Critical Thinking

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is a complex procedure, which requires a holistic and varied score of skills
and attitudes (Cottrell, 2005). This includes:

• incorporating the opinions, arguments and concluding thoughts of others;

• assessing the evidence to find alternative points of view;
• considering opposing arguments in a fair manner;
• reading between the lines and pinpointing fictitious assumptions;
• identifying techniques used to make specific stances more appealing, for instance cases
of persuasive devices or false logic;
• reflecting on subjects in a structured manner through a logical and attentive approach;
• constructing credible conclusions based on the validity of certain arguments, as presented
by researched evidence;
• proposing a point of view in a structured, coherent and clear manner that can persuade
opposing opinions.

Critical thinking provides you with the necessary tools to not only constructively question and
analyse what is presented before you, but also to compose informed decisions based on reason,
logic and research. Do not be misled to believe that because there are people who are naturally
sceptical, they are better critical thinkers. Critical thinking is not based on personality traits but
founded on a set of methods aimed at evaluating evidence in a specific manner. This method
needs to be comprehended, exercised and employed continuously to become instinctual when
approaching texts, materials and environments both within education and life in general.

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Critical Thinking and Reasoning

Reasoning can be defined as our capacity for rational thought based on credible evidence and
judgement. Reasoning is a key ingredient in critical thinking though both skills are significant
components of each other. For instance, critical thinking is employed when analysing the
reasoning that forms our personal beliefs and the thinking process of others. Reasoning, on the
other hand, comprises of evaluating evidence in order to draw conclusions. This evidence can
then be referred to in discussion of the conclusion.

For instance, we may believe that this year’s August will be very hot. Someone who disagree, will
ask why we believe this. We may use evidence of temperature statistics of previous years or the
predictions of experts in the meteorology field of the area. Within academia, reasoning is usually
showcased in formal structures such as essays and reports with recommendations. These
structures require skills and practice in:

• choosing and structuring reasons as the basis for a conclusion;

• proposing an argument in an organised fashion;
• using logical and consistent organisation;
• incorporating correct terminology and effective language to showcase the line of
reasoning.

The Importance of Developing Critical Thinking Skills

The benefits of exercising critical thinking skills do not end with a sentence and a full stop; indeed,
they extend into every aspect of our life. These benefits include:

• improved attention and (self-) observation;

• more focused and attentive reading;
• increased ability to locate the key points of a text or image rather than constantly being
distracted by minute and trivial details;
• increased ability to respond appropriately to the points in the (underlying) messages;
• the know-how of executing your own arguments in a more effective manner;
• improved skills of analysis that can be applied outside the classroom/office.

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Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts

Students are required to develop critical thinking and reading skills in order to dig below the
surface of the subjects they are studying and engage with the critical discussion of the latter’s
leading theories. The ideal scenario for evaluation would be to replicate the proposed research
within the texts. However, even if resources are not a limiting factor, time is. Instead, the depth of
understanding that is generated through first-person experience, experimentation and practice
needs to be substituted with critical analysis of scholarly work.

Some students fall into the trap of blindly accepting or applying the results of other’s research
without applying a critical framework on the work or study they are using, as well as not evaluating
whether the reasoning is being supported by credible evidence. You should not settle for simply
“knowing” but ask yourself “why do we believe this?” or “how do we arrive at this conclusion?”.

It is important to note that “criticism” in the context of academia calls for the evaluation of both the
positive and negative features of the study or text. Identifying the strengths and complimentary
elements is just as important as pointing out the weaknesses and features that are incongruous
to the rest of the material. An effective critical analysis will consider why something is good or
poor as well as why and how it works or fails. Your conclusions should reflect a non-dualistic
approach i.e. not take a stance on either end of the extreme of either good or bad. Answers can
be at any point of the spectrum of possibilities; there are positives and negatives in every material
and what you are doing is weighing each feature and making assumptions as to which side of the
scale it falls closer. Some answers are complicated, and this is not something to shy away from
letting your reader know. Indeed, by addressing the difficulties, your answers will reflect a more
sophisticated approach.

