NAME – HARENDRA KUMAR

ROLL No - 2136001

ASSIGNMENT

Question 1. Discuss the different types of fuel injection system and

with diagram. Write the function of injector. How the quantity

being controlled in fuel injection system.

 A fuel injector is an electronically controlled mechanical device which

is used to inject/spray (just like a syringe) the fuel into the engine for

the preparation of correct air-fuel mixture which in turn provides

efficient combustion to the engine.

 The position of the fuel injectors differs for different engine designs

but usually they are mounted on the engine head with a tip inside the

combustion chamber of the engine.

Types of Fuel Injectors: -

 The advancement in fuel injection technologies gave rise to various fuel

injection arrangements like Single-Point or throttle body fuel injection,

Port or multi-point fuel injection, sequential fuel injection and direct

injection that can be used according to the application but when it comes

to types of fuel injectors then it is really a tough call to categories them.

Fuel injectors can be categorized as on the different:

 1. On the basis of the location of Injector

A. Throttle body Injection B. Port Injection C. Direct

Injection

2. On the basis of Duration and Timing of Fuel Injection

A. Continuous Type B. Intermittent Type C. Sequential Type

3. On the basis of number of Injectors

A. Single Point Injection B. Multi-Point Injection

4. On the basis of Fuel

A. Diesel B. Petrol

5. On the basis of the Fuel Control Method

A. Mechanical Petrol Injection Method B. Electronic Petrol Injection

Method

1. According to position of the Fuel Injector

1(a). Throttle Body Fuel Injection (TBFI):-

Also referred to as single port, this was the earliest type of fuel injection,

Throttle body injection is rarely used today. All vehicles have an air intake

manifold where clean air first enters the engine. TBFI works by adding the

correct amount of fuel to the air before it is distributed to the individual

cylinders. The advantage of TBFI is that it’s inexpensive and easy to maintain.

If I have an issue with your injector, I have only got one to replace.

Additionally, since this injector has a fairly high flow rate, it’s not as easy to

clog up. Technically, throttle body systems are very robust and require less
 maintenance. The vehicles that still use it are old enough that maintenance

will be more of an issue than it would with a newer, lower mileage car.

Another disadvantage to TBFI is the fact that it’s inaccurate. If you let off the

accelerator, there will still be a lot of fuel in the air mixture that is being sent

to your cylinders. This can result in a slight lag before you decelerate, or in

some vehicles, it can result in unburned fuel being sent out through the

exhaust. This means that TBFI systems are not nearly as fuel efficient as

modern systems.

Figure1(a): Throttle body injection.

1(b). Port or Multi-point fuel Injection (MPFI):

 Multiport injection simply moved the injectors further down towards the

cylinders. Clean air enters the primary manifold and is directed out towards

each cylinder. The injector is located at the end of this port, right before it’s

sucked through the valve and into your cylinder.

 The advantage of this system is that fuel is distributed more accurately, with

each cylinder receiving its own spray of fuel. Each injector is smaller and

more accurate, offering an improvement in fuel economy. The downside is

that all injectors spray at the same time, while the cylinders fire one after the

other. This means that you may have leftover fuel in between intake periods,

or you may have a cylinder fire before the injector has had a chance to deliver

additional fuel.

 Multiport systems work great when you are traveling at a consistent speed.

But when you are quickly accelerating or removing your foot from the throttle,

this design reduces either fuel economy or performance.

 Figure 1(b): Type of Injection on the basis of fuel injector position

1(c) Direct Injection:

 In this system, fuel is squirted right into the cylinder, bypassing the air intake

altogether. Premium automobile manufacturers like Audi and BMW use that

direct injection is the latest and greatest. With regards to the performance of

gasoline vehicles, they’re absolutely right! But this technology is far from

new. It’s been used in aircraft engines since the Second World War (1940),

and diesel vehicles are almost all direct injection because the fuel is so much

thicker and heavier.

 In diesel engines, direct injection is very robust. Fuel delivery can take a lot of

abuse, and maintenance issues are kept to a minimum.

 With gasoline engines, direct injection is found almost exclusively in

performance vehicles. Because these vehicles operate with very precise

parameters, it’s especially important to maintain your fuel delivery system.

Although the car will continue to run for a long time when neglected, the

performance will quickly decline

 Figure 1(c): Direct Injection System

. According to Duration and Timing of Fuel Injection:

A. Continuous Type B. Intermittent Type C. Sequential Type

2(a). Continuous Type: - In continuous injection system, fuel is sprayed at low

pressure continuously into the air supply the quantity of fuel is controlled by air

throttle opening, a no timing device is used.

