CONTENTS

Page no :
1. CHEMISTRY OF GLASS……………………………………….2

1.1 Glass Formers…………………………………….2

1.2 Transformation process…………………………..3

1.3 Chemical composition……………………………4

2. RAW MATERIALS AND BATCH PLANT…………………….6

2.1 Specification and Suppliers……………………...7

2.2 Batch Plant circuit……………………………....9

2.3 Cullet circuit…………………………………....10

2.4 Batch composition………………………….......11

2.5 Effects of each component……………………..13.

3. FURNACE…………………………………………………..….....14

3.1 General description……………………….……..14

3.2 Specifications…………………………………...14

3.3 Phenomena inside the Furnace…………...…......15

3.4 Construction details…………………………......17

3.5 Equipments………………………………….......19
.
3.6 Heat distribution………………………………...21

4. HANDS ON EXPERIENCE………………………………….….23

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1. CHEMISTRY OF GLASS

Glass is an amorphous solid usually formed by the

solidification of a melt without crystallization. Usually, it is a product of
melting, which has been cooled to a rigid state without crystallization.
Compared with crystals, the structure lf glass is devoid of regular
arrangement of atoms in a periodic lattice. There exist a number of
substances which form glass when cooled from the liquid state at a rate that
does not provide conditions for the formation of a regular structural lattice.

1.1 Glass Formers

These glass formers are

Elements: S, Se, Te, P;

Oxides : B2O3, SiO2, GeO2, P2O5, As2O3,etc ;

Borates& Na2B4O7, Na2SiO3, etc:

Silcates :

Other compounds: BeF2, AlF3, ZnCl2, KHSO4, sulphides, selenides

and tellurides of some elements, mixtures of some nitrates, carbonates.

With some exceptions, glasses finding practical applications are not

stochiometric compounds but represent more complex systems with a
variable ratio of compositions supplemented by substances that do not form
Glass by themselves.

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 1.2 TRANSFOMATION PROCESS

The transformation process can be illustrated by volume-

temperature curve. In crystalline structures when one proceeds from the
liquid state, solidification and crystallization occurs at the melting point; and
the volume decreases abruptly. A liquid capable of forming glass does not
undergo such abrupt change in volume. Below a certain temperature, called
the liquidus temperature, it behaves as an under cooled liquid and its specific
volume then decreases continuously (the metastable) equilibrium range. The
glass passes from a plastic state to a rigid state, and till this temperature the
glass is considered as an under cooled liquid; at the lower temperatures the
substance is regarded as glass or being in vitreous state. The transition from
the under cooled liquid to the vitreous state is called transformation and the
respective temperature is called the transformation temperature. The
transformation temperature pertaining the deflection mentioned above
depends on the rate of cooling; lower the rate of cooling, lower the
temperature, and vice versa for this reason preference is given to the term
transformation range within which the substance being cooled begins to
exhibit properties characteristic for solid state (elasticity, strength).having
chosen a standard rate of cooling, one obtains the so called transformation
point. The final properties of the glass depends on the cooling rate

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 .
Liquid

Undercooled liquid
volume

Fast cooling

Slow cooling Melting Point of

crystalline solid
Crystals

temperature

fig 1.1 Curve showing the specific volume variation with temperature

1.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSTION

The chemical composition of glass is as follows

1.The basic component of commercial glass is silica. The structure of

is given below

. | | |
Si Si Si
| | |
O O O
| | |
-- --- Si-----O-----Si-----O------Si------
| | |
O O O
| | |

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 The transformations undergone by silica at high temperatures are given
below

700o c 1200oc
SiO2----->Quartz----->Tridimite------>Crystobalite------>liquid---glass

The Si---O----Si bond in glassy SiO2 is 152 o thus giving a non regular
structure.

2. Na2O: This comes from the flux added to the batch to lower the melting
point. The cations are found in the cavities formed by the anions. These act
as network modifiers, imparting lattice discontinuity or depolymerisation.
.
3. CaO, MgO: These act as stabilizers. Without them the glass formed will
not have strength and also will be soluble in water.

