I-1 I-2

UNIT I -- BASIC CONCEPTS IN Electron (e) :

i) Electron is a negatively charged particle.
CHEMISTRY
ii) It has unit negative charge and negligible mass.
Mass of electron is 1/1837 of mass of hydrogen.
1.1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND iii) Electrons are resolving around the nucleus in a
CHEMICAL BONDING circular path.

Neutron (n ):
The word atom is derived from the Greek word i) Neutron is a neutral particle. It is present in all
"ATOMOS" which means indivisible. atoms of elements except hydrogen atom.
ii) It has mass slightly greater than mass of proton.
1.1.1. Atom
It is equal to 1.0087 amu.
Atom is the smallest
particle which takes part in the
1.1.3. Atomic Number (Z)
chemical reaction.
Eg : C, N, O. It is defined as the number of protons present in the
All elements are composed nucleus of an atom (or) number of electrons revolving around
of atoms. Some elements do not the nucleus of an atom.
have independent existance. Atomic Number (Z) = Number of Protons (P) (or)
Eg : Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen etc. Number of electron (e)
Some elements have independent existance.
Element B C N O
Eg : Helium, Neon, Argon etc.
Atomic Number 5 6 7 8
1.1.2. Fundamental particles of an atom
Atoms are made up of three fundamental particles. They 1.1.4. Mass Number (A)
are proton, neutron and electron. It is defined as the sum of the number of protons and
Hydrogen is the only element that does not have neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
neutron. Mass number (A) = Number of protons (P)
Proton (p) : + Number of neutrons (N)

i) Proton is present in all atoms of elements. A = P + N

ii) Proton is positively charged particle. N = A -- P
iii) It has unit positive charge and unit mass. The mass Element B C N O
of proton is approximately 1.00732 amu (Atomic
mass unit) Mass Number 11 12 14 16
 I-3 I-4

Eg. Atomic number of an element is 3. Its mass number the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th shell respectively are 2, 8, 18,
is 7. Calculate the number of electrons, Protons and 32 etc.
neutrons present in it? (Apr. 16) 4. Each shell has sub energy level or sub shell, they
Number of Protons = 3 are called s, p, d, f etc.
Number of electrons = 3 5. Thus s-sub shell has only one orbital, p-sub shell
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) has 3 orbitals, d sub shell has 5 orbitals, and f sub
 Atomic number (Z) shell has 7 orbitals. Each orbital can accommodate
only two electrons.
   3 = 4
1.1.5. Structure of an atom : Number
Principal Number Name of
Shell of
An atom consists of two parts. They are 1. The central quantum of sub the sub
electrons
nucleus 2. The outer extra nuclear part. number(n) shells shells
2n 2 
1. The central Nucleus : K 1 2 1 s
The nucleus is the central part of an atom consists of L 2 8 2 s, p
protons and neutrons. They are together called necleons. M 3 18 3 s, p, d
Since the protons are positively charged particle and
N 4 32 4 s, p, d, f
neutrons are neutral, the nucleus is always positive part of
an atom. The entire weight of an atom relies only on the 6. Thus s shell can accommodate 2 electrons, p-sub
nucleus. shell can have 6 electrons, d-sub shell can have 10
electrons and f-sub shells can have 14 electrons.
2. The outer extra nuclear part
Number of
1. It is the part around the nucleus. It contains all Sub shell Orbitals
Electrons
electrons of an atom. It is the negative part of the
atom. The electrons are revolving around the
s  2
nucleus in a regular path called shells or orbits or p  6
energy levels. d  10
2. These shells are numbered, as 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. from f  14
the nucleus. This number is called principal
quantum number (n). They are also designated as 7. The electrons present in the outer most orbit are
K, L, M, N shells, etc. called valence electrons.
3. Each shell can accommodate only certain number of 8. Since the number of protons (positive charges) is
electron, which is given by the formula 2n 2 , where equal to the number of electrons (negative charges)
‘n’ is the principal quantum number. Therefore, the an atom as whole is a neutral one. The atomic
numbers of electrons that can be accommodated in structure of Sodium is given here.
 I-5 I-6

1.1.6. Aufbau Principle

Aufbau principle states that "in the ground state
of an atom, the orbitals are filled in the increasing
order of the energy".
In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest possible
energy orbital available and enter into higher energy orbital
only after the lower energy orbital is filled. As you have
learnt above, energy of a given orbital depends upon effective
nuclear charge and the type of orbitals. Thus, there is no K 19 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1
single ordering of energies of orbitals which is universally
Sc 21 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 1
correct for all atoms. However, following order of orbitals is
extremely useful. The above order should be assumed to be a rough guide
to the filling of energy levels. In many cases, the orbital
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s...
similar in energy and small changes in atomic structure may
The orbitals s, p, d, f are called sub shells. The order bring about a change in the order of filling.
may be remembered by using the method given in Fig.
For example
Starting from the top, the direction of the arrows gives the
order of filling of orbitals, that is starting from top right to Cr 24 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 5
bottom left.
Cu 29 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 10
With respect to placement of outer most valence
The reason being any orbital when it is completely filled
electrons, it is remarkably accurate for all atoms. For
or exactly half filled, it has lower energy and hihger stability.
example, valence electron in potassium must choose between
3d and 4s orbitals and as predicted by this sequence, it is
found in 4s orbital.
 I-7 I-8