Figure 2(a). Continuous type fuel injection

2(b). Intermittent Type: -

2(c). Sequential Type: - Sequential fuel delivery systems are very similar to

multiport systems. That being said, there is one key difference. Sequential fuel

delivery is times. Instead of all injectors firing at the same time, they deliver fuel one

after the other. The timing is matched to your cylinders, allowing the engine to mix

the fuel right before the valve opens to suck it in. This design allows for improved

fuel economy and performance.

Because fuel only remains in the port for a short amount of time, sequential

injectors tend to last longer and remain cleaner than other systems. Because of these

advantages, sequential systems are the most common type of fuel injection in vehicles

today.
 The one small downside to this platform is that it leaves less room for error.

The fuel / air mixture is sucked into the cylinder only moments after the injector

opens. If it is dirty, clogged, or unresponsive, your engine will be starved of fuel.

Injectors need to be kept at their peak performance, or your vehicle will start to run

rough.
 Figu

re 2.3.(a) : Without any fuel injector fuel injected

Figure 2.3 (b): 1st fuel injector injected fuel(1st From right side)
Figure 2.3 (c) : 2nd fuel injector injected fuel (2nd From right side)

Figure 2.3 (d): 3rd fuel injector injected fuel(3rd From right)
 Figure 2.3(e) : 4th fuel injector injected fuel (4th From right side)

3. According to number of Injectors:

A. Single Point Injection (Discussed in 1(a))

B. Multi-Point Injection (Discussed in 1(b))

4. According to basis of Fuel:

On the basis of fuel injected injectors are of 2 types-

A. Diesel fuel injector B. Petrol fuel injector

A. Diesel Fuel Injectors: These fuel injectors are used to inject or spray the

diesel (which is heavier fuel than gasoline) directly into the combustion chamber of

the diesel engine for further combustion by compression. The capillary and nozzle of

diesel fuel injectors are made in such a fashion that they can form the diesel packets

while spraying the fuel inside the combustion chamber. Diesel fuel injectors required

higher injection pumping than gasoline injectors as diesel is heavier than gasoline.
In compression ignition engine two method of fuel injection are used these are:

a. Air injection. b. Solid or air less injection.

4 .A. (a) Air injection system:

 In this system fuel is injected along with high pressure air into the combustion

chamber.

 The pressure of this air is about 70 bar.

 A multistage air compressor is required to supply the blast of air at high

pressures.

 A fuel pump draws fuel from the fuel tank through a filter and discharges at a

definite quality into an injector.

 The high pressure air from compressor is also led to the injector valve which

forces the fuel, through the nozzle, when it is opened mechanically.

 This type of system is not used now-a-days in diesel engines.

The advantages and disadvantages of this system are listed below

Advantages of air injection system:

 It provides good atomization and distribution of fuel.

 Fuel pump needs to develop less pressure.

 It allows to use the inferior fuels.

Disadvantages of air injection system:

 It requires a high pressure multi stage compressor. The large number of parts,

the inter-cooler, etc. make the system complicated and expensive.

 The power output and mechanical efficiency of the engine is reduced greatly,

as considerable amount of power is required to run the compressor.

 Air compressor needs extra maintenance.

4. A. b Solid injection or Airless injection system:

 In solid injection system, fuel is directly injected into cylinder without the aid

of compressed air. That is why this system is called solid or air less

mechanical system.

 In this system, the fuel is supplied at a very high pressure (about 200bar) from

the fuel pump to the fuel injector from where it is injected to the combustion

chamber with the help of an injector.

The main parts of this system are fuel pump and fuel injector.

The sold injection systems are available in three types as:

I. Common rail system

II. Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system

 III. Distributor injection system

4. A.b.I Common Rail Injection system: In this system, a single fuel pump supplies

high pressure diesel oil to common rail or header (accumulator) as shown in fig.

Figure 4.A.b.I: Common Rail Injection System

 The pump plunger is actuated by cam through camshaft which is directly

coupled with engine shaft.

 The plunger of fuel pump moving in barrel increases pressure of diesel oil.

The high pressure diesel oil in the common rail forces the fuel to each of nozzles

(injectors) located in the cylinders.

 A spring loaded high pressure relief valve maintains a constant pressure in the

system and it returns the excess diesel to the fuel tank. The diesel oil is sprayed into

the cylinders through a injector (nozzle), who’s opening and closing with proper Pu

timing is controlled by a spring loaded needle valve.

 The upward and downward motion of needle is controlled by motion of cam.

 When the cam during in action period, the push rod moves upward and this

motion is transmitted to the needle through rocker arm.