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Barriers to Critical Thinking

Some students struggle more with critical thinking than others. In the following section, we will
discuss a number of barriers to critical thinking and invite you to reflect on your own approach
and its possible drawbacks (Bassham et al., 2011, p. 10).

a) Misunderstanding the definition of criticism

In the previous section, we mentioned how the practice of academic “criticism” looks at both the
positive and negative features of a text. One of the most common errors students take is to only
analyse the negative features because of a misunderstanding of the term “criticism”. There are
other students who do not bring up any negative features in fear of offending the writer (more on
this in section “d”). This is not constructive criticism and is an ineffective approach overall.

b) Overrating your own reasoning abilities

We tend to consider ourselves to be reasonable, rational beings. We like to think our belief
systems are the best (why else would we hold that belief?) and that our reasoning is coherent
and logical. However, our thinking is usually unconscious, running on automaton. We fall into
habits and some of these habits are a result of poor thinking. Winning an argument should not be
mistaken for good reasoning ability. It may simply be the case that your opponents did not
perceive a poor argument. Inaccurate, incoherent and illogical thinking does not help to develop
the mental capacity required for academic work.

c) Lack of strategies or practice

Though the willingness to be critical is there, students often find they are uncertain of the steps to
take to improve their critical thinking skills. The easiest solution is to practice the skill so do not
be intimidated about starting, it gets easier once the critical thinking muscle is exercised.

d) Reluctance to critique experts

It is common and natural to feel hesitation and anxiety about critically analysing work of people
you know and respect. Even more distressing would be to approach work of experts of the field
by students who may have little knowledge of the subject. This can also be a cultural matter as in
some parts of the world students are taught to demonstrate respect for leadings experts and
professionals through their behaviour such as learning text verbatim, repeating the exact words
of the experts etc. However, researchers and professors expect students to question and

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challenge published and peer-reviewed material. It may take some time to adapt to this way of
thinking but, once again, practice and time will alleviate the journey.

e) Affective Reasons

We have previously mentioned the role our emotions play in critical thinking. Practising the skill
of criticising also involves being willing to understand that there is no one way to approach an
issue nor one definitive answer. In academic contexts, the issue is raised multifold in the face of
theories that present themselves as opposed to deeply ingrained beliefs and assumptions. In
these cases, intelligence may be overtaken by an emotional response, which is not always helpful.
Emotion may add tenor to an argument but it most often inhibits the capacity to think clearly and
coherently, and form arguments based on logic, evidence and reasoning. Critical thinking does
not ask you to relinquish your beliefs altogether but it does expect you to look closer at the
evidence that supports the arguments based on your beliefs, so that you may do justice to your
position.

f) Misinterpreting knowing for understanding

“Learning is a process that develops understanding and insight” (Cottrell, 2005, p. 12). There are
many lecturers who develop activities for students to practice methods that are popular within
their discipline. However, just because these methods are held with certain preference does not,
in most cases at least, imply they are the end-all. They are jumping-off points. Unfortunately, this
is how some students interpret the purpose of this teaching method, choosing to memorise the
information as fact rather than opting to learn the skills that would help them form their own well-
founded judgements. They demand answers to their questions rather than doing the hard work of
becoming critical thinkers, of challenging an expert’s answers by analysing through active and
appropriate questioning. Be prepared for hard work as you develop this “mental muscle”. This
does not mean, of course, that you will disbelieve everything your professor, medical advisor,
government places before you; it means that you do not take their words as indisputable facts in
blind faith.

g) Insufficient focus and attention to detail

Critical thinking practice asks for accuracy and precision, which is part of the general skill of
attention to detail. Poor criticism through these terms can be defined as making decisions that are
founded on a too broad overview of the topic at hand. On the other hand, good critical thinking is
careful to focus on the specific task and is not easily distracted by tangents leading elsewhere.

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Developing your Critical Thinking Skills

We use basic thinking skills every day, without (excuse the pun) even thinking about it (Cottrell,
2005, p.14). The difficulty arises, at least for some, to apply these same skills to more nuanced
contexts, especially when it comes to the more abstract such as problem-solving or academic
study. This is not so much due to not exercising the thinking muscles as much as not being fully
aware of the strategies we use and, therefore, when a new situation arises, they are unable to
consciously draw them out for use. Critical thinking skills are based on sets of thinking protocols
such as:

• attention to detail, which allows the user to ascertain patterns (similarities and contrasts),
absence and presence within the material and the specific sequence (if there is one);
• focus, which highlights the value of fine detail;
• cognisance of patterns for the sake of comparing and contrasting items, as well as
predicting possible conclusions;
• sorting items into groups and, subsequently, into categories;
• understanding of categories, which allows for the identification and predictions of the
characteristics of new items.

