SOLAR ENERGY

Energy
Energy is the measure of ability of physical system to perform work when system
undergoes change.

o Change in system - must be able to describe system accurately

before and after to say it has changed
o Energy does not possess properties like those of matter
o Energy can be measured and quantified
o Energy is a scalar quantity (no sense of direction)
o Unit for energy is erg, amount of energy needed to accelerate mass
of 1 gram at rate of 1 centimeter per second squared as it moves
distance of 1 centimeter, i.e., 1 erg = 1 (g)(cm2/s2)

solar power
Introduction

Solar power is energy from the sun. The sun is 150

million kilometres away, but it is over 1 million
degrees Celsius at the core. If we could harness it,
there is enough solar power reaching the earth to provide all of our energy needs
10,000 times over.

Since almost the beginning of man, solar power has been used for drying clothes
and food. It was not until 1954 however, that scientists in the United States
produced electricity from the sun - to power satellites in space. They invented
photoelectric (or photovoltaic) panels (or cells), which capture the sun's energy
and turn it into electricity.

The Sun is an abundant energy resource, the energy from which is available on
Earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The center of our Solar
System fuels most types of our "renewable" energy resources. The
simplest use of the Sun is to merely place something in the path of
incident sunlight to increase its temperature — the average kinetic energy
of the particles in motion in a body. With the aid of some clever
engineering, together with common-sense engineering, the passive
heating effect of the Sun can be used sucessfully and economically as an
energy source. The amuont of energy available per location is relatively
small, and this limitation is likely to remain in the future. In some
applications, however, it is the most economical alternative; and, of
course, solar energy will be available for another five billion years!.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy, provided by the sun, is constantly replenished and will not produce
harmful pollution unlike fossil fuels. Solar energy may be used passively,
such as to heat and light buildings, or technology may be used to harness
the sun's energy by collecting it and transforming it to generate electricity.
Current technologies include photovoltaics, concentrating solar, solar hot
water, e.t.c

Solar power can provide electricity for many applications.

In very remote locations it may be the only practical
solution since reliable power can be provided virtually
anywhere. In addition, more and more residential and
commercial customers are realizing the benefits of
utilizing solar power for electricity to offset their utility-
supplied energy consumption, to provide back up power
or to operate independent of the utility grid. Solar power
can be a solution.

Sun- the ultimate source of energy

The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Solar energy is the solar
radiation that reaches the earth.

Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy,
such as heat and electricity. The major drawbacks (problems, or issues to
overcome) of solar energy are: (1) the intermittent and variable manner in which
it arrives at the earth's surface and, (2) the large area required to collect it at a
useful rate.

Solar energy is used for heating water for domestic use, space heating of
buildings, drying agricultural products, and generating electrical energy.

In the 1830s, the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar collector box to
cook food during an expedition to Africa. Now, people are trying to use the sun's
energy for lots of things.

Electric utilities are trying photovoltaics, a process by which solar energy is

converted directly to electricity. Electricity can be produced directly from solar
energy using photovoltaic devices or indirectly from steam generators using solar
thermal collectors to heat a working fluid.

There were 15 solar electric generating units operating in the US at the end of
2002, with more on the way. Most of these are in California, though Nevada,
Arizona, Texas, and Virginia have them, too.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY

Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of

sunlight into electricity through a
photovoltaic (PVs) cell, commonly
called a solar cell. A photovoltaic cell is
a nonmechanical device usually made
from silicon alloys.

Sunlight is composed of photons, or

particles of solar energy. These
photons contain various amounts of
energy corresponding to the different
wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
When photons strike a photovoltaic cell,
they may be reflected, pass right
through, or be absorbed. Only the
absorbed photons provide energy to
generate electricity. When enough
sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the
material (a semiconductor), electrons
are dislodged from the material's
atoms. Special treatment of the
material surface during manufacturing
makes the front surface of the cell more
receptive to free electrons, so the
electrons naturally migrate to the surface.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many
electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the
cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces
creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of a battery.
When the two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows.

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a PV system. Individual cells
can vary in size from about 1 cm (1/2 inch) to about 10 cm (4 inches) across.
However, one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most
applications. To increase power output, cells are electrically connected into a
packaged weather-tight module. Modules can be further connected to form an
array. The term array refers to the entire generating plant, whether it is made up
of one or several thousand modules. As many modules as needed can be
connected to form the array size (power output) needed.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate

conditions (e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar
energy received by a PV array and, in turn, its performance. Most current
technology photovoltaic modules are about 10 percent efficient in converting
sunlight with further research being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20
percent.

The pv cell was discovered in 1954 by Bell Telephone researchers examining the
sensitivity of a properly prepared silicon wafer to sunlight. Beginning in the late
1950s, pvs were used to power U.S. space satellites. The success of PVs in
space generated commercial applications for pv technology. The simplest
photovoltaic systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches
used everyday. More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water,
power communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our homes.

Photovoltaic conversion is useful for several reasons. Conversion from sunlight

to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical generator systems are
unnecessary. The modular characteristic of photovoltaic energy allows arrays to
be installed quickly and in any size required or allowed.

Also, the environmental impact of a photovoltaic system is minimal, requiring no

water for system cooling and generating no by-products. Photovoltaic cells, like
batteries, generate direct current (DC) which is generally used for small loads
(electronic equipment). When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial
applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted
to alternating current (AC) using
inverters, solid state devices that
convert DC power to AC. Historically,
pvs have been used at remote sites to
provide electricity. However, a market
for distributed generation from PVs
may be developing with the
unbundling of transmission and
distribution costs due to electric
deregulation. The siting of numerous
small-scale generators in electric
distribution feeders could improve the
economics and reliability of the
distribution system.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

SOLAR THERMAL HEAT

The major applications of solar thermal energy at present are heating swimming
pools, heating water for domestic use, and space heating of buildings. For these
purposes, the general practice is to use flat-plate solar-energy collectors with a
fixed orientation (position).

Where space heating is the main consideration, the highest efficiency with a fixed
flat-plate collector is obtained if it faces approximately south and slopes at an
angle to the horizon equal to the latitude plus about 15 degrees.

Solar collectors fall into two general categories: non concentrating and
concentrating. In the non concentrating type, the collector area (i.e. the area that
intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area
absorbing the radiation).

In concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater,

sometimes hundreds of times greater, than the absorber area. Where
temperatures below about 200o F are sufficient, such as for space heating, flat-
plate collectors of the non concentrating type are generally used.

There are many flat-plate collector designs but generally all consist of (1) a flat-
plate absorber, which intercepts and absorbs the solar energy, (2) a transparent
cover(s) that allows solar energy to pass through but reduces heat loss from the
absorber, (3) a heat-transport fluid (air or water) flowing through tubes to remove
heat from the absorber, and (4) a heat insulating backing.

Solar space heating systems can be classified as passive or active. In passive

heating systems, the air is circulated past a solar heat surface(s) and through the
building by convection (i.e. less dense warm air tends to rise while more dense
cooler air moves downward) without the use of mechanical equipment. In
active heating systems, fans and pumps are used to circulate the air or the heat
absorbing fluid.

SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANTS

Solar thermal power plants use the sun's rays to heat a fluid, from which heat
transfer systems may be used to produce steam. The steam, in turn, is converted
into mechanical energy in a turbine and into electricity from a conventional
generator coupled to the turbine. Solar thermal power generation is essentially
the same as conventional technologies except that in conventional technologies
the energy source is from the stored energy in fossil fuels released by
combustion. Solar thermal technologies use concentrator systems due to the
high temperatures needed for the working fluid. The three types of solar-thermal

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 SOLAR ENERGY

power systems in use or under development are: parabolic trough, solar dish,
and solar power tower.

PARABOLIC TROUGH

The parabolic trough is the most advanced of

the concentrator systems. This technology is
used in the largest grid connected solar-
thermal power plants in the world. One such
complex in the U.S. uses parabolic troughs.
The Kramer Junction companies operate and
maintain five 30-megawatt Solar Electric
Generating Systems (SEGS). These SEGS
comprise 150 to 354 megawatts of installed
parabolic trough solar thermal electric
generating capacity located in California's Mojave desert. The combined
California facilities produce more than 99% of the commercially available solar
generated electric power in the U.S.

A parabolic trough collector has a linear parabolic-shaped reflector that focuses

the sun's radiation on a linear receiver located at the focus of the parabola. The
collector tracks the sun along one axis from east to west during the day to ensure
that the sun is continuously focused on the receiver. Because of its parabolic
shape, a trough can focus the sun at 30 to 100 times its normal intensity
(concentration ratio) on a receiver pipe located along the focal line of the trough,
achieving operating temperatures over 400 degrees Celcius.

