Romancing Delhi FR 00 Varm

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FROM LAL-KOT TO SHAHJAHANABAD

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Urmila Varma
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018 with funding from
Public.Resource.Org
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ROMANCING DELHI
FROM LAL-KOT TO SHAHJAHANABAD
URMILA VARMA
Published by
THE DIRECTOR GENERAL

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
JANPATH, NEW DELHI
2016
First Editon 2016
©
2016
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
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Romancing Delhi: From Lal-Kot to Shahjahanabad
D elhi, the city that would never

die. A city so strategically located,
bureaucrats in Delhi, having discussed
the matter at the administrative as well
that for centuries rulers made it their as at the judiciary level, consulted their
capital. Through much of its history, counterparts in London. The name was
Delhi has been called by various names, finally decided as Delhi, a nomenclature,
the details of which are known through which has remained unchanged since
various inscriptions found at different then.
places.
The grandeur of the Mughals, the last
An inscription dated to Muhammad- monarchs of this city, was so pervasive,
bin-Tughluq’s time and now preserved that the name Delhi was not only
in the Red Fort Museum in Delhi, refers inseparably linked with the Mughals,
to the city of Dhillika being in Haryana, but also became almost synonymous
while in some records, Haryana itself with them. However, that is only one side
has been used as a name of this region of the story. This region has many more
of Delhi. fascinating stories to unfold. If we take a
little time off and probe into the records
Another inscription, which is known as
beyond the Mughal era, going back in
the Palam Baoli inscription, dated 1276,
time, we discover vistas that stretch as
of the time of Ghiyathuddin Balban, states
far back as the prehistoric era.
that the town of Dilli was in Haryana. The
Palam Baoli inscription also mentions We find prehistoric habitation,
Yoginipura as an alternative to Dilli and which covered an area much larger
mentions its location to be in the village than the southern part of present
called Palamba (present day Palamgaon). downtown Delhi, and came to light
However, no village by the name of quite by chance. In 1996, archeologists
Yoginipura exists now. Interestingly, discovered prehistoric tools in a place
instead of Indraprastha, Yoginipura is the called Anangpur, once a remote village
name, which occurs in later Jainpattavalis but now standing a few kilometers
and early medieval inscriptions. The name distant from Khanpur and Deoli. The
Indraprastha survives in the Puranas and little hamlet of Anangpur successfully
in Tan trie works. resisted change and somehow protected
When the British bureaucrats took and treasured all the tools and fossils of
charge of the administration of Delhi, men and animals of the Stone Age. The
they were shrewd enough to realize that lull, the wilderness and unhampered
the use of the name Dilli by Hindus, and gentle breeze is still inviting. The route
Dehli by Muslims was more than likely to to this village is through a hilly track
raise controversies. To avoid any problem but there is another route as well via
arising because of a mere name, the the old fortress of Tughluqabad. It is
3
interesting to note that in the Anangpur Having thus glimpsed the prehistoric
region, archaeologists have discovered age, one can now look for traces of earliest
the*site of a primitive Stone Age factory human civilization in the Delhi region. The
(PI. 1) where tools like hand axes (PI. 2), first name, which appears on the horizon,
cleavers (PI. 3), tools for mincing meat is Indraprastha, referred to in the great
and scrapers were found. The fact that Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Records of
this region had all the basic amenities, that era, which are well preserved in the
like water, a dense game forest and raw epics, Puranas, Jatakas and also in oral
materials, must have made the place an traditions, begin to unfold and acquaint
obvious choice for settlement. us with the glorious past.
Another interesting fact was brought Significantly, until the beginning of
to light by remote sensing geo-satellite the present century, a village known as
data, which proved that the sacred River Indrapat lay within the precincts of Fhirana
Yamuna once flowed in this area during Qila. The villagers knew it as Pandavon-
the prehistoric era, which, despite ka-Qila meaning the fort of the Pandavas,
having changed its course several the heroes of the Mahabharata. This
times, continues to exist in nearby clearly indicates that the word Indrapat
Delhi area. was a distortion of Indraprastha, the
PI. 1. Prehistoric site, Anangpur.
4
correct name of the capital of Delhi; it essential for sanctifying the land. The
nevertheless contributed much to the form of the city was then decided on the
city’s history. A well planned township, basis of the Vastupurusha Mandala, a
Indraprastha was strictly based on the scientific formula that determined the
science of architecture, which seems relationship of the physical form of a
to have been highly developed in the settlement with the spiritual, cosmic,
and behavioural systems. The city
country since that era.
was further divided into well planned
As the story goes, when the Pandavas sectors, the allocation of which was
received a tract of densely forested done in line with the social order of the
Khandavaprastha as their share, they time. According to the Mahabharata, the
first cleared the tract with the help of fire. city was made strong by high protecting
It was then measured and proportionately walls, surrounded by moats, which were
divided on the principles laid out in the wide like the oceans. It is also amazing
Vedas and canons of Mayasura, a treatise to learn from the same source, that
on town planning and architecture. A the city’s palaces and houses were on
yajna-a form of propitiating the Gods by wheels and could be transported, or
the lighting of a sacrificial fire, was then shifted from one place to the other. It was
performed to invoke the benevolence of surmised by some, that these building
the Supreme Being. This was considered were probably made of wood, which
PI. 2. Hand axes from Anangpur PI. 3. Cleavers from Anangpur
5
facilitated the movement. That perhaps archaeologist Alexander Cunningham,