In the following section, we will discuss how these skills manifest in your academic writing,
specifically in forming the main argument and its development in your essays.

Argument vs Disagreement

Before we go any further, let us clarify a very important point: Argument and disagreement are
not synonymous, at least in an academic environment. You can easily fall into the trap of
disagreeing with someone’s opinion without providing any reason or supporting your thoughts in
any manner. In critical thinking, there are important differences between an agreement, a
disagreement, a position, and an argument (Cottrell, 2005, p.52). These can be defined as the
following:

Þ Position: A point of view

Þ Agreement: To be in accord with someone’s point of view
Þ Disagreement: To not be in accord with someone’s point of view
Þ Argument: Using reasons and supporting evidence to forward a point of view in order to
persuade audiences to that specific point of view. An argument may include disagreement
but this is based on reasoning and evidence.

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Let us see some examples below:

• Position: I don’t think genetic engineering should be allowed.

• Agreement: I don’t know a lot about the genetic engineering but I agree with you.

Or

• Agreement 2: I do know quite a lot about this subject and I agree with you. (No reasons
are provided so this is simply an argument).
• Disagreement: I don’t agree. I think genetic engineering is fascinating. (No reasons are
provided so this is simply a disagreement).
• Argument 1: Genetic engineering should be prohibited because there remains limited
research into the consequences on the natural environment when these new varieties are
released and are not controlled with natural predators.
• Argument 2: Genetic engineering offers many opportunities for improving the health and
longevity to people suffering with conditions that currently do not have an effective cure.
We should be doing everything we can to help these groups of people.

Take note on how the arguments outlined above use the position to persuade others to their point
of view by extending their reasoning and providing evidence. Without the latter, the power of
the argument is left to rely solely on the tone of voice of the speaker, body language and insider
knowledge on the speaker, for instance if they have a vested interest in the final outcome of the
argument.

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Non-Arguments

Non-arguments are statements that seem to support or challenge the main argument but which,
on closer examination, do not fulfil the criteria of a “true argument”. Non-arguments may take
the the form of an argument, especially in the following elements:

• use the same signal words in assisting the flow of the writing as is often used for
arguments
• close with a final conclusion
Let us take a closer look at a number of major examples of non-arguments.

Description/Narration

A description presents an account of how something is conducted, or what comparisons can be

made to its nature (Bassham et al., 2011, p. 40-43). This type of writing does not answer questions
that touch on the how and why something happens nor does it evaluate possible conclusions of
the aforementioned happening. In creative writing, descriptions are saturated with imagery,
symbols and sensory language. However, in professional and academic writing, descriptions do
not lean on creating visual landscapes as much as providing the unbiased facts, untainted by
specific points of views. Students often confuse descriptions with critical analysis since both are
used to examine issues in minute detail. The difference between the two, however, is in the
purpose: descriptions are not used to convince its reader to adopt a specific point of view but
provide a more detailed idea of the issue at hand and asks the reader to make their own decision
based on the material presented.

Examples (from Cottrell, 2005, p.54):

1) “Usually, when people see an object that is familiar to them, such as an elephant, a
tree, a bowl, a computer, they grasp immediately what it is. They recognise the
overall pattern that the object makes and don't need to work out from other sensory
information such as sounds, smell and colour, what the whole object might be.
However, people with a condition known as visual agnosia cannot see a whole
pattern in this way: they cannot recognise objects visually. If they traced the outline
of the object with their hand, they might recognise an elephant, but they can't see
an elephant. They can see, and they know they are seeing something, but they can't
see an elephant.”

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In this instance, the author is describing what the condition of visual agnosia is like. The passage
is a report of the facts, as far as they were known at the time of writing. The author is not trying to
persuade the audience to a point of view. You can check this by looking through the passage for
an argument and reasons to support it. The word 'however', which is often associated with a
change in the direction of an argument, is used here to indicate a change in the direction of the
description of how vision works.

2) “The solution was placed in a test-tube and heated to 35" centigrade. Small
amounts of yellow vapour were emitted. These were odourless. Forty millilitres of
water were added to the solution, which was then heated until it began to boil. This
time, grey steam was emitted. Water droplets gathered on the side of the test-tube.”

This describes the steps taken in an experiment. Careful description of methodological

procedures is an important part of writing up any kind of experimental research. No reasons are
given for what happened. The critical analysis of the results would be in a separate part of the
report.