 When the valve lifts, the high pressure diesel oil is injected into cylinder

through nozzle.
 The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying length of

push rod stroke by control wedge.

Advantages of Common Rail Injection system:

 It can control the fuel supply according to load and speed of the engine.

 Only one pump is required for multi cylinder engine.

 The arrangement of the system is very simple and maintenance cost is less.

 Variation in pressure pump supply will affect all the cylinder uniformly.

Disadvantages of Common Rail Injection system:

 There is tendency to develop leaks in the injection valve.

 Very accurate design and workmanship are required.

4. A.b.II: Individual Pump and injector or Jerk system:

In this system, individual fuel pump is provided for each nozzle (injector) as

shown in fig.

Figure 4.A.b.II: Individual Pump Injector

 The metering of fuel quantity and control of injection timing are done by the

each pump for corresponding nozzle.

 The needle valve in the nozzle is actuated by fuel oil pressure.

  The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by changing position of

control rack.

 The time allowed for injecting such a small quantity of fuel is limited (1/450

second at 1500 rpm for engine providing injection through 20o crank angle).

 The pressure requirement is 100 to 300 bar.

4. A.b.III: Distributor Injection System:

 In this system single fuel pump is used to meter, Pressurize the fuel and times

the injection. Then fuel is supplied to the central distributor block as shown in

fig

Figure: 4.A.b.III: Distributor fuel injection

 From distributor block the fuel is distributed to each cylinder to each cylinder

in correct firing order by cam operated poppet valves which is open to admit

fuel to nozzles.

 The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by changing position of

control rack.

 The number of injection stroke per cycle for the pump is equal to the number

of cylinders.
  Since there is only one metering element, a uniform distribution is

automatically ensured. Not only that the cost of the fuel injection system also

reduces to a value less than two-thirds of that for individual pump system.

4. B Gasoline Fuel Injectors:

 They are the fuel injectors used to inject or spray gasoline directly or through

intake manifold into the combustion chamber for further combustion by spark.

 The capillary and nozzle of gasoline fuel injectors is made smaller or same as

the diesel fuel injectors depending upon the requirement.

 As the gasoline is lighter than diesel, gasoline injectors required less injection

pumping than diesel injectors.

These are the following advantages of Petrol Injection System:

 Very high-quality fuel distribution is obtained. 

 Improvement in volumetric efficiency with the corresponding improvement in

power and torque.

  The response of the engine to throttle control is very rapid since the is a very

small time lag between throttle movement and injection of the which is now

directly injected into each inlet port.

 Multi-point injection does not need time for transportation of fuel in the intake

manifold. Moreover, there is no wetting of manifold walls.

 Both the single-point or the multi-point systems are particularly suitable for

supercharged engines.

 Fuel Consumption is less.

 Fuel Injection equipment is much more precise in metering injected fuel spray

into the intake ports over the operating range of engine speed, load, and

temperature.

Disadvantages of Petrol Injection System:

There are some disadvantages of Petrol Injection System, and those are the

following:

 The initial cost of fuel Injector is very high.

 The mechanism is much complicated compared to Carburettor because of the

presence of complicated and precise fuel injection pump, injection nozzle, and

pipelines for each cylinder.

 Huge maintenance is required compared to Carburettor.

 There is more noise, mechanical and hydraulic due to the pumping and

metering of the fuel.

Types of petrol (gasoline) injection system:

  There are basically two methods are used for petrol injection as continuous

injection and timed injection.

 In continuous injection system, fuel is sprayed at low pressure continuously

into the air supply.

 The quantity of fuel is controlled by air throttle opening, and no timing device

is used.

 The timed injection is similar to diesel injection system, the metered

quantity of petrol is injected at correct time and regulated by speed of engine.

 Petrol injection system was invented approximately before 20 years and day

by day number of modifications takes place in this system.

Major classification of this system are as follows:

Types of Petrol Injection

 In Indirect Injection, fuel is injected into the air stream before

entering the combustion chamber as Intake manifold shown in

  In the direct injection, fuel is injected directly inside to combustion

chamber as shown in Fig.

The indirect injection can be classified as single point injection and multi point

fuel injection.

 The single point injection also called throttle injection in which fuel is injected

one place in Air throttle body and then mixture supply to different cylinders.
  In case of port injection also called multi point fuel injection, air sucks through

throttle body, and fuel is injected near inlet valve of every cylinders as shown

in Fig.

Direct injection (DI):

 In this system petrol is directly injected inside the cylinder at the end of

compression stroke, similarly as that of diesel injection.

 Pressure required for fuel injection is very high (about 40 to 65 bar) in order to

make better & quicker vaporization.

