PLANT SPECIMEN COLLECTION AND HERBARIUM MAKING

Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the students should be able to:
1. Applies the basic procedure in making their own herbarium specimen
2. Identifies the plant specimens being used in making herbarium
3. Inculcate the importance of plant collection and herbarium making

Introduction

Herbarium is a storehouse of botanical specimens, which are arranged in

sequence of an accepted classification system, and available for reference or other
scientific study. Herbaria serves as a conservatory of dried plant material, archival record
of regions flora, source of botanical information and diversity and recorder of plant
names. It also serves as a supplier of a support service to the community: plant
identification, information, education, collecting services for bioprospecting or other
specialized projects, it serves as training botanists and lastly, it is used for research.

Herbarium specimens are resources that can provide a large amount of

information on plant taxa, as well as on the flora and vegetation of a region. The quality
of the specimens determines the scientific value of the collection, and collecting good
specimens is the first step in preparing specimens of a high standard.

Preparation of Herbarium specimens:

These are the process of Herbarium specimen making: Sample Collection, Preservation,
Processing, and Storage

I. COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS

There are two activities involved in Collection of Specimen: (a) Gathering the specimen
and (b) Recording the information.
(a) Gathering specimen. This includes collecting equipment, collecting techniques,
protection in the field.
 o Collecting equipment. The equipment needed for collecting plant specimens
will depend on the type of plants you are collecting. The basic equipment is
waterproof field notebook to record habitat and location information, soft lead
pencils, topographic maps and location information should include Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) locations or latitudes and longitudes, small altimeter
for measuring elevations, gardening gloves to prevent injury when handling
irritating or thorny specimens, strong plastic bags for storing branches or
carrying
individually bagged collections, waterproof tags and permanent felt markers, a
shovel, trowel, or dandelion tool for digging underground stems, bulbs, corms,
and roots, pruning shears or secateurs to cut plant parts (e.g., fruit, cones,
flowers,
buds, leaves, bark) or for trimming large, woody plants to appropriate size, and
paper lunch bags for storing cones.

o Collecting techniques. In the field, take care when selecting the plant material
for collection. Do not collect species that are rare and endangered. When you
need to confirm a rare or protected species, photograph the plant, and make a
good written description and/or sketch. Take several close-up shots (with a ruler
or other object for scale) showing the plant and parts necessary for positive
identification. Determine the amount of plant material you require, select a
variety of individual plants for collection, then begin the actual collection of the
specimens.
Basic collecting techniques are: Select specimens in good condition, free of
insect damage, rust, or disease. Select plants with mature parts (well-developed
leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and/or fruits or other reproductive structures).
Select
specimens that represent the range of variation in the population, not just
atypical
specimens. Collect entire plants, when possible, even if they are large (the plant
can be divided for pressing). Collect enough plant material from each species to
fill two standard herbarium sheets (30 ´ 42 cm). Collect at least stems, leaves,
and
flowers or fruit of herbaceous plants, and twigs, leaves, and flowers or catkins of
trees and shrubs. Collect extra flowers and fruit for later dissection. Retain as
much
of the root system as possible. Remove excess soil as it may cause disfiguration
 and deterioration of some plants. Place all specimens of a single species from
one
locality into one collection bag. As each specimen is collected, assign a unique
collection number.

o Protection in the field. Specimens should be pressed in the field whenever

possible (usually after returning to camp in the evening, and preferably daily)
because delay causes a significant difference in the final result. In field sampling
it may be several days before specimens can be pressed. Most plants will remain
in reasonable condition for up to a week if handled properly and kept cool and
moist.

(b) Recording the information. This is composed of collection number, date of

collection, name of collectors, location information and habitat information are
obtained.
o Collection number makes it easy to reference individual specimens or groups of
specimens in a collection.
o Date of collection. To avoid confusion in writing the date of collection, write the
date in full (August 7, 1991). Note that ‘‘8/07/91’’ could be interpreted as August
7, 1991 or July 8, 1991.
o Name of collectors. Record all significant members of the collecting party. In
the future, if one collector is unavailable to answer questions, the others may be
contacted. First initial(s) plus the last name is sufficient.
o Location information. Provide enough information so that another person can
follow the directions to the general area to observe more specimens of the same
species.
o Habitat information. This includes collecting the plant specimen’s elevation
slope aspect associated vegetation, biogeoclimatic zone/subzone, soil, moisture
regime and water depth.

II. PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS

The two main steps in preserving plant specimen are (a) pressing and (b) drying.
(a) Pressing is laying the specimens in folded sheets of newsprint separated by
cardboard sheets, and placing them in a pressing frame, which is then tightened with
straps. Correct pressing prevents plant parts from curling or wrinkling during the drying
process and allows the requisite plant parts to be visible for identification. Care in
pressing specimens will result in more useful and visually appealing herbarium
specimens. The process consists of laying the plant specimens in folded sheets of
newsprint separated by cardboard sheets, and placing them in a pressing frame, which
is then tightened with straps. The main piece of equipment is a plant press. How to pack
a plant press step by step? A plant press is packed in the following sequence:
 Wooden lattice frame.
 Cardboard.
 Two sheets of drying paper.
 Flimsy with specimen.
 Two drying papers, followed by another flimsy with a specimen and so forth.
 Use a cardboard ventilator after every five to eight specimens.
 Finish with cardboard ventilator and the second wooden lattice frame and pull
the straps tight.

(b) Drying involves an adequate length of time and exposure to “dry” air. and
maintenance of the specimens in press like changing the newsprint to speed up the
drying process and cinching the press daily as the specimens dry. Drying is a crucial step
in preserving collected plant material. To ensure that a specimen retains its color and
does not become brittle or scorched, the moisture must be removed rapidly, while using
only a moderate heat. Good air circulation will speed up the process. Make sure the
corrugated cardboard still has air spaces in between and is not crushed flat with use.

III. PROCESSING OF SPECIMENS

Processing dried specimens involves four steps: (a) Identification, (b) Label preparation,
(c) Mounting, and (d) Accessioning.

(a) Identification is where specimen need to be correctly identified with taxonomic

expert. The ability to identify specimen will be based on knowledge of taxonomy and
nomenclature, familiarity with the morphological characteristics of different plant
families, access to library of regional floras and ability to use an herbarium reference
collection.
(b) Label preparation. Labels are created and attached to each specimen containing
information on the species, collector, locality, and habitat. Using a standardized label, it
ensures all necessary data.
(c) Mounting is affixing the dried pressed plant and its label to a sheet of heavy paper.
This provides physical support that allows the specimen to be handled and stored with a
minimum of damage.
(d) Accessioning (Cataloguing). The final step before filing the mounted or packaged
collections in the herbarium is to assign accession numbers and to record the specific
associated data in a computer-based file or an accession book. These records become
the index for the herbarium collection. Accession numbers are assigned chronologically
as specimens arrive.

Standard label for a herbarium sheet Arrangement of dried specimens on herbarium

National Museum of the Philippines

Accessioning (Cataloguing) Placement of glue or linen straps across

mounted specimens.

IV. PROPER STORAGE OF SPECIMENS

Once specimens have been identified, mounted, labelled, and accessioned, they should
be frozen at -20°C for 48 hours to kill insects, then stored in cabinets in a specially
equipped room called a herbarium. Proper storage of specimens involves (a)
Organization, (b) Handling ,and (c) Maintenance.

(a) Organization. A herbarium collection must be well organized. Many large herbaria
follow a taxonomic sequence according to evolutionary history. The first division would
be primitive plants such as ferns, fern-allies, and gymnosperms (conifers). Angiosperms
(flowering plants) are usually divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Also,
many large collections are arranged alphabetically within major divisions. At smaller
herbaria, where the emphasis is on plant identification and the users are not trained
taxonomists, it is easier to arrange all the specimens alphabetically by species within
genera, and genera within families. For collections from outside the province or
collections of historical or special significance (such as an ethnobotany collection),
specimens may
be further separated with identifying codes or colors on the genus covers .

(b) Handling. It is important that herbarium users handle specimens properly. They
should: Lift genus covers, with herbarium specimens held flat inside covers, from
the herbarium cabinet, causing minimum disturbance to adjacent covers. Support the
genus cover with cardboard or your palm and arm and carry it horizontally to the
examining table. Do not turn individual sheets over like pages of a book. Lift each sheet
right side up using two hands and place it in a new stack. Support individual sheets with
a piece of cardboard if they have to be moved to a different area. Note any specimens
in need of repair or showing insect damage and bring them to the attention of
herbarium staff. The herbarium staff will return the specimens to the cabinets to ensure
correct placement.

