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The View from the Road

Working Paper · May 2013

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The View from the Road
By Sonia Melani Miller.
Submitted to Dr. Anthony Raynsford, for the seminar Arth 275 on April 2013.
Department of Art and Art History of San Jose State University, San Jose, CA

The techniques used in the cinematic study The View from the Road served to

identify and reconstruct the effects certain internal alignments and geometric components

of freeways segments had over the cognition of highway travel. This essay attempts to

trace the evolution of urban simulation, from the ideas emerged with this early study, into

recent filmed simulations of model films; and addresses its connection to the symbology

of Kevin Lynch’s theory of mental mapping, and to broader concepts of Cinematic

Urbanism. In 1964 three urban studies graduates from the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology (MIT), Kevin Lynch, John Myer and Donald Appleyard, cooperated on a

study assessing the effects of the internal alignment of freeways segments on highway

travel, taken from the perspective that highways can be potential vantage points for the

American urban landscape. The result from this study was the book The View from the

Road, originally published for the Center of Urban Studies of the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology and Harvard University. The study of the View from the Road repetitively

draws from, and uses Kevin Lynch’s conceptual elements for spatial cognition, from the

study conducted in his 1960’s book The Image of the City. The principles of mental

[spatial] mapping exemplified by Lynch were used in this work to interpret the cinematic

sequences of recorded visions of landscape taken while traveling on highways; to the end

of depicting how travelers responded to geometric components of highway alignments

such as tangents and arcs. This project brought together the ideas of these three

personalities, already involved with studies of environmental perception, including the

1
experimentation of new urban design models (Lynch and Myer), and the study of the

effect of traffic over urban communities (Appleyard). The project The View from the

Road presented an occasion for them to test individual ideas of environmental perception

by exemplifying three ways of simulating the experience of driving along highways:

Notation systems, perspective sequences, and films produced through a modelscope.

These techniques were later developed and become common tools used to describe and

simulate the environmental experience. The notation system, for example, although hard

to comprehend because working in idiosyncratic abstract ways, became a common

practice to describe the environmental experience of urban design.1 Modelscopes,

motion picture cameras, and realistic scale models were also later developed and become

methods for realistically simulating and comparing experiences of the environment.2

It is probably safe to propose that Lynch, Myer, and Appleyard’s cooperation in this

project was a significant contribution to the development of more refined tools (and

ideas) for urban simulation. Appleyard brought the ideas of urban simulation explored in

this study to the next level by refurbishing the “Harvard Urban Simulator,” which

allowed him to test the principles discerned with the analysis and reconstruction of visual

sequences of travel in The View from the Road. Appleyard, using the simulation lab, and

with the help of upstream cinematographic techniques for simulation, and Star Wars film

makers John Dykstra, made a movie simulating road travel through Marin Country,

reconstructing the visual scenes in the manner theorized in the project The view from the

Road. The urban simulator (re-baptized the Berkeley’ simulator) and the movie, started a

1
Peter Bosselmann, ”The Berkley Environmental Simulation Laboratory: A 12 Year Anniversary,” Berkley
Planning Journal 1, no.1(1984): 150-160.
2
Ibid..

2
new way of representing urban projects, steering away from traditional methods of

representation (drawing table) into technologies taking advantage of popular means of

communication and making planning projects more easily comprehensible for the general

public.