A collector field consists of a large field of single-axis tracking parabolic trough

collectors. The solar field is modular in nature and is composed of many parallel
rows of solar collectors aligned on a north-south horizontal axis. A working (heat
transfer) fluid is heated as it circulates through the receivers and returns to a
series of heat exchangers at a central location where the fluid is used to generate
high-pressure superheated steam. The steam is then fed to a conventional
steam turbine/generator to produce electricity. After the working fluid passes
through the heat exchangers, the cooled fluid is recirculated through the solar
field. The plant is usually designed to operate at full rated power using solar
energy alone, given sufficient solar energy. However, all plants are hybrid
solar/fossil plants that have a fossil-fired capability that can be used to
supplement the solar output during periods of low solar energy. The Luz plant is
a natural gas hybrid.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

SOLAR DISH

A solar dish/engine system utilizes concentrating solar collectors that track the
sun on two axes, concentrating the energy at the focal point of the dish because
it is always pointed at the sun. The solar dish's concentration ratio is much
higher that the solar trough, typically over 2,000, with a working fluid temperature
over 750oC. The power-generating equipment used with a solar dish can be
mounted at the focal point of the dish, making it well suited for remote operations
or, as with the solar trough, the energy may be collected from a number of
installations and converted to electricity at a central point. The engine in a solar
dish/engine system converts heat to mechanical power by compressing the
working fluid when it is cold, heating the compressed working fluid, and then
expanding the fluid through a turbine or with a piston to produce work. The
engine is coupled to an electric generator to convert the mechanical power to
electric power.

SOLAR POWER TOWER

A solar power tower or central receiver generates electricity from sunlight by

focusing concentrated solar energy on a tower-mounted heat exchanger
(receiver). This system uses hundreds to thousands of flat sun-tracking mirrors
called heliostats to reflect and concentrate the sun's energy onto a central
receiver tower. The energy can be concentrated as much as 1,500 times that of
the energy coming in from the sun. Energy losses from thermal-energy transport
are minimized as solar energy is being directly transferred by reflection from the
heliostats to a single receiver, rather than being moved through a transfer
medium to one central location, as with parabolic troughs. Power towers must be
large to be economical. This is a promising technology for large-scale grid-
connected power plants. Though power towers are in the early stages of
development compared with parabolic trough
technology, a number of test facilities have
been constructed around the world.

Solar One, near Barstow, California which

operated from 1982 to 1988, at about 10
megawatts, was the world's largest power
tower plant. In Solar One, water was
converted to steam in the receiver and used
directly to power a steam turbine. The
heliostat field consisted of approximately
1,800 heliostats. The storage system stored
heat from solar-produced steam in a tank
filled with rocks and sand using oil as the
heat-transfer fluid. A consortium comprising

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 SOLAR ENERGY

the U.S. Department of Energy and a number of electric utilities, led by Southern
California Edison, redesigned Solar One to a more advanced molten-salt
technology, which started operation in 1996, Solar Two.

Measurement of Solar energy

Purpose: To measure solar irradiance -- the energy incident per second on a

unit area exposed directly to the sun.

Apparatus: A solar energy calorimeter device -- an aluminum cube with one

blackened surface enclosed in a Styrofoam box with a plastic window in front of
the blackened surface. Thermometer, condensing lens, laboratory stand and
clamps, stopwatch, vernier caliper.

Procedure: The experiment may be performed with or without the condensing

lens in front of the plastic window. Using the lens concentrates the suns rays and
gives a greater temperature rise per unit time.

A. Place the cube in sunlight with the plane of the absorbing surface
perpendicular to the sun's rays. Monitor the cube's temperature rise with a
thermometer and monitor the time with a stopwatch. Allow at least 40 minutes, or
a temperature rise of 20CC, whichever comes first.

B. Remove the cube from the sun and place it in the shade. Monitor its
temperature drop and the time required. Allow about one hour or a temperature
drop of 20CC, whichever comes first.

Analysis:

A. Make a graph of cube temperature versus time on Linear graph paper.

Denote the absorption region and the emission region. Draw a smooth curve
through the data points for the absorption region and draw a smooth curve
through the data points for the emission region.

B. Pick a value of T2 and T1 from the graph and the corresponding values of t2
and t1. (See figure 1) Use equation (3) in Theory section and calculate a value
for solar irradiance.

C. Pick several different temperature intervals from your graph and for each
calculate a value for solar irradiance. Find the average of all your results. This
average is your final value for solar irradiance. This value should be somewhat
below the accepted value of 1353 watts/m2 for the earth's upper atmosphere.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Theory:

L = transmittance of glass condensing lens and/or plastic window

= (.96)2 = .92 without the lens

= (.96)4 * .95 = .81 with the lens

a = absorbance value of the blackened surface of the cube

= .97

m = mass of the cube in grams (labeled on Styrofoam box)

A = area of lens (if used) or area of plastic window in m2

R = energy per second radiated by the cube

E = solar irradiance (1353 watts/m2 is the accepted value for radiant

energy reaching the earth's upper atmosphere)

c = specific heat of aluminum cube

= .214

T1,T2 = temperature in CC

t1 = time in seconds for temperature of cube to increase from T1 to T2

when in direct sun

t2 = time in seconds for temperature of cube to drop from T2 to T1 when in

the shade

Note: The solar irradiance is often given in terms of hence the following
conversions are useful:

1 = 4.184 = 1.327

where 1 watt = 1

Cube in direct sunlight:

energy received from = heat gained by + energy radiated

sun during time t1 cube during t1 by cube during t1

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 SOLAR ENERGY

(1) EALat1 = mc(T2 - T1) + Rt1

Cube in shade:

energy radiated by = heat lost by

cube during time t2 cube during t2

(2) Rt2 = mc(T2 - T1)

Eliminate R from the two equations by solving equation (2) for R and
substituting it into equation (1). After a little algebra the result is as follows:

E=

Fig. 1

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Beliefs regarding solar energy

The measurements were taken from a detector 6,800 feet below a nickel mine in
Ontario. Arthur McDonald at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, Canada
was the projects director. He said that the models used for the sun are correct.
McDonald says they wear disguises and are in the place they were expected to
be found. The measuring instrument discovered electron neutrinos to be mixed
within other types of neutrinos, which are even harder to detect. McDonald said
that they may switch identities on their journey to the Earth, but once here the
total is correct.

John Bahcall, a physicist at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton,

conducted a measurement in the 1960s to determine the number of neutrinos
passing through the Earth from the sun's core. His calculations were somewhat
off. The first neutrino detector was located in the Homestake Gold Mine in South
Dakota. In 1968, it found the inaccuracy. Bahcall remembers the embarrassment
and was glad to hear of these new results.

As usual with new discoveries in science-for every problem solved another one
seems to take its place. This time it is, "Why do neutrinos change their
identities?" The standard model of physics says the neutrinos are without mass,
but the newest results show they have at least a minute piece.

The definition of a neutrino: ghost particles traveling the universe, without an

electric charge and almost no mass. They pass through objects without being
harmed, but they are born in the hottest places. They have come from the Big
Bang through the center of supernovae and stars. They will travel through a
star's outer layers giving a unique insight into its core. They are measured with a
neutrino telescope, which normally uses a large tank of water to capture even a
few of the neutrino particles that are passing through.

Photovoltaics

The sun's abundant energy can be captured and converted to forms more useful
to us such as heat or electrical energy. The conversion to heat energy is usually
referred to as passive solar energy. The process of converting solar energy to
electrical energy is called photovoltaic power generation. The photovoltaic cell (or
solar cell) was invented in the early 1950s, with the increase in semiconductor
technology.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

How solar cells work

Like other photodetectors, solar cells convert light energy into electrical energy,
using the same basic principle as p-n diodes. Photodiodes, including solar
cells, consist of a p-n junction of two semiconductor types, which allows
current to flow in only one direction (see Fig. 1). The impurities or dopants
create a positive charge on one side and a negative charge on the other,
generating a potential across the junction. If a photodiode is operated
without a bias potential--that is, without an additional external voltage--it
becomes a photovoltaic device. When such a cell is exposed to light,
photons bounce electrons into the conduction band, creating electron-hole
pairs. The intrinsic potential separates the charges, and they accumulate
on opposite sides of the cell. This in turn generates a voltage from which a
current can be derived. In solar-cell modules, electrodes laid over the top
of the cells collect the current and feed it out to the cell edge (see Fig. 2).

FIGURE 1.

Solar cells are p-n junctions. When they are exposed to light, electrons are
bounced across the bandgap by photons into the conduction band, leaving
holes behind. Driven by the intrinsic potential of the junction, electrons
and holes flow in opposite directions, generating a voltage and producing
electrical energy.

FIGURE 2

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The basic structure of a solar cell is simple. The positive and negative doped
semiconductors (with negative on top) are sandwiched between a back
contact and front electrodes that carry the current of several cells out of
the module. In crystalline-silicon cells, the semiconductor layer is
generally about 100 µm thick, while in thin-film cells it may be as thin as a
few microns.

