04/01/2022

What are Frogs?

What are • Frogs are amphibians. They evolved ~280 million
Frogs? years ago.
• Amphibian means ‘two lives’.
• Amphibians include frogs, toads, salamanders
and caecilians (snake-like animals).
• Australia has ~200 species of native amphibians
(all frogs!).
• Frogs are cold-blooded, vertebrate animals.

Features of a Frog Frog Skin

• Frogs live on land and in water.
Protruding eyes Tympanum (ear drum)
Backbone and • Their specialised skin allows them to live on land.
internal skeleton
External nare
(nostril) • Their moist skin has important biological functions
Soft, moist skin including:
Simple sac-like
lungs Adults have no tail – absorbing oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide
– regulating their salt content and absorbing water
Hind limb

Fore limb
(for jumping) – changing colour to camouflage themselves
Digits
(4 fingers, 5 toes) – secreting mucous to avoid drying out.
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Frog Life Cycle Threats to Frogs?

• Frogs have slightly different life cycles depending on their habitat.
• Frogs have the following 4 basic stages in their life cycle: Frogs are susceptible to many changes
in their environment:
Tadpole – Salinity can impact on a frog’s ability to regulate its salt/water balance.
• Breathe with external gills – Temperature change can affect the ecology of frogs by forcing populations
• Hind limbs develop first Metamorph to alter habitat use and spawning times.
• Tail still present – Large changes in pH can also impact the distribution of local species and,
• Fore limbs developed in some cases, they will move out of an area altogether.
Eggs
• Laid in or near water
•
•
Eggs have no shell
Need water so they
At present, frog populations are declining all
don’t dry out
•
Adult Frog
Tail absorbed
around the world.
• Air-breathing – Using frogs as bio-indicators can be as simple as noticing that a formerly
• Moist skin can dry noisy frog habitat has become silent
out without water
© Aus tralian Museum

TITLE OF PRESENTATION

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Frogs in Australia Ornate Burrowing frog

Limnodynastes ornatus

• Australia is home to about 240 native frog • This frog is well adapted to burrowing
species. when there is little water, and is often
• Frogs have adapted to many different habitats found far from the coast and in arid
• Some frog can burrow environments.
• Some can clime trees • This burrowing species is usually active
• Some will live in your backyard after rain.

The following slides show three frog species

found in Australia.

Corroboree Frog Perons Tree Frog

Pseudophryne corroboree Litoria peronii
• Common suburban frog
• This frog lives in the Australian Alps. • Has black and yellow marbling on its thighs
• It is found in marshlands and forests and armpits
under logs and vegetation. • Eggs are laid in a floating raft which
• It likes to breed in the sinks a few hours later
sphagnum bogs. • Found hiding by day in plant pots,
drainpipes
This is the most endangered Australian frog
and their numbers are decreasing • By night are sometimes seen on
windowsills catching incoming insects

PHILIPPINES MINDORO FANGED FROG

The Philippines is one of the world’s global
biodiversity hotspots, yet suffers from widespread
deforestation and degradation.
-Platymantis sp
-have been discovered on the Philippine island of
Leyte during a biological survey last year by Fauna
and Flora International, which also recorded a
wealth of other species
https://news.mongabay.com/2012/04/two-new-
frogs-discovered-in-philippines-spur-calls-for-more-
conservation-efforts/

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Im a g e v ariable

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Features of Muscular Tissue

The Muscular  Like nervous tissue, muscles are excitable or "irritable”

System 
they have the ability to respond to a stimulus
Unlike nerves, however, muscles are also:

Contractible (they can shorten in length)

DR. VIANCA JANE DE JESUS Extensible (they can extend or stretch)
DOCTOR OF DENTAL MEDICINE
MA SPECIAL EDUCATION Elastic (they can return to their original shape)
FELLOW, INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
CONTINUING DENTAL EDUCATION

Three Types of Muscular Tissue Three Types of Muscular Tissue

Location Function Appearance Control

Skeletal striated, multi-

movement,
(a) Skeletal muscle skeleton nucleated (eccentric), voluntary
heat, posture
fibers parallel

Cardiac
pump blood striated, one central
heart involuntary
continuously nucleus

Visceral Peristalsis,
G.I. tract,
(smooth muscle) blood pressure, no striations, one
uterus, eye, involuntary
pupil size, central nucleus
(b) Cardiac muscle blood vessels
(c) Visceral smooth muscle erects hairs

Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are arranged into

Organization of Muscle Tissue
bundles called fascicles
Fascicles are bound by connective tissue

Four different connective tissue coverings

Deep fascia Epimysium
Surrounds entire Closely surrounds
skeletal muscle and skeletal muscle, binds
extends beyond its fascicles together
length

Perimysium Endomysium
Surrounds each Surrounds each A muscle, a fasciculus, and a fiber all visualized
fascicle muscle fiber (cell)

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Connective Tissue Coverings

Organization of
 Fascia Muscle Tissue
 Surrounds an
individual skeletal  Many large muscle groups are
muscle, separating it encased in both a superficial
from other muscles and a deep fascia

 Fascia may extend

beyond the ends of
the muscle to
become a tendon
 Fascia may connect
muscle to muscle
and is called an
aponeurosis Real Anatomy, John Wiley and Sons

Characteristics of Skeletal
Muscle Tissue
 Long, thin contractile fibers that are Striated
 Striations due to arrangement of thick and thin filaments

 Under voluntary control

 Attached to the bones of the skeleton by
tendons
 Allow for movement, facial expressions,
breathing, swallowing, writing, talking and
singing, posture, heat production, joint
stability

Skeletal Muscle Arrangement Skeletal Muscle Cells

 A single muscle cell is a muscle fiber  Myofibrils are striated

 Fibers are made up of myofibrils  Striations due to arrangement of thick and thin
filaments
 Myofibrils are made up of thick and thin filaments
 Seen as alternating areas of light and dark bands
 Sarcolemma – muscle cell membrane
 Sarcoplasm
 muscle cell cytoplasm
 The length of each myofibril is divided into
repeating units called sarcomeres
A sarcomere is the functional unit of skeletal
muscle

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Microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber

Z disc H zone Z disc

Thick Filament Structure

Thin (actin) filament
Thick (myosin)
filament

(c) I band A band I band M line

Sarcomere  Composed of many myosin molecules
M line  Each myosin molecule has a tail region and 2 globular heads (crossbridges)
Z disc Z disc
Thin (actin) filament

Elastic (titin)
filaments
Thick (myosin)
filament
(d)

I band H zone M line Outer edge of

thin filaments thick filaments thick filaments linked A band
(e) only only by accessory proteins thick and thin
filaments overlap

Thin Filament Structure Muscles of

the Body

 Composed of actin protein

 2 strands of globular actin molecules twisted into a helix
 Actin filaments have binding sites for myosin cross bridges
 Tropomyosin protein spirals around actin helix
 Troponin protein (3 subunits) is attached to actin and holds tropomyosin in
place
 Call this the troponin-tropomyosin complex

Troponin complex Tropomyosin Actin

Ventral Muscles of the Frog

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Dorsal Muscles of the Frog

Thank you!

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FUNCTIONS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
THE ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ❖ Air Distributor
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ❖ Gas exchanger
❖ Filters, warms, and humidifies
DR. VIANCA JANE A. DE JESUS
air
DOCTOR OF DENTAL MEDICINE
SURGERY, BONE REGENERATION, ❖ Influences speech
IMPLANTOLOGY
❖ Allows for sense of smell

DIVISIONS OF THE DIVISIONS OF THE

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
❑ Upper respiratory tract ❑ Lower respiratory tract
(outside thorax) (within thorax)

❖ Nose
❖ Nasal Cavity ❖ Trachea
❖ Sinuses ❖ Bronchial Tree
❖ Pharynx ❖ Lungs
Larynx

STRUCTURES OF THE UPPER STRUCTURES OF THE UPPER

RESPIRATORY TRACT RESPIRATORY TRACT
❑ Nose - warms and moistens air • Pharynx - (throat)
❖ Palantine bone separates
• Base of skull to
nasal cavity from mouth.
esophagus
• Cleft palate - Palantine
bone does not form • 3 divisions
correctly, difficulty in • Nasopharynx - behind nose
swallowing and speaking. to soft palate.
❖ Septum - separates right • Adenoids swell and
and left nostrils block.
• rich blood supply = nose • Oropharynx - behind
bleeds. mouth, soft palate to hyoid
❖ Sinuses - 4 air containing bone.
spaces – open or drain into • tonsils
nose - (lowers weight of • Laryngopharynx - hyoid
skull). bone to esophagus.