The use of the cinematic techniques employed for the study The View from the Road

is probably attributable to the type of Cinematic Urbanism at the basis of Lynch’s notion

of mental mapping. The later development of this idea into filmed environmental

simulations is, on the other hand, attributable to the growing importance of mass media as

a means of communication. The study is significant for the subjectivity in which it

approaches highway analysis; not only researching the perfect alignment to improve

highway functions, but also attempting to incorporate the highway within the city as an

object offering a kinetic experience and active participation to its forms. Therefore, in the

1960s, emerging from the experience of an era that witnessed the disassociation of

architecture and planning from the physical forms of cities, there was a need for finding

new models of urban design allowing a proper integration of the city structures in the

urban landscape. In post World War II years, therefore, there was an important shift in

paradigm leading to the depopulation and decay of city centers and development of

suburban residential areas. The increase of automobiles per household, during the

prosperity of post war years, and the availability of cheap land in suburbs induced the

most affluent citizen to abandon crowded urban dwelling in favor of single family homes

on large lots in the suburbs. With only the lower income residents and renters remaining

in city’s neighborhoods, many urban areas started to decline and underwent a wave of

redevelopment that lasted many decades. The construction of the interstate highway

3
system during President Eisenhower’s administration in the 1950s, made this matter

worse by allowing the creation of suburbs in areas that were previously unreachable.

Public transportation also declined during this period, and the automobile became the

most reliable means of transportation, also accentuating the overall role and importance

of highways in American urbanism. In these years, and in the decades that followed, the

alleged consequences of modernist planning lead to an overall disenchantment with the

Bauhaus paradigm. Activist groups started to emerge to defend condemned areas of cities

from the redevelopment’s bulldozer. City Planning in university programs became less

concerned with the architectural aspects of the urban form and took a more logistic and

social orientation. At MIT, the studio based Architectural program also gradually started

to shift away from its adherence to the modern international style and to undertake new

innovative researches; until extrapolating into a more American tradition of architecture

in the landscape in the 1960s – 1970s.

The monograph The View from the Road consists in a relatively short (64 pages)

illustrated folio containing the study on highway travel by Kevin Lynch, Donald

Appleyard and John R. Myer. The book emphasizes the potentiality of highways of re-

establish visual order through the chaotic formlessness of cities by researching principles

to improve their design. The project was probably triggered by the emphasis of highway

development of the late 1950s, as part of the programs associated to the 1954 Housing

Act. The Project approaches the highway as an active element for the individual’s

experience of the urban form, rather than a static object in the landscape. Which as Kevin

Lynch said, “It assumes the symbol of an abstract composition in space which gains in

richness because it is not passively seen but actively traversed by the driver, whom

4
experiences visual as well as kinesthetic sensations of tilting, turning, dropping and

climbing.”3 Highway travel is analyzed from a direct recording of the kinesthetic

perception of travelers, derived from the geometry of the freeway. Their perceptions to

elements associated with individual segments, such as “three dimensional curves” and

“continuous alignments,” for which the commencement and termination of individual

curves and tangents cannot be noticed by the eye, but needs to be reconstructed in a

sequence.4 The perception of the viewer is, therefore, measured in relation to several

elements of alignment and how these connect to each other. 5 Consisting in elements of

orientation associated to landmarks (tangent), to segments providing changing panoramas

and sense of anticipation (circular axis), and to perspective foreshortening and transition

curves. 6 The study also proposes that highways can influence traveler perception of

cities by providing a cinematic sequence of images. A sequence of images that can be

constructed by directing travel through significant places and pointing, with the twists

and curves of the road, at significant urban elements, creating a vision of the city for both

orientation and entertainment.

The cinematic techniques used for recording and reconstructing the experience of

highway travel in The View from the Road, seemed to be following the logic of the type

of Cinematic Urbanism7 at the basis of Lynch’s theory of the Image of the City. The

3
Christopher Tunnard and Boris Pushkareu, Man-made America: Chaos or Control, (New haven and
London: Yale University Press, 1963), 177.
4
Ibid.
5
Ibid., 177-205.
6
Ibid.
7
Anthony Raynsford, “Civic Art in an Age of Cultural Relativism: The Aesthetic Origins of Kevin Lynch’s
Image of the City,” Journal of Urban Design 16, no.1 (February 2011): 45.

5
study The View from the Road attempted to reconstruct a similar sequence of mental

associations to explain the process establishing mental coherence for road orientation.