1.1.7. Electronic configuration of atoms 1.1.8. Definition of Atomic mass, Molecular mass,
The systamic arrangement of electrons in various shells Equivalent mass and Valency
(or) orbits of an atom is called ‘electronic configuration’. 1) Atomic mass
The distribution of electrons in these orbits of an atom The atomic mass of an element is defined as the ratio
is governed by Bhor and Bury rules of electronic between the mass of one atom of an element to the mass of
configuration. 1  12 part of a carbon-12 atom.
Rule 1 : The maximum number of electrons accomodated mass of 1 atom of an element
Atomic mass =
in a shell is equal to 2n 2, where n is the mass of 1  12 part of a C12 atom
principal quantum number of the shell
(n = 1,2,3,4 means K,L,M,N) Eg. Atomic mass of Na = 23
Rule 2 : Shells are filled in a stepwise manner with Atomic mass of H = 1
increasing order of energy.
Rule 3 : The outermost shell cannot have more than
2) Molecular mass
8 electrons and the next inner shell cannot have
more than 18 electrons. Molecular mass of a substance (element or compound) is
defined as the ratio between mass of one molecule of a
Electronic configuration of some elements : 1
substance to the mass of part of a carbon-12 atom.
12
Atomic
No. (or) Electronic Mass 1 molecule of a substance
Element Symbol Molecular mass =
No. of configuration Mass of 1  12 part of a C12 atom
electrons Eg. Molecular mass of O 2 = 32.
Hydrogen H 1 1s 1

Helium He 2 1s 2 3) Equivalent mass

Boron B 5 2 2 1
1s 2s 2p Equivalent mass of an element is defined as the number
of parts by mass of the element, that combines with (or)
Carbon C 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
displaces 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen or 8, parts by mass
Nitrogen N 7 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 of oxygen or 35.45 parts by mass of chlorine or one equivalent
mass of any other element.
Oxygen O 8 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4
Eg. equivalent mass of oxygen = 8.
Sodium Na 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Chlorine Cl 17 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5
 I-9 I - 10

Gram equivalent mass 1.1.10. Electrovalent bond (or) Ionic bond

When the equivalent mass is expressed in grams, then it Complete donation of valence electron from outermost
is called gram equivalent mass (or) gram equivalent. orbit of one atom to another atom is called ionic bond.
Gram equivalent mass of oxygen = 8g Formation of sodium chloride
4) Valency 1) Complete donation of valence electron from
Valency is the combining capacity of one atom with other outermost orbit of one atom to another atom.
Eg : Formation of NaCl
atom. Number of electrons lost or gained during chemical
bonding of element is known as valency. Ionisation
Eg. Valency of sodium (Na) = 1 2) Na Na   e
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
Valency of carbon (C) = 4

electron
1.1.9. Octet Rule 3) Cl + e Cl 
The inert gases have the stable configuration of eight (2,8,7) affinity (2,8,8)
electrons (octet structure) in their outer most orbits except
helium which has only 2 electrons. They all have closed shell 4)
configuration. Due to their stable octet structure, these gases
are inert in nature. They do not chemically react with other
elements.
5) Sodium has one valence electron and chlorine has
It is also known as ‘Rule of eight’. Atoms interact by
7 valence electrons. Sodium atom transfers one
either electron transfer (or) electron sharing so as to attain
valence electron to chlorine atom. Thus both the
the stable outer shell of eight electrons. "The tendency of
atom attain stable octet electronic configuration.
atoms to have eight electrons in the outer shell is known as
Octet rule".
1.1.11. Covalent bond
Atomic Electronic
Element Symbol
number configuration Mutual sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms
Helium He 2 2 is called covalent bond.
Neon Ne 10 2, 8 Formation of Ammonia
Argon Ar 18 2, 8, 8 1) A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by
Krypton Kr 36 2, 8, 18, 8 mutual sharing of a pair of electrons between two
Xenon Xe 54 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 atoms.
Radon Rn 86 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 Example : Formation of Ammonia.
 I - 11 I - 12

3) Draw the lewis dot formula for Ammonia molecule.

