* Cell Structure and

Functions

Dr. Nor Azlina Abd. Aziz

Academic Room No.16
Level 3, PASUM Complex
Tel: 03-79675914
019-2829307
E-mel: azlina_nal@um.edu.my
1. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

➢Cell as basic unit of life

➢The study of cells
➢Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
➢The cell and organelles
➢Transport across plasma membrane
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Modern cell theory
▪Cells are the basic units of life.
▪All living things are made of cells.
▪New cells are produced from existing cells.
▪Cells contains DNA which is passed from cell to
cell during cell division.
▪All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activity.
▪All energy flow of life occurs within cells.
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
II. Basic Properties of Cells

1. Cellular organization
2. Cell size limitations
3. Cells can reproduce
4. Cells possess genetic program
5. Cells acquire and utilize energy
6. Cells carry out chemical reactions
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
II. Basic Properties of Cells
1. Cellular organization
Prokaryotes (Simple)
• bacteria
• archaebacteria (unique features, and features
resemble bacteria and eukaryotes)

Eukaryotes (Complex)
• plants, animals, fungi, algae and protozoa

* Difference:
Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
2. Cell size
- Limitations on cell size
• Requirement for an adequate ratio of
surface area / volume
• Diffusion rates of molecules
• Maintain adequate concentrations of
reactants and enzymes
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Limitations on cell size
• Requirement for an adequate surface area /
volume ratio

➢surface area – exchanges between a cell and its

environment take place

➢internal volume – determines the amount of

nutrients that will have to be imported and the
quantity of waste products that must be excreted

➢if cell increases in size, the volume will increase

with the cube of the cell’s length/diameter (d3),
whereas surface area increases only with the
square (a2)
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
➢large cells have a lower ratio of surface area to
volume than small cells
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Limitations on cell size
• Diffusion rates of molecules
➢ as most cells are small, diffusion occurs quicker
throughout the cells than in large cells.
➢ if cell gets bigger, there will be less surface area
compared to the area within the cell (more volume).
➢diffusion takes longer and is less
effective.

➢This is because there is a greater area

that needs to receive the substance
being diffused, but less area for that
substance to enter the cell.
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Limitations on cell size
• Maintain adequate concentrations of reactants
and enzymes

➢ for a chemical reaction to occur, appropriate

reactants must collide with and bind to a particular
enzyme
➢ frequency of collisions are greatly increased by
higher concentrations of reactants and enzymes
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Limitations on cell size
• Maintain adequate concentrations of reactants
and enzymes

➢to maintain concentration of a specific molecule,

the number of molecules must increase
proportionately with cell volume.

➢ however, surface areas do not increase as much

as volume. Therefore, nutrient-absorbing capacity
of cells is limited.

➢ Cell has to restrain its size.

 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
II. Basic Properties of Cells
3. Cells can reproduce
➢ Cells reproduce by division, a process in which
the contents of a “mother” cell are distributed
into two “daughter cells”
➢ Prior to division, the genetic material is
duplicated and each daughter cell receives a
complete and equal share of genetic information,
with equal volume.
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
II. Basic Properties of Cells
4. Cells possess genetic program
➢ Organisms are built according to information
encoded in a collection of genes.
➢ Genes contain the instructions for constructing
cellular structures, running cellular activities, and
the program for making more of themselves.
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
II. Basic Properties of Cells
5. Cells acquire and utilize energy
➢ to develop and maintain life functions, cells need
constant input of energy
 * CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
II. Basic Properties of Cells
6. Cells carry out chemical reactions
➢Cells carry out hundreds of chemical reactions =
cell’s metabolism, which occur at a significant rate
and require enzymes to increase the rate of
chemical reactions
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
Cells are studied by a combination of methods:

I. Microscopy
• The science of the interpretive use and applications
of microscopes.
e.g. light microscope and electron microscope

II. Cell fractionation

• the process of producing pure fractions of cell
components.
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
I. Microscopy
a) Light microscope
• use visible light that passes through the specimen
being observed and through the lenses.
• light is refracted (bent by the lenses, magnifying
the image)
• also known as compound microscope (contains
several lenses)
• two important features:–
magnification and resolution
Parts of a light microscope
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
a) Light microscope
i. Magnification

• the ratio of the object’s image size to

its real size (not more than 1000X)
• combination of objective and ocular
lenses.
• example: objective lens = 4X
ocular lens = 10X
• Magnification = 4 x 10 = 40X
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
a) Light microscope
ii. Resolution (resolving power)
• a measure of the clarity of an image i.e. the minimum
distance two points can be separated and be
distinguished as two points.