Discoveries Lynch made in occasion of the studies conducted in 1951, leading to the

formulation of the theory of the Image of the City, probably allowed him to make

assumptions for mechanisms contributing to individual orientations through the

recordings, organization, and understanding of mental images. Lynch, therefore, noticed

that his research subjects constructed a mental image of the urban environment through

an interconnected “syncractic chain of urban pictures,” 8 consisting of a sequence of

“visual impressions,”9 associated in meaning and memory.10 Lynch also noticed the

tendency of the human eye to switch from detail to detail recording sequences of views

that necessarily hold together, and assumed that the uncoordinated forms and array of

details of contemporary cities, by scattering human attention in all directions, were

responsible for individual lack of orientation. 11 The logic Lynch used, however, seemed

to draw from the modernist use of abstract forms to construct coherent visual sequences

of the built environment; combined to the aesthetic subjectivity of the contextuality of

enclosed spaces and eye-level views of city streets. 12 Lynch could have, therefore,

combined the modernist de-contextualized model based on Gestalt psychology, to

principles of perspectival street pictures’ eye-level urban composition from the

8
Raynsford, “Civic Art in an Age of Cultural Relativism,” 45.
9
Ibid.
10
Ibid.
11
Ibid., 47.
12
Ibid., 46.

6
Townscape pluralist tradition.

The modernist conception of wholeness and integration, largely drew upon the Gestalt

psychological model, supporting the idea that objects are recorded visually only in a

partial way, and that they only take meaning after they are joined together and integrated

mentally to produce an image of the whole urban form. 13 Modernists such as Kepes, for

example, believed that “the failure of the contemporary built environment to be visually

complete or organic in the modernist sense, prevented individuals from establishing

mental connections to the larger world, causing mental incoherence.”14

Lynch, on the other hand, seemed to have given a more pluralist interpretation to this

mental picture, and perceived the elements that made up an environmental setting to be

highly subjective and largely dependent on individual interpretation of landscape

elements. The details provided by eye-level street pictures seemed to provide

significance and individuality to this sequence of mental recording.

The idea of the street picture consisted in a concept of urban composition and theory of

the period of the Townscape movement. The Townscape movement, was considered a

British conservative phenomenon, but was also assimilated into various degrees into the

planning theories of many other countries. It was based on the re-interpretation of ideals

of British Romanticism, and contested not only the modernist ideas of the “City as an

organism,” of CIAM, but also the influence of garden city planning of post war Britain.

The Townscape movement stood in opposition to the modernist idea of “unified whole,”

that saw the city as a unified system with all the elements connected together and

hierarchically related. Instead, the Townscape movement saw the city as a pluralistic

13
Raynsford, “Civic Art in an Age of Cultural Relativism,” 51.
14
Ibid., 46.

7
entity, consisting in a collage of different types of street blocks, composed by different

motives, textures, and by a society offering subjective interpretations.

The eye-level view is a one point perspective view of the street, framed by buildings, and

opening a view over an architectural element (usually a tower). This type of arrangement

creates spatial coordinates, frames the view and establishes scale and distance. It also

allows the eye to rest on prominent objects, to create associations between contrasting

urban elements, and provides the perception of spatial distances and direction. The eye-

level view is fundamental to the legibility of an urban area, because it gives it symbolic

meaning, and allows recognition and familiarity.15

The experience of highway travel is described in the book The View from the Road

through sequences of annotations, sketches, photographic views, and diagrams. The

recordings from the annotations and sketches are summarized in two diagrams,

displaying overlapping

sequences of visual and

cognitional impressions.

Highway travel is described by

the book as a subjective, but

yet universal sequence of

experiences, which can vary

from subjects of different

classes or cultures, and from

people undertaking trips for

15
Raynsford, “Civic Art in an Age of Cultural Relativism,” 48.

8
different purposes (daily commuters versus tourists).

