All Revised 1-4 Chapters

Faculty of computing (Information Technology Department.) 2007 E.
Chapter One
Introduction to computer
What is a Computer?
In its literal meaning, a computer is any calculating device or machine, which is electrical, mechanical or
electromechanical. But that doesn’t mean that computer performs only calculation. This literal meaning was
attached because the inventors (Mathematicians or physics) invent computers for making calculations only. But
today’s computers not only process numbers, they process texts, pictures, and multimedia and so on. Therefore
the meanings of a computer, nowadays, are broader than computing concepts.
 Generally a computer is an electronic device that accepts input, stores, retrieves, processes data and
display output and can be programmed with instructions.
 A computer is composed of hardware and software, and can exist in a variety of sizes and
configurations.
Components of personal computer
Among the basic parts
Monitor
 The monitor is the main output component used on a PC.
 It’s where the computer is able to show you what it does, and what you are doing.
 It is used to display information from system unit
Keyboard
• The keyboard is the main input device you use with a computer or PC-based equipment
• The keyboard is used to type something or input information to the computer
System unit
 It is used to store and process information
Additional (optional personal computer)

Mouse
It is an input device used to control the screen cursor, select menu items or ranges of cells or groups of words in a
document
Printer
Is used to put text or image on paper
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Faculty of computing (Information Technology Department.) 2007 E.C
Scanner
It is an input device used to insert text or picture to the computer.
Speaker
It is an output device used to give sound.
Why we use Computers? (Application of computers)
The following are some of the capabilities and potential of Computers, which are reasons for using Computers.
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Making simple and complex calculation, make comparisons;
 Transmit information across distant location via communication channels;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 make statistical analysis
 For research purposes
 Listening music and watching movies
 To systematically and quickly store and process information
 To grade examination for colleges, university
 For drawing purposes … etc
Therefore, computers are needed for any functions, task or process that requires these abilities.
Application areas of Computers
Computers can be applied in all of the following areas.
a) Commercial or business applications
 Covers the use of computers for clerical, administrative, production and business use.
Examples are:
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 Text processing
 Accounting and Financial management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
b) Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
Computers are used for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, analysis and
control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines
 Control of manufacturing process
 Nuclear Control system
History of Computers
The invention of Computers is dated back to 3000 B.C. when the first computing device Abacus was created.
The French mathematician, physicist and religious philosopher Blaise Pascal developed the first mechanical
adding machine in 1642 to help his father, a civil servant in tax calculations. Blaise’s adding machine used gears
with teeth to represent numbers.
In 1842 an English mathematician, Charles Babbage was attempting to develop an automatic computing device
for calculation called “Difference engine” but it was never finished. With the aid of lady August Ada Lovelace,
Babbage turned his talents to the development of an analytical machine to compute astronomical tables for the
Navy. The analytical machine was to be a digital machine capable of one addition per second with data entered
from punched cards and a built in storage unit. Though the project suffered from financial & tooling limitations (it
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was 100 years head of its time). Babbage & Lovelace left special schematic symbols, sketches and detailed
drawing of the machine.
The 1880 census had taken over seven years to complete by manual method and by then the young country’s
population had increased nearly 24 percent. It was at this time, Herman Hollerith; a government statician
provided the solution with a punched card system of collecting and tabulating the data. His strong and tabulating
equipment or machine was extremely successful and allowed the 1890 census to be completed in less than two
years. Hollerith continued to develop his card methods for railroad accounting and founded the tabulating
machine company which later changed to International Business Machine Corporation (IBM).
In 1945, two University of Pennsylvania scientists, John Mauchly & Presper Eckert, designed the Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC), the first general purpose electronic digital computer. It had over
18,000 vacuum tubes and 500,000 soldered joints and it weighed more than 30 tones and it occupied over 15,000
Ft2. It consumes enormous amounts of power (140 Kilowatts of power).
 ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs were wired on boards similar to a telephone switch
board.
 One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was that it had to be programmed manually by setting switches and
plugging and unplugging cables.
Eckert and Mauchly subsequently developed the UNIVAC-I (Universal Automatic computer), the first electronic
computer offered as a commercial product.
John Von Neuman, a mathematician genius at Princeton, is sometimes called the intellectual father of computer.
He has been credited with developing highly significant stored program theory, and his 1946 paper entitled “A
preliminary discussion of the logical design of an Electronic computing instrument” is the authoritative statement
on storing data and instruction in computers. He also defined and promoted flowcharts as logic aids.
2.1. Generation of Computers
Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer developments are often
categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and major characteristics that distinguish these
generations are the following;
 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
 Major secondary storage media used.
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 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (a time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically tenfold or
better increases in speed and reliability.
First Generation (1950s)
World War gave rise to numerous developments and started off the computer age. Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) were produced by a partnership between University of Pennsylvania and the
US government. It consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 7000 resistors. It was developed by John Presper Eckert
and John W. Mauchly and was a general purpose computer. "Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data."
Von Neumann's computer allowed for all the computer functions to be controlled by a single source.
Then in 1951 came the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), designed by Remington rand and
collectively owned by US census bureau and General Electric. UNIVAC amazingly predicted the winner of 1952,
presidential elections, Dwight D. Eisenhower.
• The vacuum tubes were used in the circuits of these computers
• The input and output operations were done using punched card technology.
• For external storage, magnetic tapes were used.
• The machine was capable to do one job at a time, therefore batch processing was adopted.
• The language used by these computers was machine language and assembly language.
• Most applications were scientific calculations.
• Example of Computers: UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc.
Second Generations (early 1960s)
Second generation computers started showing the characteristics of modern day computers with utilities such as
printers, disk storage and operating systems. Much financial information was processed using these computers.
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In Second Generation computers, the instructions (program) could be stored inside the computer's memory. High-
level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator)
were used, and they are still used for some applications nowadays.
The most widely used second generations were
 Transistors were used in the circuits.
 The input operations were performed using punched cards and magnetic tapes and for output operations,
punched cards and papers were used.
 For external storage magnetic tapes were used.
 The orientation was towards multiple users i.e. the machine was capable to process multiple tasks
concurrently.
 Examples: IBM 1620 –small scientific computers
 IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers
 IBM 7094 –large scientific computer
Third Generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)
Although transistors were great deal of improvement over the vacuum tubes, they generated heat and damaged the
sensitive areas of the computer. The Integrated Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined
electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from quartz. More advancement made possible the fittings
of even more components on a small chip or a semi conductor. Also in third generation computers.
• Integrated circuits replaced transistors
• Smaller size they were capable to perform better than transistors.
• For data input and output operations monitors and keyboards replaced the punched cards.
• For external storage magnetic disks were used.
• Sophisticated operating systems, which were capable of handling several jobs concurrently were used.
• More advanced high level languages like PASCAL were used.
Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that provide modularity (expandable
storage) and compatibility (interchangeable equipment). Software become more important with sophisticated
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operating systems, improved programming languages, and new input/output methods such as optical scanning and
plotters.
Example
 IBM system /360 was the dominant
 IBM 1130
Fourth Generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)
Fourth Generation computers are the modern day computers. The Size started to go down with the improvement
in the intenerated circuits. Very Large Scale (VLSI) and Ultra Large scale (ULSI) ensured that millions of
components could be fit into a small chip. It reduced the size and price of the computers at the same time
increasing power, efficiency and reliability. "The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit
one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and
output controls) on a minuscule chip."
The continued improvement allowed the networking of computers for the sharing of data. Local Area Networks
(LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN) were potential benefits, in that they could be implemented in
corporations and everybody could share data over it. Soon the internet and World Wide Web appeared on the
computer science and fermented the Hi-Tech revolution of 90's.
• The circuits used VLSI and microprocessors of virtually microscopic size, which led to drastic cut on the
size of computer.
• The input output devices were the same monitors, keyboard, printer etc.
• Micro computers have evolved.
• Magnetic disks were the primary devices used for external storage.
• The use of special software for maintaining large data bases became popular.
• The application software for micro computer essentially became popular in this generation.
• Example of computers: IBM System
The fifth Generation computer
Fifth generations computers are only in the minds of advance research scientists and being tested out in the
laboratories. These computers will be under Artificial Intelligence (AI), they will be able to take commands in a
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audio visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which require low human intelligence will be
performed by these computers.
Parallel Processing is coming and showing the possibility that the power of many CPU's can be used side by side,
and computers will be more powerful than those under central processing. Advances in Super Conductor
technology will greatly improve the speed of information traffic. Future looks bright for the computers.
These computers will have:
 Intelligent processors, i.e., processors which can draw inferences.
 Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc.
Japans are working intensively on the project for developing the 5th generation.
Characteristics of Computers
Computers have some remarkable characteristic which have made them so very popular. These characteristic are
basically the reasons for which the computers were originally built. The characteristics of a computer show the
capability and the potential of the computer for processing data. Based on these characteristics computer saves
time, space, money, labor etc.
The following are the basic characteristics of computer.
 Speed
Computers can work at enormously high speeds. They are capable of
 taking logical decisions
 performing arithmetic and non arithmetic operations
 Copying data
 Storing and retrieving at unbelievable speed
So the most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only one step at a time.
Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation. Computer speed
measured in terms of micro second (10 -6 one millionths), nano-second (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-12
one trillionths).
 Storage capacity
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As human being our ability to acquire and retain knowledge is limited. A computer can store and recall any
amount of information because of its secondary storage devices capacity with perfect accuracy. You can imagine
how much space a paper needed for data of a census. Not only the space, also the time it took to get or retrieve
specific information from such vast amount of data is not negligible. But a computer can store such amount of
information in a few numbers of disks and the time it took to retrieve or process single information is not more
than a micro or nano-seconds. In general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in
organized manner so that accessing information is very fast.
 Accuracy
The computers produce highly accurate and reliable results. However, errors cannot be ruled out but these are
mainly due to human rather than the technological weakness, which is due to errors in logic developed by the
programmer or due to inaccurate data entered. Now a day’s computers are being used for surgical purposes
almost which need hundred percent accuracies. From this we can understand that computer is accurate and
consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer processes with a very
accuracy.
 Automatic
Once necessary information and program is feed to the computer, it performs processing without human
intervention.
 Versatility
Computers have the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and problems, as long as the problem or the
task can be put or reduced in the form of logical steps.
 consistency
A computer is capable of performing the same task over and over with the same degree of accuracy and reliability
as the first one. This is because computers are free from monotony; lack of concentration etc hence can work a
long period without creating any error.
Types (classification) of Computers
We can classify computers based on the following criteria.
1 method of operation(working principle)
2 purpose
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3 Physical size, price, capacity and performance
I. Classification by the method of operation (processing)
Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. They are classified into three:-
A Analog,
B Digital and
C Hybrid Computers
a. Analog computers: - They operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables, they don’t
compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as
pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter
 Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into
two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
They are special purpose computers. However, analog computers have limited accuracy
b. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate
directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples: Desktop & pocket computers
They are general purpose computers.
Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than the analog ones.
C Hybrid computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid
computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog method, converts it
into digital quantities, processes the digital values and converts the output from digital to analog form.
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Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function, temperature and other
vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the
system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an immediate signal to the nurse’s
station if any abnormal readings are detected.
II. Classification by purpose of application
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified as
special purpose or general purpose computers.
a. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their functions are uniquely
adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
 The public telephone box  Pocket-calculators etc.
 Traffic control system  Counters
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, market)
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
b. General purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program or set of
instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by the computer
one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using different program. General
computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Mainframe computers
 Super computers etc
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III. Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer. General-purpose digital computers are
then classified as follows by their capacity and size.
Super computer: -is a powerful computer designed for high speed processing. It is the fastest, most powerful,
most expensive and most potential type of computer. They have speed of hundreds of millions of operation per
second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million characters, a secondary memory of capacity of about 20
times its primary memory. They are multi-user systems in intercontinental range. They can carry out enormously
complex scientific calculations. They are maintained in special room or environment. Used in space technology
centers for aircraft manufacturers, meteorology stations, and astronomical observatories, inter continental
communications, design of drugs and modeling complex molecules and military defense system.
The first Cray supercomputer was introduced in 1976