Solar energy is an extremely dilute source of power with a maximum of about 1

kW/m2. Averaged over the earth`s surface and over the whole year, day and
night, solar radiation amounts to only about 340 W/m2. So, even at 100%
efficiency a solar power station with 1000-MW capacity would need 3 km2 of
solar cells.
Unfortunately there are a number of inherent losses in solar cells that lower their
efficiency in converting light to electric power. First, the solar power is spread
over a considerable range of wavelengths, and only those photons with energies
above the bandgap, the energy gap between the valence and conduction bands--
will be absorbed in any given semiconductor. Below-bandgap photons, with
typically 20% of total light power, are lost. Second, even those photons that have
a short enough wavelength are not fully utilized because once an electron-hole
pair is created, each carrying more than the bandgap energy, the charges lose
energy to decay down to the bottom of the conduction band. This lost energy,
another 30% of the incident total, goes into heat and is also unavailable for
electric power. In addition, some light may be reflected from the top surface, and
other light may not be absorbed, but passed through the semiconductor material.
The recombination of electron-hole pairs causes further losses.

The net result is that, in general, the best laboratory cells achieve at most some
25% efficiency, while production cells barely exceed 10%. This modest
efficiency, combined with the dilution of solar energy, has made solar
energy considerably more expensive than fossil and nuclear power.
System costs, including the cells themselves, support and protective
structures, and controls, remain in the area of $8/W, about a factor of 10
above conventional large-scale power-grid sources.

From space to earth

Despite their expense, solar cells have found wide use in applications where
other power sources are impractical. The oldest and best known of these is the
supply of electrical power in space. Except for a relatively small number powered
by nuclear sources, nearly all spacecraft today are powered by solar cells, and
the need for such a power supply was the main impetus for government funding
of solar-cell development in the 1950s and 1960s. For this use, the safety and
relative light weight of solar cells overshadow their cost, which tends to be a
small fraction of total spacecraft cost.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

On earth, solar cells are used as an alternative to batteries in portable devices

such as calculators or in remote sites where the expense of delivering electricity
far exceeds the expense of producing it. Remote systems used for small-scale
industry, water pumping, and village lighting (primarily in Third World countries)
are now the main market for photovoltaics.

Solar cells are also used for powering remote telecommunication repeater
stations, and there is a large potential for market growth in providing power for
portable vaccine refrigerators, a vital component of the United Nations World
Health Organization`s vaccination programs in poor nations. Due to their still-high
costs, cells for residential power and for utility supply remain very small sectors
of the market.

Solar Cell Efficiency

The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the electrical power output
to the sunlight power it receives. You will be calculating the power output from
your measurements in this lab. The power of the sunlight is a little harder to
determine.

The total power emitted by the sun is found using the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
I= AeT 4 where I is the incoming power,  is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, A
is the surface area of the sun (radius 6.96 x 109 m), e is the emissivity ("1" for a
black body) and T is the mean temperature of the sun (6050 K). This energy
becomes less concentrated as it travels from the sun to the earth. (Think of the
power radiated from a spherical source. What happens as you move farther
away?) Thus, the total energy incident on the earth's atmosphere is the total
power emitted by the sun, divided by the imaginary spherical surface having the
radius as the distance between the earth and the sun (1.496 x 1011 m).

The amount of energy that reaches the earth's surface is smaller than that
incident upon the earth's atmosphere, due to absorption and reflection. Location
and time of the year are also important. In Saskatchewan, the total
INSOLATION (incoming solar radiation) is about 5 kWh/day m2.

The efficiency ( ) of the photovoltaic cell is determined by:

 = (P(cell) / (P(incoming) x Area of Cell)) x 100 %

From the efficiency, you can determine what area of solar cells would be needed
for a specific application.

A significant breakthrough in renewable energy, Spheral Solar Power cells

produce electricity at considerably lower cost than conventional solar technology,
and on a cost-par with fossil-fuel based electricity in many regions of the world.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Once commercially available, Spheral Solar™ cells will make solar power
feasible for a vast array of new applications and markets, changing the dynamics
of the photovoltaic industry, forever.

Solar Radiation
Solar radiation drives atmospheric circulation. Since solar radiation represents
almost all the energy available to the earth, accounting for solar radiation and
how it interacts with the atmosphere and the earth's surface is fundamental to
understanding the earth's energy budget.

Solar radiation reaches the earth's surface either by being transmitted directly
through the atmosphere ("direct solar radiation"), or by being scattered or
reflected to the surface ("diffuse sky radiation"). About 50 percent of solar (or
shortwave) radiation is reflected back into space, while the remaining shortwave
radiation at the top of the atmosphere is absorbed by the earth's surface and re-
radiated as thermal infrared (or longwave) radiation.

The intensity of solar radiation striking a horizontal surface is measured by a

pyranometer. The instrument consists of a sensor enclosed in a transparent
hemisphere that records the total amount of shortwave incoming solar radiation.
That is, pyranometers measure "global" or "total" radiation: the sum of direct
solar and diffuse sky radiation. Incoming (or "downwelling") longwave radiation is
measured with a pyrgeometer. Outgoing ("upwelling") longwave radiation is
measured in various ways, such as with pyrgeometers or with sensors that
measure the temperature of the surface.

The net all-wave radiation at a given point (Rn) is calculated by the equation:

where is incoming solar radiation, is surface albedo, is downwelling

longwave radiation (thermal infrared radiation emitted from cloud bases and
atmospheric gases), and is upwelling longwave radiation (thermal infrared
radiation emanating from the earth's surface). All radiation fluxes are expressed
as energy per unit area (generally watts per square meter, or W/m2). Accurate
estimates of albedo are especially important as albedo places a fundamental limit
on the amount of solar radiation that can be absorbed by the surface. For
example, albedo strongly determines the rate of melt of sea ice. Over longer
periods of time, changes in components of the radiation balance can be
manifested in climate change.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Factors Modifying the Role Solar Radiation Plays in the Earth's Energy
Budget

The most important factors influencing how much shortwave radiation reaches
the earth's surface and how much is absorbed are time and day of year, cloud
cover, and albedo.

Time of Day and Year

The intensity of solar radiation varies significantly over the course of a year
ranging from no solar radiation during the polar winter to a maximum of 350 to
400 watts per square meter (W/m2) in the summer. Over the course of a day, the
sun's angle above the horizon (solar altitude) influences the intensity of solar
radiation: the noon sun is more intense than the rising or setting sun. The
maximum altitude of the sun depends on time of year and latitude. Of course,
during the polar winter the sun is below the horizon for 24 hours, and there is no
solar radiation, while at midsummer the sun changes little in altitude over the
course of a day.

Cloud Cover

Clouds reflect some incoming radiation back to space, thereby reducing the
amount of radiation that reaches the earth's surface. However, clouds also re-
radiate infrared energy back toward the earth's surface, thereby moderating the
temperature of the lower atmosphere. Globally, clouds have a cooling effect on
the earth-atmosphere system, because of their high albedos. In polar regions
however, clouds seem to have a net warming effect as the reduction in solar
radiation is outweighed by the effect of clouds in increasing longwave radiation to
the surface.

Albedo

Incoming solar radiation that strikes the earth's surface is partially reflected and
partially absorbed, in proportion to surface reflectivity (albedo). Darker surfaces
have a lower albedo and absorb more solar energy than do lighter surfaces. The
albedo of a surface is also a function of the incidence angle of solar radiation
(that is, the amount of solar energy a surface absorbs will depend on the solar
altitude).

Newly fallen snow has an albedo of approximately 0.90, meaning that it reflects
about 90 percent of incoming radiation. In contrast, melting snow has an average
albedo of 0.50, meaning that it absorbs 50 percent and reflects 50 percent of the
incoming radiation. Because a darker surface absorbs more solar radiation, snow
covered by dust (dirty snow) melts faster than clean snow. The albedo of sea ice
varies with ice age, but when snow covered is on the order of 0.70.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Open water absorbs the most radiation of all arctic surfaces. With an albedo of
about 0.08, it reflects only 8 percent of the incoming radiation. However, the
variation of albedo with solar altitude is especially pronounced for the surfaces of
oceans and lakes. The albedo of a water surface increases with decreasing solar
altitude and approaches a mirror-like 100 percent near sunrise and sunset, or
when the sun is low in the arctic sky.

Important changes in surface albedo can occur seasonally. Over land, heavy
winter snow cover increases surface albedo considerably. In middle and high
latitudes, significant increases in surface albedo accompany the winter formation
of lake and sea ice.

A comment about the seasonal cycle of solar radiation

The following description of the seasonal cycle of solar radiation based on

gridded global radiation fields has been drawn from the data section of the Arctic
Climatology Project Arctic Meteorology and Climate Atlas.

