aed et , i m pe rs on al, 208 b ; o n st r , 354 f orm s , 628 b , 629

c c
. .

c
. . .

b , an d N t ere s, d e l , 12 1 a 3 ; om p ar , 13 1 b
c
. . . . . . .

-t eri or
t aet er, d e l , 112 a , e
n d in g, p 56 i t u 2
c
. . . . . . .

Taki n g away , vh s , of , 38 1 . . Term in at ion s of i n fl e t i on , m ean in g Of ,

Talen t , valu e o f , 637 21 b ; t e rm i n at ion s of n o u n s, 39 ; o f
.

t i ns, 151 i , 15 2 . . v e rb s, 166 ( S e e En d in gs )

. .

t ans u t e tc , 53 7 N 3 -t ern u s as ad
j en d in g , 250
c
. . . . . .
,

t am, orre l W q u am , 323 g ; eo rrel W t et ra m ari q u e , 427 a

'

c
. . . . . . .

n t , 537 N 3 t erre st e r, d e l , 1 15 a
c
. . . . . .

t am en , as 0; pos it ion o f,
-t e
orrel , 5 27 ru s, e n din g , p 56 ft n 2
c
. . . . .

324 j Te t ram e te r, I am b i , 6 19 a
c c
. . . .

t am et si , on ce ssive u se , 5 27 an d N 1 Th an , h ow e xp re sse d , 406

c c
. .

t am u am , i n on dit i on al lau se s, 524 ; w Th at of, n ot e xp resse d i n Lat , N

c
. . .

p r i m a ry t e ns es i d N 1 Th e , as orrelat i ve , 414 a an d i t u
c
. . . . .
,

t an d em , i n qu est ion s, 333 a an d Th e m at i ve rb s , 17 4 1

c
. . .

t an t i , g e n o f v alu e , 4 17 an d 0; t an t i e st Th e m at i vowe l °/o , 17 4 2 1

A
. . . .

n t , 568 Th e si s an d rsis , 6 11
c
. .

t an t 5 followin g quan t 5 , 414 a . . Th in kin g , vb s of, on st r W ac e an d . . . .

t an t u m , w su b j of p ro viso, 5 28 i n f , 459
c
. . . . .

t an t u m abe st n t , 57 1 b . . Th ird on j , of vh s , p rin p art s , 173 ; p res

. . . .

t ant u s, 151 i , 15 2 ; t an t u s n t , 5 37 N 3
. . . st e m , h ow f orm ed , 17 6 ; f orm at ion , id , .

4 5 9 , -t i a, n ou n e n din gs, 24 1 17 9 0 ; p aradig m , 186 ; i n -i 5, p arad ig m ,

c
. .

Tas t e , vhs of , w ac c , 3 90 a 1 88 ; li st of vh s , W p rin ip al p art s, 2 11

c c
. . . . . . .

-t e
( e n li t i ) , 143 d an d N d eri vation of vh s i n -u 5, 261
c Th i rd d e len sion , of n ou n s , 53 —
c
. . . .

Te a h in g , vh s o f ( two ac es ) , 396 8 7 ; m u te
c st e m s , 56—
. .

t egb , o n j , 1 86 60; li qu i d st e m s, 61— 64 ; 1

c 65 — —
. .

Tellin g , vb s of, ons t r , 459 st e m s , 7 8 ; p u re i -st e m s, 66 69 ;

c m ixed i -st e m s , 7 0— c
. . .

Te rr1 oral lau se s, d e fi n ed , 27 9 b, 54 1 7 8 ; p e u liar form s ,

g
.

5‘5 as p rot asis , 542 ; W p ost q uam e t c , 79 80; Gre ek n ou ns , 81-83 ; ru le s

543 ; W c um , 544 —
. .

. 549 ; W an t eu an d . O f ge n d , 84- 87 . .

p ri n squam , 550, 551 ; W d u m , d 5n ec , Th ou gh , se e Alt h ou h

qu oad , 55 2— c
.

c c
.

556 ; rep la e d b y ab l ab s , . . Th ou gh t , on sider as re su lt , 57 1 . .

Th re at e n i n g , vh s o f , 367 , 580 0
c c ti
. . .

Tem poral n u m erals , 139 b ; . on u n j on s , t i p rim ary su ffi x , 234 I I 2 . . .