Mainframe computers: - Smaller in capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity than the super computers that
support concurrent programs. However they usually shared by multiple users through a series of interconnected
computers, usually used in large organizations like backs and insurance which processes large number of
transactions.
Mini computers: - are mid-sized multi-processing computers. Again, they can perform several actions at the same
time and can support from 4 to 200 users simultaneously. In recent years the distinction between mini-computers
and small mainframes has become blurred. Often the distinction depends upon how the manufacturer wants to
market its machines. Organizations may use a mini-computer for such tasks as managing the information in a
small financial system or maintaining a small database of information about registrations or applications. have
relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, are smaller in size than the mainframe computers. They use
terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small organizations
Micro computers: - Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of
computer in use today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
Today, the world of PCs is basically divided between IBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible machines,
named after the two computer manufacturers. Computers may be called ‘desktop’ computers, which stay on the
desk, or ‘laptop’ computers, which are lightweight and portable and palmtop (personal digital assistants
(PDAs)). Organizations and individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organization of spreadsheets and database
management. Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago, and today there is little distinction
between PCs and workstations (having greater memory and more extensive mathematical abilities, process large
quantities of data and they are connected to other workstations or personal computers to exchange data.)
 Workstations:- are powerful, single-user computers. They have the capacity to store and process
large quantities of data, but they are only used by one person at a time. However, workstations are
typically linked together to form a computer network called a local area network, which means that
several people, such as staff in an office, can communicate with each other and share electronic files
and data.
Hand-
held (HPC) PDA
Work stations Laptop/Notebook Desktop
Chapter Two
Computer system
A System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a coordination fashion to
achieve some objective.
A computer system composed of components called Computer hardware, Computer software, people, procedures
(manual) and data/ information that work in an organized way to create, use, manipulate and store electronic data.
I. Computer Hardware
Hardware is those components or physical devices using wires, integrated circuits, and circuit boards etc that
make up the computer. It is the actual computer. Hardware is those things you can touch. Hardware can be
classified generally as:
School of computing and Electrical Engineering 2005 E.C
 Input devices
 Processing device
 Memories devices
 Output devices
 Secondary Storage devices
A typical looks for personal computer
16 Computer system | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

I. Input Devices:
Input devices a hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices a computer would
simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV. We use input devices to put
information into the computer or convert any format of information in a format that can be processed by computer.
Input devices are controlled by the user. Keyboard, Mouse, Touch Sensitive Screen, Light Pen, Digital Stills
Camera, Bar Code Reader, Voice Data Entry devices, Joystick, Webcam are some examples input devices.
Keyboard: The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is
also known as standard Keyboard
Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with
additional keys. The
Most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.
There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are
categorized as :
Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers.
Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?),
Single & double
quotes (‗,‖)
Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to
F12), HOME, END etc.
Mouse: A mouse is an input device used to move the cursor on the mouse
computer’s screen when it is moved on a surface and give different
commands to the computer by clicking over user interface components.
17 Input devices a hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices a
computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV.
We use input devices to put information into the computer or convert any format of information in a
format that can be processed by computer. Input devices are controlled by the user. Keyboard, Mouse,
Touch Sensitive Screen, Light Pen, Digital Stills Camera, Bar Code Reader, Voice Data Entry
devices, Joystick, Webcam are some examples input devices. | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer
Application
Touch Sensitive Screen
A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that enables the user to
interact with the computer by touching the screen.
A Touch Sensitive Screen
Light Pen:
A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a
VDU. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which,
when placed against the screen, detects the light from the screen enabling
the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen. Light pens A light pen
have the advantage of 'drawing' directly onto the screen, but this can
become uncomfortable, and they are not as accurate as digitizing tablets.
Digital Stills Camera: Digital Stills Cameras capture an image which is

stored in memory within the camera. When the memory is full it can beA digital
erased and further images captured. The digital images can then be
stills camera
downloaded from the camera to a computer where they can be displayed,
manipulated or printed.
Bar Code Reader: You might have seen bar codes on goods inAn infra-red bar code reader
supermarkets, in libraries and on magazines. Bar codes provide a quick
method of recording the sale of items. A bar code is a pattern printed in
lines of differing thickness. The system gives fast and error-free entry of
information into the computer.
A bar code
18 Input devices a hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices a
computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV.
We use input devices to put information into the computer or convert any format of information in a
format that can be processed by computer. Input devices are controlled by the user. Keyboard, Mouse,
Touch Sensitive Screen, Light Pen, Digital Stills Camera, Bar Code Reader, Voice Data Entry
devices, Joystick, Webcam are some examples input devices. | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer
Application
Voice Data Entry Device: This system accepts the spoken word as input
data or commands. However, simple commands from one user can be used
to control machines. A microphone
In this way a paralyzed person can operate a wheelchair or control heating
and lighting. Human speech is very complex, involving emphasis and
facial expressions, so complete voice recognition will not be developed for
some time.
Joystick & Game pad: The joystick is a rotary lever. Similar to an

aircraft's control stick, it enables you to move within the screen's
environment, and is widely used in the computer games industry. The
advantage of joystick is it gives a more natural-feeling control for motion
in games, especially those where you are flying a plane or spaceship.
Both have more buttons for special functions than a mouse and can A joystick
combine buttons for even more actions Disadvantage: More expensive,
Bulky Better ones require an additional peripheral card for best
performance.
Game pad
Webcam : A camera connected to a computer or server that allows anyone

connected to the Internet to view still pictures or motion video of a user.
The majority of webcam web sites are still pictures that are frequently
refreshed every few seconds, minutes, hours, or days. However, there are Webcam
some sites and personal pages that can supply streaming video for users
with broadband.
Scanner: : It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on

paper and translate into
Digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need Scanner
19 Webcam | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

not be entered separately
Resulting in saving lot of time.
Scanners are of two types: i) optical scanners ii) MICR
i) Optical scanners:
a. Optical character Recognition (OCR): In this, characters are read with
the help of a light. This is
Used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.
b. Optical mark recognition(OMR): It is a technology where an OMR
device senses the presence or
Absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as
aptitude tests.
c. Optical barcode recognition(OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric
scanners that read the bar
Codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is
used in super markets, book
Shops etc.
II. Processor – CPU
Processing is the thinking that the computer does - calculations, comparisons, and decisions.
The processor the short form for microprocessor also called the CPU of the computer is the brain of the computer
which performs all arithmetic, logical and control operations. It is responsible for every single thing that a computer
does. The function of the CPU is to execute programs stored in the main memory by fetching instructions,
examining them, and executing them one after the other.
They are processor chips which are very large integrated circuits mainly made up of silicon and gold. Processor
chips vary slightly in look depending on which company has made them.
The underside of a Pentium processor
CPU - Architecture
The CPU consists of a control unit, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.
20 Processor – CPU | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

Units of a processor chip (CPU)
a. Control Unit
Tasks carried out by a CU are listed below:
1. decoding the instructions within a computer
2. sequencing the reading and writing of data within the CPU and externally on the data bus
3. controlling the sequence in which instructions are executed
4. controlling the operations performed by the ALU
Control unit is the part of the computer that controls the Machine Cycle
b. ALU (arithmetic and logic unit)
The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical operations and comparisons
of data. This is the part that executes the computer's commands. A command must be either a basic arithmetic
operation: +, - , *, / or one of the logical comparisons: >, <, =, not =.
Everything else has to be broken down into these few operations. Only one operation is done in each Cycle. The
ALU can only do one thing at a time but can work very, very fast.
c. CPU - Registers
The CPU also contains a small high speed memory which is used to store temporary results and control information.
 One round of steps from getting an instruction back to getting the next instruction is called the Machine
Cycle. In one machine cycle there are four operations.
21 Processor – CPU | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

Machine Cycle
 Fetch- get an instruction from Main Memory
 Decode - translate it into computer commands
 Execute -actually process the command
 Store- Write the result to Main Memory
The immense speed of the computer enables it to do millions of such steps in a second.
In fact, MIPS, standing for millions of instructions per second, is one way to measure computer speeds.
III. Memory
The memory of a computer is the part used to hold /store/ programs and data. The memory of a computer is
constructed from microchips. Memory can be thought of as a set of pigeon holes or cells with each one having a
unique address. Each pigeon hole can store 8 bits of data. A computer contains two types of main memory, Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
The cycle (input - processing - output) would not be possible without a holding place for the instructions and data
that the processor (CPU) can easily reach. This holding place is known as memory. There are three basic types of
memory:
1. RAM - Random Access Memory
2. ROM - Read Only Memory
3. Secondary Storage Devices
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
It is the primary memory that holds data and instructions while the computer is in use. It is described as
volatile memory as the contents of RAM chips can be lost when the computer is turned off or when new data
is being written to RAM while other data is being processed. It can be written to and read from type of
memory. Important to remember that if you do not save the information in RAM to a storage device (such as
a floppy disk or hard drive) before turning off the computer the information will be lost. It is a
22 Memory | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

semiconductor integrated circuit on a chip. This is what modern computers use for memory. Pictured below
is a 72-pin SIMM.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is responsible for storing permanent data and instructions. ROM is straighter forward than RAM. It is
built in memory that permanently stores instructions and data. The instructions and data in ROM are created
when it is manufactured and it cannot be changed.
 We can see the part of secondary storage as 5th part of computer hardware
IV. Output Devices
Output is data that has been processed into useful form, now called Information. Output devices display
information that has been held or generated within a computer. Convert information processed by CPU to
human understandable format either visually or in any format. Some examples are shown below.
 VDU or Monitor
 Printer
 Robot
 Machine Tool
 Synthesized Voice
 Plotter
Types of Output
Hard copy: Printed on paper or other permanent media
Soft copy: displayed on screen or by other secondary storage device
Categories of Output
23 Output is data that has been processed into useful form, now called Information. Output devices
display information that has been held or generated within a computer. Convert information processed
by CPU to human understandable format either visually or in any format. Some examples are shown
below. | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application
Text documents Graphics Multimedia

including reports, charts, graphs, combination of text,
letters, etc. pictures graphics, video,
audio
1. Visual Display Units (VDU) A cathode ray monitors A plasma
Also called monitors are used to monitor

visually interface with the computer
and are similar in appearance to a
television
2. Printers: Are devices used to print out

information that is in the computer on
to paper. By printing you create what is
known as a 'hard copy'. There are
different types of printers. Daisy-
wheel, dot-matrix, ink-jet LaserJet,
line printer, thermal printer
Characteristics of printer:
 quality of type
 speed
 fonts
 graphics
24 Also called monitors are used to visually interface with the computer and are similar in appearance to
a television | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application
 impact or non-impact
3. Robots
Robots are able to perform a variety of

tasks as a result of executing instructionsA robot arm
contained within a program. We are still a
long way from the science fiction robots
and androids portrayed by the film
industry.
4. Voice synthesis device
It has a robotic sound due to the difficulties

A speak and spell toy
of replicating the complexities of human
speech and pronunciation.
5. Loudspeakers:
Speakers also produce an analogue output.
The audio program inside the boundary
converts the digital encoding of the sound speakers
to a series of electrical pulses that are sent
to the speaker, where they cause a cone of
stiffened paper (or some synthetic material)
to vibrate in and out. This makes the air
vibrate in the characteristic sound wave.
6. Plotters:
A device that draws pictures on paper

based on commands from a computer.
Plotters differ from printers in that they A drum plotter
draw lines using a pen. As a result, they
can produce continuous lines, whereas
printers can only simulate lines by printing
25 Also called monitors are used to visually interface with the computer and are similar in appearance to
a television | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application
a closely spaced series of dots. Multicolor

plotters use different-colored pens to draw
different colors. In general, plotters are
considerably more expensive than printers.
They are used in engineering applications
where precision is mandatory.
V. Secondary Storage Devices
Storage
It is refers to the media and methods used to keep information available for later use. Some things will be needed
right away while other won't be needed for extended periods of time. So different methods are appropriate for
different uses
In many cases the information that has been processed is stored in machine-readable format so that it may be
accessed at a later time by a computer. This data is stored in binary form in 'bits'. This practice requires the use of
storage devices.
Some examples of storage devices:
 Magnetic Tape
 Floppy Disk
 Hard Disk magnetic disks
 Optical Disk
Secondary storage devices can be categorized as:
 Magnetic storage
o Magnetic tape
o Hard Disk
o Floppy Disk
 Optical disk
o Compact Disk/CD : CD ROM, CD R, CD RW and DVD
 Magnetic Tapes:
Magnetic tapes are sequential access media similar to an audio
cassette and popular form of secondary storage because of
26 Secondary Storage Devices | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application
their capacity of memory storing large amount of information

and their convenience to store for a long time. The format
method will determined by:
Density: Higher density means more data on shorter tape,
Measured as bpi = bits per inch. Densities ranged up
to 6250 bpi in the old days but now (2008) density
can be much higher, such as 124,000 bpi.
Blocks: The tape is divided into logical blocks, as a floppy is
divided into tracks and sectors.
Gap: Smaller gaps would allow more data to be stored on the
same size tape.
 Floppy disks: Also called flexible or diskette are used

to store programs and data for a longer period outside Floppy Disks
the computer system.
 Data is stored in concentric circles called tracks.
 Each track is further divided into sectors
A sector stores the amount of information that can be read
or written in single operation
 Floppy disks allow information to be transported easily from
one computer to another.
 Floppy disks have limited storage capacity, 1.44 MB 3.5
inch 0r 1.2 MB.
 Saving and retrieving information from a floppy disk is
slower than on a hard drive.
 They are more susceptible to physical damage and viruses
than the hard drive
 Hard Disk
 A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can Hard disk showing internal
be fixed in the system unit of the computer. mechanisms
 Serves as a secondary storage.
 Enables very fast accessibility of data.
 Accessing data from hard disk is faster than from floppy
disks.
 The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk
pack, are separated by small air spaces to allow access for
read/write head.
 Each disk has approximately 200 tracks on which
information is stored. Tracks of the small number on all

adjacent disks are referred to as a cylinder of that disk.
 The disk pack is mounted on a magnetic disk drive which
rotates the disk at speed up to 1,000 revolutions per second.
 Compact Disk (CD) CD-ROM Disk