Explanations

There are instances where explanations may share very similar structures to arguments. Indeed,
explanations may boast of having a statement, reasons that follow-up to a conclusion, and even
be complimented with various linking words that are also used in arguments. The main difference
between the two is once again the tendency for explanations to not try to convince its readers to
a specific point of view. Instead, their main functions are to provide a report on how or why
something transpires, or to highlight the significance of a theory and the like.

Example (from Cottrell, 2005, p.55):

“The children ate the mushrooms because they looked similar to those found in
supermarkets and on the dinner table. They hadn't been taught to discriminate between
safe and dangerous fungi and hadn't been told not to eat mushrooms found in hedgerows.”

The above example explains why children ate dangerous mushrooms. If there were an additional
sentence, such as 'therefore we need to educate children about fungi', this would become an
argument, and the explanation would become a reason.

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Summaries

Summaries can be defined as short statements or accounts of longer pieces of text. The key
points of the text are found and rewritten in a way that will bring attention to these main areas of
interest. A conclusion is often included to tie together the main ideas previously mentioned. New
ideas are very rarely introduced in a summary.

Example (from Cottrell, 2005, p.55):

“For this cake, you need equal weights of flour, margarine and sugar. Add one egg for
approximately each 50 grams of flour. Place all the ingredients in a bowl and beat furiously
for three minutes. Blend the ingredients well. Pour into a greased tin and cook in the oven
at 190°C for 20 mins until it is risen, golden brown and coming away to take a break. from
the sides of the tin. Different ovens may require different timings. Leave to cool before
adding decoration such as jam and cream. Therefore, to make the cake, simply buy the
ingredients, mix well, cook at 1 90°C, leave to cool and decorate to taste.”

The above example is a summary of the instructions for baking a cake. It does not include an
argument. The final concluding sentence reflects on what has already been mentioned and ties
all of the ideas together. Note how the linking word “therefore”, usually associated with bringing
an argument to a conclusion, is here used to merely indicate the final summary.

The Argument at Sea

The argument is not, in most cases, an island of its own but finds a home nestled between other
“extraneous” material. Its neighbours include:

• Introduction
• Description
• Explanation
• Context/background information
• Summary
• Other extraneous material

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Example (from Cottrell, 2005, p.58):

“Satellite imaging has been used to match water temperature swirls drawn on a map of
ocean currents made as long ago as 1539. The map was produced by a Swedish
cartographer, Olaus Magnus. It had been thought that the rounded swirls, located between
pictures of serpents and sea monsters, were there for purely artistic reasons. However,
the size, shape and location of the swirls matches changes in water temperature too
closely for this to be a coincidence. The map is likely to be an accurate representation of
the ocean eddy current found to the south and east of Iceland. It is believed that the map-
maker collected his information from German mariners of the Hanseatic League.”

Let us evaluate the example above.

Main argument: The old sea map is possibly an accurate representation of a section of the ocean.

Description: The opening sentence describes the methodology of satellite imaging that is used to
analyse the map.

Background information: Examples include “made as long ago as 1539”; “produced by a Swedish
cartographer, Olaus Magnus.”

Reason to justify the conclusion: to counter the notion that the swirls function principally for
aesthetic purposes, and point out that “the size, shape and location of the swirls matches changes
in water temperature too closely for this to be a coincidence.”

Conclusion: “The map is likely to be an accurate representation of the ocean eddy current found
to the south and east of Iceland.”

Explanatory detail: The final sentence.

Once you are able to recognise the different types of material in passages, you will be able to
easily locate the overall argument. The ability to categorise what is and what is not an argument,
will increase your reading speed as you find yourself identifying key points in quick
succession. It will also assist in the overall comprehension of the text through its main points.
This skill is also exceedingly useful when you sit down to write your own arguments and the
paragraphs in which they dwell.

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The Structure of an Argument

By discerning the structure of an argument, you may focus your reading and improve your
comprehension of the passage by realising the connection between the arguments in the text.

Clarity

One of the main features that you should aim for your argument is clarity (Bassham et al., 2011,
p. 93). A clear, coherent point of view should be preferred to a surplus of stimulating information.
In an ocean of information, the argument is likely to get lost (and may even drown). With a
coherent point of view, your reader is more prone to comprehend and follow throughout the whole
piece.