  Modern gasoline engines may utilize direct injection using electronic control

which is referred to as gasoline direct injection (GDI).

Advantages of GDI system are:

 Better vaporization

 Higher volumetric efficiency

 Easy cold starting

 Better performance at idling, low load & high load condition.

 Lower exhaust emission.

 Higher efficiency and better mileage.

5. According to the Fuel Control Method

 On the basis of fuel metering (controlling speed, quantity and pressure of the

fuel) fuel injectors are of 2 types-

A. Mechanical Petrol Injection Method

B. Electronic Petrol Injection Method

A. Mechanically Controlled Fuel Injectors:

 They are the fuel injectors in which the control of the fuel speed, quantity,

timing and pressure is done mechanically with the help of spring and plunger

which takes the input from the cam and fuel pump arrangement or by fuel

distributor (advanced one).

Mechanically controlled fuel injectors consist of following parts:

 Injector body–It is the outer body or can be called a shell inside which all
the other parts of a injectors are arranged just like a garden shower.  The inside

of the injector body is designed in such a fashion that it holds a precisely

 designed capillary or passage through which the highly pressurized fuel from

the fuel pump can flow for further spray.

 Plunger – A plunger is used at the nozzle or narrow end of the fuel injector
which is used to open or close the nozzle under the action of fuel pressure

governed by the fuel distributor or engine governor.

 Springs – 2 springs are used inside the mechanically controlled fuel

injectors that are-

 Plunger spring- The to and fro movement of the plunger is controlled by

plunger spring which operates when the fuel pressure inside the fuel injector

increases results in opening of the nozzle and returns to its initial position

when the pressure decreases which in turn closes the nozzle.

 Main spring- The main spring is used to control the inlet of the fuel injector.

Main spring operates under the action of fuel pressure provided by the fuel

pump.
Mechanically Controlled Fuel Injector working:

 When we ON the ignition of the vehicle in order to start the engine, the fuel

pump of the engine start pumping the fuel to the fuel distributor which in turn

starts regulating the timing and amount of fuel to be sprayed.

 After fuel distributor the fuel is transferred to the fuel injector according to the

instruction of the fuel distributor through the fuel lines.

 In fuel injector when this highly pressurized fuel reaches the fuel injector, due

to its high pressure this fuel pushes the inlet or main spring in order to enter

the fuel injector.

  When this fuel enters the fuel injector it start pushing the plunger spring which

in turn pushes the plunger outward and the opening of the nozzle takes place

which results in spray of the fuel.

 When the spraying of the fuel for particular cycle completed according to the

input given by the fuel distributor the pressure inside the fuel injector

decreases due to which the plunger spring retains its initial position results in

closing of the nozzle and the spray of the fuel stops for that particular cycle.

5. B Electronically Controlled Fuel Injectors

 They are the fuel injectors in which the control of fuel speed, quantity,

pressure and timing is done electronically with the help of electronic solenoid

which takes the input either from fuel distributor or from electronic control

unit (advanced one) of the vehicle.

 This is a smart type of fuel injector which is controlled electronically by the

electronic control unit of the engine which is also known as brain of modern

engines.

 Electronically controlled fuel injectors consist of following parts –

 Injector body- Same as the mechanically controlled fuel injector the body
of this type of injector is a precisely designed hollow shell inside which all the

other components are arranged.

 Plunger- Same as the mechanically controlled fuel injector a plunger is used

for the opening and closing of the nozzle but in electronically controlled fuel

injector the opening of the nozzle is controlled electronically with the help of

electromagnets.

 Spring – Same as the mechanically controlled fuel injector a plunger spring

is used to hold the plunger in its position in order to close the nozzle of the

fuel injector when required.

 Electromagnets – Unlike mechanically controlled fuel injector this type of

injector is equipped with electromagnets just around the plunger which

controls the opening of the nozzle by taking the electronic signal from the
 electronic control unit of the engine through the electronic plug or connection

connecting the fuel injector with the electronic control unit of the engine.

 Electronic plug/connection- At the top end of electronically controlled

fuel injector a connection/plug is present through which the electronic signal

from the electronic control unit of the engine is transferred to the

electromagnets which in turn opens the nozzle in order to spray the fuel.
Working:

 When we ON the ignition of the vehicle in order to start the engine, the fuel

pump along with the electronic control unit of the engine.

 The fuel pump start pumping the fuel to the fuel injector and the timing,

amount and pressure of the fuel entering the fuel injector is governed by the

electronic control unit.