CD ROM:
 Are read only storage medium.
 Typically, a CD ROM holds up to 650 MB- 700 MB
of information.
 While information retrieval is faster than from a
floppy disk, it is still not as fast as from the hard drive.
CD-ROM discs are used for computer software.
CD-R Disk
CD-R:
 A CD-R is highly effective for storing a large amount
of data.
 CD-R can hold up to 700MB of information.
 A CD-R is a one time recordable compact disc.
CD-RW
 A CD-RW allows you to read, write, erase and write CD-RW
again.
 Writing takes place in a single pass of the focused
laser beam.
 Overwriting and can be repeated several thousand
times per disc.
They seem the same but the recording format is quite
different.
DVD: used to stand for Digital Video Device or Digital
Versatile Device, but now it doesn't really stand for

anything at all! DVDs are used for recording movies.
Advantages of Optical Disks
Physical: An optical disk is much sturdier than tape or a
floppy disk. It is physically harder to break or melt
or warp
Delicacy: It is not sensitive to being touched, though it can get
too dirty or scratched to be read. It can be cleaned
Magnetic: It is entirely unaffected by magnetic fields.
Capacity: Optical disks hold much more data than floppy
disks.
 Flashes Memory: Several different brands offlash memory storage device

removable storage cards, also called memory cards, are
now available. These are solid-state devices (no moving
parts) that read and write data electrically, instead of
magnetically.
Devices like digital cameras and cell phones may use Compact
Flash, Smart Media, or another flash memory card. Laptop
computers use PCMCIA cards, another type of flash memory, as
solid-state hard disks.
USB drive: This new type of flash memory storage device Flash disk
does not yet have a generally accepted name. Each company
calls it something different, including flash drive, flash
pen, thumb drive, key drive, and mini-USB drive.
All are small, about the size of your thumb or a large car key,
and plug into a USB port on the computer. No drivers are
needed for Windows XP, 2000, or Me. Plug it in and the
computer reports a new hard drive!
Such small flash drives can have storage capacities from 8
MB to 1-4 GB or more! Much better than a floppy disk!
Some flash drives include password protection and the ability
to run software right off the USB drive. So cool!
 Removable hard drives: External hard drive
Several types of special drives that compress data are
available. A regular can be used for backup, too.
The image at the right is of an external Zip drive with a disk
sticking out
 Smart cards: A chip on the card itself tracks changes,

like deducting purchases from the amount entered
originally on the card. Smart cards are already used in
Europe and at colleges instead of using a handful of

coins at vending machines and at Laundromats.
Another use involves a new sensor technology which lets a
smart card read your fingerprint right on the card. The digital
image of the fingerprint is then transmitted to a database to
compare it with the one on file for that card. You can prove you
are really you!!
 Secondary storage devices are also used as :
 Input - data and programs
 output - saving the results of processing
 Storage hierarchy of a computer system
Fast CPU Registers Low

Access Capacity
Cache
Registers
Main Memory
II. Computer software

Disk Storage
Software Slow CPU Very Large
Access Tape Storage Capacity
To accomplish any task in a computer system, hardware must given a serious of instructions called software.
Computer hardware can not perform any thing alone. The finite set of instructions that the computer follows to do a
given job is called program. The group of programs that the computer needs to function is known as software.
Software:- is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task using a
computer. Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software makes the interface
between the user and the electronic components of the computer.
We can classify software in two major parts
1. System Software: includes programs that perform the basic operations that make a computer usable. For
example, an important piece of system software is the operating system, which contains programs that
manage the data stored on the computer's disks.
 System Software has direct control and access to your computer hardware, and memory locations.
They perform I/O operations on various memory locations, and control the hardware, to make the
application software do a task

2. Application software: Application software refers to programs designed to provide a particular task or
service, such as word processors, computer games, spreadsheet programs, and Web browsers.
**
1. System software
 Constitutes those programs which facilitate the work of the computer hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or are unable to
handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more users friendly.
 It acts as interface between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of
communication between user and a computer.
The important categories of system software are:

a) Operating system
b) Language software
c) Utility software
a) Operating system
Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An operating system has three major
functions.
i. Controlling operations (control program )
 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.

 Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer memory.
 Handles communications among the computer components, applications software and the
user
 Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk drive
 It performs all its controlling tasks with out the involvement or awareness of the user.
ii. Input/output Management
 The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow of data
to the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key board or
other input devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.
iii. Command Processing ( command Interpreter)
 It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or other input devices.
 If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that command if it is external
command or other executable file it searches for the corresponding file in the default (current
disk) or the user specified disk, loads the file into memory and transfers control to that
program. Once this program is terminated, control returns to command.com and the program
for that command or file is discarded from memory.
Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be classified by:
 The number of programs they can handle at a time and

 The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations (i.e. terminals or micro-computers
connected to a central computer).
i. Single tasking operating systems
 With single tasking operating systems only one program can be run on a computer at a time.
 In order to run another program, one must remove the first program loaded in the computers
main memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t handle two or more programs at a time)
 These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only one user at a time.
ii. Multi user operating system
 It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.

 A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity computer by the help of
terminals.
iii. Real Time Operating System
 A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results are
available to influence the activity currently taking place.
Example: - Air plane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.

- Its primary characteristic is that it responds to an event within a well defined time.
b) Utility programs: this is another category for system software generally used to support, enhance, or
expand existing programs in a computer system. Many operating systems have utility programs built in for
common purposes. Additional utility programs are available separately. Some of examples of the utility
programs are the following.
- Backup software it is a type of software which facilitate to a user to have a recovery copy if his/her
computer suddenly stop.

- Data recovery: it is used to restore data that has been physically damaged or corrupted. Data can be
damaged by viruses, bad software, and hardware failure and power fluctuation.
- Virus protection if there is an attack of computer viruses on your computer system there may be a
need to have antivirus utility software.
- Data compression utilities remove redundant elements, gaps and unnecessary data from the computer
storage space so that you will have enough space to work and to transport data.
c) Language Software.
- Language software: it is the other subdivision of system software which is normally used by the
programmer to develop application program. It is a generic name consisting of various programs that
serves as compliers and translators to develop program in a number of different programming
language.
- Is software which is used by programmers to develop application software and translate programs to
machine code?
- Includes:- Translators, general purpose routines and utilities & high level languages
 Translator: - is a program that converts one or more languages to another language. Three
types of translators are assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.
 Interpreter: - is a program that translates each instruction of high level language &
executes the instruction before translating the next instruction.
 Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.
 Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language into machine code. (Pascal,
Fortran Cobol)
 The general-purpose routine and utilities include programs which are used to handle file
processing, editing and debugging.
 High level language software is software which has their own compilers to detect syntax errors of
the user’s program code.
Example: COBOL, FORTRAN, Pascal. Etc.
2. Application Software
 Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area or areas? But for use in more than
one installation.
 Are usually called application packages as they may include a number of programs along with
operating instruction, documentation and so forth.
 Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following:
1. Word Processors/ Word processing

- Is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation, editing, formatting, filing and
printing text?
- Is the most common application of microcomputers
- Until recently, word processing could be done only dedicated word processors. A dedicated word
processor is a computer that denies its users the opportunity to execute any other program.
Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word

2. Spreadsheet
- is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.
- Until recently, financial analysis and other mathematical calculation were done by entering numbers
on pages of an accountants ruled ledger pad.
- You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels, numbers &
formulas.
- Using the programs built-in function you can perform complicated calculations such as net percent
value, internal rates of return, and monthly payments on a loan.
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatropro
3. Database management system.
- Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you need it and update it when
necessary.
- You can do this with index cards, but database management programs do them more quickly and
easily.
- Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or billing and collect information in
lists stored in files and manipulate this information, one file at a time with database management
program.
- You can record or create a database about employee information as
Name, sex, marital status, salary, Date of Birth, Date of employment, Post, Department,
Level of education , Field of study etc.
Then you can ask the computer the following question

- How many female workers are there?
- List employees with a salary of birr 500 and above
- List those employees who are department head and have Bachelor degree or higher and so on.
Example: Dbase IV, FoxPro, Microsoft Access, SQL, Oracle.
 Note:
o Bespoke and Off-The-Shelf Software
Whatever type of software system you are considering for your business, you will need to decide whether
to develop it from scratch or to buy the software off-the -shelf. MS-Office, which contains MS-Word,
MS-Excel, MS-Access, MS PowerPoint, and MS-Publisher, can be taken as an example of off-the-shelf
software.
Generally speaking, off-the-shelf software has features that most people would want and, for more
complex applications, you may be able to customize them.
Bespoke systems are tailored exactly to the requirements of the customer in question. In addition, the
software can evolve in step with your requirements providing an ongoing perfect fit. However, this benefit
has to be weighed against the cost, which can be much higher than off-the-shelf software.
o The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice
of an operating system, therefore, determines the applications you can use.

Chapter Three
Basics of information, Data, Data Processing and Data Representation
I. Data vs. information
Data can be defined as any type of representation of an object or an event. Representation could be in the form of,
number, text symbols, and voice, static or dynamic image and so on.
Information can be defined as a processed or summarized data for a particular analysis or decision making.
Digital computers store data using two state components. With two such states, we can represent exactly two
different values. These two values correspond to the two digits used by the binary number system or base 2 that
requires just two symbols, _ 0_ 1, but the pattern remains the same as for decimal. The digits are termed binary
digits. Bits.
II. Data Processing
Data processing is the process of converting data in to information. More generally the term data processing can
apply to any process that converts data form one formats to another, for this perspectives, data processing becomes
the processes of converting data in to information and also the conversion of information in to another further
processed information. Data processing may be done manually, mechanically, electronically. For our lesson we
35 Data Processing | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

give emphasis on electronic data processing. The process usually assumed to be automated and running on a
personal computer, it involves three steps: input, processing, and output.
Basic Data processing cycle
Input Processing Output
That is a computer gets input through an input device such as a mouse or a keyboard, processes it according to the
set of instructions given to it, and generates an output.
Basics Operations of data processing
The following are the basic operations during data processing electronically.
1. Input refers to anything that is given to a computer for processing. It may take various forms such as
numbers for calculation, text to be printed, sound etc.
2. Processing is the process of data transformation in to useful information. During the operation useful
actions like arithmetic operation, sorting, classifying and summarization may made on the row data. The
computer has to be told what to do with the input. That means a computer must be programmed with the set
of instructions it is required to perform.
3. Output refers generating the processed data ( information) to the user using different devices
 Additional data processing operations:
 Dissemination is dispatching the information to the appropriate user through communication

Medias.
 Storing is accumulating the processed data for later use or processing.
Extended data processing cycle
36 Basics Operations of data processing | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