Figure 1: Sketches and recordings of objects and road views.

Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch and John Myer, The view from the Road, (Cambridge: Massachusetts M.I.T Press,
1964), 36.

Note: The readings are recorded through series of ground (photographic) obliques capturing visual sequences at close
interval, and by perspective sketches of views. The purpose of the sketches was to record the sequences of objects as
they were perceived by the eyes, allowing to analyze visual perceptions both at the subjective and objective level. The
visual sequences recorded through the sketches also allowed to strip the experience to its most essential elements
allowing a comparison of the sequences of alternative modes and directions.

Figure 2: Space, Motion and View Diagram

Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch and John Myer, The view from the Road, (Cambridge: Massachusetts M.I.T Press,
1964), 50.

9
Note: The drawings conveyed a strong sense of motion, sequence and spatial orientation; recording objects along the
road side but excluding traffic and features far away in the landscape. Study subjects recorded similar objects and
features, and were particularly attracted to sudden visual experiences (of objects or events) that were also often
associated to visual forms from memory. The feature more often recorded were the forward view of the road, spatial
confinements at the side of the road and overhead, outlines and siluettes against the sky, roadside details, and obstacles
to vision, objects obstructing the road and axial views. The sketches were often in perspective view and always
recorded enclosures created by bridges and overpasses. While objects were recorded only if they were in the line of
vision; vertical objects were often recorded in the form of silouettes (lamps, chimneys or towers).16

Figure 3: Orientation Diagram

Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch and John Myer, The view from the Road, (Cambridge: Massachusetts M.I.T Press,
1964), 52.

16
Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch and John Myer, The view from the Road, (Cambridge: Massachusetts
M.I.T Press, 1964), 26.

10
Note: The sense of motion and speed affected the perception of the surrounding objects, the sense of direction,
orientation and the perception of the band of vision. The vision was also strongly focused forward, for both the
passenger and the driver. And the eye of the traveler was often drawn to spatial enclosures, to the play of light, the
relationship of space in sequence, and to the overlapping and direction of principal views. The attention of the traveler
was centered to find orientation, to sense the approach of destinations, to assess the location of major urban and natural
features, and to interpret the meaning of the surrounding landscape.

The cinematic experience is described as sequences of images “played to the eyes of

an audience with a framed and filtered vision directed forward.” 17 This visual experience

is, therefore, almost imposed upon the driver that has no choice but to view it, given his

framed and limited view, inability to choose the path, and immobility. The quality of this

visual experience will depend on the light, color, texture, motion and outlines of the

edges of the road. Views will be organized into sequences and the identifiable objects

will provide orientation, amplifying the sensation of motion.18 When perceived over an

extended period of time, these objects, motions, spaces, and meanings become organized

into complex sequences. 19 The highway experience, will therefore offer the driver the

visual sensation provided by a sequence of images accentuated by a sensation of motion

and space, and by the sense of control over the car. Lynch said that the “sense of spatial

sequence is like that of large scale architecture…[and] the continuity and insistent

temporal flow are akin to music and the cinema.” 20

The road is described in this book not as a static bulk object in the landscape as it appears

to people along its borders, but as an element presenting a two faced problem,21 where

the experience of travel is reversible and “can be done in both directions like a playback

17
Appleyard, et al., The view from the Road, 5.

18
Ibid., 4.
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.

11
in a movie.“22 The view from the road can therefore offer the driver an occasion for a

“dramatic play of space and motion, of light and texture, all on a new scale,”23 and by

offering long visual sequences of the metropolitan area, can provide a view of the way

the city is organized, what it symbolizes, how it is used and how people relate to it.24

The project draws on elements of symbolism from Kevin Lynch’s theory of the Image

of the City by recalling the principles of basic orientations proposed by this “imagistic”

theoretical model. The pluralistic view of the urban environment based on the subjective

perception of a combination of visual and cultural experiences (culture and architecture),

is re-proposed in The View from the Road by illustrating how travelers will feel oriented

along highways.25 Highways will therefore provide orientation for the traveler by going

through specific and well recognizable areas of the city, and by being oriented in a way to

provide selected views of recognizable elements (e.g. water, rivers), of landmarks, or of

specific and recognizable areas (districts) by the viewing of cultural activities. The

pluralistic view of the environment in The View from the Road, is particularly invested in

the scope of travel (what would a commuter or a tourist look at), and follows the same

logic in the interpretation of the elements of the theory of the Image of the City.