could be the reason for the difficulty Yudhishthira (the eldest of the Pandavas)
encountered by the archaeologists in had established the city of Indraprastha
tracing the physical remains of the in 1500 BC. The archaeologists
buildings of that era. However, since the
confirmed it as the site of the ancient
archaeologists have discovered parts of
city of Indraprastha, which was the first
constructed buildings, this remains a
developed city in this region. It was stated
mere conjecture.
to date back to approximately 1000 BC
Having scanned the scriptures, to 800 BC. But, this of course, was on
the epics and the oral tradition, the the basis of the data gathered in the first
archaeologists in Delhi during three three phases of excavation (PI. 5), which
phases of excavation, were able to locate they themselves felt was to be treated as
a small mound in Purana Qila (PI. 4), preliminary. They definitely felt that a
under which lay the ruins of the ancient much deeper probe was needed to lead
city of Indraprastha. Painted Grey Ware, to any authentic conclusion. This seems
which has authentically been linked to indicate a fairly strong possibility
to that era, was found along with few of the dates being pushed to an even
other objects like incense burners and more ancient past. The panoramic
figurines. According to the famous changes witnessed by this land, and
PI. 4. A general view of Purana Qila .
6
PI. 5. A general view ofPurana Qila excavations.
its continuity, the ability to attract Alexander Cunningham had agreed with
monarchies is something exceptional. It the view of the chronicler Muhammad-
has always been the capital city. bin-Qasim’s Tarikh-i-Farishta that Delhi
derived its name from Raja Delu or
The subject of changing panoramas
Dhillu. Another source which mention
did attract the questioning mind.
this name is an inscription, known as the
A Greek Geographer who visited this Bijolia inscription, dated to AD 1170 and
country during the second century AD deriving its name from the place Bijolia
had marked Daidala close to Inderbara. in Rajasthan from where it was found.
According to his account, Daidala was
It was the strategic position of the
founded by a king called Delu.
Golden Triangle, which stretches from
In some inscription, this area was also the northern end of the ridge to the banks
mentioned as a part of Hariyanaka or of River Yamuna, that maintained its
Haryana, the area where the four gates tantalizing hold over the seekers of power.
of Indraprastha were located. A place Consequently, the story of Delhi is not
known as Yoginipura, of the same era, was just the story of one urban settlement but
also linked with Delhi. But surprisingly, also a story of location shifting through
no remains of the place with the name the ages. But it is not its age alone which
Dhillu have been found, although inspires the interest in the city. Its age
7
is uncertain and there are other cities in included in the authentic list are:
the world, continuously inhabited which
Qila Rai Pithora and
are older than Delhi. What then makes 1. AD 1052
Lal-Kot
the story so fascinating? The answer lies
in its historic role and the fact that it has 2. Siri AD 1303
been the site of a succession of cities, 3. Tughluqabad AD 1321

the seat of empires, and that is a record
4. Jahanpanah AD 1334
which has remained unbroken. What
5. Firozabad (and Kotla) AD 1354
makes the story even more fascinating
is the presence of the remains of all the 6. Dinpanah AD 1530
previous cities or centers of empire.
Shahjahanabad and
7. AD 1648
The Golden Triangle remained the Lai Qila
undisputed choice of those who sought

The first in the list, the city of Lal-Kot
to rule over Delhi, and any invader who
and Qila Rai Pithora owes its existence to
captured and ruled Delhi was considered
a Tomar Rajput king by the name of Raja
to hold sway over the entire Hindustan.
Delu. A king of uncommon valour, Raja
No ruler could be regarded a ruler of
Delhu/ Delu conquered a vast territory,
India unless he held Delhi with him.
occupied it and established his kingdom.
After the days of Indraprastha, the Farishta has recorded that Raja Delu’s
story of Delhi seems to have been lost in biggest achievement was establishing
the mist of time, for many years. Though the city of Delhi. The location of Delhi at
there is evidence to prove the antiquity of that time, as described by Farishta, was
Delhi to three thousand years and even to somewhere between Qutb Minar and
the times of the Indus Valley civilization, the site of Indraprastha (which would
the city followed the normal crave for be around Purana Qila). In the fortieth
rising to prominence at times and then year of Delu’s reign, Ohoor, a prince of
falling into total oblivion. The vastness Delu’s own family, rebelled against him
of the land tempted the rulers to move and defeated him. However, nothing
palaces, city and all, to more inviting or significant seems to have happened
safer locales nearby, which thus created during Ohoor’s reign.
a number of establishments, giving rise
The next name which appears on the
to controversies about the number of
record is that of Anangpal, of the same
cities of Delhi.
Rajput clan. Historians seem to differ
The historians and archaeologists on the point of the founder of the city of
unanimously accept the seven well- Delhi. According to Percival Spear, it was
developed establishments, which fit into Anangpal who founded the city of Delhi.
the formal definition of a city. The names The village of Anangpur, which is in the
8
centre of the basin, has immortalized his west of Suraj-Kund, is on the quartzite
name. The factor of security seemed to tableland of Aravalli. It can be found on
be the main reason for selecting such a the Gurgaon-Tughluqabad stretch.
barren and rocky terrain for the founding
The fort of Anangpur was first
of a city.
discovered by Carr Stephen and some
According to various legends and other archaeologists, but no details
genealogical accounts, the first name were either observed or recorded. Later,
of the Tomar dynasty on the list was in 1991 and 1992, investigations were
mentioned as Vilhanadeva, Bilandeva carried out under the supervision of
Jaju or Jaula who seemed to have B.R. Mani of the Delhi Circle of the
acquired the title of Anangpal after Archaeological Survey of India.
he obtained the rulership of that area
The present data only leads to the
and came to be known as Anangpal I.
conclusion that the fort of Anangpur
Anangpur, also called Anekpur was
was constructed by Anangpal I and the
within Anangpal’s kingdom. Though
fort of Lal-Kot by Anangpal II. Since
there are two or possibly even three
Anangpal II constructed and inhabited
rulers of the same name, Anangpur
the area of Lal-Kot, the earlier Tomars,
seems to have been inhabited by the
who had a feudalistic stature under the
first ruler of that name and Lal-Kot by
Pratiharas in the beginning, settled in
Anangpal II.
the Aravallis during eighth century and
After the excavation conducted in the continued till they became independent
recent past, the data available did not rulers. That was the time when the fort of
solve the controversy surrounding the Anangpur must have been constructed.
date of construction of the Anangpur They moved to the Lal-Kot area in the
fort. Further probe into the data eleventh century and founded a new
revealed that it was constructed by city named Dhilli or Dhillikapur, which
Anangpal I. The fort lies in Faridabad happened to be in the vicinity of the