Data processing
Addition Disseminating
Subtraction
Input Division
Row data multiplication Out put
sorting Processed data
expertise knowledge (information
Classification etc...
Storing
Storing Storing
III. Source of Information
For later processing For later use
Information sources generally categorized in to two broad categories. These are
1. Documentary information sources: those information sources which we normally obtain them either in paper
printed format or electronically recorded format. Documentary information sources again categorized in to three
groups.
o Primary documentary sources: - they are original material. They are from the time period involved
and have not been filtered through interpretation. Examples of primary information sources are
 Diaries
 Interviews(legal proceedings,  Photographs
personal, telephone, e-mail)  Proceedings(meeting, Conference,
 Letters and Symposia)
 Original document  Survey research
 Patent  Works of Literature
o Secondary documentary sources: are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They
are interpretation and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather
commentary on and discussion of evidence. Examples of secondary information sources are
 Scholarly periodicals  Commentary
 Reference Books  Monographs
 Text books
37 Source of Information | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application
o Tertiary documentary sources: consists of information which is a distillation on collection of primary
and secondary sources.
 Almanac (Directory, calendar, manual)
 Encyclopedias
 Fact books
 Indexes(used to locate primary and secondary information sources)
2. Non-documentary information sources. Those information sources which don’t recorded in any format. E.g.
public speech, informal talks with friends, discussion group etc…
o Formal : an information sources from formal meetings , conferences
o Non formal: informal communication with friends, discussion group etc…
IV. Data Representation and Numbering Systems
This section discusses how data is represented in the computer system. It also deals with measuring units of the size
of memory and storage devices.
i. Data Representation
Data representation refers to the methods used to represent information stored in a computer. We know that
the computer is an electronic device and it works using electrical signals. Electrical signals can represent
only two states: on and off, so any information that has to be processed by a digital computer has to be
converted in to a format of these two states. These two states correspond to the two digits 0 and 1used by the
binary number system.
1 bit = one on or off position
1 byte = 8 bits
Computers store many different types of information such as numbers, text, graphics of several varieties (still
image, video, animation), and sound. All types of information are stored in a computer in the same simple format:
38 Data Representation and Numbering Systems | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

0's and 1's. How can 0's and 1's represent things as diverse as your photograph, your favorite song, a recent movie,
and your letter? It all depends on how we interpret the information. Computers use numeric codes based on the
binary number system to represent all the information they store. Computers use a variety of different codes. Some
are used for numbers, others for text, and still others for sound and graphics.
a. Text Representation
Text can be represented easily by assigning a unique number for each symbol used in the text. For example, the
widely used ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) has 128 different symbols (all the
characters found on a standard keyboard, plus a few extra), and gives each a unique numeric code between 0 and
127. In ASCII, an "A" is 65 (which is equivalent to 1000001 in binary)," B" is 66, "a" is 97, "b" is 98, and so forth.
There are also other standards such as BCD, EBCDIC, and UNICODE that represent characters differently.
b. Graphics Representation
Graphics that are displayed on a computer screen consist of pixels: the tiny "dots" of color that collectively "paint"
a graphic image on a computer screen. The pixels are organized into many rows on the screen. In one common
configuration, each row is 640 pixels long, and there are 480 such rows. Another configuration can be 800 pixels
per row with 600 rows, which is referred to as a "resolution of 800x600." Each pixel has two properties: its location
on the screen and its color. A pixel's color is represented by a binary code, and consists of a certain number of bits.
In a monochrome (black and white) image, only 1 bit is needed per pixel: 0 for black, 1 for white, for example. A
color image would need more bits. For example if you used 2 bits for each color, there would be 4 different
possibilities: 00, 01, 10 and 11 and each could be given a color. There are different units of data to measure the size
of storage devices or memories in a computer system.
The common units of data
Unit Equivalent Quantity
1 Byte 8 bits = 1 character
1 Kilobyte (KB) 210 = 1,024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) 220 = 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte (GB) 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes
1 Terabyte (TB) 240 = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
Tip: A group of related bytes in memory that are treated as a single addressable unit or entity make up a word.
Storage space (disks, CDs, memory, etc.) is measured using the above units.

ii. Numbering Systems
a. The Binary Number System

The binary number system works just like the decimal number system, with two exceptions: the binary number
system allows only the values 0 and 1 (rather than 0- 9), and the binary number system uses powers of two rather
than powers of ten.
Binary numbers all consist of combinations of the two digits '0' and '1'. These are some examples of binary
numbers: 1, 10,1010,11111011, and 11000000 10101000 00001100 01011101 sometimes the binary numbering
system called a base-two system because binary numbers only contain two digits.
Number Base Conversion
 Binary to Decimal
It is very easy to convert from a binary number to a decimal number. Just like the decimal system, we multiply each
digit by its weighted position, and add each of the weighted values together.
For example, the binary value 1100 1010 represents:
1x27 + 1x26 + 0x25 + 0x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 =1 x 128 + 1 x 64 + 0 x 32 + 0 x 16 + 1 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 +

0 x 1 =128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 202 in decimal form
 Decimal to Binary
To convert decimal to binary is slightly more difficult. There are two methods that may be used to convert from
decimal to binary, repeated division by 2, and repeated subtraction by the weighted position value.
o Repeated Division By 2
For this method, divide the decimal number by 2, if the remainder is 0, on the side write down a 0. If the remainder
is 1, write down a 1. This process is continued by dividing the quotient by 2 and dropping the previous remainder
until the quotient is 0. When performing the division, the remainders which will represent the binary equivalent of
the decimal number are written beginning at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to more
significant digit (the left) of the previous digit. Consider the number 2671.
Division Quotient Remainder Binary Number

2671 / 2 1335 1 1
1335 / 2 667 1 11
667 / 2 333 1 111
333 / 2 166 1 1111

166 / 2 83 0 0 1111
83 / 2 41 1 10 1111
41 / 2 20 1 110 1111
20 / 2 10 0 0110 1111
10 / 2 5 0 0 0110 1111
5/2 2 1 10 0110 1111
2/2 1 0 010 0110 1111
1/2 0 1 1010 0110 1111
o The Subtraction Method
For this method, start with a weighted position value greater that the number.
If the number is greater than the weighted position for the digit, write down a 1 and subtract the weighted position
value.
If the number is less than the weighted position for the digit, write down a 0 and subtract 0.
This process is continued until the result is 0. When performing the subtraction, the digits which will represent the
binary equivalent of the decimal number are written beginning at the most significant digit (the left) and each new
digit is written to the next lesser significant digit (on the right) of the previous digit. Consider the same number,
2671, using a different method.
Weighted Value Subtraction Remainder Binary Number

2^12 = 4096 2671 - 0 2671 0
2^11 = 2048 2671 - 2048 623 01
2^10 = 1024 623 - 0 623 0 10
2^9 = 512 623 - 512 111 0 101
2^8 = 256 111 - 0 111 0 1010
2^7 = 128 111 - 0 111 0 1010 0
2^6 = 64 111 - 64 47 0 1010 01
2^5 = 32 47 - 32 15 0 1010 011
2^4 = 16 15 - 0 15 0 1010 0110
2^3 = 8 15 - 8 7 0 1010 0110 1
2^2 = 4 7-4 3 0 1010 0110 11
2^1 = 2 3-2 1 0 1010 0110 111
2^0 = 1 1-1 0 0 1010 0110 1111

Binary Number Boundaries
We typically write binary numbers as a sequence of bits (bits is short for binary digits). We have defined
boundaries for these bits. These boundaries are:
Name of the boundary Size (bits) Example

Bit: The smallest "unit" of data, single1 1 or 0
binary digit
Nibble: A nibble is a collection of bits4 0101
on a 4-bit boundary
Byte: A byte also contains exactly two8 0000 0101
nibbles(8 bits)
Word: A word also contains either 16-16 0000 0000 0000 0101
bits or two bytes.

Double Word: two words. Therefore, a32 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
double word quantity is 0101
32 bits. Naturally, this
double word can be
divided into a high order
word and a low order
word, four bytes, or eight
nibbles.
In any number base, we may add as many leading zeroes as we wish without changing its value. However, we
normally add leading zeroes to adjust the binary number to a desired size boundary. For example, we can represent
the number five as:
We'll number each bit as follows:
1. The rightmost bit in a binary number is bit position zero.
2. Each bit to the left is given the next successive bit number.
Bit zero is usually referred to as the LSB (least significant bit). The left-most bit is typically called the MSB (most
significant bit). We will refer to the intermediate bits by their respective bit numbers.
b. Octal Number System

Although this was once a popular number base, especially in the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP/8 and other
old computer systems, it is rarely used today. The Octal system is based on the binary system with a 3-bit boundary.
The Octal Number System: uses base 8 and include only the digits 0 through 7
The weighted values for each position are as follows:

8^5 8^4 8^3
32768 4096 512
 Binary to Octal Conversion
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to octal. This is accomplished by:
1. Break the binary number into 3-bit sections from the LSB to the MSB.
2. Convert the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
For example, the binary value 1010111110110010 will be written:
001 010 111

1 2 7
 Octal to Binary Conversion
It is also easy to convert from an integer octal number to binary. This is accomplished by:
1. Convert the decimal number to its 3-bit binary equivalent.

2. Combine the 3-bit sections by removing the spaces.
For example, the octal value 127662 will be written:
1 2 7
001 010 111
This yields the binary number 001010111110110010 or 001 010 111 1 10 11 0 010 in our more readable format.
 Octal to Decimal Conversion
To convert from Octal to Decimal, multiply the value in each position by its octal weight and add each value. Using
the value from the previous example, 127662Q, we would expect to obtain the decimal value 44978.
1*8^5 2*8^4 7*8^3

1*32768 2*4096 7*512
32768 8192 3584
32768 + 8192 + 3584 + 384 + 48 + 2 = 44978
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
To convert decimal to octal is slightly more difficult. The typical method to convert from decimal to octal is
repeated division by 8. While we may also use repeated subtraction by the weighted position value, it is more
difficult for large decimal numbers.
Repeated Division By 8
For this method, divide the decimal number by 8, and write the remainder on the side as the least significant digit.
This process is continued by dividing he quotient by 8 and writing the remainder until the quotient is 0. When
performing the division, the remainders which will represent the octal equivalent of the decimal number are written
beginning at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to the next more significant digit (the
left) of the previous digit. Consider the number 44978.
Division Quotient Remainder

44978 / 8 5622 2
5622 / 8 702 6
702 / 8 87 6
87 / 8 10 7
10 / 8 1 2
1/8 0 1
As you can see, we are back with the original number. That is what we should expect.
c. Hexadecimal Number System

A big problem with the binary system is verbosity. To represent the value 202 requires eight binary digits.
The decimal version requires only three decimal digits and, thus, represents numbers much more compactly than
does the binary numbering system. This fact was not lost on the engineers who designed binary computer systems.
When dealing with large values, binary numbers quickly become too unwieldy. The hexadecimal (base 16)
numbering system solves these problems. Hexadecimal numbers offer the two features:
 hex numbers are very compact
 it is easy to convert from hex to binary and binary to hex.
The Hexadecimal system is based on the binary system using a Nibble or 4-bit boundary. We place an H at the end
of the number to denote the number base.
The Hexadecimal Number System:
 uses base 16
 includes only the digits 0 through 9 and the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F
In the Hexadecimal number system, the hex values greater than 9 carry the following decimal value:
Octal Decimal Hex
00Q 00 00H
01Q 01 01H
02Q 02 02H
03Q 03 03H
04Q 04 04H
05Q 05 05H
06Q 06 06H
07Q 07 07H
10Q 08 08H
11Q 09 09H
12Q 10 0AH
13Q 11 0BH
14Q 12 0CH
15Q 13 0DH
16Q 14 0EH
17Q 15 0FH
20Q 16 10H
This table provides all the information you'll ever need to convert from one number base into any other number
base for the decimal values from 0 to 16.
0ABCDH = 0000 1010 1011 1100 1101
 Binary to Hex Conversion
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to hex. This is accomplished by:
1. Break the binary number into 4-bit sections from the LSB to the MSB.
2. Convert the 4-bit binary number to its Hex equivalent.
For example, the binary value 1010111110110010 will be written:
1111 1011 0010

F B 2
 Hex to Binary Conversion
It is also easy to convert from an integer hex number to binary. This is accomplished by:
1. Convert the Hex number to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
2. Combine the 4-bit sections by removing the spaces.