The point of view can flow through:

• The introductory statements

• The overall lines of reasoning
• The overall summary of the argument
• Assortment of facts
• The conclusion

Internal Consistency

Another important quality of your argument is maintaining a consistent main argument throughout
the whole text where all the different lines tie together neatly (Bassham et al., 2011, p. 4). There
should not be any lines negating, contradicting or undervaluing the main argument.
Inconsistencies will affect the comprehension of the main argument, placing doubt on the
credibility of the argument and its reliability. For instance, you begin discussing the detrimental
effects of smoking. Your next paragraph discusses how smoking reduces stress. But your
conclusion once again mentions how smoking is bad for your health, especially your mental
health. The reader will end up in a very confused state: is smoking good or bad for your (mental)
health? This is not to dissuade you from including opposing arguments, which we will discuss
below, but encourage you to make sure that your argument is following a specific path rather than
diversions from the main path. This will become more apparent and clearer in the next section.

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Including Opposing Arguments

A strong argument will also include alternative or opposing points of view, even those that may
contradict the main argument (Swatridge, 2014, p.41). Your role as a writer is to make sure the
argument manages these contradictions in a coherent and appropriate manner that will
strengthen rather than confuse the main argument. This can be done by:

• highlighting and reiterating the position you want your reader to take throughout the text;
• making it obvious when you are introducing an opposing point of view using signal words
such as it might be argued, nonetheless, notwithstanding this, although, on the one
hand…on the other hand;
• including counter arguments to invalidate the claims of the alternative point of view;
• addressing any illusive contradictions by placing emphasis on the credibility of the main
argument.

Let us look at the example below:

Thesis: Choosing your public school rather than it being systemically assigned to you.

(Alternative Point of View) Considering the many challenges students face, academically, socially
and so on, in their assigned public school, it is clear why many parents are advocating for
alternative options. Supporters of school choice, whereby parents and students can choose which
school they would like to enrol in rather than it being assigned to them based on district or local
government, claim that under the present public school system, parents who are more
economically privileged already practice school choice by migrating out of poor or dangerous
areas to neighbourhoods with academically strong and safer schools. Their argument is that
legislating school choice would allow all parents, regardless of their economic means, to decide
the school that better suits their children. This choice will also reflect on the betterment of schools
as they find themselves in the position of competing for students by offering higher academic
results and much needed safety. Schools that fail to reach the appropriate standard of successful
schools would cease. It is true that the intentions of these activists are of great merit as they seek
to improve the education of the state. However, the changes they are proposing can lead to
serious repercussions on the public education as a whole.

(Counter Arguments) One of the principal risks of school choice is the authority behind large
corporations specialising in alternative curriculum education. Two prominent companies are

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Green Dot, a top public school operator in the Los Angeles area, and KIPP, which has established
itself in at least 65 schools across states. Both companies are growing exponentially annually and
there is the fear that these private corporations could expand to a degree where public control of
education would be fractional. Instead, education policy would be in the hands of entrepreneurial
advisory boards and corporate boards of directors whose main purpose is to increase their profit
and not to improve the education of their state. Education should be determined by professionals
and not by investors and business people.

The example above is internally consistent, and each reason supports this main argument. The
opposing view mentioned in the first paragraph is included but its points are easily refuted with
carefully chosen counterarguments.

Alternative example from argumentative essay which also includes in-text citations:

Modern youth is flooded with opportunities to access information and entertainment, often at the
touch of a fingertip. Although many of these technological outlets have a negative connotation of
“wasted brain space,” not all technology and screen time should be considered of little worth, or
purely for mindless entertainment. This essay will argue that the use of technology and
screen time can be positive for children as it allows children to excel academically by
experiencing the expanding definitions of classrooms and literacy as a whole, improves
low-performing developmental skills, and can supplement in-class education for more
academically-advanced students. (Thesis)

(Argument) Where reading and writing skills in the medium of spoken word or paper and ink once
strictly defined literacy, the definition is widely changing to include proficiency in modern
technology such as computers and other digital sources of information. Because of this changing
standard in academia, children must be allowed to explore information in ways that challenge
previous methods. For example, children can access digital applications, and according to Kervin
(2016, p.70), “Digital play with carefully selected apps can provide active, hands-on, engaging
and empowering learning opportunities. Apps can facilitate versatility in children’s literacy
experiences by providing opportunities for reading and writing, and to listen and communicate
through a range of scenarios and activities”. By this explanation, an app on a tablet can provide
children an alternate medium for education while introducing them to technology literacy. Although
not all available apps are created to enrich a child’s educational experiences, the guided use of
carefully chosen apps for digital play can be a powerful learning tool when used in academic
contexts.