temple town of Yoginipura. A large
district of Haryana and is located
number of temples were constructed by
towards the west of Anangpur village. It
them. The ruins of these temples can
is situated towards the eastern slopes
still be found strewn around the Qutb
of the hillock, which is located in the
archaeological area.
present habitation area. The habitation
has indeed considerably increased The excavations carried out by
in the recent past. Many modern archaeologists in 1950 and then from
constructions have come up all over 1992 to 1995 reveal some interesting
the area. The village of Anangpur, 30 features of Lal-Kot, Qila Rai Pithora
km south of Delhi and five km south¬ and Anangtal. Lal-Kot is the earliest
- 9
known fort in Delhi. A trench dug to into prominence, even Indraprastha’s

the south of Qutb Minar revealed a well memory was revived and it acquired
laid street. Another trench dug across a kind of reflected glory. Building and
the ramparts of Qila Rai Pithora to the renovation activity gained momentum
south-west of Hodra-ka-Bagh exposed during Anangpal’s reign. A number of
a seven meter wide wall retained with
monuments were constructed at this
one meter wide masonry and an interior
time, which have either partially or
filled with earth.
wholly survived. A place called Suraj-
Anangpur dam (PI. 6), constructed to Kund, not far from the citadel, has
store water for irrigation, was about 50 also survived. It is an example of the
meters wide and seven meters high, with architectural skill and knowledge of the
trap doors at ravines, and was another artisans of that time.
structural marvel of the Rajput period.
The stone embankment of Suraj-Kund
Lal-Kot, the first city of Delhi, finds (PI. 7) was initially built as a catchment
a mention in the famous book of bardic area to store excess rain water flowing
tradition, the Prithivirajaraso. Soon from the surrounding hills. The tank is
after the Tomar Rajputs established built on a semi-circular plan. A temple
the kingdom, not only did Delhi come of the Sun god, which has survived the
PI. 6. A view of Anangpur dam
10
ravages of time, was constructed on a the richly carved doors, pillars and
hill on the western side. The tank has ramparts. Because of the vast changes
derived its name of Suraj-Kund from the in the topography and unprecedented
temple. As a part of the pillage, the carved expansion of the city, the area of Suraj-
stone pillars of this temple were reused Kund has come closer to the newly
in the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, built inhabited colonies of South Delhi. But it
by the Muslim rulers to celebrate their wasn’t so, about a decade ago. The area
victory over the Rajputs. It is believed then was totally uncared for wilderness,
that earlier, a large temple existed at in a state of absolute desolation. Now
the site where Sultan Ghari’s Tomb now the precincts of Suraj-Kund have been
exists. The earlier temple was supposedly developed into a beautiful picnic spot
erected by the Tomar Rajputs, whose and tourist resort.
seat of empire existed at Lal-Kot, and
Raja Anangpal moved his capital from
extended to the hills of south Delhi. The
Suraj-Kund to Lal-Kot (PL 11) which
remains of the Hindu and Jain temples
was three km northward and close to
are evident in the Qutb area.
the village of Anangpur. Surprisingly,
At Suraj-Kund (Pis. 8, 9 & 10), no colony has so far come up in the
one can even today take glimpse of vicinity of Lal-Kot. A famous temple of
PI. 7. Stone embankment at PI. 8. A view of Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.
Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.
11
PI. 9. Another view of Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.
PI 10. Panoramic view of Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.
12
Yogamaya, which is said to have been lofty and majestic even today. There
built at the time of the Pandavas, lies was a wide and extensive ditch, which
within its outer ramparts. Another used to be filled with water, to form a
ancient landmark, which was once an wide moat. There were large bastions
academy imparting knowledge and at all the strategic points. The largest
training to gain insight into the cosmic ones, standing on the northern side,
energy, is located close to the ruins of were named Fateh Burj or the tower
Lal-Kot and is known as the Prachin of victory, and Sohan Burj, perhaps so
named after a valiant warrior. The long
Shakti Gy an Pith.
line of walls between these bastions
Lal-Kot was of an irregular oblong has a number of small towers with wide
design, three and a half km across. base. To further strengthen the defence
The walls of this massive fort (PL 9) line, there was yet another outer
were lofty and could be compared to wall, which could be called the outer
the walls of Tughluqabad, a later fort. fortification, and was 30 feet in height.
The Thickness of the rampart walls was With this kind of defence arrangement
20-30 feet. These massive ramparts the security should have been perfect,
had a general height of 60 feet above but still the invaders managed to find
the bottom of the ditch. They stand some loopholes, somewhere.
PI. 11. Lal-Kot, general view showing Ranjit Gate
13
PI. 12. Lal-Kot, succession of bastions.
Raja Anangpal had erected an iron the portcullis. Since there was plenty
pillar (PL 13 a, b & c), said to have been of stone available, every part of the
brought from some unidentified Vishnu building was built on a massive scale.
temple. Two large stone lions stood guard The stone used for the gate itself was 12
at the gateway. Close to the gate and to 15 feet in height with a width of more
between the two lions hung a huge bell, than two feet. Ironically, it was through
meant to be used by the general public, this gate that Muslim invaders found
who had complete freedom to ring the access to the citadel. A gap in the walls,
bell at any time of night or day to speak owing to an oversight, gave access to the
to the king about their grievances. In invaders.
later times, Emperor Jahangir seemed