• Depends on the quality of the lenses and the

wavelength of the illuminating light

• Resolution, R = 0.61λ λ = wavelength of light

NA NA = numerical aperture

• Shorter wavelength gives better resolution

 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
a) Light microscope
• used to study thin specimens as they have a very limited
depth of field i.e. a large part of the specimen is in
focus at the same time
• specimen stained for better contrast
• Magnification: 200nm (0.2µm) (object size)
• 100X objective lens with oil immersion
• blue light illumination
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
a) Light microscope
Limitations of light microscope
• cannot resolve details finer than 0.2 micrometer
(µm) or 200 nanometers (nm)
• the wavelength of the light waves that illuminate
the specimen limits the resolution
• the wavelength of visible light ranges from about
400 to 700 nanometers (blue light, λ = 450nm
shortest wavelength)
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
b) Electron microscope
• Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska (German, 1931)
• uses fine beam of electrons - speed up in a vacuum
until their wavelength is extremely short (0.004 nm)
• beams are focused onto a sample
• resolving power, R = 0.2nm
• use to study dead specimen only
• allow the study of the fine details of the cells
(ultrastructure)
• two types:- transmission and scanning electron
microscope
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
2. Electron microscope
i) Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
• electron beam is transmitted through the specimen
which is ultra thin
• image is observed using fluorescent screen or
photographic plate
• photograph called electron micrographs

Advantage
➢ high resolution (0.2 nm)
Disadvantages
➢ specimen must be dead because it is viewed in a
vacuum
➢ specimen preparation may change or damage the
structure, time-consuming and requires expert
training.
➢ expensive to buy and run
Images observed using TEM
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
2. Electron microscope

ii) Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

• electron beam scans the surface around the specimen to
form an image.
• specimen is coated with a metal, usually gold or platinum.
• image represents the shape and external features of
specimen.
Advantages
➢ surface of structures is shown
➢ great depth of field = a large part of the specimen is in
focus at the same time
➢ much larger samples can be examined than with a TEM
Disadvantages
➢ resolution (5-20nm) is not as great as with a TEM (0.2 nm)
Images observed using SEM
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
II. Cell fractionation
• Method to isolate organelles to study their
composition and functions
• Isolation based on size and density
• Involved 2 steps:-

1. Homogenization
2. Differential centrifugation
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
II. Cell fractionation
1. Homogenization
• cells are homogenized by mechanical disruption
in a blender to break the cell wall and plasma
membrane.
• carried out in a cold, isotonic, buffered solution

✓ cold – temperature slightly above zero to reduce

enzyme activity (prevent autolysis)
✓ isotonic – to prevent osmotic damage i.e. rupture
of membrane vesicles due to osmosis
✓ buffered – to maintain pH
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
II. Cell fractionation
2. Differential centrifugation

• homogenate (homogenized cells) is then

centrifuged at various speeds, and durations to
fractionate the cell components.

• Ultracentrifuge – very powerful centrifuge

optimized for spinning a rotor at very high
speeds that separates the homogenate into two
fractions: a pellet and a supernatant.

Supernatant

Pellet
 * THE STUDY OF CELLS
II. Cell fractionation
2. Differential centrifugation

• homogenates are subjected to a series of

sequential centrifugation at increasing speeds.

• larger and denser particles form pellet at lower

centrifugal forces and shorter time

• cellular organelles are intact and retain a high

level of normal activity.
 * PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
I. Prokaryotes (Prokaryotic cells)
• single-celled (unicellular)
• smallest and simplest cells (1 to 10 µm)
• Bacteria and Archaebacteria.
• cytoplasm/protoplasm enclosed by plasma membrane
• no cytoskeleton (filamentous network of protein)
• cell wall made of peptidoglycan – maintain cell shape
➢ Gram negative bacteria -
thinner cell wall, does
not retain the Gram stain
➢ Gram positive bacteria –
thicker cell wall, retain
the Gram stain (purple)
 * PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
I. Prokaryotes
• some have capsule – limit phagocytosis
• no membranous organelles
• mesosomes – infolding of plasma membrane (site of
cellular respiration)
• ribosomes to synthesise protein.
• genetic material - ‘naked’
circular DNA (nucleoid)
• some have plasmid (small
circular DNA) – store
important genes e.g.
resistance to antibiotics
 * PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
I. Prokaryotes
• high metabolic and growth rate, and short life time
• some has flagella for movement in liquid environment
• pili (pilus – singular) - attach to surfaces.
• growth and reproduction by binary fission
 * PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
II. Eukaryotes (Eukaryotic cells)