224 I I d -t ia -ti es
. . .
) , n ou n e n din g, 241 .

t em p u s e st ab i re , 504 N 3 -t ic u s ad
j e n din g, 247
c c
. . . .
,
Te n d en y , ad s d e n ot in g, 251
'

t i gri s, d e l , 82
c
. . . .

t en er, d e l , 1 1 a -t i li s ad
j e n din g , 252
c c
. . . .
, .

TEN S ES , 154 ; of p ass ive voi e , 156 of

-t im
, advs i n , 7 5 a 3 , 215 2
c c c
. . . . . .

art i ip le s, 158 ; l ass ifi at ion , m e an Ti m e ( se e Te m p oral C lau se s) , 465 ii , 481 ,

p
i n g , an d u se , 160 -162
; of t h e i n d , 160, . 545 , 546 .

16 1 ; of t h e su i 162 ; e n din gs, 166 ; Tim e , ab l ab s t o d en ot e , 1 ; t im e

c
. .
, .

of om p lete d ac ti on , f orm at ion of , 1 7 9 wh en , 423 ; d u rat ion o f t i m e , 424 b ; t i m e

c
. .

f , g ; syn ops is of , 180 d u rin g or W it hin w h i h , W ordi n al id

c c
.

c
. .

TEN S ES , S y n t ax, 464- 486 ; lassifi e d , 464 ; 0 ; d ist an e of t im e , id f orre sp on din g

of in d , 465 — c
.

4 7 9 ; Pre sen t t e n se , 46 5-4 59 ; t o En g p la e , id (1

c
. . . .

I m pe rf e t , 47 0, 47 1 ; F u t u re , 47 2 ; of Ti m e , ad vs of , 217 b
C om p le ted ac t ion , 47 3 — c
. . .

47 8 ; Ep istolary Ti m e , m od e o f re k on in g , 63 0 .
47 4 I ND E X OF WORD S A ND SUB JEC TS

in d e l III , 63 E330 2 ; g en d ,
e n din g c v en eb (vénum 192 b, 428 i
c
. . . . . . .

87 ; d e l I V, 88 ; g e n d , 90; n e u t . . . ven erat z ad e rat , 476 .

e n d in g , 238 a . . Ve rba sen t ien d i e t d é clci ran d i , 397 e ; .

-u s Gree k n om e n d in g , 459, 5 79 ; p ass iv e us e o f , 58 2 ; in p o et s

c
.
,

U se , ad js of , on s t r , 385 a . . . . an d lat e r w ri t e rs , id N . .

i sq u e , w ac c , 4 3 2 b
r . . . . Verb al ad j s , 251- 253 ; in -5x, w g e n , . . . .

u su s ( ne ed) , W ab l , 411 349 0 .

c
. .
. .

u t ( u t i ) , orre lat ive w/ i t a, si c , 323 y ; t o Ve rb al n ou ns w d at , 367 d . . . .

c c
.

d e n ot e on e ssion , 440, 5 27 a ; u t ( as) . Ve rb al n ouns an d ad js W refl exi ve , . .

527 f ; w . 301 d . .

e d e llip t i Ve rb al root s , 228 1

c
. .

in c lau se s VER B S , d e fi n e d , 20 d ; in fl e t ion , 153 , .

154 ; n oun an d adj f orm s of , 155 ;

c
.

sign i fi at ion O f f orm s , 156- 162 ; p e r

son al e n din g s, 163 ; t h e t h re e st e m s,
164 ; f orm s of t h e v b , 164— 166 ( n ot es .

on ori gin an d hi st of v b f orm s, 164 . . .

i t u , 168 , t ab le of e n din g s , 166 ;

c
.

ut ,
u t p ot e , q u ip pe , au s e , 535 . i n flu e n e of im i t at ion , 169 i t u ; reg~ . .

e N 1 w c um 549 N 1 u lar vh s , 17 1- 189 ; t h e f ou r c o n j u gap

.
; .
,
. . . . .

u t p ri m u m , 543 . t ion s, 17 1- 17 3 ; p ri n rt s of , 17 2 ; .

u t se m el, 543 m ix e d v b s , 17 3 a ; e pon e n t s , 190,

c c
. . .

u t si , on st r , 5 24 191 ; s e m i-d e p on en t s , 192 ; p erip h ras t i

c f orm s, 193 —
. .

ut er, d e l , 66 196 ; i rre gu lar vh s , 197 — 204 ;

c c
. . .

u t e rqu e , f orm an d d e l , 15 1 g ; u se , 313 ; d e fe t iv e , 205 , 206 ; i m pe rson al, 207 ,

c C lassifi ed list s O f vh s , 209 —
. ,

on st r in agree m e n t an d as p art i t ive , 208 212

c
. . . .