2)

3) Nitrogen atom (2,5) has five valence electrons in the

outermost orbit.
4) Hydrogen atom has one valence electron in the
outermost orbit.
5) Covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of
electrons between hydrogen and Nitrogen atoms.
Each atom contributing one electron for sharing. 4) Helium atom is more stable than He . Give reason.
6) In the Nitrogen atom contributes 3 electrons and He :
three hydrogen atom contributes 3 electrons for the
formation of three covalent bonds. Atomic No. (Z) = 2  Present in ‘K’ shell. completely
filled.
Atom :
QUESTIONS
He He   e  Present in ‘K’ shell
Part - A Helium ion only partially filled

1) Calculate the number of neutrons (N) of the 5) Define Octet rule.

element X if the atomic number is 6 and mass "The tendency of atoms to have eight electrons in the
number is 14. outer shell is known as Octet rule".
Number of Neutrons (N) = Mass No. (A) -- Atomic No. (Z) 6) Why do atoms combine?
= 14 -- 6 = 8 Every atom wants to get stable electronic configuration.
2) Write the electronic configuration of chlorine atom So, atoms combine to fill the outermost shell and become
(Z = 17). stable state by either loosing or gaining electrons.

Electronic configuration of chlorine atom is
C l17 : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5
7) Which atom does not have any neutron in the
nucleus? Why?
Hydrogen (H) atom does not have neutron in the
nucleus. Its atomic number (Z) is one. Therefore only one
proton alone present in the nucleus.
 I - 13 I - 14

8) What is the formula for calculating the number of 19) Define gram equivalent mass.
electrons present in the shell of an atom? When the equivalent mass is expressed in grams, it is
2n , 2
where n = Principal Quantum No. (1,2,3,4 etc.) called gram equivalent mass.

9) Comparing the orbitals of 4s and 3d which is lower 20) Give one example for Ionic bond (or) electrovalent
in energy. bond.
4s Formation of NaCl
10) Name the type of bond present in ammonium 21) Give one example for covalent bond.
chloride.
Formation of Ammonia.
Nitrogen (N) form 3 covalent bonds with Hydrogen (H),
one coordinate covalent bond with Hydrogen ion H and Part - B
 
one ionic bond between NH 4 and Cl . 1) Write down the electronic configuration of Zinc,
11) What is the charge of proton? whose atomic number is 30.
Electronic configuration of Zinc is :
Positive charge
Zn 30 : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10
12) What is the mass of proton?
2) Write short note on types of bonding.
One
There are two types of bonding.
13) What is the charge of electron?
Complete donation of valence electron from outermost
Negative charge orbit of one atom to another atom is called ionic bond.
14) What is the mass of electron? Mutual sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms
Negligible mass is called covalent bond.
3) Explain briefly about proton.
15) What is the charge of neutron?
i) Proton is present in all atoms of elements.
No charge
ii) Proton is positively charged particle.
16) What is the mass of neutron?
iii) It has unit positive charge and unit mass. The mass
One of proton is approximately 1.00732 amu (Atomic
mass unit)
17) What is the symbol of atomic number?
4) Write down the electronic configuration of
Z
Titanium whose atomic number is 22.
18) What is the symbol of mass number?
Ti 22 : 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 2
A
 I - 15 I - 16

5) Define atom. 12) Define atomic mass.

Atom is the smallest particle which takes part in the The atomic mass of an element is defined as the ratio
chemical reaction. between the mass of one atom of an element to the mass of
Eg. C, N, O 1  12 part of a carbon-12 atom.

6) Write the fundamental particles of an atom. mass of 1 atom of an element

Atomic mass =
(Ap.17) mass of 1  12 part of a C12 atom

Proton, Electron, Neutron. 13) Define molecular mass.

7) Give the charges of proton, neutron and electron. Molecular mass of a substance (element or compound)
is defined as the ratio between mass of one molecule of a
Name Charge 1
substance to the mass of part of a carbon-12 atom.
Proton Positive 12

Electron Negative Mass 1 molecule of a substance

Molecular mass =
Neutron No charge Mass of 1  12 part of a C12 atom

14) Define equivalent mass.

8) Define - atomic number. (Oct. 16)
Equivalent mass of an element is defined as the number
It is defined as the number of protons present in the
nucleus of the atom. of parts by mass of the element, that combines with (or)
displaces 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen or 8, parts by
8) Define - mass number. mass of oxygen or 35.45 parts by mass of cholorine or one
It is defined as the sum of the number of protons and equivalent mass of any other element.
neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
15) Define valency.
10) State ‘aufbau principle’. Valency is the combining capacity of one atom with other
"In the ground state of an atom, the orbitals are filled atom. Number of electrons lost or gained during chemical
with electrons in order of their increasing energies". bonding of element is known as valency.