4. Colourants: These include compounds like Se, NiO , CoO, Fe2O3, MnO,
CuO to impart colour to the glass.

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 2.RAW MATERIALS AND BATCH PLANT

Glass could be manufactured from the following

Elements Oxides Borates and Silicates

S, Se, Te, P B2O3, SiO2, GeO2, Na2B4O7,

P2O5, Na2Si2O5,BeF2, AlF3,
As2O3. ZnCl2, KHSO4

However, on commercial grounds sand is used for the manufacture of glass

unless for special applications and requirements.
The use of only sand for the glass manufacture produces a glass of very high
clarity nevertheless physical and chemical properties are very poor.
Henceforth other substances like Na2O, CaO, MgO, and Na2SO4 etc. are
added to silica with the purpose of reducing the melting temperature, and to
obtain the desired properties.
The raw materials for the manufacture of Soda lime silicate glasses are
Silica sand, soda ash, calcite, sodium sulfate, and dolomite.

For tinted glasses the colorants added are:

Selenium, Nickel Oxide, cobalt oxide, iron oxide and manganese oxide.

These raw materials are stored in different silos and mixed in necessary
proportions to form a batch.
Sand, calcite and dolomite are loaded into the silos via bucket elevators
while sodium sulfate, iron oxide, feldspar, and soda ash are loaded
pneumatically.

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SILO MATERIAL MAXIMUM CAPACITY MINIMUM STOCK

S1 SAND 600 Tons 400 Tons

S2 SAND 600 Tons 400 Tons
S3 SODAASH -- TAC 600 Tons 400 Tons
S4 SOADASH -SOLVAY 600 Tons 400 Tons
S5 DOLOMITE 600 Tons 400 Tons
S6 DOLOMITE 600 Tons 400 Tons
S7 SPARE 600 Tons 400 Tons
S8 LIMESTONE 600 Tons 400 Tons
S9 SODA+NiO 50 Tons 0 Tons
S10 SALTCAKE 50 Tons 25 Tons
S11 IRON OXIDE 50 Tons 10 Tons
S12 CULLET –TRIVENI 250 Tons 75 Tons
S13 CULLET – PLANT 250 Tons 75 Tons
S14 CULLET – EMPTY 250 Tons 75 Tons
S15 CULLET -- PLANT 250 Tons 75 Tons
HB15 COBALT OXIDE 100 KG 5 KG
SB16 SELENIUM 100 KG 5 KG
HB17 COBALT OXIDE 100 KG 5 KG
SB19 COAL 100 KG 5 KG
SB20 SODIUM NITRATE 100 KG 5 KG

SB21 IRON OXIDE 100 KG 5 KG

SB22 BAD BATCH 1000 KG 50 KG

Table 2.1 silo capacity details

From the silos the material is loaded to the bins until a particular set point is
attained and then unloaded on to the conveyor for a period of 120 secondsthe
time being set to accomplish premixing. Except for sand other raw materials
are loaded from the silo to the bins via screw feeders. For sand vibratory
feeder is used.
A typical batch composition is as follows:

Material Amount (Kgs)

Sand 2550

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 Soda ash 794

Dolomite 672

Calcite 200

Soda + NiO 20

Salt cake 36

Total 4272 Kgs

Table 2.2 batch composition

In addition to the above cullet is also added which amounts to

approximately 20% of the batch (826 kgs)
After premixing dry mixing for a period of 20 seconds and wet mixing for a
period of 200 seconds is carried in a mixer and discharged to the CB2M
conveyor via a hopper.

For one batch 78 litres of water and 6.0 litres of diesel is used.

The purpose of adding diesel oil is:

 Helps to loose batch from the conveyor
 Helps to have good shape of the batch
 Helps in chemical reaction
 It is added in place of coke
The purpose of adding water is:
 To avoid segregation
 To have homogenous mixture
 To avoid carryover losses
 To avoid dust

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Another important factor need to be borne in mind is the batch homogeneity
and batch temperature. If the temperature of the batch falls below 38˚C soda
ash being hygroscopic absorbs moisture and forms lumps which is strictly
undesirable.