346 d D e rivat ion of vhs , 256 -263 ; om p

c
. . . .

11t ili s , w d at of g e ru n d e t c 505 a vh s , 267 ; v ow els in

'

. . . . . . o m p v b s , id a . . . .

W of wis h , 44 2 N 3 I n d e x O f vh s , p p 43 7 if
i
u t i nam , su
c
. . . . . . . .
,

w 410, W ac c , i d a 1 VER B S , S yn t ax S u b j e t i m plied i n e n d

'

11t or e t c .
, ab . . . . N .
; .

2
g eru n d ive u se o f , 500 3 , 503 N . . . . i n g , 27 1 ( 1 ; ru les of agree m e n t , 3 16
.

u t pot e q u l 535 e N 1 . . . . 3 19 ; vb om i t t ed , 3 19 ; ru les of syn

.

u t ru m an , 335 an d d t ax , 43 7- 593 C as e s W vh s , se e un d e r
Acc
. . . .

, ad e n din g , u sat i ve e t c Posit ion of v b , 596,

'

-11t u s

j
. . .

-u u s
, v e r ) al ad j e n d i n g , 251 . . 598 d , j .
( S ee u n d e r t h e n am e s of t h e
.

Mood s e tc ) .

V (u ) , 1 b, 5 an d N 1 ; s u ffi x of pe rf ,
. . . v ere or, W
g e n 357 b 1 ; w su i
.
, 564
. . . . .

17 7 a, 1 7 9 a 2 , b 2 , d ; su p pre ssed i n v e rit u s , as p res p art , 491

c
. . . . . . .

e rf , 18 1 ; lis t of vh s i n on I II w v v ér5, 324 d , j i n an swe rs, 336 a 1 ; p o

p .
j . . . . . .

i n pe rf , 211 0 ; v O f t e n c m i n p e rf of sit i ou Of , 599 b

c
. . . . . .

e 5 an d it s om p s , 2 0 3 b Ve rse , 612
c c
.

Ve rsifi c at ion , 6 12—

. .

vafe r, d e l , 112 a ; om p ar , 131 a. . . . . 629 ; f orm s of ve rse,

vald é , u se , 29 1 0 N 1 ; vald é q uam , 575 ( 1 . . . . . 6 13 .

Valu e , g e n Of in d e fi n it e , 417 versu s , posi t ion O f , 599 d

c
. . . .

Valu e , m e asu re s of , 632-638 . v ert5 , o n st r , 4 17 b . . .

vann u s , g e n d , 48 Est a . . . verii , g e n d , 91 . .

vap u15, n eu t ral pass iv e , 192 b . . veru m or vér5, u se , 324 d , j . .

Vari able n ou ns , 104—106 ( c f 98 c , d) ; . . vesc or, w ab l , 410; W ac c , id a N 1

. . . . . .

ad js , 122 a g e run d i ve 5 00 3 5 03 N 2

c c
. . . . . .
.
, ,

Vari at ion s, see Ph on et i vespe r, d e l , 50 b . . .

Vari at ion s of S p e llin g , 6 vespe ri 50 b, 42 7 a

c c
. . . .

vas, d e l , 103 g 2 v e st er, d e l , 112 a, 145

c
. . . . . . .

v as , d e l , 7 9 e , 10 5 b vest ri as ob j g en , 143 0, 295 b

c
. . . . . . . . .

v at es , d e l , 7 8 1 vest r m as p art ge n , 143 b, 295 b (c f

g
. . . . . . . .

-ve vel u e
, , s , 3 24 e , 335 d N . . . . N .

v el ( se e -v e) , w su p e rl , 291 0 v et 5 , w 563 a
ac e an d in f
c c
.
. . . . . .
, . .

Velars, p 2 ft n 3 . . . . v et u s , d e l , 1 19, 121 d ; om par . . .

, 125 .

v eli m , v elle m , su of m od es ty , 447 1 N vi a, abl of m an n er, 412 b

i . . . . . . .

v elim , v ellem , W su i ( 2 : Op t ) 44 2 b , . . . . v ic em , adve rb i al u se of , 397 a .

vi c i n u s , W g e n , 385 c
c c
. . . .

velut , v elu t si , 5 24 . vi i s, d e l , 10 3 h 1 . . . .
 IN D E X OF WOR D S A ND S UBJECTS 475

vid eli cet , d e rivat ion , 216 231 b ; li st of vh s W v ow el len gt h e n

c
. . . .

vi de5 u t , 563 . in g in pe rf , on j I I I , 21 1 e . . . .

vi d eor, W d at , 37 5 b . . . . v u lgu s ( v olgu s) , g en d , 48 a . . .