In the theory of the The Image of the City Lynch makes the assumption that cities are

inhabited by different urban societies, which understand and interpret the urban

environment differently, but that never-the-less use a similar cognitional mechanism to

mentally map and orient themselves within complex urban area. Each individual has a

22
Ibid., 5.
23
Appleyard, et al, The view from the Road, 3.
24
Ibid.

25
Carla Breeze, “Interview: John R. Myer,” in Arude, http://www.arudemag.com/john-r-myer/ (accessed
May 2, 2013).

12
different and subjective representation of this urban image that taking the form of a

cognitive mental map, comprises a set of elements universally recognizable in the urban

environment. Lynch proposes that the elements comprised in this cognitive map can be

categorized in “paths” consisting of lines along which the observer feels he can move;

“districts,” consisting of relatively large sections distinguished by identity and character;

“edges,” which are the lines that appear as barriers or boundaries; “nodes,” that are the

focal points into which one imagines the “environment” can be entered; and “landmarks,”

consisting of points mainly serving as reference.26 The idea is that although this cognitive

map provides orientation and familiarity and serves as a pictorial reference for navigating

the landscape; space will be perceived differently by the way different individuals will

relate visual perception of architectural forms to familiar cultural constructs. Lynch calls

this construct the “city’s environmental image,”27 primarily referring to the “result of a

two-way process between the observer and his environment.28

In The View from the Road suggests that highways, by allowing a visual sequence for

the observer in motion, could provide a means of re-establishing coherence and order on

the metropolitan scale and resolve the problem of the visual formlessness of cities.29

Lynch said that all the “image elements,” such as paths, nodes, districts, edges and

landmarks can be identified from the highway, remembered and can provide orientation

and familiarity. The “highway itself is a path” which on its “course goes through edges,

26
Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1960), 1-181.

27
Tanu Sankalia, “Kevin Lynch, Walter Benjamin and Interstitial Space in San Francisco,” (paper presented at the
conference of the Heritage Agency of Denmark and the University of Copenhagen, World in Denmark 2010,
Copenhagen, Denmark, June 17, 2010), 2.
28
Magdalena Zmudzinska-Nowak, “Searching for Legible City Form: Kevin Lynch’s Theory in Contemporary
Perspective,” Journal of Urban Technology 10, no.3 (2003): 19-39.
29
Appleyardet al, The view from the Road, 2.

13
crosses other paths, enter districts, passes landmarks. [Becoming] … both an image

element and a sequence made up of image elements.” 30 Lynch emphasized that the

individuality of this highway experience differs depending on the location and

circumstances of travel, and assumes different meanings depending on whether the trip is

for pleasure or for commute, whether it is in rural areas, in the suburbs or in urban

centers. An experience that will also differ according to the cultural determinants of the

individual undertaking the trip, because according to Lynch, different audiences will

experience a trip in different ways. A tourist, for example, will be mainly engaged with

getting familiar with the environment and will experience the landscape with a fresh eye,

noticing the most details and attaching it with the fewer personal meaning. 31 A

commuter, on the other hand, will be more likely to ignore larger landscape features,

observing instead activities, new objects, and the moving of traffic on the road. 32 The

driver will also experience the trip differently from the passenger, since his vision will be

concentrated on the events of the road, and confined to a narrow forward angle. 33 The

passenger, on the other hand, will have the freedom to look at a broader angle of vision

and will not be concerned as much with immediate traffic.34

Lynch’s pluralistic idea of the urban aesthetic was also shared by the other two

authors of The View from the Road. Myer and Appleyard frequenting MIT at the same

time as Lynch were also exposed to the shift in paradigms of the architectural and