• The endosymbiotic theory - eukaryotes arose as a

result of a fusion of Archaean cells with bacteria
• the engulfed bacterium allowed the host Archean
cell to use oxygen to release energy stored in
nutrients, and the host cell protected the bacterial
cell from predators.
• Over many generations, a symbiotic relationship
developed.
 * PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
II. Eukaryotes (Eukaryotic cells)
• animal and plant cells (main groups)
• bounded by plasma membrane
• contain cytoskeleton (supporting matrix of protein)
• contain membrane-bound organelles (membranous
organelles)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
• Exterior structure:-
➢ Cell wall (plants and bacteria)
➢ Plasma membrane
➢ Cilia and flagella
• Interior structure:-
➢ Cytoplasm
➢ Cytoskeleton (in eukaryotes)
➢ Organelles (in eukaryotes) – 3 groups:-
▪ Endomembrane system
▪ Mitochondria and chloroplast
▪ Ribosomes and nucleus
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell - Cell wall
• enclose the plasma membrane of plants, bacteria,
fungi, algae, and some archae (not in animals and
protozoa)
• made of cellulose (plant), peptidoglycan (bacteria)
• tough, usually flexible but sometimes rigid
• function - protection and support against mechanical
stress
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell – Plasma membrane
• enclose the cytoplasm/protoplasm
• two layers of phospholipid (bilayer) with embedded
proteins
• semi-permeable (selectively permeable)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell – Plasma membrane
Functions
• separating the interior from the environment
• provide shape
• as cell adhesion
• ion channel conductance
• cell signaling (cell interact with their environment
and other cells around them)
• attachment point for the cytoskeleton
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell – Cilia (cilium – singular)
• projections from the cell
- motile and non-motile (primary)
• primary cilia are found on nearly every cell in
human body (sensory)
• functions - movement
- sweep substances across cell surface
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell – Cilia (cilium – singular)
• same structure and diameter (0.25µm), short (2-
20µm), numerous (number)
• made up of microtubules covered by plasma
membrane
• microtubules - hollow cylinders made up of
repeating protein structures
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell – Cilia (cilium – singular)
• Microtubules are arranged in a ring:
- Primary cilia - nine triplets (9+0)
- Motile cilia - nine pairs surround two central
microtubules (9+2)
• Basal body - anchor cilium to the cell
(basal body = centriole)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Exterior structure of cell – Flagella (flagellum)

• projections from the cell

• structure - long (10-200µm), few (number)
• made up of microtubules covered by plasma
membrane
• arranged in a ring:- nine pairs surround two central
microtubules (9+2)
• basal body anchor flagellum to the cell
• function - movement
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
• Exterior structure:-
➢ Cell wall (plants and bacteria)
➢ Plasma membrane
➢ Cilia and flagella
• Interior structure:-
➢ Cytoplasm
➢ Cytoskeleton (in eukaryotes)
➢ Organelles (in eukaryotes) – 3 groups:-
▪ Endomembrane system
▪ Mitochondria and chloroplast
▪ Ribosomes and nucleus
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoplasm
• viscous gel, enclosed within the cell membrane
• consist of cytosol (liquid component of the
cytoplasm) and organelles
• cytosol - mixture of cytoskeleton filaments,
dissolved molecules, and water
• each organelle has their own cytoplasm
• function - serve as medium
for most cellular activities
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoskeleton

• skeleton of cytoplasm
• made of filamentous protein network
• present in plant and animal cells
• a dynamic structure