The field of global radiation for March shows a primarily zonal pattern, that is,
one in which radiation decreases with latitude. This occurs because in March, the
amount of solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere decreases sharply with
increasing latitude. From April through August, latitudinal variations in solar
radiation at the top of the atmosphere are less pronounced, so that cloud cover
plays a strong role in determining the flux reaching the surface. Consequently,
radiation patterns from April through August are very asymmetric. Fluxes are
lowest over the Atlantic sector, where cloud cover is greatest. Fluxes peak over
central Greenland from May through August. In large part, this illustrates the
tendency for the high central portions of the ice sheet to be above the bulk of
cloud cover. The highest fluxes are found in June because radiation at the top of
the atmosphere peaks in June. Note for June the rather high fluxes over the
central Arctic Ocean. This is largely explained in that cloud cover over this region
is comparatively limited. From July onwards, radiation fluxes decline. September
shows a zonal pattern, which as with March, arises from the strong latitudinal
variation in solar flux at the top of the atmosphere for this month.

INTRODUCTION

Energy from the Sun reaching the Earth drives almost every known physical and
biological cycle in the Earth system. By making solar radiation calculations and
examining radiation measurements, students can gain a better understanding of
many physical cycles and concepts associated with the Earth system.

A detailed study of solar irradiance will give Earth & Space Science and Physics
students a better understanding of:

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 SOLAR ENERGY

• Solar radiation
• Electromagnetic spectrum
• Mathematical concepts that apply to solar radiation
• Climate variation due to latitude
• Seasonal weather changes
• Global energy balance
• Daily changes in solar radiation
• Changes in solar irradiance due to solar cycles
• Effects of solar irradiance variations on the earth system

This educational brief is designed to serve as a source of background information

on solar radiation studies and as a reference for student investigations on this
subject. Links to student investigations can be found at the end of this brief.
Before beginning a detailed investigation of solar radiation, there are three terms
that must be understood.

• Irradiance - The amount of electromagnetic energy incident on a surface

per unit time per unit area. In the past this quantity has often been referred
to as "flux".
* When measuring solar irradiance (via satellite), scientists are measuring
the amount of electromagnetic energy incident on a surface perpendicular
to the incoming radiation at the top of the Earth's atmosphere, not the
output at the solar surface.

• Solar Constant - The solar constant is the amount of energy received at

the top of the Earth's atmosphere on a surface oriented perpendicular to
the Sun’s rays (at the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun). The
generally accepted solar constant of 1368 W/m2 is a satellite measured
yearly average.

• Insolation - In general, solar radiation is received at the Earth's surface.

The rate at which direct solar radiation is incident upon a unit horizontal
surface at any point on or above the surface of Earth. *I will refer to
insolation as direct solar radiation at the Earth's surface.

The solar constant is an important value for current studies of global radiation
balance & climate models. The problem that faces scientists studying Earth’s
radiation budget and climate is that while satellites can “accurately” measure
solar irradiance and calculate a solar constant, the surface insolation is much
more difficult to assess. When the solar constant is calculated there are four
major problems in trying to relate this radiation intensity to its effect on the Earth's
surface or surface insolation.

• First, the calculation is made for the top of the atmosphere and not for the
surface of the Earth.
• Second, the calculation assumes that the surface receiving the radiation is
perpendicular to the radiation.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

• Third, the calculation assumes that the surface receiving the radiation is at
a mean Sun-Earth distance.
• Fourth, the calculation assumes that radiation emission from the Sun
remains constant.

Trying to relate calculations made for the top of the atmosphere to the surface is
a problem because up to 70% of incoming radiation can be blocked by the
atmosphere and cloud cover. In attempts to create global energy budget models,
scientists must insert estimations for the amount of energy actually reaching the
surface.

Assuming that the surface receiving the radiation is perpendicular to the

incoming radiation is a problem because this is a rare occasion even at tropical
latitudes due to the rotation of the Earth (time of day), tilt of the Earth's axis in
relation to the incoming solar radiation (season), and the latitude and orientation
of the surface. All of these factors change the angle of the surface receiving the
radiation, which changes the intensity of the energy received.

Assuming that the radiation emission of the Sun is constant is a problem

because this value fluctuates with cycles in solar activity. NASA satellites have
measured incoming radiation since 1978 and have recorded changes in solar
irradiance. This data can be accessed on the internet from Goddard Space Flight
Center.

SOLAR RADIATION AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of the entire range of frequencies and

wavelengths at which electromagnetic waves can travel. The electromagnetic
spectrum organizes energy types by wavelength and frequency. The peak
wavelength of radiation emitted from an object is dependent upon the
temperature of the object and can be calculated using the Wien Displacement
Law when the temperature of the object is known. (In astronomy these are solid
objects such as stars and planets.)

Wien Displacement Law:

maximum = 2897 / T
maximum = The peak wavelength of energy in
micrometers
T = The temperature of the object radiating energy

Using this law, the peak wavelength of radiation emitted from an object is
inversely proportional to the temperature of the object. The irradiance or radiation

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 SOLAR ENERGY

output of an object can be calculated using the Stefan-Boltzman Law when the
temperature is known.

Stefan-Boltzman Law: E = T4

E = Surface Irradiance of the object

* = Emissivity of the object
= Stefan-Boltzman Constant (5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 )
T = Temperature of the object

*Emissivity is the factor of how well a surface can absorb and emit energy.
Emissivity numbers range from 0 to 1. Very black objects such as
charcoal have an emissivity near 1 while shiny objects have an emissivity
near 0.

The Wien Displacement & Stefan-Boltzman laws strictly apply only to black
bodies. Black bodies are capable of absorbing and emitting radiation at all
wavelengths. Because the Sun & Earth are not perfect black bodies, applying
these laws to them only allows approximate values to be obtained. The fact that
the Sun is not a perfect black body is especially important when studying solar
cycles. The most significant variations in solar radiation during these cycles occur
in the UV & X-Ray portions of the solar spectrum. In order to compare solar
emissions to black body emissions at the same temperature go to the Solar
Spectrum/Black Body Graph.

SOLAR RADIATION ENTERING THE EARTH SYSTEM

In order to study the effects of solar radiation on the Earth system, it is necessary
to determine the amount of energy reaching the Earth's atmosphere & surface.
Once the surface irradiance of the Sun is determined the amount of energy
reaching the top of the Earth's atmosphere can be calculated using the Inverse
Square Law. The average amount of energy received on a surface perpendicular
to incoming radiation at the top of the atmosphere is the solar constant. (*While
this calculation can lead to a better student understanding of the Inverse Square
Law, the accepted value is a yearly average from NASA satellite
measurements.)

Solar Radiation Striking the top of the Earth's Atmosphere

The Inverse Square Law is used to calculate the decrease in radiation intensity
due to an increase in distance from the radiation source.
Inverse Square Law: I = E(4 x R2)/(4 x r2)

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 SOLAR ENERGY

I = Irradiance at the surface of the outer sphere

E = Irradiance at the surface of the object (Sun)

4 x R2 = surface area of the object

4 x r2 = surface area of the outer sphere

In order to calculate the solar constant the following equation is used:

So = E(Sun) x (R(Sun) / r)2
So = Solar Constant
E= Surface Irradiance of the Sun
R= 6.96 x 105 km = Radius of the Sun
r = 1.5 x 108 km =Average Sun-Earth Distance

Insolation: Solar Radiation Striking the Surface

I = S cos Z

I= Insolation
S~ 1000 W/m2 (Clear day solar insolation on a surface perpendicular to
incoming solar radiation. This value actually varies greatly due to
atmospheric variables.)

Z = Zenith Angle (Zenith Angle is the angle from the zenith (point directly
overhead) to the Sun's position in the sky. The zenith angle is dependent
upon latitude, solar declination angle, and time of day.)

Z = cos-1 (sin sin + cos cos cos H)

= Latitude

H = = Hour Angle = 15o x (Time - 12) (Angle of radiation due to time of

day. Time is given in solar time as the hour of the day from midnight.)

= Solar Declination Angle

Solar Declination Angles for the Northern Hemisphere

Vernal Equinox Mar. 21/22 = 0o

Summer Solstice Jun. 21/22 = +23.5o

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Autumnal Equinox Sept. 21/22 = 0o

Winter Solstice Dec. 21/22 = -23.5o

Solar water heating

Solar Energy can
be used in many
ways. One of the
easiest forms of
solar energy to
collect and use is
solar heat. The
collected heat can
be used for space
heating, domestic
hot water, heating pools and cooking.

Passive solar hot water systems are probably the oldest commercially available
solar systems. At the turn of the century there were large numbers of solar water
heating systems on roof tops, especially in Los Angeles and Florida. Very little
has changed from the original concept. Put a water holding tank in a box, with
glass on the side facing south and fill it with water. No moving parts, nothing to
break down, free fuel and no pollution.

The passive solar water heater is known today by many names; PSWH, Batch
Heater and Bread Box are the most common and then there is the very technical;
Integrated Collector and Storage System (ICS).

The PSWH of today usually starts with a 40 gallon, glass lined tank. These tanks
come disguised as ordinary electric water heaters, which are stripped of their
appliance shell and insulation. Painted flat black, with high temperature engine or
barbecue paint and they're ready for solar.