 The electronic control unit sends the electronic signal to the fuel injector with

the help of the electronic connection, due to these electronic signals from the

ECU the electromagnets inside the fuel injector got activated which in turn

pushes the plunger outward results in opening of the nozzle and finally the

spray of the fuel takes place

 After completing this particular cycle the electronic signal from the ECU stops

which in turn deactivates the electromagnets due to which the plunger returns

to its initial position results in closing of the nozzle and the spray of the fuel

stops

 The closing of the nozzle is maintained by the plunger spring.

Functions of Fuel Injection System:

 Filter the fuel.

 Meter or measure the correct quantity of fuel to be injected.

 Time the fuel injection.

 Control the rate of fuel injection.

 Atomize or break up the fuel to fine particles.

 Properly distribute the fuel in the combustion chamber.

 The injection systems are manufactured with great accuracy, especially the

parts that actually meter and inject the fuel.

Quantity Control

Question 2. Discuss the emission measuring devices with full

diagram. & how it can be measured and how the works.

EMISSION MEASUREMENT:

The emission regulations specify the type, principle of operation used and generic

construction of the exhaust gas analyzers which can be employed for emission

certification of vehicles and engines. The type of analyzers used for measurement of

different exhaust gas constituents.

Gas component Measurement Principle

CO NDIR (Non-dispersive infrared)
HC FID (Flame Ionization detector)
NO x CLD (Chemiluminescence detector)

CO and CO2 NDIR Analyzers:

Beer-Lambert's Law is used for operation of NDIR analyzers by measuring

the degree of absorption of infrared (IR) radiations when they pass through a

column of gas. The fraction of incident radiations absorbed is given by

Where

I = Radiation energy absorbed

Io = Incident radiation energy

k = characteristic absorption constant for the gas, m2 /gmol

c = concentration of the gas, gmol/m3

d = length of the gas column, m

NDIR (Non-dispersive infra-red)

 As the absorption of IR radiations is measured only in a narrow range of

wavelengths (not the entire range of wavelength of IR radiations) which has

 specifically a high absorbance for the particular gas, the technique is called as

NDIR.

Example: Carbon monoxide has a strong absorbance in the wavelength band of 4.5-5

µm. The analyzer measures differential in absorption of energy from two columns of

gas;

 The gas to be analyzed in the ‘sample cell'.

 A gas of fixed composition like N2 contained in the reference cell which is

free of the gas of interest and relatively non-absorbing in the infrared region.

 The infrared beam from a single source is usually split into two beams of the

same intensity, one each for the sample and reference cells. The detector is

divided in two compartments separated by a flexible diaphragm; one section

receives transmitted IR energy from the sample cell and the other from the

reference cell. The detector is filled with the gas of interest, so that the energy

transmitted to the detector is fully absorbed. The flexible diaphragm of the

detector senses the differential pressure between the two sections of the

detector caused by the difference in the amount of transmitted IR energy

absorbed. The deflection in the diaphragm is used to generate an electrical

 signal that determines the concentration of the gaseous species of interest. A

rotating interrupter in the path of IR beam is put to generate AC signal output

that can be amplified.

 NDIR analyzers enable accurate measurements of CO and CO2in the exhaust

gases.

 NDIR instruments are seldom used for measurement of hydrocarbons except

in the garage type analyzers as the IR absorbance to different hydrocarbons

varies substantially. The unsaturated hydrocarbons are primarily responsible

for photochemical smog but they do not have an adequate absorption in the IR

wavelength range that is specific to the saturated hydrocarbons and vice versa.

Sensitivity and response of NDIR to the exhaust HC is typically only half of

the probable true value. NO absorbs only weekly in the infrared region.

Moreover, CO, CO2and water vapours interfere seriously; hence NDIR

analyzers are also not used for NO measurement.

Flame Ionization Detector (FID):

Pure hydrogen-air flames are practically ion-free but on introduction of even little

amount of hydrocarbons the flame causes considerable ionization and becomes

electrically conducting. The ionization current is proportional to the number of carbon

atoms present in the hydrocarbon molecules. Thus, FID is effectively a carbon atom

counter e.g., one molecule of propane generates three times the response generated by

one molecule of methane. The measurement of HC by FID is expressed as parts per

million of methane i.e. as ppmC 1 i.e., ppm of hydrocarbon containing equivalent of

one carbon atom. The HC concentration is commonly written as ppmC. HC

concentration measured as ppm propane (C3 ) is to be multiplied by a factor of 3 to

convert it to ppmC. All classes of hydrocarbons i.e., paraffin, olefins, aromatics, etc.
show practically the same response to FID. Oxygenates, e.g. aldehydes and alcohols

however, have a somewhat lower response. FID essentially consists of a hydrogen-air

burner and an ion collector assembly as shown in Fig. 4.11. Sample gas is introduced

with hydrogen in the burner assembly and the mixture is burned in a diffusion flame.