(c) Maintenance. Once the collection is stored, periodic checks must be made to ensure
that the plants are stable and not affected by insects or excessive moisture. Insects can
seriously damage a herbarium collection. Various ways have been tried to prevent insect
damage, such as dipping the specimens in insecticide or fumigating the plants, cabinets,
or entire rooms. However, these methods have not been completely satisfactory, and
the chemicals used are a potential health hazard. Recently, freezing of plant material has
proven to be a simple, effective, and efficient means of killing insects.

Activity: Plant Collection and Herbarium Making

Lesson objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the students shall be able to.

a. Applies the basic procedure in making their own herbarium specimen
b. Identifies the plant specimens being used in making herbarium
c. Inculcate the importance of plant collection and herbarium making

Materials:
Plant specimen Tags
Plant press Straps with buckles
Broad sheets or newspapers denatured alcohol
Corrugated cardboards scissors
herbarium sheet for mounting or cardboard if not available small tray

Procedures:
1. Prepare the materials needed in the experiment including plant press.
2. Collect plant specimen to use in the experiment. Carefully examined if there are
damage parts in the plants like holes, wilt leaves, damaged stems etc. if the plant is
Collect a plant specimen with complete parts as necessary (leaves, flowers, stems,
roots,
and shoots if ever). Take note of all the necessary data needed to be recorded like the
 date of collection, location, and other plant characteristics.
3. Bring the plant specimen to the working area. Clean and poison the plant using the
denatured alcohol, this will help get rid or eliminate insects and fungal pests and then
air dry.
4. Place the plant on newspaper.
Prepare
the plant press and follow the
sequence on putting the plant on a
plant press based on the picture.

5. Check the plant press after 2-3 days to change damp newspapers. Secure the plant
press’ belt every now and then. Put the plant press on warm area to facilitate fast
drying.
It will take 3-4 weeks to completely dry.

Guide Questions:

1. What is the use of corrugated cardboards in plant press?

2. What is the rationale for pressing the plant material properly?
3. Why is it necessary to change the damp newspapers in the plant press?

ASSESSMENT

Direction: Read each statement carefully. Select the letter that best describe each
statement about “Plant Collection and Herbarium Making”.

1. Collection of botanical materials involves two activities: gathering the specimens

and
recording the information. The latter primarily involves the following except.
a. Date of collection
 b. Collecting techniques
c. Collection number
d. Name of collectors
2. Which of the following is a correct sequence?
a. Labelling-Pressing-Collecting-Drying-Poisoning-Mounting
b. Collecting-Pressing-Drying-Poisoning-Labelling-Mounting
c. Collecting-Poisoning-Drying-Pressing-Mounting-Labelling
d. Collecting-Poisoning-Pressing-Drying-Mounting-Labelling
3. ___________ provides enough information so that another person can follow the
directions to the general area to observe more specimens of the same species.
a. Collection Number
b. Habitat Information
c. Location Information
d. Date of Collection
4.The process of affixing the dried pressed plant and its label to a sheet of heavy paper.
which provides physical support that allows the specimen to be handled and stored
with
a minimum of damage.
a. Identification
b. Pressing
c. Accessioning
d. Mounting
5. It is laying the specimens in folded sheets of newsprint separated by cardboard
sheets,
and placing them in a pressing frame, which is then tightened with straps.
a. Pressing
b. Drying
c. Accessioning
d. Mounting

Test II. Write True if the statement is correct and False if not. Write your answer on
the space provided before each number.

______1. A good quality herbarium reference collection provides a repository for voucher
specimen related to published scientific reports. (True)
______2. During sample collection, it is important to collect species that are rare or
 endangered. (False)
______3. In drying the specimen, samples must be enclosed in a box without ventilation
to
avoid exposure to air. (False)
______4. It is fine to use tape to the plant during plant pressing and drying. (False)
______5. Specimens should be pressed in the field whenever possible (usually after
returning to camp in the evening, and preferably daily) because delay causes a
significant difference in the final result. (True)

Taxidermy

Learning objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to.

1. Know the different procedures in performing taxidermy.

2. Apply their knowledge in performing taxidermy
3. Appreciate the importance of preserving animal specimens using
Taxidermy.