11) What is electronic configuration of an atom?
The systamic arrangement of electrons in various shells
(or) orbits of an atom is called ‘electronic configuration’.
16) Define Ionic bond (or) Electrovalent bond.
(Oct. 17)
Complete donation of valence electron from outermost
orbit of one atom to another atom.
Eg : Formation of sodium chloride.
 I - 17 I - 18

17) Define Covalent bond. (Oct. 17)

Mutual sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms.
Eg : Formation of Ammonia.
1.2. PERIODIC TABLE
Part - C
1.2.1. Modern periodic law
1) Write a note on the fundamental particles of an "The physical and chemical properties of elements are the
atom. periodic functions of their atomic numbers".
[Ans : Sec. 1.1.2] Based on this law, the modern periodic table is derived.
2) Write notes on Structure of an atom.
1.2.2. Periodic classification of elements
[Ans : Sec. 1.1.5]
1. Periodic table consist of vertical columns known as
3) What is Aufbau principle? Write any three elements groups and horizontal rows known as periods.
electronic configuration. 2. There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the periodic
[Ans : Sec. 1.1.6] table.
4) Explain the electronic configurtion of Nitrogen, 3. The elements are arranged in such a way that it
Sodium and Chlorine. shows periodicity of properties such as atomic size,
valency, metallic and non-metallic characteristics.
[Ans : Refer Tabular column of Sec. 1.1.7]
4. The metallic character decreases across a period and
5) Define ionic bond. Explain the formation of Ionic increases down the group.
bond in sodium chloride. (Oct. 15, Apr. 16, 17) 5. The elements present in a group have identical
[Ans : Sec. 1.1.10] valence shell electronic configuration, they possess
similar chemical properties.
6) Define Covalent bond. Explain the formation of
Ammonia. (Oct. 17) 6. The physical properties of the elements in a group
such as melting point, boiling point and density vary
[Ans : Sec. 1.1.11] gradually.

1.2.3. Features of Modern Periodic Table

1. All the elements are arranged in the increasing
order of their atomic number.
2. The horizontal rows are called periods. There are
seven periods in the periodic table.
3. The elements are placed in periods bases on the
number of shells in their atoms.
 I - 19 I - 20

4. Vertical columns in the periodic table starting from iii) Third period, n = 3, starts with sodium. 8 elements
top to bottom are called groups. There are 18 present in this 3s and 3p orbitals are filling
groups in the periodic table. successively.
5. Based on the physical and chemical properties of iv) Fourth period, n = 4 begins with potassium. 18
elements, they are groups into various families. elements are found in this period. This period
includes 3d transition elements.
Groups in modern periodic table v) Fifth period, n = 5 starts with rubidium. It contains
4d transition elements.
Group Families vi) Sixth period, n = 6 has 32 elements. It includes 4f.
1 transition elements which is also called as
Alkali metals
lanthanide series.
2 Alkaline earth metals
vii) In the seventh period with n = 7, man-made
3 to 12 Transition metals radioactive elements are present. It has 5f inner
13 Boron Family transition elements otherwise called actinide series.
4f & 5f inner transition series are kept separately
14 Carbon Family in the periodic table to maintain their structure
15 Nitrogen Family properties.
16 Oxygen Family (or) 1.2.4.2. Groupwise Electronic Configuration
Chalcogen family We have studied about the filling of electrons into
17 Halogens different sub shells, also referred to as orbital (s, p, d, f) in
an atom. The distribution of electrons into the orbital of an
18 Noble gases (inert gases)
atom is called the electronic configuration of the elements
1.2.4.1. Electronic configuration in periods and the long form of the Periodic table.

In periodic table, the periods indicates the value of ‘n’
for valence shell. Successive period is associated with
increase in energy level (n = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7). Number of
elements in every period is two times of atomic orbital in
the energy level of filling up of electrons.
i) In the first period, n=1, only two small elements
present. They are hydrogen 1s 1 and helium 1s2 
in lowest energy level, k shell only.
ii) Second period, n=2, starts with lithium. These are
8 elements in this period. 2s and 2p orbitals filled
here with increase in atomic number in ‘L’ shell.
1.2.4.3. Electronic configurations and Types of
Elements : (s-, p-, d-, f-Blocks)
The aufbau (build up) principle and the electronic
configuration of atoms provide a theoretical foundation for
the periodic classification. The elements in a vertical column
of the Periodic Table constitute a group or family and exhibit
similar chemical behavior. This similarly arises because
these elements have the same number and same distribution
of electrons in their outermost orbital. We can classify the
elements into four blocks viz., s-block, p-block, d-block
and f-block depending on the type of atomic orbital that
is being filled with ultimate electrons.
I - 21 I - 22

1.2.5.1. Properties of ‘s’ block elements

1. It has two groups, IA with alkali metals and IIA
with alkaline earth metals.
2. Ultimate electrons in this group goes to ‘s’ sub
orbitals. Common electronic configuration of Group
IA is ns 1 while group IIA is ns 2.
3. Valency of Group IA is 1 and group IIA is 2.
4. They are soft metals with low density and low
melting points. Lithium, Sodium, Potassium float in
water.
5. They give different colours in flame test :
Lithium-crimson red, sodium-yellow,
Potassium-violet, barium-apple green, calcium-brich
red.
6. They are highly reactive elements.