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(Opposing point of view and evaluation) Some scholars and researchers claim that there are
negative impacts of technology on a child’s developing mind. According to one research study,
scholars claimed that “moderate evidence also suggests that early exposure to purely
entertainment content, and media violence in particular, is negatively associated with cognitive
skills and academic achievement” (Kirkorian et al., 2008, p. 8). Although there is validity to the
presented argument, this theory excludes educationally driven programming, some of which is
specifically designed to educate children beyond what they might experience by age-appropriate
schooling alone. There is incredible value in formal education and the public school system;
however, classroom modalities are not the only way children learn about the world around them.
Educational stimuli can come in the form of direct contact with a teacher, reading a book, or by
watching a program. For instance, Fisch (2004) describes how some television programs are
types of informal education, much like educational activities that children find in magazines,
museums, or after-school programs. When presented in an informal and entertaining way, this
supplemental material can help students become more engaged in topics, and more willing to
delve into deeper consideration of concepts.

(Adapted from https://writingcenter.uagc.edu/argumentative-writing)

Precision

The wording of your arguments plays a significant role in determining the consistency of the
overall argument (Swatridge, 2014, p.2). Through careful word choice that approaches the topic
in a tentative manner, the main argument is easier to defend. For instance, it is simpler to defend
that “Oranges are beneficial because of their immune system due to their Vitamin C levels” than
trying to defend an absolute such as “Oranges are the best for our health”. This latter statement
may not hold true in every circumstance. Avoid absolute statements if you can for you are apt to
fall into the danger of them trying to use relative points that do not match content-wise to the all-
or-nothing approach of the absolute statement. See the example below:

“Oranges are the best fruit for our health. They provide a high Vitamin C dose, which helps to
protect our immune system from attack. They also provide a good amount of fibre and trace
minerals that are essential for the function of our bodies. Though oranges do not contain as high

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in amount of Vitamin C, fibre and minerals as other fruit such as berries and kiwi, they are still
more beneficial than merely trying to supplement with commercial vitamins.”

Here we do not have a consistent argument. The statement that oranges are “more beneficial”
does not match with absolute “best for our health” at the start of the paragraph. Instead, the main
argument falls into contradictions and its credibility is affected.

Logical consistency

We have already mentioned the importance of being consistent in your line of reasoning, and the
value of making sure the main argument’s qualitative status is reflected in the discussion that
follows. Another factor we need to consider is whether the reason we provide to support our
argument actually do what we set them out to do. Do the arguments follow a clear path that spell
out only one conclusion i.e. your main argument? What we are trying to ascertain here is the
logical consistency of the line of argument.

It is a common mistake among students (and writers in general) to get so caught in the content of
their research and writing that by the time they finish, the conclusion they draw does not reflect
the reasons that preceded it. There are times where students do not even have good reasons for
the argument and attempt to clutch at any straw, as the saying goes, and writes in the hope the
reader will not notice the lack of logic or reasonable conclusion.

If we consider the example from the previous section on the topic of oranges:

“Oranges are the best fruit for our health. They provide a high Vitamin C dose, which helps to
protect our immune system from attack from the common cold. They also provide a good amount
of fibre and trace minerals that are essential for the function of our bodies. Oranges can save us
from major conditions such as cancer and Alzheimer. Though oranges do not contain as high
in amount of Vitamin C, fibre and minerals as other fruit such as berries and kiwi, they are still
more beneficial than merely trying to supplement with commercial vitamins.”

Notice the addition of the bold-font sentence. Though it continues on the same topic, the point it
brings up diverges from the rest of the evidence-supported reasonable arguments. For one, there
is no evidence to support the point nor does the previous sentence provide a clear link to the next.
The jump from a common cold to a major condition such as cancer is a huge leap and is not
successful. Be careful to avoid huge leaps between points; remember to guide your reader step-
by-step rather than jump by jump.

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Logical Order

The main argument should progress through the writing with a clear course. Avoid at all cost
jumping from one point to another in a haphazard and random manner. This will only leave your
reader lost and confused in the sea of your words. To avoid this, make sure you plan your
arguments, accordingly, using the points below to guide you:

• categorise and group related points together;

• provide the reasons that support the argument of the specific group first in order to
ascertain a strong foundation for the argument;
• bring in opposing reasons later after the argument has already been established, which
will help in highlighting the former’s diminishing significance.