Introduction

Taxidermy is a general term describing the different methods of skinning and

preserving vertebrate skins by stuffing or mounting them over an artificial armature. The
word taxidermy derives from the Greek “taxis” meaning arrangement and “derma”
meaning skin. Little is known of the real beginnings of taxidermy for ornament or for
scientific purposes. Some authors, place it as beginning in old Egypt with the methods
of embalmment. Other authors state that mummification is the oldest technique of
conservation. However, the mummies of the ancient Egyptians should not be regarded
as taxidermy. True taxidermy attempts to capture forms, expressions, and animal
attitudes in a lifelike manner. Mummies were created in a religious context, unlike
taxidermy, which developed from a curiosity about nature. For that purpose, it utilized
skinning, tanning, stuffing, and mounting techniques that are completely different from
mummification (Péquignot 2002). According to Péquignot, taxidermy began to emerge
in the 16th century, when Europeans started to mount the skins of various animals and
developed methods and chemicals to preserve them. As the years went on, better
methods emerged, and by the 19th century, taxidermy was well established in scientific
circles.

Scientists use taxidermy to preserve animals for studying. Many natural history
museums have an extensive collection of skins and mounts used for scientific purposes.
Taxidermy allows the extinct or endangered animals to be represented during their
lifetime to make observations about evolution and distinct animal characteristics. A
person who practices taxidermy is called a taxidermist. A taxidermist needs to be both
an artist as well as having excellent knowledge about the morphology and anatomy of
the various species.
Taxidermy is practiced primarily
on vertebrates (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles,
and less commonly on amphibians) but can
also be done to
larger insects and arachnids under some
circumstances. Taxidermy takes on several
forms and purposes including hunting
trophies and natural history museum displays.
Museums use taxidermy as a method to
record species, including those that are extinct
and threatened in the form of study skins and
life-size mounts. Taxidermy is sometimes also
used to memorialize pets. The taxidermy
process usually starts with skinning an animal.
The skin is then tanned (treated) and fitted
over an artificial body made from carved foam
or sculpted wire. Clay and wax are used to
reproduce soft tissues and glass eyes are
added

HOW TO DO TAXIDERMY?
I. PREPARING THE ANIMAL

o Record Keeping. Once the animal has been collected and for taxidermic
treatment, scientific data is required- Serial number, the registration number,
the English and scientific name of the animal, the sex of animal, date of
death, collection date, collection place, cause of death, name of collector and
contact number, taxidermy type (stuff, print, skeleton), weight of the animal,
total length, length of forelimb-hindlimb-neck-tail-beak, distance between two
eyes-corner of lip and eye - eyes to the tip of beak, shape of eye, eye size,
stuffing date, and name of the taxidermist (Hossain, 2016).
o Freeze the animal until you're ready to prepare it. You'll want to remove the
skin as soon as is possible, but it's important to keep the animal from spoiling
before you commit to preserving it and caring for the skin. To be safe, freeze the
animal so you can acquire the necessary materials for performing basic taxidermy
in the meantime like sharp knife, sewing needle and thread, stuffing like cotton or
floral foam or plaster cast of animals, and Borax.
o Prepare the form. Depending upon your animal, you can prepare a plaster cast
of the body at this point or purchase a premade form. You can also create your
own form out of recycled materials, a particularly useful process for smaller
animals.
o Skinning is the act of skin removal. The process is done with animals, mainly as a
means to prepare the muscle tissues beneath for consumption or for use of the
fur or tanning of the skin.

II. PRESERVING THE SKIN

o Tanning is often used as the generic term for the process of preserving mammal
skins in a flexible condition. In the commercial tanning industry, the word tanning
is reserved for the process which produces flexible, dehaired leather, and flexible
skins with hair are said to be 'dressed'.
o Use an alcohol mixture to preserve reptile skin. Soak the skin in a 50/50 mix of
glycerin and alcohol for up to two weeks. Keep in a cool and dark place. When
you remove the skin, pat it dry and remove any glycerin from the inside
o Rub borax on the inside of the skin for bird and fish preservation. Place the
skin flesh-side down on a generous coating of borax inside a shoebox. Sprinkle
about a 1⁄4 inch (0.6 cm) more borax on top of the feathers. Leave in a cool, dark,
 and dry location for about 4 days. The flesh will be quite stiff after you remove
from the borax.[5] Brush off the excess and your bird or fish skin will be preserved

III. ARRANGING AND CARING FOR TAXIDERMY

o Stuffing. Fix your preserved skin onto the form, being careful to smooth out any
unnatural looking lumps or irregularities. You'll want to fix any structural
problems now before you sew it up
o Sewing using an appropriate color of thread, stitch together the seam that you
originally cut with as tight and invisible a stitch as possible. 
o Mounting. The fins are kept wet until the fish is sewn shut, then they're spread
out and pinned to a cardboard backer to keep them in place while drying. The
eye is the last thing to come into play. Once the fish has dried out, which can take
several weeks, a glass eye with a pin attached to the back is stuck into the socket.
A little paint and varnish, and the fish is ready to be mounted onto a wood
plaque.