Some historians believe that during
to have taken a cue from this and had a
the tenth - twelfth centuries there was
similar bell installed at his palace, too.
another royal residence, existing in the
The citadel of Lal-Kot had many vicinity of the Qutb and was known
distinguishing features. The position as the Kasr-e-safed or a white palace.
of the gates was very judicious. A gate It was a famous and elaborate palace-
called the Ranjit Gate (see PI. 11) had a complex. Sometime later, when Lal-Kot
large upright stone and had well marked was sacked, many of these structures
grooves for the ascent and descent of were in ruins and sank underground.
14
PI. 13 a. Iron pillar, Mehrauli. PI. 13 b. Details PI. 13 c. Gupta period inscription on the
of top. pillar.
The white palace, with its limestone with iron clamps. The stone slabs bore
plastering, was noteworthy and lbn marks such as svastika, bow, arrow
Batuta, the well known chronicler, has and trident, which are believed to be the
written about it. marks of individual masons who worked
on these slabs. Since these marks feature
A place of such antiquity could not
prominently in Hinduism, presumably
escape the attention of archaeologists.
that was the religion practiced here.
The excavations ( Pis. 14 & 15 ) were
carried out a few years ago and artefacts The Tomar Rajputs reigned there for
of the Rajput era were discovered in the a long period. However, another clan
fifth and sixth layers of the excavations. of Rajputs, the Chauhans was gaining
A tank called Anang Tal also surfaced. power and there came a time when
An eight-petalled lotus-shaped octagonal Chauhans grew powerful enough to
tank was found within the palace- pose a threat to the Tomar Rajputs. The
complex, which was to be supplied water Tomar kings, who had enjoyed peace
from Anang Tal. This tank was meant to and luxury for long, sought a peaceful
store water for the use of royalty. Anang solution through intermarriage, a
Tal was a huge tank, 48 by 45 meters, common practice among royal families
with a depth of about 10 to 12 meters. It then. This plan had potential and could
was neatly bound by wall of stone, fixed have worked wonders in forming a great
15
PI. 14. Remains of an excavated structure, Lal-Kot.
16
PI. 15. Terracottas (top) and view of excavated structures Lal-Kot (1992-1995).
17
empire had the internal disharmony not Rai Pithora. The fort was four km in
led to disunity amongst both the parties. circumference, roughly three times to
The Chauhan Rajputs overthrew the that of Lal-Kot. But in spite of all this,
Tomar Rajputs. the defence of the city proved inferior to
that of Lal-Kot. The height of the walls
A Chauhan king called Vigraharaj
was half the height of Lal-Kot and the
ruled over Sakambhari in Rajasthan. This
bastions were much farther apart. The
place is now identified with Sambhar,
extended ramparts had covered such
well known because of the adjoining
a vast area that they encompassed
salt lake. Vigraharaj’s third grandson
the present Qutb Minar and the entire
Prithviraj, with knight like qualities,
Mehrauli area. The outer ramparts
gained power soon. He proved to be a
extended up to where the Indian Institute
brave warrior, and a prince of exceptional
of Technology stand today on one side
ability. After his accession to the throne,
and the ILT on the other.
he took a keen interest in the matters of
the kingdom, improved administration This is the point where the ancient
and consolidated his empire. past joins hands with the modern in the
city of Delhi. The people living here still
He found it necessary to strengthen
call it the area of Lal-Kot. The scattered
and extend the citadel of Lal-Kot,
remains of the past eras, found over
the boundaries of which, following
a vast area in its vicinity, make it a
the expansion, had encompassed an
extensive area of the land. Working on his spectacular cluster of the remains of
expansion plan, Prithviraj constructed medieval buildings. The Archaeological
another fort and named it after his own Survey of India is taking an active interest
title of Rai Pithora. Prithviraj was adorned in the protection of the medieval era
with this title for his valour, his ability to monuments and some excavations were
rule and the qualities of knighthood. conducted in the area. The entire field
is likely to come alive when new light is
The new fort of Qila Rai Pithora
shed by new finds and discoveries made
was constructed on a hill near Lal-Kot
during these excavations.
and surrounded the citadel of Lal-Kot
from three sides. This measure proved The wall of the city of Qila Rai Pithora,
protective to the then Rajput city of Delhi. from the north bastion called Fateh
The ramparts of the fort (Pis. 16 & 17), Burj to Dam Dama in the south-west of
built of quartzite stone were so massive modern-day Delhi, ran up to the south
that they could house many storerooms of the hill where Adham Khan’s tomb is
and ammunition rooms. The Badaun situated. From there, running through
Gate occupied a place of prestige, as it the ridge, it was traceable up to Metcalfe
had become the main entrance of Qila House. It is felt that one of the nine gates
18
PI. 16, Rampart wall, Qila Rai Pithora.
Qila Rai Pithora. PI. 17. Northern rampart,
19
was close to Metcalfe House. The lengthy Prithviraj, the Knight like hero of our
rampart was six km in circumference. tale, not only established the kingdom
One would need a magnified vision to of Delhi, but also had something more
visualize the enormity of those walls. As to his credit; he put the history of Delhi
the entire topography has undergone on record. The history of Delhi emerged
a radical change due to expansion, from the bardic and folklore depictions
the task of relating the past with the of people’s life of those times. How did
present can be best performed by taking our knight-like hero live in those times?
a marathon walk well equipped with the Was his life anything like the myths that
relevant data. surround his legend? Well, in a way as