The box should be well insulated to

prevent energy loss and the amount of
insulation should reflect your local
climate. The typical box is constructed
with 2X4s or 2X6s, using fiberglass
batt insulation. The exterior siding may
match that of your home, or some
other material suitable for your area.
The interior sheathing is often ridged
insulation, preferably with a foil face

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 SOLAR ENERGY

facing in which works to reflect more energy onto the tank. Ridged insulation
comes in various thicknesses which can help increase your insulation R-value.

The size of the box must be big enough for the tank, but also large enough to
allow adequate solar gain. Typical glass sizing is 1 sq. ft. of glass for every 2 to 2
1/2 gallons of water. A standard size, double glazed, patio door replacement
glass (34"X76") is ideal for a 40 gal. water heater.

A water heater has an inlet and outlet and how you attach your plumbing does
make a difference. The cold water inlet has a dip tube which extends down
nearly to the bottom of the tank, to deliver the cold water to the right place. The
hot water outlet takes the hottest water from the top of the tank. If the design
calls for the tank to lie on its side be sure that the cold inlet is at the bottom.

Be aware that the 40 gallon tank when filled with water will weigh over 350 lbs.
Add to that the weight of the box/glass and it's time to reconsider putting this
monster on your mobile home. Ground mounted PSWH are very common. As
always be sure the system will receive full sunshine from 9 am to 4 pm.
Remember, if your installing a solar system and you're working in the shade,
there's something wrong.

If the collector will be installed on a frame roof it's best to attach in such a way as
to spread the weight over a few rafters, and if possible, provide additional support
with braces extending up to the rafters from interior walls. The ideal location is as
close to the existing water heater as possible.

Shorter plumbing runs are not only more efficient, they decrease the winter
freezing potential. The chances of freezing 40 gallons of water are minimal but
frozen pipes are a reality. With the tank installed close to the water heater the
freezing potential is minimized but not eliminated. All plumbing between the
existing water heater and the PSWH is insulated, with more insulation on any
pipes exposed to the outside.

Plumb the system by first supplying cold water to the solar tank. From there, the
hot water outlet is plumbed to the cold water inlet on your existing water heater.
As long as the solar water entering your water heater is above the thermostat
setting, your water heater does nothing. When the temperature of the solar water
entering the water heater is less than the thermostat setting, your water heater
makes up the difference.

The temperature of the water from a PSWH depends on many variables. The
amount of sunshine, ambient air temperature, the amount of insulation used, the
temperature of the supply water as well as the hot water demand all effect outlet
temperature. Under ideal weather conditions, and no hot water used since
morning, the water temperature at 5 pm can exceed 180 degrees F.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar water heating uses the sun's energy to

heat water for many different uses. There are
successful examples of it's use in homes for
heating hot water, a pool and/or spa, as well as
the home itself. It has also been used
successfully in a variety of commercial and
institutional buildings.

Solar water heating is worth considering

because it offers very compelling economic,
environmental, and energy sustainability
benefits.

Economic Benefits

Solar water heating is generally a worthwhile economic investment whenever

there is a combination of one or more of the following available to you:
1) Average to above average sunshine

2) Average to above average cost of heating fuel (or electricity)

3) Average to above average need for heat

From a larger economic point of view, solar water heating system becomes very
compelling when the hidden "economic and environmental costs and benefits"
(externalities), as well as the subsidies we pay (for competing conventional fuels)
are considered.

Environmental Benefits

Because most heating systems burn fossil fuels, which creates pollution, all the
energy saved by a solar water heating eliminates the pollution that would
otherwise add to our problems of poor air quality, poor health, smog and global
climate change, a problem which requires immediate action.

Climate scientists are just now beginning to understand the consequences of

burning fossil fuels to generate electricity and heat. They agree global warming
will bring higher sea levels and an increase in the frequency and severity of
damaging storms (how much and how soon they don't know yet). Many global
banking and insurance companies, concerned about the long term health of their
industries, recognize the long-term economic consequences and are supporting
sustainable energy sources as part of the solution.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Sustainability Benefits

World petroleum supplies, at the current rate of consumption, won't last a baby
born today past his/her 40th birthday. Many believe the current rate of
consumption won't stay constant, but will rise into the future, shortening that 40
year period. Solar water heating is one way to help stretch these limited supplies.

The energy used each year by an average family (four people) with an electric
water heater is roughly equal to the energy used by a medium-sized automobile
driven 12,000 miles a year at an average fuel efficiency of 22 miles per gallon
(about 11 barrels of oil). A residential solar water heating system can drop that
consumption (and your hot water bill) by 50 to 80%, reduce pollution, and give
you a sound investment for the future.

THE GOOD NEWS

Economics
Solar water heating can be a very attractive investment when it saves you more
on your water heating bill than it costs you to buy the system. How good is a
solar water heating investment? It all depends on how much the system costs
and how much it saves on your hot water bill. To be thorough, it's also important
to account for the cost of maintenance, repairs, the estimated future rate of
inflation and energy costs, financing terms (if you borrow the money), and
perhaps even environmental benefits. As complicated as this may sound, it's
easy to make a decision once all these facts are accounted for - the best way to
do that is with an economic analysis, where the solar system is compared to a
conventional water heater. In some cases, financing or tax credits may also be
available.

Solar also improves the overall sustainability of our economy, both now and in
the future, by providing jobs, by helping to reduce the need to buy fuel from
foreign sources, and by reducing the ever-increasing environmental costs, we
are just now beginning to understand.

Because the economics of solar water heating depends on the particular

application, professional assistance is recommended in evaluating the
economics of your application. Professional assistance providers should check
out our list of professional tools as well as a sample Life Cycle Cost (LCC)
analysis comparing the performance, economics, and other features of water
heating options (including solar).

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Performance
If the weather in your location is suitable and you use the average families
amount of hot water each day (about 64 gallons), solar water heating is worthy of
serious consideration. The table below will give you a general idea of the
investment value, based on average U.S. sunshine and different backup water
heater types (a backup heater is needed to heat the water when the sun doesn't
shine).

Comparative Solar Water Heater Investment Value

(based on U.S. average fuel costs & climate)

Electric backup Typically a good investment

Propane or fuel oil backup
Natural gas backup
Generally a good investment.
Generally not a good investment unless
environmental benefits and fuel subsidies
are included, and then it is about the
same cost or more per year (annualized
life cycle cost).

Environmental benefits

Because solar water heating can reduce the electricity or fuel used to heat water
by 50% or more, the pollution caused by water heating is reduced by the same
amount. The world's top scientists and government officials have, and will
continue to make, new estimates of the cost of pollution As you might imagine,
the cost of pollution continues to rise as our population increases and we better
understand the consequences of climate change. As the cost of pollution goes
up, the environmental benefits reaped from your solar water heater will become
more and more valuable!

THE BAD NEWS

Potential for overheating or freezing

A solar water heating system may overheat or freeze if it is not properly selected,
designed, and installed. This can cause expensive damage to the system, or
worse, a safety hazard. Fortunately, these types of problems can be avoided by
using professional assistance in getting your system.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

How competitive is solar water heating, costwise, against other water

heaters?
The answer is "it depends." An economic analysis of various water heating
alternatives available in your area is recommended, and can usually be obtained
at a reasonable cost. Although solar has a higher first cost than most other water
heating systems, it can be very competive over the long term.

In general, solar pool heating is an excellent, low cost, high return investment for
those interested in extending their pool heating season as well as saving energy
during the winter months. Given the amount of heat a pool requires, it's not
practical to use gas or electricity. Pool systems are widely available and
becoming very popular due to their simplicity, low cost.

In terms of domestic hot water, homes with electric or propane gas water heaters
generally make a good solar investment. Homes with natural gas water heating,
due to the current low cost of natural gas, make it more difficult for solar to be a
good investment. That said, do not be discouraged away from solar if you have
natural gas, as certain applications can still be very cost effective. Subdivision
homes, multi-family homes with central water heating, and other applications can
benefit from "economy of scale." Users of large quantities of hot water, such as
car washes and laundries, can also benefit more from solar energy, compared to
those with small hot water needs, because the "first cost" of solar will be
recovered more quickly.

For a subdivision example, the most common way most people get into new
homes, the California Energy Commission completed a limited study of various
water heating systems in 1995. The study covered just seven different types of
water heating systems (two different types of solar systems), but it does include a
fairly comprehensive economic analysis of each system. They used actual
installed costs for one of the solar systems (the passive system) as it had
recently been installed in homes in a local subdivision. The cost of the water
heating system is financed along with the rest of the home in a 30 year mortgage
at 8% annual interest. The graph below shows the results of the Commission's
study:

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The "total annualized cost of ownership" is the cost to install, maintain, fix,
replace, and operate the water heating system over a 30 year period. Note: for
those familiar with economics terminology, this is the annualized value of the life
cycle cost. In this case, a natural gas water heater is the least costly option,
followed by a passive solar system with a natural gas backup. Remember that
this is just one example, looking at just two different solar water heating systems
(there are several hundred others available), a specific set of economic criteria,
etc. Professional assistance providers can help you find the most appropriate
system based on your own hot water use, climate, system options, and so on.