For example, the hex value 0AFB2 will be written:
F B 2
1111 1011 0010
This yields the binary number 1010111110110010 or 1010 1111 1011 0010 in our more readable format.
 Hex to Decimal Conversion
To convert from Hex to Decimal, multiply the value in each position by its hex weight and add each value. Using
the value from the previous example, 0AFB2H, we would expect to obtain the decimal value 44978.
F*16^2 B*16^1 2*16^0

15*256 11*16 2*1
3840 176 2
40960 + 3840 + 176 + 2 = 44978
 Decimal to Hex Conversion
To convert decimal to hex is slightly more difficult. The typical method to convert from decimal to hex is repeated
division by 16. While we may also use repeated subtraction by the weighted position value, it is more difficult for
large decimal numbers.
o Repeated Division By 16
For this method, divide the decimal number by 16, and write the remainder on the side as the least significant digit.
This process is continued by dividing the quotient by 16 and writing the remainder until the quotient is 0. When
performing the division, the remainders which will represent the hex equivalent of the decimal number are written
beginning at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is written to the next more significant digit (the
left) of the previous digit. Consider the number 44978.
Quotient Remainder Hex Number

2811 2 2
175 11 B2
10 15 FB2
0 10 0AFB2
As you can see, we are back with the original number. That is what we should expect.
When you use hex numbers in an 8085 program, the Assembler usually requires the most significant hex digit to be
0 even if this number of digits exceeds the size of the register. This is an Assembler requirement and your value
will be assembled correctly.
 How to Tell Whether a Number Is Binary, Decimal, or Hexadecimal
Because these three number systems share digits—for example, all have 0 and 1—how can you tell which system is
being used? For example, take the number 101. This could be any of the following:
Decimal 101 = 101
Binary 101 = 5
Hexadecimal 101 = 257
Obviously, this could lead to some confusion. In general, there are a few hints to look for:
 If a number contains only 1s and 0s, it is likely binary, but could still be decimal or hexadecimal.
 If a number contains decimal digits 0 through 9, it is most certainly not binary, prob ably decimal, but still
could be hexadecimal.
 If a number contains decimal digits 0 through 9, and also letters A through F, it is not binary, not decimal,
and very likely hexadecimal.
 More precise writers will make sure to include a qualifier that identifies which number system is in use
 CODING METHODS
We have said any information to be processed by a digital computer (numbers, characters, pictures…) has to be
as a series of electrical switches (on’s and off’s) in arranged manner. It should be represented by the two digits of
the binary number system.
There are different coding systems that convert one or more character sets into computer codes such as BCD,
EBCDIC, UNICODE and ACSII
1. BCD (4-bits)
 Stands for Binary Coded Decimal
 It converts every digit of a decimal number to binary.
Coding Examples
Decimal Number BCD
81 1000 0001
935 1001 0011 0101
2. ASCII-7 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 Used widely before the introduction of ASCII-8 (the Extended ASCII)
 Uses 7 bits to represent a character;
 With the seven bits, 27( or 128) different characters can be coded (0000000-1111111)
 It has a zone and digit bits positions

Examples: ASCII-7
Character Zone digit
$ 010 0100
% 010 0101
A 100 0001
a 110 0001
b 110 0010
3. The 8 bit ASCII System
 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 It is the most widely used type of coding scheme for Micro Computer system
 ASCII uses 8-bits to represent alphanumeric characters (letters, digits and special symbols) characters other
than English language.
 With the 8-bits, ASCII can represent 28 or 256 different characters (00000000-11111111).
8-bits, ASCII Coding Examples
Character Binary representation in ASCII
a 01100001
b 01100010
A 01000001
B 01000010
? 00111111
+ 00101011
1 00110001
0 00110010
1 00110011
4. Unicode
Unicode uses 16 bits per character, so it takes twice the storage space that ASCII coding, for example, would take
for the same characters. But Unicode can handle many more characters. The goal of Unicode is to represent every
element used in every script for writing every language on the planet. Version 3 of Unicode has 49,194 characters
instead of the wimpy few hundred for ASCII and EBCDIC
5. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is an 8-bit character encoding used on
IBM mainframe operating systems such as z/OS, OS/390, VM and VSE, as well as IBM EBCDIC
descended from the code used with punched cards and the corresponding six bit binary-coded decimal code
used with most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Chapter Four
Introduction to Networking and Internet
 Network
1. What is Network?
Network is a system of interconnected computers, telephones, or other communication devices that can
communicate with one another and share applications, devices, software, and data. It is a tying together of so many
communication devices in so many ways.
Computer network refers to the system of two or more interconnected autonomous computers to share data,
device, peripherals and remote computer databases.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of networking
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy for people to share files, Programs, devices  Costly, in terms of extra equipments and technical
like printers, modems, fax, etc. can be shared skills
between computers (Share computer resources)
 Avoid software compatibility problem  There may be data security problems. Data could
be at risk to unauthorized access or hackers.
 Reduce hardware and software costs  Sharing of some files or programs may lead to the
spread of viruses which damage your computers
 People can send messages to each other instantly
(Improve communications)
 Users could share access to the Internet
 Increase user productivity

3. Types of Computer networks
Depending on their geographical coverage networks are generally categorized in to the following types:
1 Wide area network (WAN): is a communication network that covers a wide geographical area such as a state
or a country.
Wide area network
2 Metropolitan network (MAN): is a communication network covering a geographical area such as the size of
city or sub-urban.
3 Local area network (LAN): is a privately owned communications network that serves users within a confined
geographical area. The range is usually within a mile – perhaps one office, one building, or a group of building
close together, as a college campus.
Local area network
Types of LAN

Local area networks are two principal types: client/server and peer-to-peer.
1. Client/server LANs: consists of requesting microcomputers, called clients, and supplying devices that provide
a service called server. The server is a relatively powerful computer that manages shared devices, computers or
dump terminal and shared files. Here in Client/server network the server is more powerful and has more
privilege than clients (connected computers) over the network.
2. Peer-to-peer: Is one in which all computers on the network communicate directly with one another with out
relying on a server. Here in this case each and every component (microcomputers) connected on the network
has equal power and privilege on the network.
4. Network Topologies
Network topology is the physical shape of the network. This is how the computers are connected together.
How you connect the computers in a network with each other can affect many things such as the reliability
and speed of data transfer on your network. Also, some topologies cost more money than others. There are
three common network topologies:
 Bus
 Star
 Ring
a. Bus topology:
In a bus network all the computers and other hardware (known as nodes) are connected to a main highway (bus) for
transporting information between the devices that are connected to it. This is the simplest and most common
method of networking computers. Data travels along the main highway so it goes direct from the sending computer
to the sender.
The bus network topology works like a bus system at rush hour, with various buses pausing in different bus zones
to pick up passengers. In a bus system all communication devices are connected to a common channel. There is no
central server. Each communication devices transmit electronic message to other devices.
Bus Network

 Easy to implement  Limits on cable length and number of

computers
 Uses a small amount of cable so is low cost  Difficult to find network faults
 A fault on the main highway stops the

whole network
 As the number of computers increase,
the speed of the network slows down
b. Star topologies:
In the star topology, each node is connected to a component called a hub. Signals are transmitted from the
sending computer through the hub to all computers on the network. Electronic messages are routed through
the central hub (switch) or their destinations, so the central hub (switch) monitors the flow of traffic.
Advantages of this topology are the hub(switch ) reduce collision of messages and because of failurity of
one node in the network the whole system will not affected .

Star Network
 Easy to add new workstations  Hub failure cripple all workstations

 Centralized control connected to that hub
 Failure of a computer does not affect the network  Require greater amount of cabling and a
hub so there is a higher cost
c. network topology:
A ring network topology is one in which all computers and other communication devices are connected in a
continuous loop. It connects computers on a single circle of cable. The electronic messages are passed
around the ring until they reach the right destination. There is no central device. In a ring network, messages
travel from node to node. If the message is not for that particular node, the message is regenerated and
passed on. This allows messages to travel further in a ring network than in other network configurations.

 Simple design, requires less cable than bus or star  The more work stations, the slower the
network becomes
 Data can be sent over large distances (as computers  Data security may be compromised (as
data has to travel through other
act as repeaters)
computers)
 Failure of individual computer or cable doesn’t  If a connection is broken the entire
network stops working.
stop whole network
 messages flow in only one direction no danger of
collisions
=================================================================
Network components and Transmission Media

A computer network is composed of one or more servers, workstations, network interface cards, active and passive
hub, routers, bridges, gateways, modem, software components like network operating systems, and other
application software.
The following components are widely used for the construction of networks.
 Server:-It is the most powerful computer of the network. There are two types of servers normally employed
in a local area network. They are dedicated and non dedicated servers.
1. Dedicated server, the server computer performs functions and services of the whole network. It
provides e-mail service, sharing of multiple hard disks, and sharing of other resources and faster
response time. For larger networks with heavy load, dedicated servers are usually employed.
2. Non-dedicated server, apart from the role of the network controller, also a sever acts as an individual
workstation.
 File Server:-The primary goal of a computer network is to share data among several users. The file server is a
powerful computer, which runs special software. It provides the files and other shared resources to
different users in the network. It can be accessed through network operating system.
 Workstation/client:-is an individual computer with capabilities to communicate with other machines. It must
be equipped with the hardware and software necessary to connect to LAN. Usually a Network
Interface Card (NIC) or an Ethernet card is used for their purpose. It can communicate with the server
or with other workstations.
Bridges, routers, and gateways:-

Networks can be connected to each other, too. There are difficulties in doing so, however. A combination of
software and hardware must be used to do the job.
A router is a special computer that directs communicating messages when several networks are connected together.
It connects several networks. A router is smart enough to pick the right path for communications traffic. If there is a
partial failure of the network, a router looks for an alternate route. High speed routers can serve as part of internet
backbones, a transmission path, handling the major data traffic
A gateway is an interface that enables dissimilar networks to communicate, such as a LAN with a WAN, two
LANs or like connecting a network of PCs to a main frame network based on different topologies or network
operating systems. ,. This can be complex!
A bridge connects networks of the same type. This job is simple.

A LAN may stand alone, but it may also connect with other networks, either similar or different in topology and
technology. Network designers determine some hardware and software devices like Bridge, routers, and gateways -
as necessary components for networking purpose.
Local area networks are made up of several standard components.
1 Connection or cabling system: LANs do not use the telephone network. Instead, they use some other cabling
or connection system, either wired or wireless.
Wired connection may be twisted-pair wiring, coaxial cable, or fiber optics.
Wireless connection may be infrared or radio-wave transmission. They are especially useful if
computers are portable and are moved often.
2 Microcomputer with interface card: - two or more microcomputers are required, along with network interface
card (NIC).NIC , which is inserted in to an expansion slot or may came integrated with mother board that
enables the computer to send receive message on the Local area network.
1 Network operating system: - the network operating system software manages the activity of the network.
Depending on the type of network, the operating system software may be stored on the fileserver, on each
microcomputer on the network or a combination of both. Example Microsoft Windows NT, Novell’s NetWare.
3 Other shared devices: - printers, fax machines, scanners, storage devices, and other peripherals may be added
to the network as necessary and shared by all users.

Transmission media
With such complex communications channels, we need to be aware of the capabilities and limitations of the various
media in use. Transmission media just means the physical materials that are used to transmit data between
computers.
The media of a network is the part that carries a message from computer to computer.
1. Network Cables
Cable is used to join computers and network components together. The choice of cable depends upon a number of
factors such as: cost, distance, number of computers involved, speed and bandwidth.
 Tip: Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be sent over a network cable While there are thousands of
different types of network cables, they can be broadly divided into three main categories:
 Twisted-pair cable
 Coaxial cable
 Fiber-optic cable
These types of cable have different features. Understanding their differences will help you work out which type of
cabling is best for a certain network.
1. Twisted-Pair Cable: - is a common form of cabling. It can be used in many different

networks and supplied by almost any networking company. There are two types of
twisted-pair cables: unshielded and shielded.
a. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP): is the most commonly used cable in today’s office environment.
UTP is cheap, very flexible, and very easy to install and maintain.
b. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP): differs in that it has a shield, or insulation

jacket around the wire. This means it can transfer more data, further than
UTP.

