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SH5108C CHEMICAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT

Occupational Health Programme

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HEALTHY PERSONS
• Healthy workplace: Effect from exposure to
ØIndividual hazard: Independent effects
ØMultiple hazards: Combined effects
ØHealth hazards:
vPhysical / Chemical / Biological / Ergonomic factors
• Healthy workforce: Total exposure
ØWorkplace
ØLife-style: Cigarette Smoking/ food/ recreational activity
ØLiving environment: Air/ water/ soil pollution
vHome/ Local Environment/ Global environment
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OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE DEVELOPMENT PATHWAY:

Hazardous Substances
Causes
• Chemical hazard emission
Ø Inadequate control/ accepted emission
• Air-borne concentration: absorption potential
Ø Exposure Monitoring: Air concentration/ personal exposure level
• Absorption into body: Biological effect potential
Ø Biological monitoring:
vExposure biomarkers: Hazards or metabolites
vEffect biomarkers: Biochemical/ physiological changes
• Effects: Diseases
Ø Clinical examination: Designated Workplace Doctor (DWD)
Ø Curative treatment & rehabilitation (physio– / Occupation– therapy)
Effects
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAMME: PURPOSES

• Control occupational health diseases to ALARP through controlling:
Ø Environmental monitoring: Airborne ambient concentrations
vEmission level
vControl effectiveness
Ø Personal monitoring: Personal exposure levels
vInhaled-volume-weighted or time-weighted concentrations
Ø Biological monitoring: Workers’ body burden
vExposure biomarkers’ concentrations
vEffect biomarkers’ concentrations
Ø Medical monitoring: Biomarkers/ Early signs & symptoms of disease
vStop it from developing into disease
Ø Disease monitoring: Early stage of diseases
vCure the disease when the disease is reversible
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HAZARDOUS OCCUPATIONS
• Hazardous occupations: in the Schedule of Workplace Safety and Health
(Medical Examinations) Regulations 2011
• Medical examinations of persons employed in hazardous occupations
Ø Pre-employment: Persons to be medically certified fit for
employment by competent person (Designated Workplace Doctor)
Ø During employment: Periodic medical examinations (medical
monitoring/ surveillance)
Ø Registers of employees in hazardous occupations: for follow-up
Ø DWD recommends suspension from work of medically unfit workers
Ø DWD may inspect place of work

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WSH (Med. Exam.) Regulations

Persons to be medically certified fit for employment (1)
(1) It shall be the duty of the responsible person of a person who is to be
employed in any hazardous occupation described in regulation 3(a) to
(e) to ensure that the person shall undergo a preplacement medical
examination by a designated workplace doctor and be certified fit to
work in such occupation, not later than 3 months after the date he
commences his employment in such occupation
(a) the use or handling of or exposure to the liquid, fumes, dust, mist,
gas or vapour of arsenic, cadmium, lead, manganese or mercury or
any of their compounds;
(b) the use or handling of or exposure to the fumes or vapour of
benzene, perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene, organophosphates
or vinyl chloride monomer;
(c) the use or handling of or exposure to tar, pitch, bitumen or
creosote;
(d) the use or handling of or exposure to the dust of asbestos, raw
cotton or silica;
(e) exposure to excessive noise.
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WSH (Med Exam) Regulations

Persons to be medically certified fit for employment (2)
(2) responsible person of a person who is to be employed in 3(f) any work
in a compressed air environment to ensure that the person shall be
medically examined by a designated workplace doctor and certified fit
to work in such occupation within 30 days before the date he is to
commence his employment in such occupation.
(3) The medical examination referred to in paragraph (1) or (2) shall —
(a) consist of the examinations and investigations specified in the
Schedule and such other examinations or investigations as the
Commissioner may require from time to time in any particular case
(b) include —
(i) a clinical examination of the person for symptoms and signs of
any diseases that may result from exposure to the hazards of
the occupation in which the person is employed; and
(ii) an assessment as to whether the person who is to be employed
in a hazardous occupation is fit to work in that occupation.