-vu s ve rb al ad
vin ( vi sn e) , 13 N j e n din g , 25 1
’

c
. . . .
,
vir, d e l , b
c
. .

v rg b, d e l , 6 2
i . . W, n ot in Latin alp h ab e t , 1; sou n d of , 1 .

vi rus , g e n d er of , 48 a b N
c
. . . .

vi s , s t e m , 71 6 de l , 79 °
W an t words of w abl 401 ; W gen 356
W ay b y whi ch
. . . . . .

vi sce ra , 101 N 1
.
, , , , .

. . . 429 a . .

vi sO, 263 4 N . . . W e 1gh t m e as u re s of 637 , ,

.

vo ( va m
p rim ary sufi ix , 234 I I 8 . . . Wh ole gen o f 346 ; n u m b e rs exp ressin g
,
.
,
v bc i li s , d ec l , 76 b 2 . . . . t h e W h ole , i d 0 . .

VOC A T1VE, d e fi n e d , 35 f ; form , 38 a ; in W ills, f u t i m v in , 449 2

c
. . . . . .

W in ds , gen de r of n am e s of, 3 1
_
-i
O f n oun s in -i u s , d e l I I , of . .

Gre e k n oun s , id 0 N of adj s i n -i u s , . . . . Wish , e xp ress ed by su i .

, 441 ; as a c on
110 a S yn t ax, 340 d i t io n , 5 21 b ; Wis h in in f orm al in d
c c c
. . . . .

Voi e s , 154 a, 156 ; m i ddle voi e , id a . . . d is , 592 1 . . .

N , 163 ft n 2 , 190 0 W ishi n vh s of, W inf , 486 d ( c f

c c c
. . . . . . . . . .

W E an d om ps on j 199 ; p art of , w . . . W su st laus e of p urp ose , 563 b ; W

. . . .

d at of t h e p e rson j u d gin , 3 7 8 N ; W ac e an d i n f , i d
g
. . . . . . .

in f , 456 an d N ; w p e r ac t in f in
. . . . W it h ou t , W v e rb al n ou n , 496 N 3 . . . .

p roh i b i ti on s, 486 0; W p e rf part , 486 W om en , n am e s of , 108 b an d ft n

c
. . . . . .

d an d N , 497 N ; W su i . or in f , . . . . . . Word s an d F orm s,

Word s , form at ion of, 227 —267 ; arran ge
volu ce r, de l , 115 a c . . . m e n t o f , 595 —601 .

volu eri s, d ec l , 7 8 Wou ld ( En g au xiliary) , h ow e xp re sse d

c
. . .

-v olu s
, adj in , om p . .
, 127 . in Lat , 157 b . .

v bs , 143 an d a .

vost er e tc .
, see v est er . x,
-
n om . e n d in g , 56 ; g en d .
, 86 ; x from s,
v5t i dam ni t u s ,
352 a in vh s 2 11 a
Vow el han ge s, 15 1— c
. . . . .
,

3 ; vowel vari at ions , .

17 Y, Gre ek ori gi n , 1
of . N .
1 .

Y
.

Vowel root s of ve rb s , 179 a—c . . ear, 63 0; m on t h s of , 630, 63 1 ; d at e ,

Vowel st e m s of ve rb s, 259- 262 . 424 g . .

Vowe l su fli xe s ( p rim ary) , 17 4 s u ffi x,

c
.

Vowels, 1 ; p ron u n i at ion , 8 ; lon g an d Y es , i n Lat in , 336

c c
.

s h ort , 10; on t ra t i on , 15 3 ; q u an t i ty y o (y i p ri m ary su ffi x , 234 I I 11

c
. . . .

of fi n al vowels in ase-e n d in gs , 38 g ; y , i om e n di n g , 82 ; q u an t i t y , 604 i

- s r

c
. . . .

vowel m od ifi ed i n n oun st e m s, d e l .