• Functions
➢ maintains cell shape, enables cellular motion
➢ play important roles in intracellular transport and
cell division
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoskeleton
Three types of fibers:
a) Microfilaments
b) Microtubules
c) Intermediate filaments
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoskeleton
a) Microfilaments
• Functions
➢muscle contraction and movements of certain
cells
➢provide support (more in muscle cells and
amoeboid)
• major portion of cytoskeleton, two chains twisted
around one another.
• long fibers but thin, diameter = 6-7 nm
• thinnest filaments, flexible and strong
• each subunit is made of actin (protein).
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoskeleton
b) Microtubules
Functions:–
• involved in many cellular processes:-
- transport vesicle
- provide cell shape and support
- separate chromosomes during cell division
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoskeleton
b) Microtubules
• straight, hollow rods (d = 25nm)
• made of β and α-tubulin (protein)
• part of the cilia and flagella of eukaryotic cells
• form spontaneously around centrosomes
(microtubule organizing centre)
• unstable, easily assembled and disassembled
* THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Cytoskeleton
c) Intermediate filaments
• Functions
➢preventing excessive stretch of cells shape
➢fix organelles position
• most durable and stable
• diameter varies, from 8 to 12nm
• made of vimentin (protein)
example: keratin of the skin cell
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
• Exterior structure:-
➢ Cell wall (plants and bacteria)
➢ Plasma membrane
➢ Cilia and flagella
• Interior structure:-
➢ Cytoplasm
➢ Cytoskeleton (in eukaryotes)
➢ Organelles (in eukaryotes) – 3 groups:-
▪ Endomembrane system
▪ Mitochondria and chloroplast
▪ Ribosomes and nucleus
• Eukaryotic cell (plant cell)
• Eukaryotic cell (animal cell)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
II. Interior structure of cell – Organelles
Class I: Endomembrane system
• a group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic
cells that work together to modify, package, and
transport lipids and protein

• include - endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,

lysosomes, vesicles, endosomes, vacuoles (plant
cell) and the cell membrane
Endomembrane system
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
i. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• endoplasmic = ‘within the cytoplasm’
reticulum = ‘a little net’
• observed by electron microscope
• a network of membranous tubules, vesicles and
flattened sacs called cisternae.
• ER separate cisternal space from cytosol
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
i. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• function varies depending on the type of
endoplasmic reticulum and the type of cell
• two main types:- Smooth ER and Rough ER
• the quantity of RER and SER in a cell can quickly
interchange depending on metabolic needs
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
i. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• membrane of RER is continuous with the outer layer
of the nuclear envelope
• cisternae are flat and rough (studded with
ribosomes that synthesis protein)
• ribosomes are not a stable part of RER
Function
• protein enter the cisternal space (lumen),
altered/changed by enzyme (carbohydrate
molecules normally added → glycoprotein)
• secretory proteins - temporarily kept before being
pack in vesicles and exported to Golgi apparatus
• proteins normally for export or membrane insertion
* THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
i. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Smooth ER
• found in a variety of cell types (both animal and
plant) and it serves different functions in each
• cisternae are tubes-like, connected with RER,
smooth surface

• Function – synthesis lipids

- enzymes within SER catalyze various
processes
e.g.
- In gut epithelial cells, enzymes of SER catalyze
the synthesis of lipid, carbohydrate metabolism
- In liver cells- enzymes detoxify drugs and toxin
- In testes and ovary, enzymes produce sex
hormones and steroid
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
ii. Golgi Apparatus
• named after Italian physician Camillo Golgi.
• made of a stack of flattened membranous sacs
(cisternae)
• in mammalian cell, each consist of 5-6 cisternae, in
plant 20 or more.
• cisternal space separated from cytosol by membrane
• abundant in an active cells
Function
• modify, sort and package the macromolecules that
are synthesized by the cells for secretion purposes
or for use within the cell
• e.g. protein added with carbohydrate, lipid, create
lysosome
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
ii. Golgi Apparatus
Process occurred:
• vesicles from RER fuse with cis face (receiving side)
and release the contents
• contents are modified during the transit from cis to
trans face by various enzymes, marked and sorted
into batches, distribute to different destination in
transport vesicles which bud from trans face
(shipping side facing plasma membrane)
• vesicles move to plasma membrane, fused with it,
released the contents out.
• vesicle remain as a permanent addition to plasma
membrane
Class I: Endomembrane system
ii. Golgi Apparatus
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
iii. Lysosomes
• found in all animal cells and some plant cells.
Animal cell contain several hundred.
• dark spherical bodies, smaller than mitochondria
• membrane-bound sac of digestive enzymes: digest
macromolecules.
• optimum in acidic condition (pH 5)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
iii. Lysosomes
Function
• enzymes found in lysosomes such as lipases,
carbohydrases and proteases - intracellular
digestion.
• recycling centre for the organelles - old organelles
are digested (autophagy), product reuse to form
new organelle.
• digest the remains of dead cell (autolysis)
• The process - RER put the enzymes and membranes
together, then Golgi apparatus chemically refine
the enzymes and releases mature lysosomes.
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
iii. Lysosomes
Class I: Endomembrane system
iv. Vacuoles
• a membrane-enclosed fluid filled sac found in the
cells of plants including fungi.
• can be large organelles occupying between 30% and
90% of a cell by volume.
• three main functions:-
a) contribute to the rigidity of the plant using
water to develop hydrostatic pressure
(contractile vacuoles)
b) store nutrient and non-nutrient chemicals (food
vacuoles, central vacuoles)
c) break down complex molecules (function =
lysosomes in animal cell)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class I: Endomembrane system
iv. Vacuoles
• tonoplast - a selective membrane enclosing the
central vacuole (controls passage of chemicals
through it in both directions, water can pass in and
out freely but other small molecules are retained
within the vacuole).
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
Class II: Mitochondria and chloroplast
• function in energy production.
• contain own DNA and ribosome.
• believe to be endosymbiotic bacteria.