2. Coaxial Cable: - is an older form of network cabling. It is a good choice for longer distances and for
supporting higher data transfer rates with less up-to-date equipment.
3. Fiber-Optic Cable: - Unlike the other cable types discussed, data on a fiber-optic cable is
transmitted in the form of light rather than electrical signals. While fiber-optic cables are very
well-protected and extremely fast, they are very expensive.
 Broadcast
For longer distances or when cables are not practical, other transmission media come into play. We're getting really
high tech here!
It may seem odd to call microwaves, radio waves, or light a "physical" medium. All are electromagnetic in nature.
Sometimes they are treated by scientists like streams of teeny, tiny particles and other times like waves on the
beach. In their "particle" life, they do behave like a bunch of physical particles. So it's not quite as odd as it first
appears. (But all those electromagnetic things are plenty odd!)
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 Internet
1. History of the Internet
The Internet was established in the early 1970s for military purposes. The U.S. Department of Defense created a
network of computers called the ARPANET so that the military in different areas could communicate securely. By
the early 1980s, newsgroups and electronic mail had been created. Most users were from universities and libraries.

In the 1980s, large commercial companies began to build private Internets. There was a lot of investigation into
new technology such as hyperlinks and transferring video between computers. In 1989 many of these technologies
were combined to create the World Wide Web. It was designed to aid communication among physicists who
worked in widely separated locations, but became very popular. During the late 1980s, the U.S. government began
to lift restrictions on who could use the Internet. In the early 1990s, the Internet quickly expanded to include
universities, companies of all sizes, libraries, public and private schools, local and state governments, individuals,
and families. Internet service was made available to the public here in Ethiopia in late 1997.
2. The Difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web
The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions of computers
together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as
they are both connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages
known as protocols.
The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the medium of the Internet. It is an
information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP protocol, only one of the
languages spoken over the Internet, to transmit data. Web services, which use HTTP to allow applications to
communicate in order to exchange business logic, use the Web to share information. The Web also utilizes
browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Firefox, to access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each
other via hyperlinks. Web documents also contain graphics, sounds, text and video.
The Web is just one of the ways that information can be disseminated over the Internet. The Internet, not the Web,
is also used for e-mail, which relies on SMTP, Usenet news groups, instant messaging and FTP. So the Web is just
a portion of the Internet, albeit a large portion, but the two terms are not synonymous and should not be confused.
A group of Web pages that follow the same theme and are connected together with hyperlinks is called a "Web
site." Web sites and Web pages are written in a coding language that makes it possible to add pictures, sound and
interactivity to plain old text, making people's reading experience more exciting
3. What the Internet is used for most?
 Sharing and exchanging information
 Personal communication
 E-commerce (selling things on a Web sites)
4. Internet Services

The main services used on the internet include:
 Web browsing - Supported by the HTTP protocol, this function allows users to view web pages using a
web browser.
 E-mail - Allows people to send and receive electronic messages.
Summary of the Internet services
Activity Description
1. Send and Receive Email Exchanging electronic mail (or email) is the most popular feature on
the Internet. Just like regular paper mail, you can send and receive
email with people around the world, as long as they have access to a
computer and the Internet. Unlike regular paper mail, email is
usually delivered to its destination almost instantly.
2. Browse the World Wide The World Wide Web is what most people think of when they
Web think of the Internet-although it’s really only a part of the Internet.
The World Wide Web is an enormous collection of interconnected
documents stored on computers all over the world. The World
Wide Web has information on every subject imaginable and is
accessible using browsing software Join online
3. Discussions with news Newsgroups are discussion groups on the Internet. You can discuss
groups different topics, exchange ideas, news and information. There are
thousands of newsgroups on topics such as computers, education,
romance, hobbies, politics, religion, and more.
4. Chat with other online users Chatting lets you communicate with people on the Internet instantly-
no matter how far away they are! Most chats are text based
5. Download software You can download pictures, programs, patches and drivers for
your computer
Downloading is to copy software from the Internet to your
computer
6. Listen to music You can listen to music on the web, such as from radio stations or
other online sources.
 Other lesser used services include telnet (allows remote login to computers), FTP (Allows quick file
transmission to remote computers), and gopher (An early form of text based form of reading internet
documents which is rarely used today).
5. Internet Organizations
 ISPs (Internet Service Providers) - They provide the connection to the internet for users and also provide
routers that direct internet traffic.

 Corporations or Web hosting providers with mail servers and web servers - They provide the information
posted on the internet and virtual data connections to other mail servers.
There are also other organizations that regulate the internet, providing communication standards and designing new
communication standards for improvements. These communication standards are also known as protocols. Data is
transferred around the Internet in packets using the Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet Protocol sets the standard
for communication over the Internet. On top of the Internet Protocol is TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol) which makes sure that data is not lost in its long journey from one computer to another.
Each computer that is connected to the Internet has an IP address composed of four numbers, each between 1 and
255, e.g. 193.117.1.9 this unique address allows information to be retrieved from and sent to a specific computer
just like a postal address specifies a building
6. Accessing the Internet
People use an internet browser to access web pages that are available across the internet. Internet browsers include
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla, and others.
Web pages are created in a marked up form of text file called HTML (Hyper-Text Markup Language). The markup
within the text indicates document structure showing where paragraphs begin and end, what items are in a list,
headers, tables and other document structure.
When people are browsing of surfing the internet, they usually go from place to place by clicking on links. These
links are locations for specific pages and indicate the three things:
1. Protocol being used such as http or ftp
2. The domain that the web page is found on. This will point to a specific organization's or company's web
server.
3. The location of the page on the server including the directory path and file name.
An example link is "http://www.comptechdoc.org/basics/bastutorial/osintro.html". In this case http is the protocol
being used; the comptechdoc.org domain indicates where the organization's web server is, and the "/basics/
7. Connecting to the Internet
In general there are two ways to connect to the Internet:
1. Permanent connection to the Internet (leased line),
2. Using the telephone line to connect (dial-up), whenever the user wishes to gain access.
Businesses that need constant access to the Internet, or provide information for others to access, have permanent
connections to backbone providers. These backbone providers have very fast permanent connections to various
sites around the world.

 Other key terms
Web Site: a collection of web pages linked to one another with a common theme such as a particular sport (like
football) or a new company (the BBC).
Web page: a single page of information (containing text, images, sound, or video clips) on a website.
Home page: is the first page of a particular website with links to other pages in the website
Hyperlink: a link to another web page. Hyperlinks allow you to visit websites without typing new addresses each
time. Hyperlinks could be displayed in the form of underlined text, buttons or images.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (Http): is the standard (or rules) used for transferring web documents over the
Internet. Web browsers communicate with the different web servers using this protocol.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): is the address of the web page displayed in the browser window. It is like an
ID number for the webpage
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): is an older, but still popular standard for transferring information, especially large
files, over the Internet.
8. The Various Parts of a Web Address
Every web site has a unique address on the WWW, called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). URLs usually
begin with http://.
For example consider the URL of the following web site and observe the different parts of the URL:
http:// www.microsoft.com/index.html
Protocol Host/Domain name File name (document)
The part of the URL before the colon represents the format or protocol used to retrieve the document and it may
change depending on the type of document to be accessed. For example, http means the document is on the WWW.
If, instead of http, that part of the URL was ftp, it would mean that the document could be accessed through File
Transfer Protocol. The host or domain name is the computer on which the document can be found. Domain names
can have different extensions such as, .com, .gov, .org, .edu, etc representing the computer as belonging to a
67 Other key terms | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

commercial, governmental, or educational organization. In addition, several domain names have been assigned to
identify different countries around the world.
Some of these include .uk for United Kingdom, .de for Germany, .jp for Japan and .et for Ethiopia.
Common computer hardware

The following is a list of the most common hardware found on office and home computers.

The Monitor is the display screen, similar to a television screen.
The Keyboard is what you type on, similar to a typewriter.
The Mouse is the small hand held device that attaches to the computer.
It may have two or three buttons. The mouse is used to move the
cursor (pointer) on the computer screen.
The Computer, tower, or case is the heart of the system. This is a box
that contains all the parts that make the computer work. It can be
identified by the fact that it does not seem to do anything. It also has
slots to put computer disks in.

The Printer is a device that puts what you have created on to paper.
The Scanner is a device that captures pictures so that they can be seen
and used on the computer, similar to a colour photocopier.
Introduction

Microsoft Windows is the operating system found on most personal computers.
As an operating system Windows manages all that the computer does. Through
Window's main screen called the "Desktop" you can get to everything your
computer can do. The following tutorials will introduce you to Windows and
how to use it.

The "Start" button

The "Start" button is probably the most used part of the Windows
Desktop. The start button is where you access all the programs on the
computer. When you click on the "Start" button you will be shown a
menu of the major computer headings. These headings provide access
to the major programs on your computer.
Quick Tip: If the desktop does not show the gray bar with the "Start"
button on it, simply move your mouse (cursor) to the bottom edge of the
screen and the task bar will appear
Menus When you click on the "Start" button a menu with options will appear.
Moving the mouse over the items in the menu causes them to highlight.
Clicking on a highlighted item will open that program
The taskbar
Windows has the ability to run several programs at once and to easily
switch back and forth between running programs. All programs
currently running are shown on the windows "taskbar." The taskbar is
a gray bar with pictures on in it that runs across the very bottom of the
screen. The taskbar can be recognized by the "Start" button located on
its left hand side and the clock on its right. To switch between
programs that are running at the same time, click on the program
buttons shown on the taskbar. This is demonstrated below.

Adjusting a window's Most Windows programs share the same look and feel which makes switching between
size and learning new programs easier.
Common to all Windows programs is the ability to adjust the shape and size of the
window you are working in. Some of the ways you can change a window includes;
moving, closing, maximizing, minimizing and restoring it. The following diagram and
chart explains how to adjust a window.
Click and hold down the mouse button on the coloured bar at the top of any
Move
program window. While holding down the mouse button drag the window to
where you would like it on the screen. This cannot be done when a window is
open to full screen.
Close Click on the button marked with an “x.” Clicking on this button stops the
program you are using.
Restore This button will restore a program's window to its original size. The original size
of a window is a little bit smaller then full screen.
Maximize This button opens a program's window so that it fills the screen as much as it can.

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Using my computer

The "My Computer" program is a tool that lets you see everything that is stored on your computer. It is
useful for finding, organizing and storing files on your computer. Files represent stored information that
you have named. Think of "My Computer" as a filing cabinet for your computer.
You can open the "My Computer" program by double clicking on the "My Computer" icon on the
"desktop" as shown below.
Once you have double clicked on the icon, the following window will appear.


The icons in the" My Computer" window represent all the drives, folder and files on your computer. The
following describes the icons that you will use the most as a new computer user.

Drives: Drives are like filing cabinets for computer files. To see
what is stored on a drive double click on its icon and a list
of files and folders will appear. These files and folders will
be arranged alphabetically. To open any of these files
double click on them.

The A: drive icon opens files saved on a floppy disk. You
may only open this drive when you have put a floppy disk
into the drive slot of the computer.

The C: drive icon on most home computers represents the
hard drive. This is the drive where all the programs that
your computer runs are stored. You can also store files that
you have created on this drive. If you do not think that the
C: drive is your hard drive, look for a drive that has the
same picture for an icon.

The D: drive icon represents the CD-ROM drive. Double
clicking on this icon will show you all the files stored on a
CD-ROM.

Folders: Folders help you organize your files by dividing up a drive
into alphabetically organized sections. Double clicking on a
folder will open it. Each folder can also hold other folders
and files.


Files: Files are information stored by a program. For example a
file created in "WordPerfect" will be saved with the ending
".wpd." Double clicking on a file will open it.
What is the Internet?

The Internet is a world wide collection of networked computers which
are able to exchange information with one another very quickly. The
computers that make up the Internet exchange information using the
same cables and general technology that your home phone uses. Most
people use the Internet in two ways, e-mail and the World Wide Web.
History lesson:
The Internet was originally developed by university researchers and

was funded by the United States Defense Department. The Defense
Department wanted its computer network to be able to communicate
effectively even if some sections were knocked out. The Internet
provides many possible pathways for information to travel between
computers.
What is the difference between

the World Wide Web and the
Internet?