30
Appleyard, et al., The view from the Road, 2.
31
Ibid, 4.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.

14
planning fields. Similar to Lynch, they later became involved in projects of neighborhood

planning, and contributed with new ideas for the development of innovative planning

processes. John R. Meyer’s friendship with Lynch can be traced back to the time they

spend studying together in Italy in 1952. Myer helped Lynch with the studies on

“cognitional orientation” conducted in Florence by acting as a subject for the field study,

and reporting how he felt oriented in the city and why. Myer and Lynch also cooperated

in several urban design projects, including the design of the plan for the Boston

Government Center in 1958, and in the design of the 1961 Downtown Residential Faneuil

Hall Plan for the Boston Waterfront. The Faneuil Hall Plan was very successful with

revitalizing the Boston waterfront by creating a connection between the sea and the city,

and introducing new economic activities in this once blighted neighborhood. The project

that became known as an early example of “festive marketplace,” revolutionized the

Urban Design paradigms by combining the Corbusier, modernist non contextual model to

Lynch and Myer’s contextual ideas based on the preservation of the city’s identity

through the conservation of significant buildings. Appleyard was the one that continued

to work on the idea of The View from the Road and took the studies to the next level by

pioneering the environmental simulation laboratory to test experiences in different types

of environments. Donald Appleyard was a British architect that studied Urban Planning

at MIT, and subsequently taught at MIT and UC Berkeley. He centered his life studies

upon the effect of traffic on the lives of urban dwellers, and in studies of neighborhood

conservation and traffic management. He shared Lynch and Myer’s interest of

encompassing the scope of urban design within social sciences, and conducted, since the

early 1960s, studies on the livability of streets, measuring the effect of traffic on resident

15
socialization. He discovered the importance of home territory (exchange space) in

people’s socialization, and was one among the firsts to experiment with the use of image

mapping for transportation and planning uses.35 Through his life he challenged traditional

views of highway design, focusing with his work on the social and political aspect of

urban circulation, in an attempt to replace the strictly technical and economical approach

highway design typically adopts.36 His studies and work were finally summarized in a

theory for “streets for living” in the books Livable Streets, published in 1981, a year

before his death. 37 The production of a simulator model to communicate visual

sequences by compressing significant events of highway travel was a phase of the project

The View from the Road that was never implemented. Then, in 1972 Apppleyard

refurbished an environmental simulator belonging to Harvard University, in cooperation

with Kenneth Craik, also involved with research on environmental cognitions. This

simulation equipment, originally designed by Karl Mellander, consisted in a modelscope

with a tiny set of movable prism lenses simulating movements, such as walking, driving,

or flying. The result from this experiment was a realistic model film of a site in Marin

County that validated the simulator as a research tool and introduced simulation

techniques as way to present environmental projects to the wider public.38

The growing popularity of visual media in popular culture determined the

35
Donald Appleyard, Livable Streets, (Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 1981).
36
Edoardo De Vasconcellos, “The Use of Streets: A Reassessment and Tribute to Donald Appleyard,”
Journal of Urban Design 1, no.9 (2004), 3-22.
37
Allan B. Jacob and Clare C. Marcus, In Memoriam: Donald Appleyard City and Regional Planning;
Landscape Architecture: Berkeley 1928- 1982, Professor of Urban Design, edited by David Krogh,
(Oakland: Academic Senate, University of California, 1987).
38
Peter Bosselmann, ”The Berkley Environmental Simulation Laboratory: A 12 Year Anniversary,”
Berkley Planning Journal 1, no.1 (1984): 150-160.