II I , 56 a ; len gt h en ed in root , 177 d ,

. . Z , of Gree k origi n , 1 a . . N.
 LA TI N AU TH OR S AN D TH EI R WORKS
C I TED I N TH I S BOOK

N O TE — I n t h e it at i on s t h e n am es C aesar, C i ero , S allust ( wit h I u gurth a) , and

. c c
”
Virgi l are n ot ge n e rally g iven Th u s, B G refe rs t o C ae sar s B ellu m Galli cu m ;
’
. . .

Fam
”
t o C e ro s le t t e rs ad F am ili ares ;
i .
’ ”
c
lu g t o S allu st s I u gu rt h a ;
’
Aen ”
to . .

Virgil s zEn e id , e t c
’
.

Ap .
, Ap u le i u s
125 (A . D . C ic Lae1 , Lae li us ( de A m i
. . C ic Verr , i n Ve rrem
. . .

Me t , Me t am orp h oses. . et t i e ) . C lau d , C lau dian u s

.
( ab t .

B A fr , B ellu m Af ri Le g A r dc L A D
. . .
g eg e . . .

cu m A gre rt e iv C d e Qu art o H
—
. . . .
,

C aesar ( B G 100 44) . . Le gg , d e Le g i bu s

. . Consu lata H on ori i .

B C , B ellu m C i vile
. . . Lig p ro Lig e ri o
. . Eu n .
, En n i us ( B C 23 9 . .

B G , B ellu m Galli
. . Man il , p ro Leg e Me .

cu m n ili e Gell , A Gelli us ( d

c c
. . . . .

C at o ( B G 234 -149) . . Mar , p ro Mar ello . .

d e M , de Mori bu s Mil , p ro Milon e H irt iu s ( d B C 43 )

c
. . . . . . .

R R , d e R e R u st i a
. . . Mu r , p ro Mu re n e
. . B AL, B ellu m A lex.

C at u 11 , C at u llu s ( B G 87 N D , de N at u re D e a nd ri n u m
H or , H ora e ( B C 65— c
. . . . . .

oru m 8)
c c
. . . .

C ic Ci 106
ero (B G 011 , d e Ojfi c u s P , de A rt e P oe t i a
Ac
. . . . .
, .

ad , A c ade m i c a . . O r , Orat or
. . C s , C arm en S ae en
. .

Ad H er , [ad H erea . Par , P are doxa

. . le re .

n iu m ] Part Or , d e P art i t ion e Ep , Ep is t les

c c
. . . . .

A r h , p ro A r hi e . . Orat ori a . Ep od Ep odes . .

A t t , ad A t t i c u m
. . Phil , P h i lipp i ce e
. . O d Ode s . .

B alb , p ro B albe . . Plan c , p ro P le nc i o . . S S at i res . .

Bru t , B ru t u s de C'laris
. Pison , i n P ison e m . . I u st , Ju st in us ( ab t A D
. . . .

Orat ori bu s Prov C ons , dc P rovi n ~

c
. .

C ae , p ro C aec i n a . . etis C ons u lari bu s . I uv .

, Ju ven al ( ab t . A D . . 60
C aec i l , D i vi n at io i n Q F r , e d Q F re t re m .

59—
. . . .

C ae cili u m Qu in e t , p ro Qu i n c t i o Li v , Livy (D C A D 17 )
c
. . . . . . .

C ael , p ro M Cae lio . . . R ab in , p ro R e bi ri o . Lu e r , Lu . re t iu s (B . C . 96

C at , i n Cat ili n am
. . Rab Post , p ro R e bi ri o
. .

C at M , C ato Mai or ( de P ost u m o Mart Mart ial ( A D 43

c
. . . . .
,

S ene c t u t e) . Re p , d e Re P u bli e . 104)

C lu , p ro Clu e n t io
. . Rose Am p ro R osci o . . Ep . Ep i g ram s
,
.

D eiot , p ro D ei ot aro . A m e ri n o N ep N ep os ( B C 99
Ag
. . . . .
,

D e O r , d e Orat ore Rose C om p ro R os A g esile us

es
c
. . . .
,

D iv , de D i vi n at ione
. . Com oed o . A lc , A l i bi ades
. .

D om , p ro D e m o S u a
. . Sc au r p ro S c e u ro . . Att , A tt i cu s. .

F am , ad F am ili ares . . S est , p ro S e sti o

. . D at , D at am es . .

F at , d e F at e
. . S u ll , ro S elle
. . D ion , D ion .

F in , d e F i n i bus Ti m , m e e u s (d e Epam , Ep am i nond as

’

cc
. . . .