ACTIVITY TAXIDERMY

Learning objectives:

At the end of this lesson the students should be able to.

1. Know the different procedures in performing taxidermy.
2. Apply their knowledge in performing taxidermy
3. Appreciate the importance of preserving animal specimens using
Taxidermy.

Materials:

Milkfish Floral foam cleaning materials

Dissecting kit Cotton
Sewing kit Blade
Borax Newspaper

Procedures:
1. Gather all the materials needed. Spread the newspapers on your working and put the
milk fish.
2. Measure the milkfish and record all the measurements. These measurements can be
used in preparing your floral foam to be inserted on the fish.
3. The fish is skinned using a razor-sharp filet
knife or taxidermy scalpel. Using the scalpel,
cut the fish open on its lateral line from
behind its head towards its caudal fin.
Remove the milkfish scales, eyes, and meat.
Make sure to remove all the meat inside and
wash it afterwards.
4. Prepare the foam and cut it according to the
shape of the milkfish.
5. Apply borax powder all over the fish’s body. Be floral foam
sure to spread it evenly inside and out. Spread
the borax while it is still wet. This allows the fish
to dry slowly and naturally, preventing
shrinkage.
6. Stuff the milkfish with the floral foam and insert some cotton on areas that are need
to
be filled.
7. The fins are kept wet until the fish is sewn shut, then they're spread out and pinned to
a cardboard backer to keep them in place while drying.
8. Sew the skin to close. Sew it in a criss cross pattern to ensure that it wouldn’t open.
9. The eye is the last thing to come into play. Once the fish has dried out, which can take
several weeks, a glass eye with a pin attached to the back is stuck into the socket.
10. A little paint and varnish, and the fish is ready to be mounted onto a wood plaque.
You can also use cardboard in mounting your fish taxidermy.

Guide Questions:
1. Describe the steps involve in the taxidermy process.
2. Why it is important to remove all meat and bones in performing fish taxidermy?
3. Do you think it is important to preserve animals?

ASSESSMENT
Direction: Read each statement carefully. Select the letter that best describe each
statement about “Taxidermy”.

1. Which chemical process is used to preserve animal skins?

a. Mounting
b. Tanning
c. Stuffing
d. Oiling
2. In taxidermy, the skin is:
a. Classified
b. Used in classification of animals.
c. Diseased
d. Preserved with the help of chemicals.
3. A taxidermist is a:
a. Person who preserves diseased animal.
b. Person who has knowledge about the morphology and anatomy of the various
species
c. A person who preserves animal's bodies for the purpose of display or study.
d. All of the above

4. How does Borax powder helps in preserving the fish’s skin?

a. To dry slowly and naturally
b. For bug repellant
c. Prevent mildew build up.
d. All of the above

5. The word "taxidermy" is derived from two ancient Greek words; taxis, meaning
__________; and derma, meaning skin.
a. arrangement
b. movement
c. stuffing
d. preserving

6. Where are the dead animals kept before the taxidermy process?
a. Inside a jar placed in a room temperature.
 b. Inside the freezer
c. In a plastic bag.
d. None of the above.

7. In the process of tanning:

a. Epidermis is treated with salts of heavy metals
b. Dermis is treated with salts of heavy metals
c. Both are treated with salts of heavy metals
d. None of them are treated with salts of heavy metals

8. Taxidermy is a way of preparing, stuffing and/or mounting an animal for display or

study. 
a. True
b. False

9. Skinning the process done with animals, mainly as a means to prepare the muscle
tissues beneath for consumption or for use of the fur or tanning of the skin.
a. True
b. False

10. Taxidermy is a general term describing the different methods of skinning and
preserving vertebrate skins by stuffing or mounting them over an artificial armature.
a. True
b. False