The World Wide Web (The Web) is only a portion of what makes up the
internet, but it is the fastest growing part of the internet. The Web lets
people, organizations and companies publish information for other people
to see. This makes the Web a very useful tool for finding information on
just about any topic.
The Web is a large number of computer documents or "Web pages" that
are stored on computers around the world and are connected to one
another using hyperlinks. These Web pages can be seen by anyone
through their computer's "Web Browser," which is the program you are
using now.
A group of Web pages that follow the same theme and are connected
together with hyperlinks is called a "Web site." Web sites and Web
pages are written in a coding language that makes it possible to add
pictures, sound and interactivity to plain old text, making people's reading
experience more exciting.

What the Internet is used for most?

 Sharing and exchanging information
 Personal communication
 E-commerce (selling things on a Web sites
Web addresses

As described earlier the Web is a collection of documents (Web pages) stored on computers around
the world. Just like every house has a postal code, each Web page has an address describing where it
can be found. On the Web these addresses are called URLs.
Each URL has several parts which can be demonstrated using the address:
http://www.google.com/services/index.htm

http:// This part of the address indicates that it is a Web page.

www. This indicates that the Web page you are looking at is part of
the World Wide Web. Many Web sites do not use www but are
still part of the Web.

google.com This part of the address is the domain name and indicates the
unique address of a Web site. The domain name also often
indicates what the site is about, for example www.dog.com is a
Web site about dogs.

/services/ The "/" symbol indicates you have moved into a specific
directory in the Web sites. Directories are like the folders on
your computer and help to organize Web pages in a Web sites.
index.htm A word with ".htm" or "html" following it indicates the name of

the specific page in the Web site you are looking at.

Web browsers
Web browsers are programs used to explore the Internet.
There are many Web browser programs available including
Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer and Opera. Internet
Explorer is the Internet browser made by Microsoft and
comes with Windows operating system.

These are the two most popular web browsers:

This tutorial focuses on Internet explorer because it comes already installed on all computers running
Windows.
Connecting to the Internet
To connect to the Internet you must first open your Internet browser.
To open your Internet browser :
1. Read through or print this page out for reference.

2. Left click on the "Start" button at the bottom left of your screen.

3. In the menu that appears move the mouse over the word "Programs." A new menu will appear
showing various programs on your computer.

Look for the following menu item and left click on it, Internet explorer will begin to run.

(If Internet Explorer is not in that menu search some of the other menus, your computer may have been
customized)

4. If you are not already connected to the Internet the following screen will appear asking you to
connect.
5. Left click the connect button as indicated above. There will be a

wait as your computer tries to connect with the company that
provides your internet service (ISP). When a set of computers
appears on the right hand side of the Taskbar you will have
successfully connected to the Internet and can begin to use your
Internet browser to explore the Internet.
(If you did not successfully connect to the Internet, try again a
couple of time. If you cannot connect, check with the individual
who looks after that computer or call your internet service
provider (ISP) for assistance.)
Introducing Internet Explorer

There are four main parts to your web browser, a Menu Bar, a
Navigation Bar, a Location Bar, and a Display Window.

The menu bar’s options

You can see this bar at the top of your current screen if you are using Internet explorer. All browsers
will have most of these options, but they may have a different name.

Options:
File: Opens, saves, prints and exits files. This menu is similar to other office programs.
Edit: Allows you to cut, copy and paste some Web documents.
View: Gives you options for customizing your Web browser.
Favorites: Allows you to store links or go to your favorite Web pages.
Tools: Provides quick access to news and e-mail programs, as well as, option to personalize your
browser. are related to Internet Explorer.
Help: Gives you access to information and tips that
The navigation bar

You can see this bar at the top of your current screen if you are using
Internet explorer. All browsers will have most of these options, but they
may have a different name.

Options:

Back: Shows you the last Web page you were on.
Forward: Sends you ahead to the next Web page. You are only able to use

this button when you have previously used the Back Button.
Stop: Stops a Web site from loading. This is useful if you change your mind
while waiting for a page to load.
Refresh: Reloads a page that is not being displayed or is being displayed
improperly. Sometimes pages will run into problems when they are loading.
Using the refresh button can help if pages are taking too long to load.
Home: This button returns you to your “home” Web page. Your “home” page
is a Web page that is set to always show up when you first start your browser.
Search: Opens a search program that helps you find key words on the Internet.
Favorites: Opens a list of Web site addresses saved by the user.
History: Lists the Web pages you have visited by date.
Mail: Opens the computers e-mail program.
Print: Prints the Web page you are currently looking at.

The location bar

Address Line: Holds the address of the Web site you are currently at. You can also type the address
of a Web site you would like to go to in this box.
Drop Down Arrow: " Clicking" on this arrow will open a list of recently entered addresses.
Favorites

Web site addresses can be very long and difficult to remember. If you find a site that you know you
will want to return to you can "bookmark" it. A "bookmark" is a saved link to a Web site.
To create a bookmark:

1. Make sure the Web site you want to save is open.
2. Click on the favorites on the menu bar.
3. Click on “Add to favorites...”
4. Click the “OK” button OR create a new folder to hold
your Web site address.

Introduction to Search Engines

A search engine is a Web site that lets you
search the Internet for Web sites on specific
topics. Search engines turn the web into a
powerful tool for finding information on any
topic. The following tutorials will introduce you
to search engines and help you learn how to use
them effectively.

How to search the Web


Go to one of the search engine Web sites listed on the following

page. Somewhere on the Web page there will be a box for you to
type in. Type in the key words you are looking for (example:
sports hockey.) Somewhere on the Web page there will be an
image that looks like a button and has the word "search" on it.
Clicking on this image will start your search and bring up a new
Web page with a list of Web sites related to your topic on it.
Clicking on one of the titles in the list will take you to that Web
site on your topic.
Many search engine also have "Directories" or lists of topics that are organized into categories.
Browsing these Directories is also a very efficient way to find information on a given topic.

Hint: When using a search engine be as specific as possible
and use the right spelling.
Important: different search engines have different Web sites
listed. Use many search engines to broaden your search.
Here are some of the most popular search engines:

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Advanced search strategies

All search engines provide the user with the option of doing advanced
searches. Advanced searches are useful because they give you the
option of including and excluding words from a search. To do an
advanced search look for a link on the search engines Web page that
says “advanced search.” Clicking on this link will take you to a page
with advanced search options. The following chart also provides a
number of methods for doing advanced searches on most search
engines.

Operator What it does Example

“ ” Indicates a series of words that “Good day sunshine”
must appear next to each other. returns pages with this exact phrase.
+ Indicates that all the words must sports+hockey

appear in the Web page. will return pages that include both
sports and hockey
- Tells the search engine you do not Sport-hockey
want a word to appear in your Will return pages with sports but
search. not on hockey
* Use the wildcard (*) to search for sing* finds singing and sings
plurals or variations of words. theat* finds theater and theatre
AND, OR and NOT Can be used in some search engines Sports AND hockey NOT (baseball
to specify your search OR basketball)

Introduction

E-mail or electronic mail is one of the most popular uses of
the Internet today. E-mail allows you to exchange messages
with friends who are connected to the internet anywhere in
the world. The advantages of e-mail over regular mail is that
it is free, it is delivered almost instantly and you can attach
all types of files to your messages. The following tutorials
will introduce you to e-mail and help you set up your own e-
mail account.
E-mail addresses

Similar to Web pages all e-mail accounts have unique addresses indicating which computer to
send mail to. For email, an address usually has two parts, your user ID (usually your name) and
the identity of your e-mail service. These two parts are separated by the symbol @.
The following e-mail address demonstrates these parts:
billy_the_kid@hotmail.com

billy_the_kid This is called your user ID and is used when you sign in to
your e-mail service. Notice how "_" is used to separate
words in the name. Because e-mail names cannot contain
spaces, the symbol "_" is used to connect many words into
one long word.

@ This is an "at" sign. It separates the persons name from the
name of the e-mail service they are using.

hotmail.com This indicates which e-mail service you are using and its
location on the web. This address if for Hotmail,
Microsoft's free e-mail service.

The above e-mail address would be said like:
billy_the_kid at hotmail.com
Setting up an e-mail account


This page will guide you through the set up of a Hotmail account. Hotmail is a totally free e-mail
service run by Microsoft that lets you send and receive e-mail from any computer that is connected
to the Internet. The Hotmail service is run through the Hotmail Web page which can be found at the
Web address listed in "Step 2" below.
Step 1. Print this Web page for use as a guide.
Step 2. Go to http://www.hotmail.com
(Hint: Bookmark this page for future reference. This is the page you will use to sign in every time
you check your e-mail )
Step 3. Click on the words “Sign up” as shown below.
Step 4. Fill in the registration form. Remember to write down the user name and password you
pick. Submit the form.

Note: Because of the amount of people that use hotmail, picking a
user name can sometimes take a couple of tries to find one that is
available.

Step 5. There will be a Web Page that congratulates you on your new account. Somewhere on the
Web Page there will be an image that looks like a button with the word "continue" on it. Click on
this image to continue to the next screen.
Step 6. You are taken to a screen with Hotmail’s terms of use. Read through or scroll to the
bottom of the page where there will be a button asking you to accept or decline the terms. Choose
accept.
Step 7. The next screen will ask if you wish to subscribe to various online publications. Subscribe
if you wish, then press the “continue” button.
Step 8. The Hotmail working area then appears. You will be able to recognize it by the following
tabs.


Sending and receiving e-mail

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Sending an e-mail

Click on "Compose" in the Hotmail menu bars. This will bring up a screen with the following
on it:

To send an e-mail follow these steps:

In the line marked "To:" type in the person's e-mail address that you want to send a
message to. Be careful to spell the address right and use the right lower and upper
case letters.
(A good way to practice is to send yourself a message: your-name@hotmail.com)

The line marked "Cc:" is used when you want to send an exact copy of your
message to other people. Simply enter the e-mail addresses of the other people you
want to send a copy of your message to in this line.

In the "Subject:" line type something that describes what your message is about.
The subject will be shown in the recipients inbox, making it easier for them to sort
through their e-mails.

This is the area where you type your message. There is no limit to how much you
can type in this space.

When you are done writing your message press the send button and your message
will instantly be delivered.

Receiving e-mail

Click on "inbox" in the hotmail menu bars. This will bring up a screen with
the following on it:

To read your new messages "click" on the names that appear in the "From"
column. In the example above the name is "Hotmail Staff." This will bring up a
new screen with the content of the message. When you have finished reading
the message you can "click" on the "Inbox" tab to see other new messages.

Replying, forwarding and deleting

e-mail

Once you have read a message there are a number of options
hotmail gives you to make communicating more efficient.

Reply: This option automatically opens a new message that is

addressed to the person who sent you the message. In the body of
the new message there will also be a copy of the message you are
replying to.
Reply All: This works similarly to "Reply" but replies to all the
addresses in an e-mail not just the main one.
Forward: This option lets you send to other people an exact

copy of a message that was sent to you.
Delete: This option erases messages that you have marked with a
check mark from your "Inbox."
E-mail
attachments

E-mail gives you the ability to send or attach any kind of file to a message. For
example you can attach a Word or WordPerfect file to your message. This is very
useful for exchanging files between people over long or short distances. In the
past you may have had to send a disk through the mail, which could have taken a
couple of weeks. Now it's almost instant!

Attaching a file to an e-mail
1. Press the "Add/Edit Attachments" button as shown above.

2. Type an e-mail message as described in the previous lessons.

3. A new Hotmail screen will appear.

4. Select your file using the "Browse..." button on the screen. A window will
appear that will let you select a file from your computer.

5. Select the "Attach " button to the right of the "Browse..." button

6. Select Done. Your file is now attached to your message

7. Send your message

Opening e-mail attachments


When you receive an email with an attachment in Hotmail the message will have
an attachment heading. Simply click on the attachments file name and you will be
taken to a new screen, where you will be asked to download the file to your
computer.
Click on the "Download File" button to save the file to your own computer.
Hotmail also scans the file for viruses.