per the folklore, yes. Prithviraj grew up
However, the balcony of the higher
in times when he could create a world
level of the Qutb Minar (PI. 18) is able
of his liking. His fame as a charming,
to provide a panoramic view of the
handsome, brave, chivalrous Rajput
entire remains of Lal-Kot and Qila Rai
prince had travelled far and wide.
Pithora. But the most enchanting view
Samyukta, the charming princess of a
can be had from the massive ramparts
neighbouring kingdom had heard about
of Lal-Kot which are still intact. The
him, so fascinated was she by the tales
nearest landmark to Lal-Kot is Anang
of his valour, that she fell in love without
Tal and Alai Minar, which has survived
ever having seen him. But in the true
intact (PL 19). An inn called Lado Sarai, fairy tale tradition her father would have
though not very close to Qila Rai Pithora, certainly penalized her, had she ever
does come within the enclosure of the even mentioned his name. Prithviraj
rampart walls. The inn, with a vast happened to be her father’s rival in his
enclosure of its own, suggests that the plans of expansion. To avert trouble,
large caravans, of either traders or cross he arranged a svayamvara where all
country visitors, sought refuge there. the eligible princes were invited and
This vast area of the land is now being the princess was given the freedom to
used as a golf course and is known as choose her husband. Prithviraj was
the Lado Sarai Golf Course. purposely left uninvited. His men
were furious as they thought it was an
Lal-Kot and Qila Rai Pithora forming
insult to their king. Prithviraj called his
complex of the first city of Delhi, had
chosen warriors and trusted men. They
27 Hindu and Jain temples. Several
disquieted themselves as commoners
hundreds of carved pillars of these
and set off!
temples survived for a long period of time
and were reused by the subsequent rulers He rode his trusted steed and soon
(Pis. 20 a & b), the foremost example of it they reached the assembly of princes. As
is the Quwwatul Islam mosque (PI. 21). the princess walked around, Prithviraj
20
PI. 18. Qutb Minar.
21
PI. 19. A panoramic view of Alai Minar and the Qutb-complex : view from the top of Qutb Minar.
22 _
23
PI. 20 a. A Hindu architectural pillar from PI. 20 b. A Hindu architectural pillar from
Quwwatul Islam mosque. Quwwatul Islam mosque.
PI. 21. Quwwatul Islam mosque.
24
astride his charger, swooped down, and the poignancy of his defeat. Many
picked up Samyukta and rode away. historians, too, have used these to depict
His men took over and fought a battle to his character.
prevent their king from being followed.
Delhi has been the site of a succession
He married Samyukta and lived happily.
of cities after Qila Rai Pithora. Each
In keeping with the times, Samyukta was
of the cities served as capital, citadel
only one of his wives. This was one of
or centre of a vast domain. While the
magnificence and prosperity tales of his
archeological remains convey some
victories, uncommon deeds of chivalry
information about the past, it is finally
like those of King Arthur, the subject
the written material which matters the
of endless folktales, but sadly enough,
most as it preserves the knowledge, the
they proved to be a prelude to the final
memory of the past achievements and
catastrophe, which brought the Rajput
failures and the process of evolutions. It
empire to an end.
is the tales and romances that make the
Muhammad of Ghur invaded Delhi and past live again.
Prithviraj fought bravely. Muhammad
The second city of Delhi, named Siri
of Ghur was defeated in AD 1191 and
by one of its rulers, Alauddin Khalji, was
Prithviraj pardoned him. But he was
also called the abode of the Caliphate.
taken unaware by the invader during his
After the dramatic defeat of Prithviraj
second attack in AD 1192. It is said that
Chauhan, the rule of that dynasty had
he was so involved in his wife’s love that
come to an end and there had begun an
he had started neglecting the affairs of the
era of Muslim Rule. Qutbud-Din Aibak,
state. That neglect apparently led to the
the slave commander of Muhammad of
state of unpreparedness and his defeat.
Ghur, had been able to capture Delhi
Also, the strategies and weaponry used
after several battles. This marked the
by Muhammad of Ghur were superior
beginning of the Delhi Sultanate and the
which caused the downfall. There is some
Islamic dynasty prevailed for the next
controversy about Prithviraj’s death.
600 years.
The historians state that Prithviraj died
in the battle of Thanesar in AD 1192. Lahore in Punjab, Pakistan had been
But bardic tradition has it otherwise. the capital and also the administrative
According to this version, Prithviraj was centre of the Muslim rulers till the city
captured by deceit and taken to Gazing. of Lal-Kot and Qila Rai Pithora was won
and made capital.
There are innumerable stories
with which popular romantic legends Aibak, who had made his Turkish
are woven. An stream of folklore has slave Iltutmish his lieutenant at Budaon,
continued to depict Prithviraj’s victories seized power in a coup in Delhi, and
25
occupied the freshly conquered Rajput the plain of Siri. Besides the factor of
kingdom. After Aibak’s death, Iltutmish security, the increase in population was
became the sole supporter of Islam in also a reason behind the consideration of
the subcontinent. The empire extended erection of a new city with a formidable
farther than what it was at Aibak’s defence.
times, thus necessitating the shift of the
However, the prestige of being the
centre of administration from Lahore to
ceremonial capital still belonged to
Delhi. Iltutmish successfully carried out
Qila Rai Pithora. When the new Sultan
the task of establishing his rule at Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji became the ruler, he
It flourished as a centre of learning and
was not yet very confident of his position.
culture. A number of medieval buildings
He, therefore, lived at Qila Rai Pithora
dating to that time still exist.
initially, as it was considered more
Iltutmish knew the inability and secure. The plain of Siri was mainly
worthlessness of his son, therefore used for military needs. With repeated
had groomed his daughter Razia as his Mongol invasions, Alauddin had been
successor. He had full confidence in compelled to entrench his army, with its
Razia’s ability to rule. Razia who ascended large numbers of mounted armed guards
the throne after her father’s death and elephants with fully armed men, on
discarded the purdah (veil) and proved the Siri plain. To strengthen security,
her mettle as a ruler. But the orthodox he had also built blocks of houses and
Amirs could not tolerate a woman ruler, constructed other fortifications to prevent
hence the reign of the first woman ruler the enemy from forcing their way in.
of Delhi, met an abrupt end.
Siri has been authentically identified
The Mongol invasions were becoming with Shahpur (Pis. 22, 23 and 24).
frequent, even during Iltutmish’s time. Alexander Cunningham found
To avoid constant encounters, Iltutmish satisfactory evidence to support his view
had taken a decision to actively encourage regarding the identification of Siri with
Mongol fugitives to settle in Delhi. This, Shahpur. It now appears on the survey
in turn, caused a tremendous increase sheets as well.
in population. Moroccan traveller, Ibn
According to Amir Khusraw, the
Batuta, spent about ten years in Delhi
left wing of the Kaikubad’s army in
leaving a good account of Delhi’s length,
the battle of AD 1367 was encamped
breadth and population, comparing it
at Indrapat, the centre wing at Siri
with Cairo and Baghdad.
and the right wing at Tilpat. Siri
Having dealt with the Mongols was, therefore, just half way between
effectively, the new ruler Alauddin Khalji Indrapat and Tilpat, which corresponds
decided to construct a strong fort on exactly with the position of Shahpur.
26
PI. 23. A general view of a bastion of Siri Fort.
PI. 24. Ruins of Siri Fort wall.
28
According to Barni, the Sultan, after the Sultan had placed guards outside
defeating his enemy, built a strong the ramparts. Notable among the
palace at Siri and consolidated his constructions was a hall of thousand
position there, abandoning further pillars at the Sultan’s palace. Each
military campaigns. As per the Barni’s pillar was ornamented with carvings
version, in spite of such perfect and the hall was an architectural
arrangements, Alauddin once had to marvel, the fame of which spread far
face a very critical situation. He had and wide.
encamped at Siri. The Mongols came
After constructing the city and
and surrounded him from every side.
his palace at Siri, Alauddin had the
Their force was much larger and as the
remainder of the city restored and
siege was on, the army’s supplies ran
repaired. He even had many more
out. The defenseless people had nothing
fortresses constructed at vulnerable
to do except pray. Their prayers were
points. He appointed brave and
answered miraculously. After two long
experienced commanders at all these
months, the enemy felt that they could
fortresses. He had granaries constructed
not win and so lifted the siege. One of
so as to ensure adequate reserves of
the Sultan’s teachers, who is said to
food and fodder.
have attained great spiritual powers, is
believed to have prayed for the safety Well qualified and able engineers
and protection of the Sultan as well as were entrusted the task of getting
his subjects, and it was to his prayer arms and ammunitions manufactured.
that the miraculous change in the Surrounded by strong and extensive
thinking of Mongols is attributed. fortification wall, the city of Siri soon
The influx of population had spilled developed into an active town with
over into the suburbs. The invaders used flourishing markets, buildings and
to plunder the defenseless population, palaces. Curiously, a place with
which made the construction of a thousand pillars, of a similar description
fortification wall absolutely imperative. or name was also built by Muhammad-
The city of Siri has been described as bin-Tughluq. However, it was Alauddin’s
a round city. The extensive fortification palace, which was more widely known of
walls surrounding the city connected it the two. Besides, Alauddin built many
with the old capital of Qila Rai Pithora. buildings, which brought him popularity
The long fortification wall was built of because they were well known for their
stone and mortar. Siri had seven gates, structural excellence. Some of them
four of which opened towards outside have survived undamaged. The Alai
and three towards inside. To strengthen Minar and Alai Darwaza are two such
the security arrangements further, examples.
29
The Alai Darwaza, or gate (Pis. 25 to be a companion to the famous Qutb