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LEGISTRATIONS & Guidelines:

Hazard Control & Disease Prevention
• Hazardous substances management: Workplace Safety and Health
(General Provisions) Regulations
Ø SDS/ warning labels/ Permissible Exposure Levels (PELs)
• Medical Examination: Workplace Safety and Health (Medical
Examinations) Regulations 2011
Ø Nature of occupation: Occupations/ hazards required medical
examination
Ø Types of medical examinations: Clinical/ biomarkers
Ø Pre-placement and periodic medical examinations
• Asbestos Control: Workplace Safety and Health (Asbestos)
Regulations 2014
• Noise control: Workplace Safety and Health (Noise) Regulations 2011
• Air Sampling: GUIDELINES ON SAMPLING STRATEGY AND SUBMISSION OF TOXIC
SUBSTANCES MONITORING / SAMPLE ANALYSIS REPORT

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PROGRAMME COMPONENTS
• Exposure > PEL: Methods of compliance
Ø Engineering controls / work practice controls
• House keeping
• Exposure monitoring: Frequency depends on level of exposure
• Exposure > PEL: Personal protection
• Exposure level (EL) > action level (AL)
Ø Medical surveillance: Clinical exam/ Biological monitoring
vMedical removal/ suspension from work
Ø Work training: Annually; First training as soon as possible after
started work (3/6 months?)
• Record keeping: Worker’s exposure data/ medical surveillance
Ø Workers left employment or
Ø Worker under medical removal (medical boarding out)
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NIOSH/ OSHA ACTION LEVEL:

Level of a hazardous substance/activity which requires employee training, medical
surveillance, increased industrial hygiene monitoring, or biological monitoring
JAMES C. ROCK. The NIOSH Action Level: A Closer Look. In Chemical Hazards in the Workplace
Chapter 29, pp 471–489 [ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 149]

• Practicing industrial hygienists in America must manage their programs to limit the:
Ø physiological risk to employees from their occupational exposures
Ø legal risk to employers from OSHA compliance inspections
• This paper compares the probability of noncompliance during an OSHA inspection
to three different measures of physiological risk:
Ø the average long-term exposure
Ø the NIOSH Action Level as originally proposed
Ø the legal action level which is usually set equal to one half (50%) of the
permissible exposure limit (PEL). The actual level may vary from chemical
hazard to chemical hazard or situation to situation to situation
• Comparison is conducted by identifying those occupational environments which
will pass or fail each set of decision criteria.
Ø Deals only with occupational stresses which pose a chronic health hazard
Ø Conclusion: some commonly encountered work environments which are very
likely to pass the NIOSH Action Level
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NIOSH ACTION LEVEL Depends on measurement variability

Accessed: 13/11/2021: Exposure Measurement and Action Level and Occupational Environmental Variability
Probability for at least 5% averaged daily exposure of
a worker > PEL for a given one-day average of C < PEL

For GSD < = 1.2, the

0.6

0.4
0.2

0.05 0.5 1

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 C/PEL

0.5

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ACTION LEVEL: Ministry of Manpower (MOM)

• Haze: PSI 100 [Sep 29, 2015 - MOM's guidelines advise employers]
Ø The trigger level of PSI 400 for use of full-face respirators
• Cadmium: Cadmium exposure levels were below the action level of
50%PEL [Occupational Safety and Health Division Annual Report 2004]
• PEL: Exposure level of 50% is known as the "action level" and shall as
far as possible be reduced to less the 50% PEL [Guidelines On
Sampling Strategy And Submission Of Toxic Substances Monitoring /
Sample Analysis Report]
• BTLV: For all chemical hazards except organophosphates, the Action
Level is 80% of the Biological Threshold Limit Value (BTLV). For
organophosphates, the Action Level is 70% of the worker’s individual
baseline level or lower limit of laboratory’s normal range [Workplace
Safety and Health Guidelines: Statutory medical examinations]

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What is a Biomarker?

• Download:
http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-a-Biomarker.aspx

• WSH Guidelines Statutory Medical Examinations, 2013.

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PEL ADJUSTMENT:
Extended Work Hours & Combined Exposure

• Covered in SH5110
• See relevant slides attached in Appendix

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APPENDIX

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SH5110 CHEMICAL HAZARD EVALUATION

Occupational Exposure Standards Adjustment principles

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UNUSUAL WOKSHIFT
Ensuring an equivalent degree of protection to workers
with a conventional schedule of 8 hours a day, 5 days a
week, and to workers with unusual work schedules

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ADJUSTMENT PRINCIPLES
• In science: Effects depend on
Ø Target Organ Dose
Ø Period the target organ dose
Ø Dose effect relationship of a chemical species: Toxic Load (TL) = CnT
• In practice: Lacking adequate scientific information
• Surrogate principle used: Biological half-life
Ø Short half-life (Acute effects): No change
vCeiling and STEL standards: No change
Ø Long half-life (Chronic effects): Generally equal dosage principle is
used (CT= constant)
vTWA standards: Time-based adjustment in
üDAILY – / WEEKLY – basis or one repetitive work-cycle
üAdjusted TWA < TWA standards
üVerification of compliance always done on a daily basis
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REFERENCES: Occupational Exposure Limits For Novel/ Unusual Work