An electric potential is applied between the collector plates that makes the ionization

current to flow and generate signal proportional to HC concentration in the sample

gas. This current is amplified and the output signal is measured. A well-designed

burner will generate ionization current that is linearly proportion to hydrocarbon

content over a dynamic range of almost 1 to 10 6 . The commercial FID analyzers

have the most sensitive range set at about 0-50 ppmC and the maximum range

reaching 0-100,000 ppmC. Hydrogen is mixed with helium in ratio of 40:60 to

decrease flame temperature that increases flame stability. The FID analyzer is

calibrated with propane or methane mixtures in nitrogen. For the measurement of

hydrocarbons in diesel exhaust, sampling line and FID are heated to a temperature of

191± 11°C to minimize condensation of heavy hydrocarbons present in the diesel

exhaust in the sampling system.

Measurement OF Non-Methane Hydrocarbons (NMHC) Presently, the emission

standards are specified in terms of non-methane hydrocarbons. Methane content of

HC emissions is determined by one of the following methods: Gas chromatographic

(GC) method or Non-methane cutter (NMC) method In the GC method, sample is

injected into GC column which separates the sample into two parts: (i) CH 4 -air-CO,

and (ii) NMHC–CO2 –H2O. A molecular sieve column separates methane from air

and CO before passing it to FID. Thus methane content is measured that is deducted

from the total hydrocarbon content. In the NMC method, all hydrocarbons except

CH4 are oxidized to CO2and water on a catalyst, so that when the gas sample is

passed through NMC only CH4 is detected by HFID. The NMC cutter is calibrated

for catalytic effect on CH4 and higher hydrocarbon (ethane) mixtures in presence of

water vapours with values typical of exhaust gas at or above 600 K. The sample can

be alternatively passed through NMC or bypasses the NMC. In this manner, the total

HC and methane alone present in the exhaust gas sample are determined.

Chemiluminescence Analyzer (CLA)

When NO and ozone (O3 ) react a small fraction (about 10% at 26.7° C) of excited

NO2* molecules is produced as per the following reactions:

As the excited molecules of NO2 * decay to ground state, light in the wavelength

region 0.6-3.0 µm is emitted. The quantity of excited NO2 produced is fixed at a

given reaction temperature and the intensity of light produced during decay of excited

NO2 is proportional to the concentration of NO in the sample.

A schematic diagram of the chemiluminescence NOx analyzer is shown in Fig. 4.12.

The sample containing NO flows to a reactor where it reacts with ozone produced

from oxygen in ‘ozonator' .In the reactor NO is converted to NO2 . A photomultiplier

tube detects the light emitted by the excited NO2 . The signal is then amplified and

fed to recorder or indicating equipment. For the measurement of nitrogen oxides

(NOx ), NO2in the sample is first converted to NO by heating in a NO2- to-NO

converter prior to its introduction into the reactor. At 315º C, about 90 percent of NO2

is converted to NO2. The total concentration of NOx in the sample is thus, measured

as NO. When the sample is introduced in the reactor bypassing the NO2 - to- NO

converter, concentration of NO alone is determined. The difference between the two

measurements provides the concentration of NO2in the sample. The response of the

instrument is linear with NO concentration. The technique is very sensitive and can

detect up to 10-3 ppm of NOx. The output signal is proportional to the product of

sample flow rate and NO concentration. As the method is flow sensitive an accurate

flow control is necessary. The calibration and operation are done at the same flow rate

and reactor temperature.

Smokemeters:

In the filtration type smokemeters like Bosch smokemeter a fixed volume of the

exhaust gas is drawn through a white filter paper of specified quality. The density of

smoke stain obtained on the filter paper is evaluated using a reflectance meter which

gives the measure of smoke density of diesel exhaust gas. Now, mostly light

extinction/absorption smokemeters based on Beer-Lambert Law are used. The light

extinction type smokemeters are more commonly called as ‘opacimeters' as these

provide a more realistic measurement of the visible smoke emissions from diesel

engines. . Both the sampling type and full flow type opacimeters are in use. The

construction requirements, installation and operational details of opacimeters are

described in the relevant international standards. A sampling type smokemeter is

shown schematically in Fig. 4.13.