Action of moisture on soda ash:

Na2CO3 + H2O = Na2CO3.H2O (3.5% moisture)

Na2CO3 + 7H20 = Na2CO3 7H2O (24.4% moisture)
Na2CO3 + 10H2O = Na2CO3 10H2O (34.5% moisture)

Effect of temperature on soda ash:

Na2CO3.10H2O = Na2CO3.7H2O + 3H2O (32˚C)

Na2CO3.7H2O = Na2CO3.H2O + 6H2O (35.4 ˚C)
Na2CO3.H2O = Na2CO3 + H2O (105˚C)

The effect of varying the above composition is discussed below:

The glass (clear) has the following composition
SiO2 71.2% ~0.2%
Na2O 13.6 ~0.1%
CaO 9.1 ~1%
MgO 4.0 ~0.05%

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Al2O3 0.95% ~0.05%
Material Parameter variation Effect
Soda ash Increase in composition  Cost increases
 Chemical resistance decreases
 Conductivity increases
 Thermal shock reduces
 Melting and refining become simpler
 Tendency to form stones (Nepheline)
CaO and MgO Increase in composition  Refining is disturbed
 Flowability/workability is affected
 Improved alkali resistance
 Quick setting property varies
Al2O3 Low contents  Chemical durability decreases
Al2O3 High contents  Mechanical strength increases
 Melting point increases
 Defects may increase due to the
formation of crystals (SiO2.Al2O3,
3AlO3.2SiO2, or as pure alumina Al2O3)
 Thermal shock resistance increases
SODIUM LOW CONTENTS  Refining is increased.
SULFATE  Provides flexibility to the glass

Table 2.3 effect of varying the composition of different materials on

glass

3.FURNACE

3.1GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Furnace is a closed chamber made up of different

types of refractories. Heat is produced inside by the combustion of fuels
which is utilized to melt the batch.

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 In a glass melting furnace different sections and their functions are as
given below.

SECTION FUNCTION
MELTER Batch gets melted and volatile gases escapes.
NECK Narrow section with a physical partition through which glass
enters next section.
WORKING Glass temperature brought down. Homogenization of glass
END
takes place by convectional currents.
CANAL Glass temperature lowered in a controlled manner before
(SG and PB
formation to avoid thermal distortion
canals)

Table 3.1 different sections of the furnace

3.2 FURNACE SPECIFICATIONS:

Type: F350 FF
Side port cross fired regenerative

Fuel: heavy furnace oil (9600 kcal/kg)

Melting rate: 1.7 MT/m2.day @pull = 600 MT/day with 20% cullet

Specific energy consumption: 1400 kcal /kg

No. of ports: 7
Reversal cycle: 20 minutes

Theoretical combustion air (Nm3/hr):= 10.8* fuel oil (kg/hr)

Location of hot spot: between port 4 and 5

Depth of glass in melter: 1440 mm

Total holding capacity: 1710 MT

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3.3 PHENOMENA INSIDE THE FURNACE

1. Melting: Disappearance of all crystalline batch particles. It corresponds to

a viscosity of 100 poise. In most of the commercial soda lime silica glasses
melting temperature corresponds to 1550-1575˚C.

2. Refining: Disappearance of all gases like CO2, SO2, and O2. This
phenomenon occurs simultaneously with melting. The mechanism is as
follows. The partial pressure difference of gases between the bubbles act as a
potential for the coalition of the bubbles to form a bigger bubble which
comes to the top easily and collapse.

3. Homogenization: To make the same physical (example density and

refractive index) and chemical properties of the entire melt by establishing
continuous convection currents. It follows above two.

4. Conditioning: To bring down the temperature of the glass slowly to the

workable condition without affecting its homogeneity. It corresponds to a
viscosity of 10 4 -7 Poise.

The batch is fed to the furnace in an intermittent manner in order

to get a batch pile in a more or less sinusoidal form inside the melter .This
helps to increase the heat transfer area to the batch.

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 Batch line: More batches are melted in the center of the furnace
compared to the sides giving a V shape to the batch .This happens due to
following reasons
 Temperature is maximum at the center as the flame covers almost
3/4th of the furnace width.
 Movement of glass is less along the sides due to viscosity effect.