1.2.5.2. Properties of ‘p’ block elements

1. ‘p’ block includes six groups. IIIB to VII B and zero
group elements with inert or noble gases.
2. Ultimate electrons in this group goes to ‘p’ sub
orbital. The common electronic configuration is
ns 2 , np 16. ‘n’ is principal quantum number or
period number.
3. They are mostly non-metals, metalloid and few
metals.

1.2.5.3. Properties of ‘d’ block elements

1. It has 10 groups ; IB, IIB, IIIA to VIIA and VIII
group.
2. All are metals. They are d-transition elemnts.
3. Ultimate electron goes to the penultimate shell,
d-sub orbital. The common electronic configuration
is ns 12 n  1 d110 .
 I - 23 I - 24

4. They are hard metals and good conductors. They 2) How many groups and periods are there in periodic
have high density and high melting points. table?
5. They show variable valencies and different Groups : 18
oxidation states.
Periods : 7
6. They give characteristic colour in the flame test.
3) Name an alkali metal which is radioactive.
1.2.5.4. Properties of ‘f’ block elements Francium (Fr)
1. ‘f’ block elements are called inner transition 4) Name the noble gas which has two electrons in
elements. They are metals.
valence shell.
2. It has 14 groups, IB to VIIB, IVA to VIIA and VIII.
Helium (He)
3. Ultimate electron goes to ‘f’-sub orbital and it may
go to pre-penultimate 5) Identify the element which follows Nitrogen in
4. The common electronic configuration is same group of the periodic table.
ns 2 n1 d01 n  2 f114 . Phosphorous (P)
5. Their occurance in nature is less. They are called 6) What do you understand by penaltimate and anti-
rare earths. penaltimate shell.
6. After Lanthanam 14 elements with atomic no. 58 to
The electron shell inner to the valence cell is
71 is called ‘Lanthanoids’ or ‘Lanthanons’.
penaltimate shell and the one inner to penaltimate shell is
7. After actinium, 14 elements with atomic no. 90 to
anti penaltimate shell.
103 are highly radioactive called as ‘Actinoids’ or
‘Actinon’s. 7) Which is the fundamental property of modern
8. Elements after uranium is called ‘Trans uranium’ periodic table. Why?
elements. Physical and chemical properties of elements are a
periodic function of their atomic number. Therefore, the
QUESTIONS
modern periodic table is based on increasing order of atomic
Part - A number.
8) Write the names of elements present in the alkali
1) Why was it necessary to change the basis of metals.
classification of elements from atomic mass to
atomic number? Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K),
Atomic number (Z) is more fundamental property of an Rubedium (Rb), Caesium (Cs) and Francium (Fr)
element than its atomic mass. So, it is necessary to change 9) Name certain metals they float in water.
the basis of classification of elements from atomic mass to
Lithium, Sodium, Potassium.
atomic number.
 I - 25
10) Give any two properties of p-block elements.
1) They are mostly nometals, metalloids and few metals.
2) When filling up of atomic orbital, the ultimate
electron goes to p-sub shell.
11) What are trans-uranium elements?
Trans-uranium elements are radioactive having atomic
number greater than 92. Since At.No. 92 is the atomic
number of Uranium.
12) What are lanthanoids and actinoids?
The 14 elements after lanthanum with At No. 58 to 71
are called lanthanoids. The 14 elements after actinium with
atomic number 90 to 103 are called actinoids.
13) In modern periodic table, which are metals among
the first ten elements.
Lithium (Li) and Beryllium (Be)
14) How many electrons are there in ultimate or
orbital of any inert gas?
Eight
15) What is meant by ‘periods’ in modern periodic
table?
In modern periodic table the horizontal rows are known
as periods.
16) What is meant by ‘groups’ in modern periodic
table?
In modern periodic table the ‘vertical columns’ are
known as groups.
I - 26
Part - B
1) How are elements classified on the basis of period?
Horizontal rows are periods. Period number correspond
to the highest principal quantum number of elements in the
period.
2) How are elements classified on the basis of group?
Elements having similar outer electronic configuration
in their atoms are arranged in vertical columns, known as
groups. They are 18 groups.
3) State Modern periodic law.
"The physical and chemical properties of elements are
the periodic functions of their atomic numbers".
4) What is periodic classification of elements?
The elements are arranged in such a way that it shows
periodicity of properties such as atomic size, valency, metallic
and non-metallic characteristics.
5) In periodic table the horizontal rows and vertical
column indicates what?
horizontal rows - periods
vertical column - groups
6) Write any three features of modern periodic table.
1. Periodic table consist of vertical columns known as
groups and horizontal rows known as periods.
2. There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the periodic
table.
3. The elements are placed in periods bases on the
number of shells in their atoms.
 I - 27 I - 28

