3 - Digital Control Systems

Controls
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Nissing
3 Digital Control Systems
288
Literature
Nise, Norman S.
Control Systems Engineering
2011, Wiley
ISBN 978-0-470646120
Dorf, R. C., R.H. Bishop

Modern Control Systems
2011, Pearson Education
ISBN 978-0-13-138310-4
Gopal, M.
Control Systems
2011, McGraw Hill
ISBN 978-0-07-066879-9
Controls
07.01.2022 Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Nissing 289
Digital Computer Control System
Applications
• Total number of computer control
systems installed in industry has
grown over the past three decades
• Transistor density
• Powerful
• Relatively inexpensive
• Mobile capability
• Improved measurement sensitivity
(less signal noise)
• Flexibility
• Reconfigure control algorithm in
software
Source: INTEL
Controls
Applications
Difference to
conventional controller
Digital computer receives
and operates on signals in
digital (numerical) form 
measurement data
converted from analog to
digital / output data
converted from digital to
analog
Controls
Applications
Controls
Applications
Difference to conventional controller
target
actual (cont)
actual (dig)
control (cont)
control (dig)
Controls
Learning Outcomes
• Understand the role of digital computers in

control system design and applications
• Model the digital computer in a feedback system
• Be familiar with sampled- data systems (the z-
transform and)
• Appreciate the issues associated with the
implementation of digital controllers  stability
Controls
Signal Conversion
Digital-to-Analog conversion (D/A): Provided at

the output of a digital controller
Analog-to-Digital conversion (A/D): Provided at
the input of a digital controller
Controls
Signal Conversion
• Analog signal (a)
• Analog signal sampled at
periodic intervals and held
over the sampling interval
(b)
• Device so called zero-order
sample-and-hold (z.o.h.)
• After sampling and holding,
the A/D-converter converts
to a digital number (c)
• Quantization error
• Stability and transient
response are now
dependent on sampling rate
 taking conversion into
account during modeling
Controls
Modeling
Sampler
• All number entering or leaving the
computer at the same fixed period
T, called sampling period
• Sequence of sample values
(discrete) r(kT) in contrast to r(t)
• Input r(t) / output r*(t), where nT is
the current sampling time
• 𝑟 ∗ 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑛𝑇)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
• Sketch 𝑟 ∗ 𝑡 in the figure on the
right
Controls
Modeling
Zero-Order Hold
• Z.o.h. takes the value r(kT) and holds it
constant for 𝑘𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑘 + 1 𝑇
• Sampler and z.o.h. accurately follow the
input signal if T is small compared to the
transient changes in the signal. Output will
approach input as T approaches zero
1 1 −𝑠𝑇 1−𝑒 −𝑠𝑇
• TF of z.o.h. 𝐺ℎ 𝑠 = − 𝑒 =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
• Quantization error and the error due to a
computers´s finite word size are small
relative to the amplitude, precision
limitations can be neglected
Controls
Modeling
Controls
Modeling
Ramp input to a PT1-system, T=0.1s
Controls
Modeling
Ramp input to a PT1-system, T=1s
Controls
Modeling
CL-control of PT1-system, T=0.05s
Controls
Modeling
Controls
Modeling
Controls
TF of a Sampled System
u(t) y(t)
u(t) y(t)
LTI
t t
Description of LTI through differential equation

𝑛 𝑛
𝛼𝑛 𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝛼2 𝑦 + 𝛼1 𝑦 + 𝛼0 𝑦 = 𝛽𝑛 𝑢 + ⋯ + 𝛽0 𝑢
Controls
Differential quotient approximation
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑦 𝑘 − 1 𝑇
≈
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=𝑘𝑇 𝑇
𝑦 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑦 𝑘 − 1 𝑇 𝑦 𝑘−1 𝑇 −𝑦 𝑘−2 𝑇
𝑑²𝑦 −
≈ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑡² 𝑇
𝑡=𝑘𝑇
𝑦 𝑘𝑇 − 2𝑦 𝑘 − 1 𝑇 + 𝑦 𝑘 − 2 𝑇
=
𝑇²
 Difference equation
𝑦 𝑘 + 𝑎1 𝑦 𝑘 − 1 + 𝑎2 𝑦 𝑘 − 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚 𝑦 𝑘 − 𝑚
= 𝑏0 𝑢 𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑢(𝑘 − 𝑚)
Controls
Fundamental equation of a linear time-discrete TF:
𝑦(𝑧) 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑧 −𝑚 𝐵 𝑧
𝐺 𝑧 = = −1 −𝑚
=
𝑢(𝑧) 1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚 𝑧 𝐴 𝑧
Controls
The z-Transform
• Stability and transient response of analog

systems depend upon gain and component
values
• Sampled-data system stability and transient
response also dependent on sampling rate
 Development of a transform that contains the
information of sampling combining ease and insight
of the Laplace transform
Controls
The z-Transform
Controls
The z-Transform
z-transform of a function 𝑓(𝑡) :

∞
𝑍 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑇)𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0
• 𝐹(𝑧) can be transformed to 𝑓(𝑘𝑇), or vice versa
• Paralleling the development of the Laplace
transform, we can form a table relating 𝑓(𝑘𝑇) to
𝐹(𝑧)
Controls
The z-Transform
z-Transform of the unit step function 𝑓 𝑡 = 1(𝑡)
𝑍 𝑓(𝑡) =
Controls
The z-Transform
Controls
The z-Transform
Controls
The z-Transform
Example
Let´s consider the system in the block diagram for
𝑇 = 1. Determine the TF in the z-domain
𝑌(𝑧)
𝐺 𝑧 = .
𝑅(𝑧)
𝑟(𝑡) 𝑝(𝑡) 1 𝑦(𝑡)

𝐺ℎ (𝑠) 𝐺𝑝 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
𝑟 ∗ (𝑡)
z.o.h. Process
Controls
The z-Transform
Controls
The z-Transform
Controls
Review Questions
• How can you describe a digital signal?