Foam line: The line that differentiates the refining region and after
refining region is the foam line after which the glass is completely molten.

Current formation in the furnace: The major currents formed due to the
temperature gradient between the top and the bottom of the furnace are
shown below

BACK WALL

FRONT WALL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

SHADOW WALL
SIDE WALL
M1
M2 M3

DAM WALL
MELTING
REFINING
HOMOGENIZATION
CONDITIONING

Fig: 3.1 currents inside the furnace

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 Positive pressure of 2.5Pa above atm is maintained in the melter
section to avoid the ambient air coming inside. The back wall prevents the
escape of flue gases from the furnace to the surroundings. The working end
pressure is more than the melter pressure (5Pa) to avoid the gas flow from
the melter to the W.E., the shadow wall in the neck also helps in this
function. The working end pressure is maintained by controlling the air flow
through the blowers and the gas flow through the WE stack. . The dam wall
at the bottom of the melter helps in the formation of currents in the furnace.

3.4 CONSTRUCTION
Different types of refractories used in the construction of the
furnace are as shown below. Wherever the glass contact come AZS
refractories are used. The details are shown in the next page.

Side wall refractoriness above the tuck seal are supported by a beam from
the buck stays in order to avoid the whole load coming on the side wall
block touching the glass. Buck stays are connected by pin joints at the
bottom to the main beam and held together by tie rods at the top (above
crown). By loosening the bolts at the tie rod ends expansion of furnace in
cross direction is allowed. Crown is made in the form of an arch for the
following reasons

1 To allow the expansion of silica bricks

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 2 Being in the arch form one component of the self weight is shared by
the side wall.

3.5 FURNACE EQUIPMENTS

1. Injector: Injects the pressurized fuel along with the atomizing air.
The fuel is preheated and pressurized in the fuel preparation room
before coming to the injector. Preheating is done by steam heat
exchangers.

2. Flue reversal system: During every 20 minutes reversal of firing

takes place. During this time secondary air comes through the firing
side and the flue gases goes to the chimney through the other side of
the regenerator. Checker blocks in the regenerator absorb the heat in
the flue gases and supplies it to the secondary air during the next
reversal.

3. Batch charger: The Batch Charger feeds the batch into the furnace. It
has 6 compartments each of capacity 6.5 m3 .It has a spade which
pushes the batch into the melter.

4. Bubblers: They are equipments used for refining of the melt.

Nitrogen gas is passed through the bottom of the melt so that they
help in refining as explained. There is provision for 19 bubblers but
only 4 of them are used between ports 4 and 5.

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 5. Booster: Electric Boosters are used for the bottom heating of the melt
so as to allow proper melting and homogenization.

6. Temperature measuring equipments:

 Optical Pyrometers
 Thermocouples

7. High temperature camera

8. Pressure measuring equipments

9. Front and back tweels: these are equipments used for controlling the
pull. By adjusting the opening, the amount of glass flowing to the
float bath can be controlled.

10.Feeder: feeders used to take out the molten glass in order to maintain
the furnace pull during low thickness run.

11.Blowers: the following table gives the blowers used in the furnace
area.

AREA FUNCTION NO: OF

BLOWERS
Batch charger Cooling the spades 2
Back wall Cooling back wall 2
Side wall Side wall cooling 4
Secondary air Secondary air for combustion 7
Shadow wall Shadow wall cooling 2
Working end Conditioning of glass. 2

Table 3.2 blowers in the furnace area

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Side wall cooling is done just below the glass level to avoid corrosion.
Corrosion is maximum in this region due to the following reasons.

 The cross convectional currents in the furnace

 Maximum reactivity in the solid-liquid-glass interface

12.Barrage: water coolers used in neck for effective homogenization

14. Agitators: equipment used for physical homogenization by cutting

down the reams formed during the cooling .This has got fingers which
rotate in the melt.

3.6 HEAT DISTRIBUTION IN THE FURNACE:

The heat utilized for melting the glass accounts to only 20% of the heat
generated by the burners. The heat distribution in and around the furnace is
shown here.

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