Now, what if we were to estimate the cost of subsidies and externalities, account
for these "hidden costs" in the economic analysis example, and revise the
previous chart accordingly? Subsidies and/or externalities are of interest to
decision makers ranging from consumers to the U.S. Forest Service. Any time
"hidden costs" are included they should be carefully evaluated to assure the
basis behind the selection is consistent with the interests of those involved. The
results are shown below:

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 SOLAR ENERGY

In this case, the externalities are limited to environmental impacts alone, and
subsidies are estimated to add 10% to the cost of electricity and $0.05/therm for
gas. Using these assumptions, the cost of a solar water heater with gas backup
amounts to less than a dollar extra per month relative to gas alone. Again,
remember that this is just one example, looking at just two different solar water
heating systems, etc.

The solar systems that will be discussed in this section are not a part of a
building's structure. The function of the solar energy equipment is to convert
sunlight to heat that can be used for: (a) space heating; (b) space cooling; (c)
domestic hot water.

CONSIDERATIONS:

Solar systems should be employed only after extensive conservation strategies

have been implemented. Solar energy systems typically have a high initial cost
and extremely low operating costs. To reduce the high initial costs, reduce the
size of the required system by the load that the solar system will need to provide.
In space heating and cooling applications, the home should be weatherized and
insulated to very high standards. In water heating applications, hot water piping
should be insulated and water conserving fixtures should be used.

The goal of the solar system should not be to accomplish 100% of the home's
heating, cooling, or water heating needs under all conditions. The system should
be sized to reflect seasonal variations in demand and in the sun's heating
characteristics. Additionally, by combining systems to perform multiple functions
(i.e. space heating and water heating), the solar system investment can provide a
return all year.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Commercial Implementation
Status Issues

Active Solar Heat

Active Solar Cooling

Passive Solar Water Heating

Active Solar Water Heating

Legend
Satisfactory

Satisfactory in most conditions

Satisfactory in Limited Conditions

Unsatisfactory or Difficult

COMMERCIAL STATUS

TECHNOLOGY
Active and passive solar space heating and water heating, are well-developed
technologies. Active solar space cooling is marginally developed.

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES

PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE

There are problem areas associated with the general public perception of solar
systems: solar may be considered futuristic; some may believe new technological
breakthroughs are needed to make solar viable; solar systems are considered
uneconomic; and, the business instability of solar system providers during the
early 1980s. A primary concern for owners of a solar system is whether it can be
maintained by conventional means (the owner does not have to assume
extraordinary responsibilities).

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 SOLAR ENERGY

GUIDELINES

Introduction
Solar energy can be captured for use in a home in several ways. This section
will look at using solar energy to heat water and/or air. The hot water created by
a solar system can be used for domestic hot water or space heating. Hot air solar
systems are primarily used for space heating.

The fundamental requirement for a solar system is to have a sunny location

where the solar collectors can be located.

The collectors should have full sun from 9 AM to 3 PM.

The collectors should face south at approximately the same angle as our
latitude (30 degrees).

Collectors can be oriented as much as 30 degrees off of south and still function
well. Similarly, the slope of the collectors can vary by plus or minus 15 degrees
without significantly harming the performance of the system.

Active Solar Domestic Water Heating

The active water systems that can be used to heat domestic hot water are the
same as the ones that provide space heat. A space heat application will require a
larger system and additional connecting hardware to a space heat distribution
system.

• There are five major components in active solar water heating systems:

Collector(s) to capture solar energy.

Circulation system to move a fluid between the collectors to a

storage tank

Storage tank

Backup heating system

Control system to regulate the overall system operation

• There are two basic categories of active solar water heating systems -
direct or open loop systems and indirect or closed loop systems.
o Direct Systems

The water that will be used as domestic hot water is circulated

directly into the collectors from the storage tank (typically a hot
water heater which will back up the solar heating).

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 SOLAR ENERGY

There are two types of direct systems - draindown and

recirculating. In both systems, a controller will activate a pump
when the temperature in the collectors is higher than the
temperature in the storage tank.

The draindown system includes a valve that will purge the water in
the collectors when the outdoor temperature reaches 38 degrees.
When the temperature is higher than 38 degrees and the collectors
are hotter than the storage tank, the valve allows the system
collectors to refill and the heating operation resumes.

The recirculating system will pump heated water from the storage
tank through the collectors when the temperature drops to 38
degrees.

These two systems have serious drawbacks. The draindown valves

can fail in a draindown system and the result can be the expensive
breakage of the solar collectors. The draindown valve will typically
sit unused for a very long time and then will need to work the first
time without failing. The cycling of air and water in a draindown
system collectors as a result of periodically draining down (thereby
emptying the collectors) can cause a buildup of mineral deposits in
the collectors and reduce their efficiency. The recirculating system
circulates buildup from potable water heated from the storage tank
through collectors during potential freeze conditions and effectively
cools the water (wasting energy).

o Indirect Systems

Systems that use antifreeze fluids need regular inspection (at least
every 2 years) of the antifreeze solution to verify its viability. Oil or
refrigerant circulating fluids are sealed into the system and will not
require maintenance. A refrigerant system is generally more costly
and must be handled with care to prevent leaking any refrigerant.

An indirect system that exhibits effectiveness, reliability, and low

maintenance is the drainback system (see Figure 1 on next page).

The drainback system typically uses distilled water as the collector

circulating fluid.

The collectors in this system will only have water in them when the
pump is operating. This means that in case of power failure as well
as each night, there will be no fluids in the collector that could
possibly freeze or cool down and delay the startup of the system
when the sun is shining.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

This system is very reliable and widely used. It requires that the
collectors are mounted higher than the drainback tank/heat
exchanger. This may be impossible to do in a situation where the
collectors must be mounted on the ground.

An indirect or direct system can be used for heating swimming

pools and spas. Lower cost unglazed (no glass cover) collectors
are available for this purpose.

Figure. 1

DRAINBACK HOT WATER SYSTEM

The fluids that are circulated into the collectors are separated from
the heated water that will be used in the home by a double-walled
heat exchanger.

A heat exchanger is used to transfer the heat from the fluids

circulating through the collectors to the water used in the home.
The fluids that are used in the collectors can be water, oil, an
antifreeze solution, or refrigerant.

The heat exchangers should be double-walled to prevent

contamination of the household water.

The controller in these systems will activate the pumps to the

collectors and heat exchanger when design temperature
differences are reached.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The heat exchanger may be separate from the storage tank or built
into it.

o Guidelines summary for solar domestic water heating systems:

A well designed system will provide 50-80% of a home's hot water

needs (less in winter, more in summer).

There should be 10-15 square feet of solar collector area for each
person in the household.

The storage tank should hold 20-30 gallons per person.

There should be no shade on the collectors during the hours from

9:00 AM to 3:00 PM.

The collectors should face south and be tilted at a 30 degree angle

(slight variations noted above will not significantly harm
performance).

The collectors and storage tank should be in close proximity to the

backup system and house distribution system to avoid excessive
pipe losses. The pipes need to be well insulated.

Mixing valves or thermal shutoff devices should be employed to

protect from excessively high temperatures.

Select systems that are tested and certified by the Solar Rating and
Certification Corporation (SRCC).

Active Solar Space Heating

The active solar space heating system can use the same operational
components as the domestic water heating systems, but ties into a heating
distribution system that can use heated fluids as a heat source. The distribution
system includes hydronic radiator and floor coil systems, and forced air systems.

Solar collectors are also constructed that heat air. The hot air developed in such
collectors can be used directly in the home during the daytime or stored in
massive materials (rock or water).

• Water Heating Collectors

o The tilt of space heating collectors is generally the latitude plus 15
degrees (45 degrees in Austin).

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The purpose is to align the collectors perpendicular to the sun's

rays in the heating season when the optimal performance is
needed.

o The number of collectors used in a space heating application is

based on the heat load of the house.

Average heat load / collector rated heat output = number of

collectors needed.

By basing the size of the collectors on the average heat load of the
home during the heating season, the system will not provide
enough heat during the colder part of the heating season. Since the
heat load of the house is dependent upon the extent of its energy
conserving features, the greatest energy efficiency the home can
have, the smaller the solar system will have to be.

o The space heating system, like the domestic water heating system,
must be backed up by an auxiliary heating system.