Schedules (exposure Time Adjustment)
• Brief RS, Scala RA. Occupational Exposure Limits For Novel Work Schedules. AIHAJ,
36(6): 467-469, 1975
• HICKEY JLS & REIST PC. Application of occupational exposure limits to unusual work
schedules. AIHAJ, 38(11): 613-621, 1977
• Brief RS, Scala RA. Occupational Health aspects of unusual work Schedules: A review
of EXXON’s Experiences. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 47(4): 199-
202, 1986
• Vermaa DK. Adjustment of Occupational Exposure Limits for Unusual Work
Schedules. AIHAJ 61(3): 367-374, 2000
• Brodeur, J., Vyskocil, A., Tardif, R., Perrault, G., Drolet, D., Truchon, G. and F. Lemay.
(2001) Adjustment of Permissible Exposure Values to Unusual Schedules. AIHAJ, 62:
584-594, 2001
• Armstrong TW, Caldwell DJ, & Verma DK. Occupational Exposure Limits: An
Approach and Calculation Aid for Extended Work Schedule Adjustments. Journal of
Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 2: 600–607, 2005

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Toxicokinetic (Pharmacokinetic) Model

(1 − e−kt1n)(1 − e−k(t1n+t2n)n)(1 − e−kTs)(1 − e−k(t1s+t2s))
RF =
(1 − e−kt1s)(1 − e−k(t1s+t2s)m)(1 − e−kTn)(1 − e−k(t1n+t2n))
K = the biologic elimination rate constant = (ln 2)/T1/2 , where T1/2 = biologic half-life
t1n = the length of the standard work day (8 hours)
t2n = the length of the standard recovery period (16 hours)
t1n + t2n = the length of the standard day (24 hours)
Tn = the length of the standard week (seven days or 168 hours)
n = number of days in standard work week (5)
t1s = length of the extended shift work day (in hours)
t2s = length of the rest period between extended shift work days (in hours)
t1s + t2s = length of the extended shift “day” (usually, but not always 24 hours)
Ts = total length of the periodic work cycle [the number of days worked and days in the
rest period (in hours)]
m = the number of “days” per work “week” in the extended shift work schedule
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Toxicokinetic Model: PEL Adjustment vs Biological Half-life
Maximum Adjustment Half-life (MAHL) Model:
One max. RF in any one work schedule

0.67
0.63 Equal-dosage:
Day: RF = 8/12 = 0.67
Maximum Adjustment Half-life: 24d: RF = 24*8/(12*12) = 1.3 (RF = 1)
12-h work-shift in 24d cycle, 12d: RF = 12*8/(12*12) = 0.67
12d-on & 12d-off

Armstrong TW, Caldwell DJ, & Verma DK. (2005). Occupational Exposure Limits: An Approach and Calculation Aid
for Extended Work Schedule Adjustments. JOEH, 2: 600–607
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HABER’S RULE: Equal Dosage Principle

• Concentration x time = k, a constant toxic effect
ØC1t1 = C2t2 or C1/C2 = t2/t1 = RF or C1 = RF x C2
vRF: Reduction Factor = (t2/t1)
ØDaily-basis (ST: acute): RF = 8/hd
v hd : hours worked per day and 4 < hd < 16
vFor conservative: No upward adjustment allowed
ØWeekly-basis (LT: chronic): RF = 40/hw
v hw : hours worked per week

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BRIEF AND SCALA MODEL:

More conservative than Haber’s rule
Daily basis (ST: acute): Hd = daily exposure hours
• TWA: (TLV-TWA)8 x 8/16 = (TLV-TWA)H x Hd /(24 – Hd)
• RF = (8/16)[(24 - H)/H]; Also called reduction factor
(TLV-TWA)new = RF(TLV-TWA)old
Weekly basis (LT: chronic): Hw = Weekly exposure hours
• TWA: (TLV-TWA)8 x 40/128 = (TLV-TWA)H x Hw /(168 – Hw)
• RF = (40/128)[(168 - H)/H] ; Also called reduction factor
(TLV-TWA)new = RF (TLV-TWA)old
• Brief RS, Scala RA. Occupational Exposure Limits For Novel Work Schedules.
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 36(6): 467-469, 1975
• Brief RS, Scala RA. Occupational Health aspects of unusual work Schedules: A
review of EXXON’s Experiences. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal,
47(4): 199-202, 1986
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TYPES OF PEL ADJUSTMENT