Flaec , p ro F la o verso) Eu m Eu m e n e s
c
. . . .
.
,

F on t , p ro M F on tei o . . Top , Top i e . H an n , H an n i bal . .

H ar Re s p , d e H aru sp i
. Tu ll , p ro Tu lli o
. . Milt , Milt i ade s . .

c u m R esp onsis . Tu se , Tu scu lan ae Di s

. Pan s , P e us an i es .

Inv de I n ven t ion e p u t e t i on e s . Th em , Th e m is tocles . .

Rh e tori ca . Vat , i n Vati n i u m

. . Tim oth , Tim oth eus . .

4 76
ALLE N AND G REE N OUGH S LATI N G RAMMAR
’

PAR ALLEL R EFER EN C ES

e an d N . 3
4 84 A LLEN A ND GR EENOUGH S LA TIN GR A MMAR
’

O LD
19 7 .
f
P 18 6 N o t e
. .

P 186, b ot t om
.

1 98
1 99
2 00
2 00 d.

2 00 e.

2 01 e , b,
. 0
2 01 d.

2 01 e—h
.

2 02
2 02 e.

2 02 b.

2 02 0.

2 02 d.

2 02 e.

2 02 .
f
n ullu s
2 03
2 03 d.

2 03 .

2 04
2 05
2 05 0.

2 05 0 2
. .

2 05 d.

2 06
2 06 °.

2 06 9.

2 06 9.

2 07
2 07 .

2 07 e
n

2 07 er
.

2 07 g.

2 08
2 08 p 5
e

2 08 a.

2 08 g.

2 08 a.

2 09
2 09 Q.

‘
2 09 O.

2 09 Q.

‘
2 09 Q.

2 09 Q.

2 10
2 10 Q.

2 10 .

2 10 d R
. . .

2 10 e.
4 88 A LLEN AN D GR EENOUGH S LA TI N GRA MMA R
’

O LD
3 08 . b an d R .
3 09
3 09 . b
3 09 . 0
3 10
3 11
3 11 . s
3 11 . s t

3 11 . s a
t

3 11 . s a
c

3 11 . s
3 11 . e
3 11 . e
3 11 . r

3 11 . e z

3 11 . e
3 12
3 12 . R. ,
N.

3 13
3 13 . d
3 13 . d . N .

3 14
3 14 b
.

3 15
3 15 a 1
. .

3 15 e 2
. .

3 15 d
.

3 16
3 16 e
.

3 17
3 17 2 d p ar
. .

3 17 3
.

3 17 e
.

3 17 b
.

3 17 b
. .

3 17 b
.

3 17 . c
3 17 0
.

3 17 0
.

3 18
P 343 N ot e
. .

3 19
3 19 3
.

3 19 3 N an d
. . . R .

3 19 . c
3 19 d
.

3 19 d B
. . .
A N N O U N C EM EN T S
 R EVI S ED ED I T I O N

Edit e d byJA M ES B GR EEN O U G H , lat e Pro fe ssor of Latin in H arvard U n iversity,

.

an d GEO R GE L K I TTR EDG E, Profe ssor o f En glish in H arvard U n i

.

ve rsity, form erly Professor of Lat in in Phillips Exe t e r A c ade m

“

A EN EI D , B O O K
S I — VI , w it h a s p ec ial Voc ab u lary 1 2 m o H alf m oroc c o xlv + 7 09 .
0

. .

p g a es I llu s trat e d
. Lis t p ric e ,. m ailin g p ri c e ,

AEN EI D ,
B OO K
S I —VI B U C O LI C S , w it h a s ec ial Voc ab u lar
, p y xlv + 807 p ag e s . .

I ll us trat ed Lis t p ri c e ,
. m ailin g p ric e ,

AEN EI D ,
BO O K I wit h m ark e d qu an t it ie s T e xt Ed it ion
, . . rz m o . Pap e r .
3 3 p age s .

I llu s trat e d . Lis t p ric e an d m ailin g p ri c e , 1 5 c e n ts .

N t his e d it ion Virgil s A e n e id

’ “
is t re at e d m ore as p iec e o fa
in s p irin g lit e rat u re t h an as s o m u ch Lat in t h at m u s t b e p e r
f u n c t o rily s t u d ie d Th e I n t rod u c t ion d is c u sse s t h e A u gu s t an
.