An incandescent lamp with a colour temperature in the range of 2 800 K to 3 250 K or

a green light emitting diode (LED) with a spectral peak between 550 nm and 570 nm

is used as light source. The transmitted light is received on a photocell or a photo

diode (with filter if necessary). When the light source is an incandescent lamp, the

receiver should have maximum response in the range 550 nm to 570 nm wavelength
as is for the human eye. When light from a source is transmitted through a certain

path length of the exhaust gas, smoke opacity is the fraction of light that is absorbed

in the exhaust gas column and does not reach the light detector of smoke meter. The

absolute smoke density is given by the absorption coefficient, ks which has units of m

-1 and is given by:

(4.4) where L is length of smoke column in meter through which light from the source

is made to pass, I0 is the intensity of incident light, I is the transmitted light falling on

the smokemeter receiver.

In the full flow type smokemetersm, the light source and detector are placed directly

across the exhaust gas stream usually at the end of exhaust pipe. In this case, path

length of smoke measurement varies with the cross sectional size of the exhaust gas

stream or tail pipe. Hence, conversion charts of the measured value to the absolute

smoke density, ks for different exhaust pipe diameter or path lengths are made

available for the full flow smoke meters.

Particulate Emission Measurement For measurement of particulate emissions:

the gas is diluted with air in a dilution tunnel and, a sample is continuously collected

from the diluted gas and filtered to collect particulate matter. The mass of the

collected PM is measured to determine specific PM emissions in terms of g/km or

g/kWh. The dilution tunnels are of two types Partial flow, and Full flow dilution
tunnel Partial Flow Dilution Tunnel In the partial-flow system, only a small part of

the exhaust stream is diluted. To withdraw a true representative of the exhaust gas the

following systems have been developed; Isokinetic sampling systems Flow controlled

systems with concentration measurement, and Flow controlled systems with flow

measurement In an isokinetic system, the gas velocity in the sampling tube which

leads the sampled exhaust gas to dilution tunnel is kept same in magnitude as the

velocity of the bulk exhaust gas stream. In this way, an undisturbed and uniform

exhaust gas sample flow at the inlet of sampling probe is obtained. An isokinetic

system is shown schematically in Fig. 4.15. Raw exhaust gas is transferred from the

exhaust pipe to the dilution tunnel (DT) through isokinetic sampling probe (ISP) and

the transfer tube. The differential pressure of the exhaust gas between exhaust pipe

and inlet to the probe is measured with a pressure transducer. The signal is fed to a

flow controller that controls the suction blower and, a differential pressure of zero at

the tip of probe is maintained. Under these conditions, exhaust gas velocities in the

exhaust pipe and probe are identical and the flow through isokinetic probe is a

constant fraction of the exhaust flow. The sampling rate can be obtained by the ratio

of cross sectional areas of probe and the exhaust pipe. The dilution airflow rate is

measured with the flow meter. The dilution ratio is calculated from the dilution air

flow rate and exhaust sample to total exhaust flow ratio.

Full Flow Dilution Tunnel In the full flow system, entire exhaust of the

engine/vehicle is diluted with the filtered room air. The full flow system is quite large

in size and expensive. A full-flow double dilution tunnel is shown schematically in

Fig. For small engines/vehicles only the primary dilution tunnel is used. For the large

engines to provide the desired dilution ratio, the gas is diluted again in the secondary

dilution tunnel. The sample is withdrawn for measurements from the secondary

dilution tunnel in the large engines. The dilution ratio is maintained around 10:1. The

temperature of the diluted exhaust gases at the primary filter is maintained at 325º K

or less by a heat exchanger. The flow rate of diluted gas is kept constant during the

test by a CVS system. After thorough mixing of exhaust and air in the dilution tunnel,

a constant flow rate sample is extracted that is filtered through a Teflon coated glass

fibre filter. The mass of particulate is determined by weighing the particulate mass

collected on the filter. A reference filter is used to determine the particulate mass in

the dilution air for correction of PM measurement for the background PM. The filter

papers are conditioned before and after filtration to prevent condensation of any

moisture or deposition of foreign particulate matter from atmosphere. With the full

flow dilution tunnel and CVS system, gaseous pollutants are also measured

simultaneously with particulates

Question 3. SCR

 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is an advanced active emissions control

technology system that reduces the pollution produced by diesel engines.

Specifically, SCR turns harmful nitrogen oxide (NOx) pollution into nitrogen

and water. NOx is produced during combustion and greatly contributes to the

formation of smog and acid rain.

 The Selective Catalytic Reduction system reduces the level of nitrogen oxide

in the exhaust gas from the engine by means of catalyst elements and a

reducing agent. In the process a reducing agent of a urea water solution is

sprayed into the exhaust gas stream by an advanced injection system. Is

known as -Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) . The water in the urea solution is

evaporated as the solution is injected into the hot exhaust gas. The high

temperature also induces thermal decomposition of the urea ((NH2)2CO) into

ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

 After the urea solution was injected into the exhaust pipe, the urea solution

was first evaporated to precipitate the urea particles. The isomoles of ammonia

and ISO-isocyanic acid were generated by the urea pyrolysis reaction.