Ad. Definitions Adjustment
Class
Ia Substances with a ceiling value None
Ib irritating or foul-smelling substances None
Simple asphyxiants & substances that are a safety hazard
or a very weak health hazard and whose half-life is less
than 4 hours
Ic None
Substances for which the assignment of TLVs has been
based on technological limitations (limit of detection) or
good hygiene practice
II Substances exerting ill-effects after short-term exposure Day-based

III Substances exerting ill-effects after long-term exposure Week-based

IV Substances exerting ill-effects after either short- or long- more conservative of

term exposure day- or week-based
Brodeur J; Vyskocil A; Tardif R; Perrault G; et al. (2001).Adjustment of permissible exposure values to unusual
work schedules. AIHAJ; 62(5): 584-94
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EXAMPLE:
Give the appropriate PEL adjustments for the following chemicals

Ia: ceiling
II: acute
III: chronic
II: acute
Ib: irritation

Ia: ceiling

Ia: ceiling

IV: acute/chronic

III: chronic

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OEL/ PEL ADJUSTMENT: Use Guidelines

• Adjustment of occupational exposure limits for unusual work schedules.
Ø Occupational Hygiene, Environment & Chemistry Centre
2 Smith Street, REDBANK, QLD 4301, Australia
PO Box 467, GOODNA, QLD, 4300 Australia
• TECHNICAL GUIDE T-22: Guide for the adjustmentof permissible exposure values
(PEVs) for unusual work schedules. 4th edition revised and updated, 2015
Ø Daniel Drolet, Laboratory Services and Expertise, IRSST
Ø IRSST – Communications Division
505, De Maisonneuve Blvd West
Montréal (Québec) H3A 3C2
• Brodeur, J., Vyskocil, A., Tardif, R., Perrault, G., Drolet, D., Truchon, G. and F. Lemay.
Adjustment of Permissible Exposure Values to Unusual Schedules. AIHAJ, 62: 584-
594, 2001

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COMBINED EXPOSURE:
Additive Effects of Mixtures

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COMBINED EFFECTS: Mixtures

TLV – Index: Choice of Types of TLV Values

TLV Index Agent A Agent B

TLV–TWA TLV–TWA
Full shift TWA-index
TLV–TWA TLV–Ceiling
TLV–STEL TLV–STEL
TLV–Ceiling TLV–Ceiling
Short term STEL-index No STEL: TLV–Ceiling
5 x TLV–TWA or TLV–STEL
TLV–STEL TLV–Ceiling

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EXAMPLE
Ethyl Acetate & Ethyl Ether Mixture

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ACGIH TLV

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ACGIH TLV

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 COMBINED EXPOSURE TO CHEMICAL MIXTURE
Ethyl Acetate & Ethyl Ether Mixture
• Exposure Index of Chemical ith : Ii = Ci/PELi
Exposure, ppm PEL, ppm Ii TLV Basis
Chemical
LT ST PELLT PELST LT ST URT irr Eye irr CNS
Ethyl Acetate 350 500 400 400x5 0.875 0.25 1 1 0
Ethyl Ether 300 450 400 500 0.75 0.9 1 0 1

• Combined effects (mixture): I = SIi = S(Ci/PELi) = (SCi)/PELmix

• URT irritation effect:
• Eye irritation:
• CNS: LT: I = 0.75 < 1
ST: I = 0.90 < 1
• Mixture (Conservative):
LT: I = 0.875 + 0.75 = 1.625 > 1
ST: I = 0.25 + 0.9 = 1.15 > 1
LT: I = 0.875 < 1
ST: I = 0.25 < 1
LT: I = 0.875 + 0.75 = 1.625 > 1
ST: I = 0.25 + 0.9 = 1.15 > 1
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PEL OF CHEMICAL MIXTURE

Ethyl Acetate & Ethyl Ether Mixture
• URT irritation effect: LT: PELURTI = 650/1.625 = 400 ppm
ST: PELURTI = 950/1.15 = 820 ppm

• Eye irritation: LT: PELeye irr = 650/0.875 = 740 ppm

ST: PELeye irr = 950/0.25 = 3800 ppm

• CNS: LT: PELCNS = 650/ 0.75 = 860 ppm

ST: PELCNS = 950/0.90 = 1050 ppm

• Mixture (Conservative): LT: PELmix = 650/1.625 = 400 ppm

ST: PELmix = 950/1.15 = 820 ppm

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END

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