7) Write any two properties of s-block elements. 3) Write the features of modern periodic table.
1. Last electron is filled in ‘s’ subshell. [Ans : Sec. 1.2.3]
2. All are metals except H. 4) Write the properties of s-block elements.
8) Write any two properties of p-block elements. [Ans : Refer Sec. 1.2.5.1]
1. Last electron is filled in ‘p’ subshell. 5) Write the properties of d - block elements.
2. It includes metals, non-metals and metalloids.
[Ans : Refer Sec. 1.2.5.3.]
9) Write any two properties of d-block elements.
6) Write the properties of f-block elements.
1. It consists of groups between 3--12.
[Ans : Refer Sec. Sec. 1.2.5.4.]
2. Most of them are metals.
7) Write the properties of s and d block elements in
10) Write any two properties of f-block elements. the periodic table.
1. Last electron is filled in ‘f’ subshell. [Ans : Refer Sec. 1.2.5.1 & 1.2.5.3.]
2. All are metals.
11) Why are oxygen and nitrogen called p-block
elements?
The last electron filled in this orbital is filled in p-shell
of oxygen and nitrogen.
12) What are transition elements?
Their properties are intermediate to that of s-block and
p-block elements, hence they are called as ‘Transition
elements’.

Part - C

1) Write briefly about Modern periodic table.

[Ans : Sec. 1.2.1 & 1.2.3.]
2) Describe how elements are classified on the basis
of electronic configuration.
[Ans : Sec. 1.2.4.1]
 I - 29 I - 30

1.3.3. Lewis Concept (Electronic concept)

1.3. ACIDS AND BASES Lewis Acid

An acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons.

1.3.1. Acids Eg : H , Na  , AlCl3 , BF 3

An acid gives hydrogen ions  H   in solution. (Arrhenius Lewis Base

concept) A base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons.
Eg : HCl, H2 SO 4 , HNO 3 etc.
Properties :
Eg : OH  , Cl  , H2 O Addition
1. Acids have sour taste.
compound
2. They are corrosive.
In this reaction, NH 3 donates a pair of electron to BF 3 .
3. They turn blue litmus to red.
Hence, NH 3 is a base and BF 3 is an acid.
4. They conduct electricity.
Advantages of Lewis concept :
5. They react with bases to form salt and water.
6. They react with metallic oxides to form salt and 1) It explains the Acid-Base reactions by electron
transfer.
water.
2) It explains the acidic character of certain non
7. They react with metals to liberate hydrogen gas. hydrogen containing substances like AlCl 3 , BF 3.
1.3.2. Bases 3) Lewis concept explain the acid-base reaction in the
gaseous state and fused state.
A base gives hydroxyl ions OH   in solution (Arrhenius 4) Neutralization of acidic oxides and basic oxides can
concept) be easily explained.
Eg : NaOH, KOH etc. 5) Concept can be easily understand.
Properties : 1.3.4. Definitions
1. Bases have bitter taste. 1) pH Scale
2. Their solutions are soapy to touch. pH is a scale used to measure hydrogen ion
3. They turn red litmus to blue. concentration in aqeous solution. pH scale was introduced
by S.P.L. Sorenson in 1909.
4. Their solutions conduct electricity.
2) Definition of pH
5. They react with acids to form salt and water.
pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to
6. They react with non-metallic oxides to form salt and
the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration.
water.
7. They react with metals to liberate hydrogen gas. pH =  log 10 [H ]
 I - 31 I - 32

3) Definition of pOH
WORKED EXAMPLES
pOH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm
to the base 10 of the hydroxyl ion concentration.
1. Calculate the pH of 0.001 N HCl solution.
pOH =  log 10 [OH  ]

4) Ionic product of water pH =  log 10 [H  ]

The product of the concentration of H  ions and OH  =  log 10 [0.001]   3

ions in water is called as the ionic product of water. Its value pH = 3
14
is equal to 1  10 g.ions/litre.
2. The hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is
Kw = [H  ] [OH  ] = [1  10 7 ] [1  10 7]
5.2  10 4 g.ions/lit. Calculate the pH of the
Kw = 1  10 14 solution. (Apr. 2008)
5) Relationship between pH and pOH
For any aqueous solution, the sum of pH and pOH is a [H ] = 5.2  10 4 g.ions/lit.
constant and its value is equal to 14.
pH =  log 10 [H ]
pH + pOH = 14 =  log 10 [5.2  10 4]

For Pure water (or) Neutral solution pH = 7 =  [log 10 5.2  log 10 10 4]
For Acidic solutions pH  7 = --[--0.7160 -- 4]
For Basic solutions pH  7
= --[--3.284]
pH scale is useful to find out the acidic and alkaline
pH = 3.284
nature of solutions.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 3. What is the hydrogen ion concentration of a
solution, whose pH is 6.2.