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STRUCTURES OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY TRACT
• Larynx - voice box
• Root of tongue to • Thyroid cartilage - adam’s
upper end of trachea.
• Made of cartilage
• 2 pairs of folds • Epiglottis - flap of skin
• Vestibular - false vocal
cords
• True vocal cords
STRUCTURES OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY TRACT
• Trachea (windpipe) • Bronchi
• Larynx to bronchi
• Consists of smooth
cartilage and C
shaped rings of
cartilage.
• Tracheostomy -
cutting of an opening
in trachea to allow
breathing.
STRUCTURES OF THE
LOWER RESPIRATORY
TRACT
1/4/2022
STRUCTURES OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY TRACT
LARYNX CONT…
apple - larger in males due
to testosterone.
(hatch) on trachea, moves
when swallowing and
speaking.
• closes off trachea when
swallowing food
STRUCTURES OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY TRACT
• Tubes that branch off
trachea and enter into lungs
• Ciliated– WHY?
• Branches: Primary
bronchi—secondary
bronchi—tertiary bronchi—
bronchioles
• Bronchioles branch into
microscopic alveolar ducts.
Terminate into alveolar sacs
• Gas exchange with blood
occurs in sacs.
STRUCTURES OF THE LOWER
RESPIRATORY TRACT
• Lungs
• Extend from
diaphragm to
clavicles
• Divided into lobes
by fissures.
• Visceral pleura
adheres to the
lungs.
• Pleurisy =
inflammation of the
pleural lining
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RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

• Pulmonary Ventilation =
breathing
• Mechanism
• Movement of gases
through a pressure
gradient - hi to low.
• When atmospheric
pressure (760 mmHg)
is greater than lung
(Plural – bronchi) Bronchioles pressure ---- air flows
in = inspiration.
• When lung pressure is
greater than
atmospheric pressure
---- air flows out =
expiration.

RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

• Pressure gradients are established by changes in

thoracic cavity.
• increase size in thorax = a decrease in pressure --- air moves
in.
• Decrease size in thorax = increase in pressure --- air moves
out.

http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301notes6.htm

INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
• relaxation of diaphragm and intercostal muscles
-contraction of diaphragm and
intercostal muscles

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HEIMLICH MANEUVER HEIMLICH MANEUVER

• Lifesaving technique • Technique - Conscious

victim
that is used to open a • Ask the victim if he/she
can talk
windpipe that is • Stand behind victim and
wrap your arms around their
suddenly obstructed. waist.
• Make a fist with one hand
and grasp it with the other
• Air already in lungs hand.
used to expel object. • Place thumb side of fist
below xiphoid process and
above navel.
• Thrust your fist in and
upward - about 4 times.
• DO NOT press on ribs or
sternum

HEIMLICH MANEUVER

• Technique - Unconscious victim

• Catch victim if they begin to fall - place on floor face
up.
• Straddle hips
• Place one hand on top of other on the victims abdomen
- above navel and below xiphoid process.
• Forceful upward thrusts with heel of hand - several
times if necessary.

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THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system includes all the tissues and

organs that remove waste from the body.
THE EXCRETORY
I. Parts of the Human Excretory System:
SYSTEM A. The Urinary System- Excretes water, nitrogenous
Biology-Unit 8
wastes, and salts. These exit the body as urine.

B. The Digestive System- Eliminates water, some salts,

bile (stomach acid), and indigestible food matter.
These materials combine to make feces.

COMPONENTS OF THE
II. THE URINARY SYSTEM IN DETAIL
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
C. Respiratory System- 1. The Kidneys- remove
Eliminates carbon waste from the
dioxide and water blood, balance the
vapor
fluids of the body,
and form urine.
D. Integumentary System
(the Skin)- Excretes
sweat which includes
water, salts, and small - Location- The body’s
amounts of nitrogenous two kidneys are at
wastes. your lower back

II. THE URINARY SYSTEM IN 2.The kidney’s jobs:

DETAIL -Excretion of waste.

-Inside the kidneys -Breakdown of excess salts and toxins.

are Nephrons.
-Deamination: when amino acids are
-Nephrons are broken down and nitrogen is released
microscopic, coiled
-Filtering urea out of the body
sets of tubes with a
tiny capillary-filled
bulb at one end.