& 26), was constructed in 1310 and Minar. It was intended to be double
is the entrance to a mosque. The gate the measure of the Qutb Minar in both
was enlarged by the Sultan. The steps diameter and height.
to this gate are on the side of a shallow
Even when the Sultan’s construction
ravine, which has become much silted
activity was at its peak, he was not
up. The restoration work in 1828
oblivious to the day-to-day problems of
could not match the workmanship of
his subjects. He was quick to realize,
the Sultan’s time and has spoilt the
that the confined area of the old city
original effect. However, the interior
was getting increasingly congested and
has remained unaffected, although
that people needed more space. His
the sandstone keeps flaking with the
attention, therefore, shifted to the Qutb
passage of time.
area where a vast open field awaited.
The Alai Minar (PI. 27) is to the So, under his direction, an active town
north of the tomb of Iltutmish. There sprang up. This mini city flourished
remains only the crumbling ruins of this with markets, buildings, and all the
unfinished minaret, which was designed necessary amenities and was described
PI. 25. Alai Darwaza, Qutb-complex.
30
glJjg]:
kzmv
PI. 26. Close-up view of Alai Darwaza.
PI. 27. Alai Minar, Qutb-complex.
31
by some chroniclers as a shahr par tank dug at a distance of two and a

excellence. half kilometers from the Qutb. This
huge tank was square, with each side
The next trouble which caught his
measuring about 600 meters in length.
attention was the acute shortage of
The total area covered by the tank was
water. Because of it being a rocky
about 70 acres. The Sultan named it
terrain it was much more difficult to get
Hauz-i-Alai or Hauz-i-Khas (Pis. 28 &
water here, than it was in the alluvial
29). Hauz-Khas is a name very familiar
soil of Siri. Alauddin tried to remedy this
to Delhites today. The banks of the tank
situation by re-excavating the Hauz-e-
are still seen.
Sultani or Hauz-i-Shamshi, which had
run dry. The accumulated silt and mud This vast tank must have looked like
was removed and the tank cleaned. A a mini sea, as Yazdi, one of the earlier
platform was constructed in the middle chroniclers described the tank as
and the tank filled with water. But this Daryachi, which means a mini sea. Amir
Hauz-i-Shamshi was a good distance Khusraw used plenty of exaggeration to
away from where much of the population describe this tank, the waters of which
lived. Alauddin therefore, had another he compared to the waters of the rivers
PI. 28. Hauz-Khas, Delhi
32
PI. 29. Another view of Hauz-Khas, Delhi.