It is not practical to size a solar system to provide all of a home's

heat requirement under the worst conditions. The system would
become too large, too costly, and oversized for most of the time.

o The storage system should be sized to approximately 1.5 gallons of

storage for each square foot of collector area. The fluid that is
heated and stored (typically water) can be distributed into the
house heating system in the following ways:

Air distribution system - The heated water in the storage tank is

pumped into a coil located in the return air duct whenever the
thermostat calls for heat. The controller for the solar system will
allow the pumping to occur if the temperature in the solar heated
water is above a minimum amount needed to make a positive
contribution to heating the home. An auxiliary heater can be used in
two ways. It can add heat to the solar storage tank to maintain a
minimum operating temperature in the storage tank at all times. In
this case, the coil from the solar system will be located at the air
handler supply plenum rather than in the return air duct. The
auxiliary heater can also be a conventional furnace that will operate
less often due to the warm air entering the air handler from the
solar coil in the return duct.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Figure 2

SPACE HEATING SYSTEM

Hydronic system with radiators - The heated water is circulated

in series with a boiler into radiators located in the living spaces.
Modern baseboard radiators operate effectively at 140 degrees.
Solar heating systems can very often reach that temperature. Using
the solar system's heated water as the source of water for the boiler
will reduce the boiler's energy use particularly if it senses the
incoming temperature and will not operate when that temperature is
above the required distribution temperature.

Hydronic system with in-slab heat - The solar heated water is

pumped through distribution piping located in the floor of the home.
Lower temperatures are used in this type of system (the slab is not
heated above 80 degrees in most cases). The auxiliary heat can be
connected in series with the solar system's heated output water or it
can be connected to the solar tank to provide a minimum
temperature.

In the Austin area, most homes use an air distribution system that
can provide air conditioning as well as heating. The hydronic
systems are much less common but are considered highly effective
in terms of comfort, efficiency, and health impact (no blowing air to
stir up dust). The air distribution method described above can work
quite well with a conventional gas water heater as a backup.

• Air Collectors for Heating

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Appear similar to a water collector.

Usually a black metal absorber in an insulated box with a glazed cover

(glass or plastic).

Air from inside the house is drawn by a fan into a series of channels in a
space behind the absorber where it is heated by the hot absorber plate.
The heated air then enters the home directly or enters a storage medium
(such as rocks) so the heat will be available during the night.

A simple controller is used to turn on the fan(s) in this type of system. The
controller uses sensors in the collector to activate the system when it is
hotter in the collector than in the house interior or storage medium.

Air collectors can be mounted vertically on the south wall of a building if

used for space heating only. In that location, properly designed overhang
will prevent them from heating up in the summer.

For a year-round application of air heating collectors, it is necessary to use

an air-to-water heat exchanger. This is not a very efficient system for
heating water compared to fluid circulating collectors, since heat (and thus
efficiency) is lost at each transfer point.

Air collectors are more practical in climates with longer and colder winters
than in Austin. The investment in storage systems for air collectors is
substantial in time, money, and materials. The use of air collectors to put
heat into the house directly can be readily achieved with properly oriented
windows in our area. Daytime temperatures in the winter can be relatively
high; the additional hot air from an air collector can overheat a home that
does not have extra thermal mass to absorb the heat.

Active Solar Space Cooling

Solar space cooling is quite costly to implement. If the solar system is used for
space cooling only, installed costs can run $4,000-$8,000 per ton. It is best to
use a solar system that serves more than just the cooling needs of a house to
maximize the return on investment and not leave the system idle when cooling is
not required. Significant space heating and/or water heating can be
accomplished with the same equipment used for the solar cooling system.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Figure 3
SCHEMATIC OF SOLAR ABSORPTION COOLING SYSTEM

T = system flow sequence

• The technologies that are being developed for gas cooling systems are
the same ones being developed for active solar space cooling systems.
Desiccant cooling systems and advanced absorption systems are the
primary technologies that are used. High temperature liquid collectors are
typically used in these systems.
o Desiccant system

A moisture absorbing material (desiccant) is located in the air

stream going into the living space. As the air passes through the
desiccant, which is usually located on a wheel that slowly rotates
into the air stream, moisture is removed from the air, dropping the
humidity level in the air stream to the point that an evaporative
cooler can then cool the air. The desiccant is dried by the heat
generated by the solar collectors as it rotates out of the air stream.

o Absorption air conditioning

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Heat from solar collectors separates a low boiling refrigerant in a

generator which receives the pressurized refrigerant from an
absorber. Solar heat can also be used in the evaporation stage of
the cycle.

Passive Solar Water Heating

A passive solar water heating system uses natural convection or household
water pressure to circulate water through a solar collector to a storage tank or to
the point of use. Active systems employ pumps and controllers to regulate and
circulate water. Although passive system are generally less efficient than active
systems, the passive approach is simple and economical.

Passive water heating systems must follow the same parameters for installations
as active systems - south facing unshaded location with the collector tilted at the
angle of our latitude. Since the storage tank and collector are combined or in very
close proximity, roof structural capacities must accommodate the extra weight of
a passive system which can be 300 pounds or more.

• There are two types of passive water heaters : batch and thermosyphon
o Batch System

The batch system is the simplest of all solar water heating systems.

Figure 3
SCHEMATIC FOR GROUND-MOUNT BATCH DOMESTIC WATER
SYSTEM

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 SOLAR ENERGY

It consists of one or more metal water tanks painted with a heat

absorbing black coating and placed in an insulating box or
container with a glass or plastic cover that admits sunlight to strike
the tank directly. The batch system's storage tank is the collector as
well. These systems will use the existing house pressure to move
water through the system. Each time a hot water tap is opened,
heated water from the batch system tank is removed and replaced
by incoming cold water.

The piping that connects to and from the batch heater needs to be
highly insulated. On a cold night when no one is drawing hot water,
the water in the pipes is standing still and vulnerable to freezing. In
many applications, insulated polybutylene piping is used because
the pipe can expand if frozen. The water in the batch heater itself
will not freeze because there is adequate mass to keep it from
freezing.

Since the tank that is storing the heated water is sitting outside,
there will be heat loss from the tank during the night. This can be
minimized by an insulating cover placed on the heater in the
evening.

The most effective use of a batch water heater is to use hot water
predominantly in the afternoon and evenings when the temperature
in the tank will be highest.

Manufactured batch heaters have a "selective surface" coating on

the tanks that will absorb heat most readily yet permits very little
heat loss. This feature is very valuable in these type of systems as
it helps insulate the tank.

o Thermosyphon Systems

Figure 4
THERMOSYPHON SYSTEM

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The thermosyphon system uses a flat plate collector and a

separate storage tank that must be located higher than the
collector.

The collector is similar to those used in active systems.

The storage tank, located above the collector receives heated

water coming from the top of the collector into the top of the storage
tank. Colder water from the bottom of the storage tank will be
drawn into the lower entry of the solar collector to replace the
heated water that was thermosyphoned upward. The storage tank
may or may not use a heat exchanger. The thermosyphon system
is more costly and complex than the batch system. In our area, it is
best to use an indirect system (one that employs a heat
exchanger). In that case, antifreeze can be used in the system
eliminating freeze ups.

o Sizing

The sizing of a batch system and thermosyphon system are both

based on a usage figure of 20 gallons of hot water per person per
day. For example, if the storage tank in these systems is 40
gallons, that would equal the requirement for two people. The
collector area in the thermosyphon system should equal
approximately 20 square feet per person.

The system is not sized for 100% of the energy requirement. A

backup source is needed.

Solar cooking
The Solar Box Cooker is one way of using sunshine to cook food.Solar cooking
uses sunshine for cooking. We can cook food without electricity, gas, firewood
or any fuel that costs money or needs to be gathered. Sunshine is free and
available to everybody in many parts of the world all year round.

A solar cooker or a solar oven concentrates the solar energy and heat to focus it
on a small area. While solar powered cooking takes longer than conventional
cooking, the food tastes different, never gets burnt, and does not need to be
watched so it is possible to do other chores while the sun is cooking the food.
Solar powered cooking does not pollute the atmosphere or generate carbon
dioxide gas that is generated by combustion.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar desalination
INTRODUCTION

Desalination of sea and brackish water has become a necessity in many arid and
semiarid regions. Due to the fast growing population and a correspondingly high
water demand in these regions the few water sources often get brackish or
contaminated.

Waste and contamination of water sources are increasingly creating serious

problems also in the northern hemisphere, where water supply never used to be
a problem.

In most cases, the water supply in dry regions is realized using desalination
plants with daily fresh water outputs between 1000 and 100,000 m3 (RO, MSF).

The water supply system using big plants running with fossile energies, however,
is not always an economic and ecologic solution /1, 2/:

• Isolated regions or islands have to be supplied by truck, ship or even

aeroplane. This results in high costs.
• The generation of high purity distilled water that can be used also for
medical or industrial applications is expensive.
• The use of fossile energies for desalination leads to an environmental
load.

Due to the fact that big regions rely on the function of one big plant breakdowns
are of concern for many people.

The presented technology is able to supply clean water with plant capacities up
to 20 m3/d by avoiding the mentioned disadvantages of conventional
technologies.

The membrane distillation (MD)-plant can be driven by solar heat or waste heat
and is therefore ideal to deliver water at remote areas with poor infrastructure
(Fig. 1):

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 SOLAR ENERGY

DESCRlPTION OF THE MEMBRANE DISTILLATION (MD)-PROCESS

It is possible to concentrate aqueous solutions of non-volatile dissolved

substances by microporous membranes impermeable for water but permeable
for water vapour. Driving force for this "membrane distillation" is a vapour
pressure difference on both sides of the membrane due to a corresponding
temperature gradient across the membrane.