16
development and use of simulation techniques to more effectively present projects of

Architecture and Urban Design to the public. The planning and design professions have

gradually moved away from traditional methods of representation (drawing tables), and

have embraced increasingly complex technologies of visual representation.

Simulation employing models, videotapes and films has been employed as a medium for

participatory planning, since the years that followed the refurbishment of the Harvard

simulator. And since 1976 several projects have used model films for measuring public

responses to project of community based design.39 In 1979 the short film produced in

occasion of the modeling of the “San Francisco Conservation and Development Plan,

Phase I” using the updated 1935 model of the city of San Francisco, successfully

juxtaposed the views of the existing city with two alternative potential future scenarios.

The actual visualization of what the initiative could do to the San Francisco Skyline

allowed the audience to take sides and defeated the referendum. The San Francisco

Downtown Plan was also simulated in the following years, including a visualization of

the height, bulk and density of structures. A two part film entitled “Downtown San

Francisco: choices for the future” illustrating a next to final version of the downtown plan

and five general urban design goals, was completed in 1982 using the model of the

downtown plan.40

The View from the Road introduced the idea of cinematography to study urban

spatial relationships and demonstrated the potential of Lynch’s technique to be applied to

the study of environmental cognition from highways. This idea of simulation with the

39
Bosselmann, ”The Berkley Environmental Simulation Laboratory,” 150-160.
40
Ibid.

17
development of cinematographic techniques, has allowed overcoming the limitation

imposed by two-dimensional pictorial representation for the representation of urban

forms, changing the relationship between forms and space. In a broader sense the

development of techniques and paradigms from the cinematic approach from the view

from the road to model simulation, went along with the switch from modern cinematic

urbanism to the postmodernist representation of the “real and the simulated.”41

41
Nezar Alsayyad, Cinematic Urbanism: A History of the Modern from Reel to Real. New York & London:
Routledge, 2006, New York & London: Routledge (2006), 5-9.

18
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Alsayyad, Nezar. Cinematic Urbanism: A History of the Modern from Reel to Real. New
York & London: Routledge, 2006, New York & London: Routledge, 2006.

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Massachusetts M.I.T Press, 1964.

Bosselmann, Peter. ”The Berkley Environmental Simulation Laboratory: A 12 Year

Anniversary.” Berkley Planning Journal 1, no.1 (1984): 150-160.

De Vasconcellos, Edoardo. “The Use of Streets: A Reassessment and Tribute to Donald

Appleyard.” Journal of Urban Design 1, no.9 (2004): 3-22.

Jacob, Allan B. and Clare C. Marcus. In Memoriam: Donald Appleyard City and
Regional Planning; Landscape Architecture: Berkeley 1928- 1982, Professor of
Urban Design. Edited by David Krogh. Oakland: Academic Senate, University of
California, 1987.

Lang, John. Creating Architectural Theory: The Role of Behavioral Science in

Environmental Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1987.

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Lynch, Kevin. City sense and City Design: Writing and Projects of Kevin Lynch. Edited
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Lynch, Kevin. The image of the City. Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1960.

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Raynsford, Anthony. “Civic Art in an Age of Cultural Relativism: The Aesthetic Origins
of Kevin Lynch’s Image of the City.” Journal of Urban Design 16, no.1 (February
2011): 43-65.

Sankalia, Tanu. “Kevin Lynch, Walter Benjamin and Interstitial Space in San Francisco,”
(paper presented at the conference of the Heritage Agency of Denmark and the
University of Copenhagen, World in Denmark 2010, Copenhagen, Denmark, June
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19
 Tunnard, Christopher and Boris Pushkareu. Man-made America: Chaos or Control. New
haven and London: Yale University Press (1963), 177.

Zmudzinska-Nowak, Magdalena. ”Searching for Legible City Form: Kevin Lynch’s

Theory in Contemporary Perspective.” Journal of Urban Technology (December
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20

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