Nile and Euphrates. This tank was According to popular legend, he had
extensively repaired by a later ruler, heard much about the beauty of Rani
Sultan Firuz. This reservoir, which once Padmini, the wife or Rana Ratan Singh
used to have enough water to meet the of Chittor. He thought that by capturing
requirements of the entire population Chittor, he would automatically obtain
of the time is today totally dry, though Padmini, the cherished beauty of his
the stone steps built by Firuz Shah dreams. He consulted with his generals
are still intact. The tank used to get and ordered the march.
filled up during the rainy season and
Alauddin laid siege and sent a word
supplied water to the inhabitants of
to the Maharaja that he could be spared
Delhi throughout the year. It is really
battle on one condition, and that was
amazing to know that its catchment
the surrender of his queen Padmini.
area was so vast that it sprawled to
Though the message was worded in a
the south, behind the present Indian
most friendly and polite way, the Rana
Institute of Technology and Jawaharlal
obviously took it as an affront. He
Nehru University. Some of the channels,
replied that the Sultan would not get
which carried water to the tank, are still
anything without a battle. The inevitable
traceable.
fight ensued. The Rajputs fought
It was at some distance from the bravely and gave the Sultan a taste of
more densely inhabited areas and a real tough war. That made the Sultan
had vacant land adjoining it, which ponder deeply over the whole matter.
separated and positioned the tank on He thought that he could probably
one side and Siri on the other. The win the battle but what of Padmini?
vacant area was very thoughtfully He had heard of the custom of Johar,
beautified by Khusraw Khan, who when the menfolk died in the war, their
planted orchards there. Female singers wives prepared a huge funeral pyre
and dancers were invited to come and and burnt themselves alive. Alauddin
live on the other side. Since it wasn’t decided to change his strategy. He sent
his messenger again, as ruinous attack
easy to carry water from the tank to the
was not what he had aimed at. It was
residences, men and women labourers
Padmini, whom he desired and Chittor,
were deployed for the houses of the
though of great strategic importance,
nobility. The major part of Delhi, under
had become secondary. In his second
Khalji, retained the Qutb-Delhi and Siri
message he said that although he was
within its walls.
fascinated with Padmini’s irresistible
Having dealt with the immediate charm, he was content if the Rana agreed
problems, Alauddin’s thoughts turned to let him see a mere reflection of her in
again to expansion and pleasure. a mirror. He would even consider lifting
34
the siege and retreat. The king, Rana to meet guile with guile. She sent a
Ratan Singh, was a direct descendant of message, too, saying she would go most
the great Bappa Rawal whose name is willingly only if she was allowed to see her
immortalized in the annals of Rajasthan husband once. Alauddin, pleased beyond
for his unrivalled valour. Besides, he expectation, granted his permission.
was the ruler of Chittor, one of the most Padmini ordered two hundred palanquins
prestigious and strategically important to be decked and ready and informed the
kingdoms, and he commanded great Sultan that she would come with all her
power. He was a brave king and like maids and friends.
a true Rajput, the Rana agreed to the
The palanquins were ready, but inside
Sultan’s suggestion. As an honourable
sat her choicest and bravest warriors.
Rajput he trusted the Sultan. He sent
She was received with great pomp
words that the Sultan was welcome as
and honour. Her bedecked chamber
a friend and the Rana would not mind
awaited her, but she had to meet her
letting him get a glimpse of his wife.
husband first. She chose to take only
The Sultan arrived with great fanfare.
four palanquins to accompany her. She
Alauddin was taken to the residential-
met her husband and requested him to
palace. A leaf size mirror was placed
get into one of the palanquins in which
in the private hall at such an angle,
she was sitting the most trusted and
that if Padmini stood in her room, her
bravest of her warriors. The Rana had no
reflection could be mirrored in full. The
option but to accept her suggestion. His
Sultan was spellbound. The reflection,
commanders had already arranged to get
even from a distance was captivating
the back exit opened, where awaited the
enough to mesmerize him, but he had
to turn back and leave. With all due mounted guards and an army. Padmini
courtesy, the Rana accompanied him herself was a good fighter. They both
up to his camp. Alauddin suddenly mounted and sped away accompanied
turned treacherous. He found this an and guarded by their soldiers. They
easy opportunity to capture the Rana. reached their fort safely. The Sultan
He beckoned to his bodyguard, who and his men came to know of this deceit
swiftly overpowered the Rana, tied and rather late. Thereafter a fierce battle
carried him to the Sultan’s camp. took place, but Alauddin had to return
to Delhi without Padmini.
Taking Padmini to be defenseless and
the fort without guard, the Sultan asked Though Siri remained the second city
her to -surrender. Though the treachery in the link, it maintained its strategic
was unprecedented, Padmini was not a importance. After a long passage of
mindless puppet. She conferred with her time, the name has come to fore again
brave and trusted warriors and decided with the coming up of an auditorium
- 35
named the Siri Fort auditorium. Many has survived, is found in the remains
cultural programmes, events, shows of Hauz Khas where the Hauz Khas
etc. are held here. village market-complex has now been
developed. It claims to be a popular
Alauddin Khalji gave patronage to
shopping centre because it combines old
the scholars, poets and artists. During
world charm with modernity. Most of the
his time, Siri was a great centre of such
posh shops and boutiques are housed in
men. Notable philosophers and poets
old mansions and dwellings of the nobles
of his reign included Mir Hassan and
thus attracting the modern crowd. But
Amir Khusraw. Amir Khusraw was
the city has gone into oblivion.
considered the prince of poets, and his
works, while steeped in spiritual wisdom, The downfall of the Khaljis in the
were expressed in a language easily first quarter of the fourteenth century
comprehensible to the common people. ushered in the Tughluq dynasty. R.E.
Frykenberg, who has written about the
It was for the first time that an
development of Delhi, aptly observed
efficient postal system was developed in
that the nomenclature was applied
this kingdom. To carry the letters either
universally to the original city of Lal-
horse-riders or probably mail coaches
Kot, Qila Rai Pithora as well as to the
were used. Alauddin also took another
cities, or the entire complex of townships
wise step by regulating the prices of
that came up in the later years. Every
commodities. In Alauddin’s reign, the
ambitious invader’s ultimate aim always
city of Delhi was not only the political
was to capture and rule over Delhi.
capital but also the main commercial
Irrespective of the place they came from
and cultural centre. The great saint
Nizamuddin also lived in those times. or the route they took, each one of them
Besides all this, the older Delhi of the sought Delhi.
Chauhans was also taken care of and