The distillation is performed at ambient pressure and at a maximum temperature

of 80°C (175°"F). Operating costs are extremly low because the process can be
driven by low temperature heat sources eg. solar heat or waste heat from diesel
engines /3/.

The system is employing spiral wound desalination modules. Inside the

distillation modules a thin microporous hydrophobic PTFE-membrane is used
with pore diameters between 0.051 and 0.2 . This material shows the
surprising property of allowing easy passage of water vapour, but of completely
blocking the flow of liquid water. The high surface tension of water prevents the
passage of liquid water through the sub-micron pores up to a pressure of
typically 0.5 MPa (72.5 psi).

In the process one surface (hot side) of the flat sheet membrane is in contact
with the process solution while the opposite surface (cold side) is in contact with
distillate. Thus the diffusion gap between evaporating and condensing surfaces is
reduced to the thickness of the membrane that is only about 30 m. With an
actual pore fraction of 80% high specific evaporation rates are possible.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

The recovery of the heat of condensation is done by utilizing the heat of

condensation to preheat the feedwater.

DESIGN OF THE DESALINATION MODULE

Fig. 2 shows schematically the principle of a membrane distillation module with

integrated recovery for the heat of condensation.

Cold feedwater (temperature Tl) enters the module and is progressively heated
by the hot condenser sheet, so that it emerges from flow channel 1 (heat
recovery channel) on a significantly higher temperature level (temperature T2).

Before the feedwater reenters the module into flow channel 2, the temperature
has to be elevated from T2 to T3 using an external heat source. The distillation
takes place from flow channel 2 across the membrane into flow channel 3. The
feed water is gradually loosing heat and is getting concentrated. The temperature
difference between flow channel 2 and 3 is the driving force for the process and
is maintained along the whole channel length. The concentrate emerges
therefore with a higher temperature than the incoming feed. The distillate is
collected in flow channel 3 and emerges from the module almost at ambient
temperature (between Tl and T4). The spiral wound design of the module (Fig. 3)
allows high recovery rates of latent heat, eliminates the need for thermal
insulation and mechanical support and performs as a compact and resistant unit.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Experimental desalination modules for membrane distillation have been

developed by several companies. Due to high manufacturing costs, poor distillate
output and material failures a functional, economic and reliable module system
has not been available so far /4, 6/.

When we started a R&D-program for membrane distillation modules in 1989,

materials technology was more advanced and highly resistant materials were
available at more reasonable prices.

The whole module construction has been optimized in terms of

• distillate output
• pressure losses
• material stability
• manufacturing technique

Failures became less probable due to a new construction of the flow channels for
feed water and distillate, that keeps pressure losses at a minimum /5/.

Module performance is constantly tested until the present day.

In case there is a high amount of waste energy available, it is possible to achieve

high specific membrane flow rates by using a 2-channel module with a

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 SOLAR ENERGY

countercurrent flow of distillate and concentrate. High heat transfer rates result in
a 3 to 5 times higher distillate output compared to modules with integrated
recovery of the heat of condensation. These modules have been developed
recently and will be available soon.

SYSTEM ADVANTAGES

• efficient and compact spiral-wound membrane distillation modules

• recovery of the heat of condensation is integrated in the module design
• chemical pretreatment of feed water is not required -
• low system pressure
• insensitive to dry-running and fouling -
• neglectible scaling due to process temperatures below 80°C (176°F).

Because of low process temperatures solar energy and waste energy can be
used to run the plant /3, 4/. The operational efficiency and the long term
behaviour of the process for the seawater desalination has been proven in pilot
installations on the Canary islands and on the island of Ibiza.

TECHNICAL DATA OF A PROTOTYPE PLANT

In order to test the module performance and to optimize the operation under real
conditions a prototype plant has been tested on the island of Ibiza/Spain since
May 1993 (Fig. 4, 5).

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Technical
Data of
the
MD-

prototype plant in Ibiza/Spain

DESALINATION UNIT

plant dimensions 2.5 x 0.8 x 1.5 m (8.3 x 2.6 x 5 ft)

number of modules 4
feed water flow 0.8 - 1.7 m3/h (3.5 - 7.5 gpm)
distillate conductivity <10 S
distillate flow 40-85 I/h (0.17 - 0.40 gpm)
brine temperatures 60 - 80 "C (140 - 175°F)
150 - 200 kWhlm3
energy consumption
(570 - 750 Wh/gal)
energy source solar heat, waste heat

SOLAR UNIT

vacuum flat plate collector area 51m2

storage collector area 45m2

PLANT OPERATION

47
 SOLAR ENERGY

In order to keep heat losses for plant start up to a minimum a 24-h-operation is

necessary. This also improves the plant utilisation and reduces material stress
through stop and go operation. The energy to run the plant during the times
without solar radiation is delivered from a storage collector with a water capacity
of 10 m3.

PLANT DESIGN AND DATA FOR A SINGLE MODULE UNIT

To show the simple design of the membrane distillation systems a flow diagram
(Fig. 7) for a single module unit is added. Instead of the solar collector the unit
can also be combined with a waste heat source.

Numerical codings of Fig. 7:

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 SOLAR ENERGY

1. Filter
2. Magnetic Valve
3. Pressure Reducing Valve
4. Flow Meter
5. Pressure Indicator
6. Heat Exchanger
7. Conductivity Meter
8. Temperature Indicator
9. Expansion Container
10. Safety Valve
11. Solar Pump
12. Degasifier
13. Insulation

Components of the desalination circuit:

• Desalination module
• Heat exchanger
• Feed, brine and distillate pipes
• Pressure adapting valve
• Metal frame and housing
• Sandfilter
• Flow-meter
• Feed pressure indicator
• Conductivity meter
• Temperature indicator
• Control board

The desalination plant is a compact unit with outer dimensions of about (1.O x I.5
x 0.8m) (3.3 x 5 x 2.6 ft).

Module design:

Spiral wound module cylinder: dimensions: height 500 mm (20 inch), diameter
460 mm (18 inch)

... membrane area: 10m 2 (108 ft2) ... condenser area: 10m2 (108 ft2)

Operational data

Prepositions:

• - the feed water entry pressure is between 0.2 and 0.4 bar (2.9 - 5.8 psi)
• - feed water is available in big quantities
• - concentrate discharge possible
• - no oil or surfactants in the feed water

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Plant data:
feed flow
distillate flow
distillate quality
feed water temperatures
brine temperatures
temperature level of heat source
average input of thermal energy
electric energy demand
300500 I/h(l.I - 2 gpm)
15-25 l/h(0.05 - 0.09 gpm)
<10S/cm
IO-40 °C (50-100°F)
60-80°C( 140 - 175°F)
70-90°C (l60 - 195°F)
150-200 Wh/l(570-750 Wh/gal)
none (except for the magnetic valve)

Fig. 8 shows a data evaluation sheet for a solar driven single module plant. The
upper diagram displays the development of the temperatures Tl - T4
(corresponding to Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) during a sunny day. In the diagram below the
corresponding distillate production is displayed. Because of the high heat
capacity of solar collector, piping and the module the start of the distillate
production is delayed. For that reason 24 h-operation at fixed flow rates is in
most cases the more economic alternative.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Summary

Small simple desalination plants operating independent from the electric grid are
either not available or not economic at all. The process of membrane distillation
allows the effective use of low temperature heat sources like solar energy or
waste energy from engines for small to medium scale desalination.

Although the process of membrane distillation is known since over 30 years cost-
effective desalination modules have not been available so far.

In order to achieve an effective membrane distillation process spiral wound

modules have been developed and optimized during a 6-year R&D program. The
modules are designed as compact units with integrated recovery of the heat of
condensation, allowing a highly efficient use of low temperature heat sources.

In case there is a high amount of free waste energy available the heat recovery is
not needed and flow rates 3-5 times higher can be obtained. Desalination
modules without integrated recovery of latent heat have been developed, too and
will be available soon.

Individual plant sizes are available with product water output ranging from 0.l (25
gal) to 5m3 (1300 gal) per day.

Solar refrigeration

Solar refrigerator (2m2)

Adsorption pair: SilicaGel + water. Tested in 2000-2001.

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar refrigerator (1m2) and Solar cold store (20m2)

Adsorption pair: zeolite NaX + water. Tested in the early eighties.

References
http://www.epsea.org/wtr.html
http://www.epsea.org/stills.html
http://www.solar4power.com
http://www.eia.doe.gov

/1/ E. Delyannis. V. Belessiotis Solar desalination, is it effective? Desalination

and Water Reuse Vol. 414

/2/ J. Manwell, J. McGowan, Recent renewable energy driven desalination

system research and development in North America Desalination, 94 (I994) p.
229-241

/3/ K. Schneider, T. van Gassel, Membrandestillation Chem.-lng.-Tech. 66 (1984)

Nr. 7, S. 514-521

___________________

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