Class III: Ribosomes and nucleus

• involved in protein synthesis (gene expression).
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
i. Mitochondria
• rod-like structure
• occur in large numbers. More in animal cells
compared to plant cells.
• 0.5-1.5µm wide and 3-10µm long.
• double-membrane : outer membrane is smooth,
define the shape
• Cristae : infolded inner membrane partially divide
the matrix.
• inter-membrane space between outer and inner
membrane

• Function - use glucose and fatty acids to produce

ATP (energy) during cellular respiration (Krebs
cycle and electron transport chain - ETC)
i. Mitochondria
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
i. Mitochondria
• plant cristae are tubular or villus-like, but sheet-
like plates in animal.
• cristae facing the matrix covered with stalked
particles (carrier proteins in electron transport
chain).
• matrix contain enzymes, DNA and ribosomes
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
ii. Chloroplast
• large, flat discs usually 5 μm in diameter and 2.3
μm thick.
• number vary from 1 to 50.
• has own DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
• chloroplast usually contain starch granules and oil
droplets.

Function
• convert light energy of the sun into sugars that can
be used by cells.
• process is called photosynthesis by chlorophyll
molecules in each chloroplast.
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
ii. Chloroplast
• double membrane separated by intermembrane space
• stroma contain ribosomes, DNA and photosynthetic
enzymes (stroma - dark reaction site)
• internal membrane is called lamella which consist of
thylakoids that stacks up to form grana.
• each chloroplast has about 50 grana - each granum
(singular) has about 50 thylakoids.
• thylakoid membrane (surface) is the light reaction site.
• photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, b, carotenoid),
electron transport chain (ETC) are embedded within the
thylakoid membrane.
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
ii. Chloroplast
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
iii. Nucleus
• largest organelle (6μm), first to be discovered
• enclosed by a nuclear envelope - double
membrane perforated by nuclear pores (100nm).
• nuclear membrane is impermeable to large
molecules
• nuclear pores - channel that allows free
movement of small molecules and ions
• outer membrane is continuous with membrane of
RER
• the space between the membranes i.e.
perinuclear space is continuous with the RER
lumen
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
iii. Nucleus
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
iii. Nucleus
• nucleoplasm is the semi-fluid substance in the
nucleus.
• nucleus contains mainly the genetic material in
the form of chromatin or chromosomes
• contain nucleolus, function - synthesis ribosomes
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
iii. Nucleus

Functions: Control centre of the cell

• maintain the genetic material

• control gene expression (protein synthesis)
• mediate the replication of DNA during cell cycle
• provides a site for genetic transcription (synthesis
of mRNA)
• allowing gene regulation (e.g.: lac operon system)
• synthesis ribosomes (nucleolus)
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
iv. Ribosome
• solid spherical granules (diameter = 20-25nm)
• made up of RNA and proteins
• an assembly of two ribosomal subunits synthesized
in nucleolus (prokaryotes 30S + 50S → 70S,
eukaryotes 40S + 60S → 80S)
• each subunit is released through nuclear pores
• either bound to RER or free in cytosol
iv. Ribosome
 * THE CELL AND ORGANELLES
iv. Ribosome
Function – synthesise protein

• based on genetic information carried by mRNA

from nucleus.
• ribosomes joined amino acids to form polypeptide
/ protein
• proteins synthesized by cytoplasmic ribosomes
(free) are used within the cell.
• protein from RER (synthesized by attached
ribosomes) are exported out or inclusion of
membrane (digestive enzymes in lysosome)
* THE CELL AND ORGANELLES

The End