Strongly Weakly Weakly Strongly pH =  log 10 [H  ]

Acidic Acidic Alkaline Alkaline  log 10 [H ] =  pH   6.2
Pure water
[H ] = antilog of 6.2
(or)
Neutral solution = 6.31  10 7
 [H ] = 6.31  10 7 g.ions / litre
 I - 33 I - 34

The selection of indicators is more important for

4. Calculate the pH of 0.01 M NaOH solution. acid-base titrations. It depends upon the nature of acid and
base is used in the set of titration pair. The following table
pOH =  log 10 [OH ] shows the specific indicator for the set of acid-base titration.
=  log 10 [0.01] Acid Base Indicator Example
=  log 10 [10 2] =  [2] Strong Strong Methyl orange/ HCl  H2 SO 4
pOH = 2 acid base Phenolphthalein  NaOH  KOH
pH + pOH = 14 Strong Weak Only methyl HCl  H2 SO 4
 pH = 14  pOH acid base orange Na 2 CO 3  NH 4OH
= 14  2 Weak Strong Only Acetic acid / Oxalic
pH = 12 acid base phenolphthalein acid - NaOH/KOH
A weak acid and weak base cannot be titrated by
ordinary methods. It can only be done by conduct metric
1.3.5. Indicators titration method.
Indicators is a substance, which indicates the exact
completion of a chemical reaction by changing colour at the 1.3.6. Buffer solutions
end point. Buffer solution is a solution whose pH will not change
Eg : Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange. on addition of small amount of an acid (or) a base.
These substance used to show the presence of a chemical There are two types of buffer solutions.
substance or ion by its colour. 1) Acidic buffer solution 2) Basic buffer solution

Indicator pH Colour change 1) Acidic Buffer Solution

They are mixtures of a weak acid and its salt.
1. Methyl orange 4.5  6.5 Red - Yellow
(Acid) (Base) Eg : Mixture of Acetic acid and Sodium acetate.

2. Litmus 5.5  7.5 Red - Blue 2) Basic Buffer Solution

(Acid) (Base) They are mixtures of a weak base and its salt.
3. Phenol Red 6.8  8.4 Yellow - Red Eg : Mixture of Ammonium hydroxide and Ammonium
(Acid) (Base) chloride.
4. Phenolphthalein 8  9.5 Colourless - Pink 1.3.7. Applications of pH in Industries
(Acid) (Base)
Control of pH is important in all the industrial process
to get good quality and yield of the products.
 I - 35 I - 36

1) Sugar Industry
QUESTIONS
In sugar industries, the pH of the sugarcane juice should
be maintained around 7 to get a good quality sugar with Part - A
high yield. Otherwise, sugar will not be crystalised.
2) Textile Industry 1) Define Lewis acid.
In dyeing process the pH maintenance is important to Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of
get uniform and permanent dyeing. Highly acidic dye electrons.
solution will reduce the strength of the fibre.
Eg : Na  , AlCl 3 , BF 3 , H
3) Leather Industry
During tanning process, the pH of the solution should 2) Define Lewis base.
be between 2.5 to 3.5. If the pH is not maintained properly, Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of
the leather will decay after some time.
electrons. Eg : OH  , Cl  , NH 3 .
4) Agriculture
3) Ammonia does not contain hydroxyl group, then
Acidic soil is not suitable for plant growth. Hence, the why is it a base?
soil should be tested and suitable fertilizers are added to
alter the pH to get maximum yield. Ammonia is a lewis base since it can donate a pair of
electron from its lone pair. NH 3
5) Water treatment
4) BF 3 is an acid eventhough it does not contain
Control of pH is important in water treatment. The pH
Hydrogen atom - Justify.
of drinking water should be maintained between 6.5 to 7.2.
pH range 5 to 6.5 of liquid chlorine is more effective for BF 3 is a Lewis acid since it can accept a pair of electrons.
treatment of water. 5) Which is the suitable indicator for titrating strong
acid and weak base?
6) The pH of human blood is 7.2. Any change in pH may
cause blood coagulation and many diseases. Methyl orange
6) Titration of weak acid and strong base. Suggest a
7) The pH of the gastric juice should be between 1.4 to 2.
Any variation in the pH may cause vomiting and stomach suitable indicator.
disorder. Phenolphthalein.