Computer Terminology
LIKE ALL THINGS MAN-MADE, COMPUTERS HAVE EVOLVED A LEXICON ALL THEIR OWN. THE FOLLOWING
INCOMPLETE LIST SHOULD HELP ALLEVIATE MISUNDERSTANDINGS OF COMPUTER-RELATED TERMS:
CD-ROM: Another acronym. This one stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. CD-ROM disks are
becoming the standard for delivering programs from the software developer to the computer user. CD-
ROM's come in a variety of flavors based on the language they are written in (PC, Mac, or Unix). PC's
cannot read a Mac CD-ROM, but Macs can read PC CD-ROMS.
CPU: The brain of the computer. This is located on a circuit board inside the desktop or tower computer
case. This component has terms associated with it such as "486", "Pentium" and "Celeron". Most of the
CPU's are manufactured by a company called Intel. They are the Microsoft of the hardware world.
Data: Computer food. Data can be numbers, letters, symbols, mathematical expressions, mouse clicks, or
button presses. The CPU translates all this activity to series of zeroes and ones and then performs magic.
Drivers: Drivers are software packages that are needed to run certain peripheral devices. Printers,
monitors, scanners, and network cards all require software drivers so that the computer knows how to
communicate and control the device.
486: An older CPU that was constructed at the beginning of the Windows 95 revolution. This CPU works
great if you are running MS-DOS or Windows 3.1. In general, this is one of the things that should be
considered when purchasing a computer.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): This is the internal magnetic storage device housed inside the computer case.
These come in a variety of sizes, measured in how many bits of information they can contain. A bit of
information equals either zero (0) or one (1). To a computer, this is equivalent to turning a light switch off
(0) or on (1). Computers operate on bits in groups of 8, called a byte. Every byte contains 8 bits. Bits and
99 Computer Terminology | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

bytes can be stored magnetically on material that resembles cassette or 8-track recording tape. The
magnetic material stores information as sequences of the digits "0" and "1" (hence the name digital
storage). Since it takes many bytes to store such things as letters, words, and sentences, the amount of
information that a Hard Drive can store is measured in multiples of 1000-bytes, 1,000,000 bytes, or
1,000,000,000 bytes. Terms such as kilobyte (1000 bytes or 1KB), megabyte (1,000,000 bytes or 1MB), and
gigabyte (1,000,000,000 bytes or 1GB) have evolved to represent these storage capacities. When you
purchase a computer, get as large a Hard Drive as you can afford. The standard in 1998 was between 4GB
and 8GB. The Hard Disk Drive is often referred to as the "C:" drive.
Floppy Diskette: The floppy diskette is a removable storage device that is used by the Floppy Diskette Drive
(also known as the A: drive or FDD). This storage device is capable of holding 1,440,000 bytes (1.44MB) of
data. The Floppy Diskette is inserted and removed from a slotted opening on the front of the computer case.
Keyboard: The main tool to get information into the computer and the most common way to tell the
computer what you want it to do. Most keyboards have the same arrangement of keys as a typical
typewriter keyboard. Computer keyboards have additional keys that perform computer-specific functions.
Modem: A telecommunications peripheral device that allows computer to communicate with one another
via conventional telephone lines. Modems are required for home computers to access the Internet or to
send and receive facsimile transmissions (FAX). Modems are rated by their speed in moving data from the
computer to the telephone line. This speed is measured in bits per second (bps). Standard modern modems
are rated at 28,800 bps, 33,600 bps and 56,400 bps.
Monitor: The "Television" screen that allows you to see what the computer is doing. Many newcomers to
computing mistakenly think of the monitor as the computer itself. Computers can operate without a
monitor, but computer users cannot.
Motherboard: The circuit board on which most of the major electronic components are situated. Most
manufacturers integrate cable attachment ports on the back-end of the motherboard. They also include
slots so that owners can add their own cable attachment ports. The slots are designed to accept cards. These
are normally found near the back of the computer case.
Mouse: A common input device used to tell a computer what it needs to do. With the invention of the
Macintosh and Windows operating systems, computer users needed a device to point at objects on the screen
and select them.
MS-DOS: An older operating system that powered personal computers through their beginning years.
Prior to the development of the graphics-oriented Macintosh and Windows operating systems, this system
relied on typing commands one line at a time to tell the computer what you wanted it to do. This system is
still in use in the Windows family of software and still has many practical uses. Windows 3.1 relies on MS-
DOS to operate. MS-DOS stands for Microsoft-Disk Operating System.
Network Card: A card that can be installed in one of the motherboard slots to give the computer the ability
to talk to other computers with similar cards. A collection of similarly equipped computers connected by
specially designed cables is known as a network. The mechanism (including languages and protocols) used
to communicate on a network are varied, but the most common networking designs in use are Ethernet and
Token Ring.
Operating System Software (OS): The instructions that allow the computer to start working and permit it
100 Computer Terminology | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

to run other programs. The major OS software types include MS-DOS, Windows 3.1, Windows 95,
Windows NT, Macintosh, UNIX, and LINUX. The most popular OS in use at present is Windows 95. Most
computers come with one of these pre-installed.
Platform: The computer operating system and/or architecture. Computers that are capable of running
MS-DOS, Windows 3.1 or Windows95/NT operating system software typically have the Intel 486/Pentium
CPU. Computers running the Macintosh operating system software have a Motorola 68xxx/PowerPC CPU.
For the most part, these platforms are incompatible as they have different rules and instructions for
performing their tasks.
Pentium - Pentium II: Faster, larger CPU devices that are designed to allow more computing instructions to
occur per second. Most computers manufactured in the past 3 to 4 years contain this device.
Peripheral Device: Any device that is connected to the computer in addition to the basic CPU-Monitor-
Keyboard-Mouse configuration. External speakers, microphones, joysticks, printers, and scanners are
examples of peripherals.
Printer: A peripheral device that allows the computer user to produce paper copies of the information
processed by the computer. Common home printers spray ink on paper and are called ink-jet printers.
Office and school printers are typically laser printers which work on the same principle as a xerographic
copy machine, using electrostatic charges and toner cartridges to place information on paper.
Program: A complex set of instructions that allow the computer user to process data. Common programs
include word-processing, spreadsheets, databases, drawing and painting, Internet tools, and games.
Programs are necessary for computers to be useful to humans.
RAM: This acronym stands for Random Access Memory. RAM is commonly called "memory". Memory
is measured in megabytes (MB) and usually comes in multiples of 2 or 4. The more RAM that a computer
has, the better it can carry out instructions. It is recommended that a new computer have 32 MB, 64MB, or
128MB of RAM.
WHY WE USE COMPUTER NUMBERING SYSTEM?

The question is very simple but i need brief answer about the necessity of computer numbering system? or why
computer number system was developed ? submit answers and get 10 points for best answer,, answer soon,,
Best Answer - Chosen by Asker

It all started with a SWITCH(on off switch)....
A switch is just used to turn ON or turn OFF any desired device...
Now , a computer just does this simple switching ON and OFF in a logical sequence to complete a
job(calculation,comparison, etc)
Binary number system was developed based on switch where you have a sequence of ON and OFF(1 and 0).
101 WHY WE USE COMPUTER NUMBERING SYSTEM? | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer

Application
Early it was only binary, then came octal number system and hexadecimal number system, which are nothing but a
crisp representation of Binary number(because binary 1111 is just 'F' in hexadecimal, isnt tat crisp
 the computer numbering system uses binary digits 1 or 0.This we will talk in programming level
using bit wise operators.Inside the hardware there is a flash memory in computer which will interpret the 0
as OFF and 1 as ON.
This make us easy to understand in hardware as well as in software level.Also,in computer it uses ASCII
character (7-bit).The computer system converts everything into binary and process our instrutions.Hope,you
should have understand.
 A binary number can be represented by any sequence of bits (binary digits), which in turn may be
represented by any mechanism capable of being in two mutually exclusive states. Owing to its
straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used
internally by all modern computers.
What are the limitations of computer?
They are unnatural and therefore un-instinctive - the natural way for a human to interact with another human is by
verbal and nonverbal communication.
Computers can't think for themselves. They aren't intelligent. If you feed computer incorrect information, it will
result in an incorrect output.
They cannot adequately deal with 'fuzzy' terms, unlike humans who describe most things in a fuzzy way: "Oh, it
was *hot* today," or, "John's car cost him a *fortune*," and "It's *almost* seven o' clock - the takeaway's open."
A computer can't tell you something completely new; it can only derrive something based on something known that
it was previously programmed to manipulate. They are not creative or imaginative, nor are they prone to arbitrary
moments of genius.
They are unquestioning devices. They do not feel and they do not understand ethics.
Computers can only adequately process information that may be quantised. They cannot adequately deal with
abstractions.
Finally, the greatest limitation of a computer is that they are engineered, built and used by humans. They expose our
flaws and under sights
GIGO (garbage in garbage out) - you give in wrong info, it gives out wrong answer cannot work on its own. Needs
someone to give instructions no thinking power.
102 What are the limitations of computer? | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application
Computer Limitation
1. It must be check and repair from time to time.
2. It cannot function alone without help from human
3. It cannot think on its own
4. It only understand computer language to execute command
Classification and Capabilities of Computers

Computers exist in a wide range of sizes and power. The smallest are embedded within the circuitry of appliances,
such as televisions and wrist watches. These computers are typically preprogrammed for a specific task, such as
tuning to a particular television frequency or keeping accurate time.
1. Programmable computers vary enormously in their computational power, speed, memory, and physical size.
The smallest of these computers can be held in one hand and are called personal digital assistants (PDAs). They are
used as notepads, scheduling systems, and address books; if equipped with a cellular phone, they can connect to
worldwide computer networks to exchange information regardless of location.
2. Laptop computers and PCs are typically used in businesses and at home to communicate on computer
networks, for word processing, to track finances, and to play games. They have large amounts of internal memory
to store hundreds of programs and documents. They are equipped with a keyboard; a mouse, trackball, or other
pointing device; and a video display monitor or liquid crystal display (LCD) to display information. Laptop
computers usually have similar hardware and software as PCs, but they are more compact and have flat, lightweight
LCDs instead of video display monitors.
3. Workstations are similar to personal computers but have greater memory and more extensive mathematical
abilities, and they are connected to other workstations or personal computers to exchange data. They are typically
found in scientific, industrial, and business environments that require high levels of computational abilities.
 4. Mainframe computers have more memory, speed, and capabilities than workstations and are usually
shared by multiple users through a series of interconnected computers. They control businesses and industrial
facilities and are used for scientific research. The most powerful mainframe computers, called supercomputers,
process complex and time-consuming calculations, such as those used to create weather predictions. They are used
by the largest businesses, scientific institutions, and the military. Some supercomputers have many sets of CPUs.
These computers break a task into small pieces, and each CPU processes a portion of the task to increase overall
speed and efficiency. Such computers are called parallel processors
103 What are the limitations of computer? | CoSc1011 -Introduction to computer Application

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Faculty of computing (Information Technology Department.) 2007 E.

Additional (optional personal computer)

 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability

 Making simple and complex calculation, make comparisons;

 Transmit information across distant location via communication channels;

 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;

 make statistical analysis

 For research purposes

 Listening music and watching movies

 To systematically and quickly store and process information

 To grade examination for colleges, university

 For drawing purposes … etc

Application areas of Computers

Computers can be applied in all of the following areas.

a) Commercial or business applications

 Accounting and Financial management

b) Scientific, Engineering and Research applications

 Meteorological observatory systems

 Control of manufacturing process

 Nuclear Control system

2.1. Generation of Computers

 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.

 Major secondary storage media used.

 Types or characteristic of operating system used.

First Generation (1950s)

• The vacuum tubes were used in the circuits of these computers

• For external storage, magnetic tapes were used.

• Most applications were scientific calculations.

• Example of Computers: UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc.

Second Generations (early 1960s)

The most widely used second generations were

 Transistors were used in the circuits.

 For external storage magnetic tapes were used.

 Examples: IBM 1620 –small scientific computers

 IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers

 IBM 7094 –large scientific computer

Third Generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)

• Integrated circuits replaced transistors

• Smaller size they were capable to perform better than transistors.

• For external storage magnetic disks were used.

• More advanced high level languages like PASCAL were used.

 IBM system /360 was the dominant

Fourth Generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)

• Micro computers have evolved.

• Example of computers: IBM System

The fifth Generation computer

These computers will have:

 Intelligent processors, i.e., processors which can draw inferences.

The following are the basic characteristics of computer.

Computers can work at enormously high speeds. They are capable of

 taking logical decisions

 performing arithmetic and non arithmetic operations

 Storing and retrieving at unbelievable speed

Types (classification) of Computers

We can classify computers based on the following criteria.

1 method of operation(working principle)

I. Classification by the method of operation (processing)

Examples: Desktop & pocket computers

They are general purpose computers.

II. Classification by purpose of application

a. Special purpose computers

 The public telephone box  Pocket-calculators etc.