A g e , Virg il’s life , h is fam e , an d t h e m an u s c rip t s b y m e an s o f wh i h c

h is writ in gs h ave c om e d o wn t o us . T he d ire c t io n s for t ran slat ion
an d m e t ric al re adin g are s u gg e s t iv e an d ad e q u at e . Th e N o t e s
c on t ain fre q u e n t q u ot at io n s from C h au c e r, S h ake sp e are , Milt o n ,
S p e n se r, Pop e , an d ot h e r En glis h au t h ors wh o h av e d rawn in sp i
rat io n from t h e “
A e n e id
T h e t e x t is p ro fu se ly illu s t rat e d
. .

This volu m e c
is reg ard e d b y rit ic al an d c o m p e t e n t Lat in t e a h e rs c
as c
t h e m os t att ra t iv e as we ll as t h e m os t sc h olarl
.
y e d it ion of
”
Virgil for sec on d ary s c h ools y et is s u e d in t h is c ou n t r
y .

G REE N O U G H ’
S VI R G I L
Edit e d b y JA M ES B GR EEN O UG H , la te Pro fe ssor o f Lat in in H arvard U n ive rsit y
. .

GEO R G I C S A N D A EN EI D , K
BOO S VI I —X I I . 1 2 m o. C lo th .
3 3 3 pag es . I llu s
t rat e d . Lis t p ric e , m ailin g p ric e ,

TEX T ED I TI ON S
A EN EI D , B OO K S I VI A N D BU C O LI C S
-
, . 1 2 m o. Pape r . 1 81 p age s . Lis t p ric e ,
ili
40 c e n t s ; m a i ng p r c e , 45 c en t s .

A EN EI D , BO O K VI I —XI I Cl h . 12 mo . ot . 1 57 pag e s . Li s t p ri c e , 3 5 c e n ts ; m ailin g

p ric e , 40 c e n t s .

C O M PLET E T EX T O F VI R G I L, BU C O LI C S , EN EI D , A N D G EO R G I C S A .

xz m o C lo t h
. 2 2 8 pag e s
. Lis t p ric e , 7 5 c e n t s ; m ailin g p ric e , 85 c e n t s
. .

GI N N 85 C O M PAN Y P U B L I S H ERS
 A LLE N A N D G R E E NO U G H ’
S

C A ES A R : G A L LI C WA R
R EVI SED ED I TI ON

Edit ed b JA M ES B G R B B N O UG H lat e Profe s sor o f Lat in in H arvard U n ive rs ity

LD O
.
,

Profe sso r o f Lat in an d C re e k in M ic higan S tat e N orm al

’
B . . O GB ,
C o lle ge , Y p s ilan t i , an d M G R A N T D A N I E LL, rec e n t ly
.

Prin c ip al o f C han n e y-H all S c hoo l, Bost on

BO O KS I —I V . rz m o . H alf leat h er . lix + 2 68 + 1 62 p ag e s . I llus t rat e d . List p ric e ,

m ailin g p ric e ,
BO O K S I—VI I . 12 mo . H alf le ath e r . lx + 6 1 6 p ag e s . I llu s t rat ed . Lis t p ric e ,
m ailin g p ric e ,

HIS n e w e di t ion of C ae s ar s
’ “
G allic W ar k e e p s p ro m in e n t ly
in v ie w t he n e e ds o f t h e b e gin n e r, on the g ro u n d t h at a large
m aj o ri t y of t h o s e wh o re ad C ae s ar t ak e it up im m e diat e ly aft e r

fi n ish in g t h e ir fi rs t le ss o n s . I t is b e lie v e d t h at all t his cl as s o f s t u d e n t s

’

ne eds h ave b e e n fu lly m e t i n t h e p re se n t e dit io n .

Profe s s o r Gre e n o u g h h as s p e ially q u alifi e d h im s e lf fo r c e d it in g t h is

e dit io n b y t rave lin g an d m akin g re c en t in ve s t ig at i o n s in F ran c e . Not

o n ly t h e N o t e s b u t t h e illust rat io n s h av e p ro fi t e d g re at ly o n sid e r . A c
ab le c
n u m b e r o f t h e p i t u re s in t h is e dit ion are f ro m p h o t o grap h s m ad e

e sp e ci ally fo r it . In other c as e s , c
p i t u re s n o t p re vio u sly s ee n in t h is
c o u n t ry h ave b e e n o b t ain e d . Th e m u se u m s h ave be e n vis it e d an d

m an y n ew illu s t rat i o n s d rawn f ro m t h e m . At the s am e t im e all t h e

s t an dard an d e s s e n t ial illu s t rat io n s are u s e d . I t is b e lie ve d t h at t his

p art o f t h e e d it i n g will b e f o u n d o f s ig n al e x e lle n c c e an d c c
p ra t i al valu e .