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Wastes Product the Excretory 3. Maintaining Water Balance.

System -The kidneys are responsible for maintaining a steady level of
water in the body, even when the amount of water entering
the body varies each day.
Ammonia  So if you have too much,
you’ll excrete some out.
Urea
If you don’t have enough,
you’ll hold it in.
Uric acid

II. THE URINARY SYSTEM IN DETAIL II. FILTERING WASTE IN THE URINARY SYSTEM
1. Liquid waste collects in the
kidneys. It’s just like a
coffee filter.
2. Solid wastes are filtered out.
4. Excretion of unwanted
3. If the body needs water, some wil
substances: will go back out to the
bloodstream by way of the
- Urea is filtered out of
capillaries.
the blood by the bulb 4. Excess water, urea, ammonia,
end of the Nephron. and uric acid will travel down
This structure is called the ureters.
the Glomerulus. 5. The bladder fills with liquid.
6. When the bladder is full, the
liquid exits through the urethra.

D. Urine should NOT contain the following

C. Urine usually contains the following
substances:
- Urea and uric acid (these contain lots of
nitrogen)
- Salts, also known as electrolytes.
-Yellow coloring from bile (digestive juices)
unless something is WRONG:
1. Glucose (sugar)
-If sugar is in the urine, this means your
cells are not absorbing sugar. That may
be a sign of diabetes.
2. Blood
- If blood is in the urine, there is some
type of kidney disease or infection of
the urinary system.

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III. DISORDERS OF THE
URINARY SYSTEM:
A. Kidney Disorders:
1. Kidney stones - these are formed when salts
and calcium are not dissolved. They clump up in
the kidneys and get stuck there.
- Larger ones can be removed with surgery.
- Smaller ones can pass through the ureters, then
bladder, and then urethra. This process is VERY
PAINFUL!!!
III. DISORDERS OF THE
URINARY SYSTEM:
3. Gout- results when the body makes uric acid
crystals instead of urea.
-the crystals collect in the joints in the legs,
causing pain and swelling.
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III. DISORDERS OF THE
URINARY SYSTEM:
2. Kidney Failure results when nephrons are no longer able
to perform their normal functions.
- Kidney failure may cause dehydration, a build-up of
nitrogen wastes in the blood, salt imbalances, anemia
(low red blood cells) and high blood pressure.
- Dialysis- This is when a patient who has kidney failure is
hooked up to a machine that filters the body’s wastes
- A kidney transplant is the final treatment for kidney
failure.
REMEMBER THAT THE BODY’S IMMUNE SYSTEM NEEDS TO BE
WEAKENED BEFORE A TRANSPLANT SO THAT THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM DOES NOT “REJECT” THE NEW ORGAN.
FROG’S EXCRETORY SYSTEM
THANK YOU!!!
 https://infovisual.info/en/biology-
animal/urogenital-organs-of-the-frog
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The excretory system in both
male and female frog is similar.
The excretion is mainly carried
out with the help of a pair of
kidneys, a pair of ureters, a
urinary bladder and cloaca.
Excretory and reproductive systems are closely associated, hence, it is customary to call
the two systems together as a urogenital or urinogenital system, though both are
unrelated functionally. In frog the sexes are separate. Female reproductive system
includes a pair of ovaries and a pair of oviducts.
Frogs depend on several types of muscles to carry out their normal daily activities
such as pumping blood, breathing, moving about, and retrieving food. The three
types of muscle are striated (skeletal), cardiac (heart), and smooth. Skeletal
muscles, such as those that enable a frog to leap long distances, are comprised of
narrow and wide elongated fibers. As the name implies, the tissue displays striped
or striated patterns when observed under a microscope. Bundled together in
cords, these muscles are connected to the bones by tendons. Striated tissue cells
are among the largest cells in the body.
Just like humans the frog’s body is supported and protected by a bony framework called
the skeleton. The skull is flat, except for an expanded area that encases the small brain.
Only nine vertebrae make up the frog’s backbone, or vertebral column. The human
backbone has 24 vertebrae. The frog has no ribs. The frog does not have a tail. Only a
spikelike bone, the urostyle, remains as evidence that primitive frogs probably had tails.
The urostyle, or “tail pillar,” is a downward extension of the vertebral column.