• How can a A/D-converter be modeled?
• What are the contributors of a discrete system describing
the stability and transient behavior?
• Are you able to apply the z-transform?
Next steps
• Using the inverse z-transform to get 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 out of 𝐹(𝑧)
• Determine the stability of a system using the transfer
function in the z-domain 𝐹(𝑧)
Controls
Controls
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Nissing
3 Digital Control Systems
323
The Inverse z-Transform
• Determination of the sampled time function from
its z-transform  inverse z-transform
• 𝑍 −1 𝐹(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑘𝑇)
• For functions not in the table, we must perform
an inverse z-transform calculation similar to the
inverse Laplace transform by
- partial-fraction expansion or
- via power series method (division of
polynomials)
Controls
Closed-Loop Feedback Sampled-
Data Systems
Block Diagram Reduction
Controls
Data Systems
Controls
Data Systems
Problem: Find the z-transform of the system shown
in the figure below
Controls
Data Systems
b) Phantom sampler
S4 at the output
(output of a sampled-
data system can only
be found at the
sampling instants
anyway and the
signal is not an input
to any other block
Controls
Data Systems
b) Add phantom
sampler S2 and S3
(sampled sum is
equivalent to the sum
of the sampled inputs
when all samplers
are synchronized)
Controls
Data Systems
c) Move sampler S1
and 𝐺(𝑠) to the right
past the kickoff point
 motivation to yield
a sampler at the
input of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
Controls
Data Systems
d) 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) with
samplers S1 and
S3 becomes 𝐺𝐻(𝑧)
and 𝐺(𝑠) with
samplers S1 and
S4 becomes 𝐺(𝑧);
converting 𝑅∗ (𝑠) to
𝑅(𝑧) and 𝐶 ∗ (𝑠) to
𝐶(𝑧)
Controls
Closed-Loop
Feedback
Sampled-Data
Systems
e) Apply rules for block
diagrams
simplification
(feedback formula)
with only a change in
variables from 𝑠 to 𝑧
f) finally, multiplication
Controls
Stability
• Sampling rate of digital feedback control

systems influences transient response
• Changes in sampling rate change the nature
of the response from overdamped to
underdamped
• Changes in sampling rate can turn a stable
system into an unstable one
Controls
Stability
Recap stability requirements of continuous control

systems?
• TF of the closed loop system G(s)
• Positions of Zeros?
• Positions of Poles?
Controls
Stability
• A:
• B:
• C:
Controls
Stability
• Each region of the s-
plane can be
mapped to a
corresponding region
on the z-plane
• Positive values in the
right half of the s-
plane (region C) 
points outside the
unit circle on the z-
plane
• Points on the Im-axis
(region B)  points
on the z-plane with
magnitude = 1, the
unit circle
• Negative values in
the left half of the s-
plane (region A) 
points inside the unit
circle on the z-plane
Controls
Stability
Example
Is the time discrete system

𝑧
𝐺 𝑧 =
𝑧−𝑎
stable?
Controls
Stability
Example
Determine if the systems are stable
𝑧
1. 𝐺 𝑧 =
𝑧²−𝑧+0.6322
𝑧−1
2. 𝐺 𝑧 =
𝑧²+2.31𝑧+3.012
Controls
Stability
Exercise
Let´s consider the open-loop system having the
discrete transfer function
𝐾(0.3678𝑧 + 0.2644)
𝐺 𝑧 =
𝑧² − 1.3678𝑧 + 0.3678
where K is the controller gain. Calculate if the
closed-loop system is stable/unstable, when
a) K=1
b) K=10
Controls
Stability
Controls
Virtually Continuous Control
• Sampling can be neglected if

 T << time constants of the
system
 Control circuit can be

considered as (virtually)
continuous with time delay
element
Controls
Virtually Continuous Control
Time constant of the control Sampling period T
system (experimentally)
Delay time Tu ≤ 0.1 Tu
Compensating time Tg ≤ 0.05-0.1 Tg
Limiting factors:
-
-
-
Controls
Review Questions
• Do you understand the effect of a D/A- and/or

A/D-converter to a control system?
• What does zero-order hold mean?
• Which system properties are affected by the
sampling?
• What is the purpose of a z-transform?
• What is the criteria for stability in case of digital
control systems?
Controls

3 - Digital Control Systems

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Controls

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Nissing

3 Digital Control Systems

Dorf, R. C., R.H. Bishop

• Understand the role of digital computers in

Digital-to-Analog conversion (D/A): Provided at

Description of LTI through differential equation

Fundamental equation of a linear time-discrete TF:

• Stability and transient response of analog

z-transform of a function 𝑓(𝑡) :

z-Transform of the unit step function 𝑓 𝑡 = 1(𝑡)

𝑟(𝑡) 𝑝(𝑡) 1 𝑦(𝑡)

• How can you describe a digital signal?

3 Digital Control Systems

• Sampling rate of digital feedback control

Recap stability requirements of continuous control

Is the time discrete system

• Sampling can be neglected if

 Control circuit can be

• Do you understand the effect of a D/A- and/or

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