S e ve ral re adin g c o u rse s are s u g ge s t e d , ea ch on e o f whi h , wh ile c

e m b ra ci ng an am o u n t of t e xt e qu al t o t h e fi rs t fo u r b o o k s , c o n t ain s

c h ico e s e le c ti o n s o f n arrat ive an d ad ve n t u re fro m t h e v ari o u s b oo k s . It

is b e lie ve d t h at t his fe at u re will b e e sp e ci ally a cc e p t ab le t o t e a h e rs c wh o
h av e fo u n d t h e m o n o t o n y of C ae s ar irkso m e b u t h ave see n n o way t o
v ary t h e c o u rse .

Ex c pt i m
e n a ount of Lat in t e xt , t h e f o u r-b o ok
'

e di t io n is p ra t i ally c c
id e n t ic l wit h t h n e w e di t io n of c Galli W ar c
’
a e p le t e C ae s ar s the om .

It c o n t ain s c
t h e I n t ro d u t io n , wit h t h e e x e p t io n o f t wo i rre le van t p age s , c
t h e gro u p s o f re lat e d wo rd s , an d t h e f u ll Vo ab u lary Man y o f t h e c .

illu s t rat ion s of Bo o k s V, VI , an d VI I are i n se rt e d at t h e cl o se , in o rd e r

t o e x p lain g rap h i ally a c num be r of t he re f e re n c es in t h e I n t ro d u tion c

an d in t h e N o t e s .
Qu an t it ie s of lo n g vo we ls are m ark e d .

GI N N 8: C O M P AN Y P U BL I S H ER S
 A L L EN G R EE N O U G H S
’
8:
C I C ER O
R e v ised Edit ion

R e vise d by J
B G R EEN O U GH , lat e Professor of Latin in H arvard U n ive rsity,
. .

an d G EO R GE L K I TT R ED GE, Profe ssor of En glish in H arvard U ni

.

v ersit , form erl Professor of Lat in in Philli s Exe t e r A c ade m

y y p y

W it h a S P EC I A L V O CA B U L A R Y by Pro fe sso r G re e n o u gh

1 2 7710
. H al
f moroc c o . [x v 4 78 1 4 pag es
9 . I llu st rat ed. List p ric e,
m ailing p ric e,

TH I S n e w e d it ion o f C ic e ro h as b e e n t re at e d wit h sp e c ial

re fere n c e t o the u se of t he r
o at ion s as m ode ls of c las s ic

or at or Th e I n t rod u c t io n is m ade t o h e lp in t h is st u dy of
y .

ap p lie d logic an d rh et oric . Th e re is a fu ll life o

f C ic e ro ,

r
de sc ib in g h is e d u c at ion an d d e ve lop m e n t as an r
o at o r ,
as

we ll as h is p olit ic al r r
c a ee . The re is a c h ap t e r c on n e c t i n
g
th e st l
ye of t he r o at io n s wit h an c ie n t r r
fo m al h e t oric . Th e re
is also a c h ap t e r on R o m an r
o at o ry an d t h e p lac e of t he

r
o at o r in an c ie n t c i viliz at ion .

Th e t e xt in c lu de s t h e follo win g ,
r
o at ion s : Th e Man ilian
Law ; fou r orat ion s agai st C at ilin e ; Arc h ias ; n Milo ; Mar
c e llu s ; Ligariu s ; t h e fo rt e e n t h Ph ilip p ic ; a d c 0p io s u n u

e xt rac t s from t h e D e fe n c e of R osc iu s an d t h e Ac t io S e c u d a n

agai st Ve rre s
n .

Alm o st e ve ryt h in g adm itt in g of gr aph ic p re se n t at ion h as

an ill s t r at ion
u an d n o lit t le st u dy h as b e e n e xp e n d e d in
,

fi n di g t h e m o s t s it ab le p ic t u r e s
n Vie ws of p lac e s sc e n e s
u .
,

o f R o m an life a d p ort ait s h ave b e e n s p e c ially s

,
n rgh t ou .

Man y c oin s are sho w Th e illu st r at ion s a e f lly e xp lain e d

n .
r u

in t h e I n d ex wit h c rit ic ism s

,
.

G I N N 65 C O M P A N Y P u blish e rs