8) pH of Human saliva varies from 6.2 to 7.6 before and 7) What will happen if HCl is paired over egg shell?
after food. Egg shell will be dissolved with brisk effervesence of
CO 2 .
9) pH plays important role in many industries such as
paper industry, Alcohol industry, Food, Medicine and Many
chemical industries.
 I - 37
8) What acids are present in oranges and tomatos?
Tomato : Citric acid, malic acid and ascorbic acid
Orange : Citric acid and ascorbic acid.
9) Why dry HCl gas does not turn blue litmus to red,
but moist HCl gas turns blue litmus to red?
In Dry HCl, no free H existance. In moist or in aquous
solution H  exists free H presence only indicates the acidic
nature of HCl. moist HCl only acts as acid. Acids turns blue
litmus to red colour.
10) Two solutions have pH 8 and 11. Which one is more
basic? Why?
Solutions with pH 11 is more basic. Since the basic
nature increases with increase in pH.
11) Why tooth decay begins when we eat too much
sweets?
When sugar is consumed more it reacts with bacteria
and produce acid. This acid is responsible for tooth decay.
12) Give an example of Lewis acid.
BF 3 , H , AlCl 3
13) Give an example for Lewis base.
NH 3 , OH  , Cl 
14) What is the relation between pH and pOH.
pH + pOH = 14
15) What is the pH of a acidic solution?
Less than 7 (or) pH < 7
16) What is the pH of a basic solution?
Greater than 7 (or) pH > 7
I - 38
17) What is the pH value of pure water (or) neutral
solution?
7
18) What is the value of ionic product of water?
K w  1  10 14
19) Give one example of Indicater.
Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange.
20) Give one example for acidic buffer solution.
Mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate.
21) Give one example for basic buffer solution.
Mixture of NH 4OH and NH 4 Cl .
Part - B
1) Define pH. The rain water collected from two
cities Coimbatore and Thanjavur was found to be
6 and 6.5 respectively. The water of which city is
more acidic.
pH of a solution is defined as negative logarithm to the
base ten of the hydrogen ion concentration.
pH =  log 10 [H ]
pH of Coimbatore water is 6. This is more acidic.
2) Solution x, y, z have pH values 8, 9 and 10
respectively. Arrange them in increasing order of
basic nature giving reasons.
Increasing order of basic nature is x, y, z. Since the basic
nature increases with increase in pH.
 I - 39 I - 40

3) Pure distilled water shows pH value 7, whereas 10) Define pOH (Oct. 15)
rain water of Chennai shows 6.5. Why? It is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of
Pure distilled water is neutral. So pH is 7. the hydroxyl ion concentration.
But rain water of Chennai with pH 6.5 is acidic. This pOH =  log [OH  ]
10
acidic nature is due to presence of more CO 2 present in the
atmosphere in turn due to vehicular pollution. 11) What are Indicators? (Apr. 16)
4) Calculate the pH of 0.01 M HCl. Indicators is a substance, which indicates the exact
completion of a chemical reaction by changing colour at the
pH =  log 10 [H ] end point.
=  log 10 [10 2] = 2 12) What is buffer solution? (Apr. 17)
5) Write any two properties of acids. Buffer solution is a solution whose pH will not change
1. Acids have sour taste. on addition of small amount of an acid (or) a base.
2. They are corrosive. 13) What is an acidic buffer solution?
3. They turn blue litmus to red. They are mixtures of a weak acid and its salt.
6) Write any two properties of bases. 14) What is a basic buffer solution?
1. Bases have bitter taste. They are mixtures of a weak base and its salt.
2. Their solutions are soapy to touch.
3. They turn red litmus to blue.
Part - C
7) What is Lewis acid and Lewis base? (Oct. 14)
Substance accept a pair of electrons. 1) Write the properties of acids.
Substance donate a pair of electrons. [Ans : Sec. 1.3.1]
8) What are the advantages of Lewis concept. (Apr.15) 2) Write the properties of bases.
1) It explains the Acid-Base reactions by electron [Ans : Sec. 1.3.2]
transfer. 3) Explain the Lewis concept of Acid and bases. Write
2) It explains the acidic character of certain non the advantages of Lewis concept.
hydrogen containing substances like AlCl 3 , BF 3 . [Ans : Sec. 1.3.3]
9) Define pH. (Oct. 15)
4) Define indicator. Explain the various types of
pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to indicators.
the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration. [Ans : Sec. 1.3.5]
pH =  log 10 [H ]
 I - 41

5) Explain buffer solution and its types with example.

(Oct.16)
[Ans : Sec. 1.3.6]
6) Write the industrial applications of pH in
Industries? (Apr. 16, 17, Oct. 16)
[Ans : Sec. 1.3.7]

PROBLEMS

1. The pH of an aquous solution decreases from 3 to

2. Calculate how many times the hydrogen ion
concentration of solution will change?
(Ans : Ten times)
2. Calculate the pH of 0.3 N HCl. (Ans : 0.5229)
3. What is the pH of a solution whose hydrogen ion
concentration is 1.413  10 5 g.ions / litre.
(Ans : 4.85)
4. Calculate the pH of a solution whose hydrogen ion
concentration is 0.25 g.ions / litre. (Ans : 0.6021)
5. Calculate the pH of a solution whose hydrogen ion
concentration is 0.005 g ions / litre. (Ans : 2.301)
6. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of a
solution, whose pH is 1.2.
(Ans : 6.31  10 2 g.ions / litre)
7. The hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is
6.9  10 2 g.ions per litre. Calculate the pH of the
solution. (Oct. 2008) (Ans : 1.161)
8. Calculate the pH of 0.01 M NaOH solution.
(Ans : 12)