CO(NH2)2-- NH3+ HNCO

Further hydrolysis of Iso-cyanic acid:

HNCO+H2O --- NH3 +CO2

 Exhaust gas NOx emissions are thereafter transformed into molecular nitrogen

(N2) and water (H2O), as they react with the ammonia at a catalytic surface.

 Catalytic reduction of NOx. NOx reduction with ammonia is mainly

controlled by the three SCR reactions expressed in Equation, which are

usually referred as standard, fast and slow SCR.

 The catalytic elements are located inside a metallic reactor structure located in

the exhaust gas line. The end products of the reaction are pure nitrogen and

water, i.e. major constituents of ambient air. No liquid or solid by-products are

produced. The efficiency of the catalytic reduction depends on a number of

factors, including the dosage of the reducing agent, the volume of catalyst

elements and the exhaust gas temperature. Normally, a NOx reduction level of

90% can be reached.

SCR can be implemented in many different ways on a diesel engine. One of

the most common configurations includes four steps:
1. Reaction of the exhaust gas with an oxidation catalyst to remove
hydrocarbons and convert some NO to NO2.
2. Conversion of urea from AdBlue/DEF to ammonia on a hydrolysis catalyst.
This requires injection of the urea solution into the exhaust stream at the correct
dosing rate, and in a way that results in no build-up of urea on the walls of the exhaust
or on the injector itself.
3. Reaction of ammonia with NOx on an SCR catalyst to produce nitrogen and
water.
4. A final oxidation catalyst is often installed after the SCR catalyst to destroy
any remaining ammonia. This is sometimes called an ammonia slip catalyst.
Question 4 .Fuel Supply in CI Engine

 In C.I engine, the fuel is supplied at very high pressure partly during the

compression stroke and partly during the power stroke.

 During the suction stroke the air is taken in and during compression stroke it is

compressed to a high pressure and high temperature (550 to 800°C) according

to the compression ratio used (14 to 22).

 The high temperature of air at the end of stroke is sufficient to ignite the fuel.

 The fuel injection system is the most important component in the working of

C.I. engines.

 The pressure of fuel injected lies between 100 to 200 bars.

 During the process of injection, the fuel is broken into very fine droplets.

 The droplets vaporize taking heat from compressed air and start burning.

 As the burning starts, the vaporization of fuel is accelerated as more heat is

available.

 As the combustion advances, the amount of oxygen available for burning

reduces and therefore heat release rate is reduced.

 Figure: Fuel Supply system for CI engine

The main function of the fuel supply for C.I. engine are.

 To supply the correct quantity of fuel to be injected as per the load of the

engine and increase in speed for automobile engines.

 The rate of injection of fuel should be controlled such that it results into

desired heat release rate during the combustion process.

 To supply the fuel within a precisely defined period of the cycle.

 To atomize the fuel into very fine particles.

 To ensure the uniform distribution of fuel throughout the combustion

chamber.

 To ensure uniform distribution of metered fuel into each cylinder of a multi

cylinder engine.

 The injection of fuel starts and stops sharply

Question 5: Fuel supply system in SI Engine

 In an automobile, generally fuel tank is placed far from engine for safety and

convenience purpose.
Generally fuel tank placed at lower level compared to carburetor as shown in fig.

and therefore fuel pump is required to lift the petrol from fuel tank to carburetor.

 In motor cycle, fuel tank placed above the carburetor in this fuel is supply

under the gravity so fuel pump is not required.

 In C.I engine fuel pump is essential for injecting the fuel with very high

pressure while in S.I engine fuel pump is required only to lift the fuel from

fuel tank to carburetor.

 A single pump with diaphragm can be used for this purpose. Diaphragm

moves up and down, create necessary suction to suck the petrol from fuel tank.

Diaphragm may be operated mechanically (mechanical pump) or electricity

(in case of electric pump).

 Fuel from fuel pump enters to the carburetor and air from atmosphere

passes through air cleaner and then enters to the carburetor via chock valve.

 Chock valve will reduce the flow of air during starting to make rich mixture so

that engine will easily start.

 In carburetor, fuel and air mix with each other (known as charge) in proper

proportion and then supply to the engine.

 The quantity of mixture supply to the engine is controlled by throttle valve

according to the requirement of power (therefore S.I engine are known

engine). as quantity governing engine.