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Drawing conclusions

Intermediate Conclusions

To aid the internal consistency of the main argument, you should strongly consider the use of
intermediate conclusion. These have two chief functions:

a) Summative: to sum up the argument of the previous section and to offer it to the reader
in more digestible chunks. This also works to bolster the message and reminds the reader
of the main argument. The summative intermediate conclusion works best when reasons
are organised in logical sections/paragraphs and the conclusion is presented towards the
end in a sentence or intermediate paragraph.
b) Reason: for this function, you may need to present a solid occasion for an intermediate
conclusion before the latter can function as a reason. Therefore, a set of reasons lead to
an intermediate conclusion, and that intermediate conclusion also acts as a reason to
bolster the final conclusion.

Let us see the example below on how this intermediate conclusion can lead up to the main
conclusion (from Cottrell, 2005, p.72):

“Universities want objective methods of marking students' work but objectivity is time-consuming.
Lecturers spend a great deal of time checking their interpretations of students' answers. As there
is only one correct answer for multiple-choice questions, there are no opportunities for subjective
judgements, making the system fairer. These tests can be marked at speed, and objectively, by
a computer. Multiple choice offers a quicker and fairer way of marking. With increased numbers
of students, universities want to make better use of lecturers' time. Therefore, universities should
make more use of multiple-choice tests.”

In this example, the final conclusion is provided in the last sentence. The intermediate conclusion
is the sentence, “Multiple choice offers a quicker and fairer way of marking.” The writer needed to
ascertain that using multiple-choice based questions provide a time-efficient and objective
approach to grading assignments. The writer uses the reason that multiple-choice questions can
hold only one correct answer to lead to the interim conclusion. This latter interim question provides
the reason for the final conclusion.

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Summative and Logical Conclusions

A quick note on conclusions since this is the area in which we find ourselves at present. There
are two main structures for the conclusion: summative and logical.

a) Summative conclusions tie together all the main lines of arguments raised in the Main
Body section of the writing and provides a shorter overall summary. If a text were to
provide three main points, for instance, the summative conclusion would provide a brief
synopsis of all three. These points will be drawn to a close usually without making a
specific judgement. The author, in this case, will re-state the points, but will not use
evidence to draw a logical conclusion about which point is the strongest/more
valid/preferred. This type of conclusion is best for summaries rather than arguments.
b) Logical conclusions are inferences founded on reasons provided in the Main Body. This
is an example of an argument and does draw a judgement based on the lines of arguments
that pre-empted the final conclusion. Think back to the example provided regarding using
Multiple Choice questions for university assignments. The final conclusion is “Therefore,
universities should make more use of multiple-choice tests.” Notice the signal word,
“therefore”. This allows the writer to infer a conclusion from the previous arguments (and
intermediate conclusion) and construct an argument for a conclusion. In other words, the
lines of arguments funnelled down to a final conclusion, which in itself is an overall
argument.

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Final Thoughts

We began this section discussing the author’s position. It is not always obvious in the argument
but once you have established the author’s position, you can then predict the logical conclusion
and even the reasons that will lead to the aforementioned. This will help you comprehend the text
as a whole and judge the quality of the argument. When it comes to establishing your own
arguments, it is important to establish a coherent and comprehensible position from the beginning
and funnel down to a clear conclusion that will reflect the main argument.

A coherent and cohesive position will best organise the main material and differentiate the ideas
that support the main argument from those that contradict it. This will aid in developing internal
consistency that provides space for alternative viewpoints. Indeed, well-established argument will
draw strength from apparently opposing views by undermining their currency and highlighting the
credibility of the main argument.

The various information supporting the main argument needs to be organised in a logical manner
by grouping analogous points together. This will allow the reader to see how the different parts of
the argument connect. A logical order, one where each point flows organically from one to the
next, will also give the reader the tools to make sense of the material. There are various ways to
organise the material but the most important factor to keep in mind is that the main argument
must remain at the forefront of the text and determine the final conclusion.

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Reference List

Bassham, G. et al. (2011) Critical Thinking: A Student’s Introduction. 4th edn. New York: McGraw-
Hill.

CottreIl, S. (2005) Critical Thinking Skills. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Swatridge, C. (2014) The Oxford Guide to: Effective Argument and Critical Thinking. Oxford:
Oxford UP.

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