Ghiyathuddin Tughluq, the founder of
flourished.
the city of Tughluqabad, began his life as
Nothing has remained of the city a slave. Fie was brought from Khorasan
of Siri, not even the walls, as much of to Alauddin’s court. Alauddin, having
the material was used by Sher Shah observed him for some time, noticed his
to construct the walls of his city. capabilities as an administrator and
Unfortunately, no traces are left even of army commander and appointed him
the famous palace of thousand pillars. the governor of Dipalpur and Lahore,
Whatever crumbling ruins survived, the two places which were in need of
have now become a part of the village of a strong hand. Ghiyathuddin visited
Shahpur. The only monument associated Delhi often to report important matters
with that city and that monarch, which to the Sultan, who had begun to rely
36
on him for advice and took him along activities and the city of Siri bore a living
wherever he went. testimony to such activities, there were
no worthy successors to him. His six
It was customary for the Sultan to
year old son was seated on the throne
go around the city unannounced, as
by Malik Kafur who was a general of
he liked to check the state of the things
Sultan Alauddin. Two of his elder sons
personally. Once, at the end of his tour
were blinded and hence rendered unfit
of the city, he decided to step outside the
to rule. The fourth son called Qutbuddin
boundaries of the town where he could
Mubarak blinded the infant brother to
enjoy wilderness and forget the affairs of
usurp the throne. The usurper was very
the state for a while. Ghiyathuddin who
lustful, cruel and totally devoid of any
had accompanied the Sultan was quick
qualities of statesmanship or strength
to discern his liking for the freshness of
of character. A period of five years was
the open surroundings. He sensed that
all that he could manage to get. He was
the hilly terrain had charmed the Sultan.
murdered by one of his favourite friends,
Like a shrewd and able administrator,
Khusraw Khan.
he promptly came up with a suggestion
to build a city on the table land. The But the Turks were fully united
Sultan is said to have replied, “build it in their determination not to let the
when you are the Sultan.” His words throne of Delhi slip out of their hands.
proved prophetic. Alauddin’s reign was Tughluq Ghazi Malik who had been a
not a very long one and he died of dropsy capable general and had routed many
in AD 1316. marches earlier, searched for the
descendants of Alauddin but when he
Ghiyathuddin succeeded Alauddin
failed to find any, he himself ascended
and chose to build a city on that table
the throne, a decision which was
land. It was not because he wanted
approved unanimously. He claimed
to honour the wish of his master but
himself emperor, assumed the name
because it happened to be a force of
of Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq and laid the
circumstance in some ways. Invasions
foundations of Tughlaqabad. Khusrau
into the country were so common that it
Khan who had succeeded Alauddin
was considered safer to construct a fort
briefly, remained the sweeper king
and a township on a table land. This
because his inefficient administration
land which was about five kilometers
could only generate revolt which was
away from the earlier city of Lal-Kot and
caused by his policies. The effort to quell
Qila Rai Pithora was finalized as the site
it brought about his end. This ushered
for the new city of Tughluqabad.
in the Tughluq dynasty in AD 1321. The
Although the glory of Alauddin’s Tughluq dynasty was a continuation of
empire was reflected in building the earlier dynasty in many ways.
37
The mins of the fort of Tughluqabad that he observed measured fourteen

being massive in structure (Pis. 30, 31 feet in length by two feet two inches
& 32), easily caught the attention of the and one feet ten inches in breadth and
traveller. Capt. Harcourt’s description of thickness respectively and must have
the fort disclosed many features besides weighed rather more than six tones.
describing the stmcture. He said “this “The short faces to the north, west and
almost cyclopean group of buildings, east are protected by a deep ditch, and
recalling of the painter Martin’s grand the long face to the south by a large
architectural dreams, was built early in sheet of water which is held up by an
the fourteenth century by Tughluq Ghazi embankment (though there is no water
Malik, a successful military adventurer now) on the south-east corner. On this

side the rock is scraped, and above it the
who overthrew the house of Khalji and
main wall rises to a mean height of forty
ascended the imperial throne at that
feet with a parapet of seven feet, behind
epoch”.
which rises another wall of fifteen feet,
General Alexander Cunningham, the whole height above the low ground
the well known archaeologist, gave being upward of nineteen feet. In the
an animated account of the fort south-west angle is the citadel which
as he saw it long time after Capt. occupies about one sixth of the area
Harcourt. Nothing much has changed of the fort and contains the ruins of
substantially since then except that the an extensive palace. The ramparts are
maintenance has now been taken over raised as assail, on a line of domed
by the Archaeological Survey of India rooms, which rarely communicated with
and the upkeep of the building and the each other and which ‘no doubt’ were
garden has improved. It should however quarters of the troops that garrisoned
be interesting to have a look at the fort the fort. The walls rapidly turn inwards
with the archaeologist. According to the as those of Egyptian buildings. The
General Cunningham’s account: “The rampart walls are pierced with loopholes
fort of Tughluqabad may be described to give way to light and air. The parapets
with tolerable accuracy as a half that command the foot of the walls are
hexagon in shape, with three acres or crowned with a line of crude battlement
rather more than three quarters of a of solid stones having loopholes. The
mile of length each, and a base of one walls are built of large plain dressed
mile and a half, the whole circuit being stones and there is no ornamentation
only one furlong less than four miles. of any kind; but the vast size, the
The fort stands on a rocky height and is great strength and the visible solidity
built of massive blocks of stones so large on the whole, give Tughluqabad an air
and heavy that they must have been of stern and massive grandeur that is
quarried on the spot.” The largest stone both striking and impressive. The fort
38
PI. 30. Tughluqabad Fort.
39
PI. 31. A view of Tughluqabad Fort
40
PI. 32. Rampart wall, Tughluqabad Fort.
of Tughluqabad contains seven tanks of his name, he built himself a tomb, not
water besides the ruins of several large in a garden as was usually the case,
buildings such as the Jama Masjid and but in a strongly fortified citadel in the
the Bijai Mandal.” middle of an artificial lake. The sloping
walls and almost Egyptian solidity of
The tanks mentioned in Cunningham’s
this mausoleum, combined with bold
account no longer exist. The area
and massive towers of the fortification
occupied by the fort is almost equal
that surrounds it, form a picture of a
to that of Shahjahanabad, and the
warrior’s tomb unrivalled anywhere,
interior is an open plain, eight km in
and a singular contrast to the elegant
circumference. There is little to see
and luxurious garden tombs of the more
inside the fort except a well which is
settled and peaceful dynasties that
unique in the sense that it has been cut
succeeded.”
from solid rock and goes to a depth of
80 feet, quite an achievement for those At present, within the walls, the main
times. The other notable structure is the city lies in total desolation. As one enters
ruin of Tughluq’s palace. The tomb of within the sloping walls of the fort, one
the Sultan is perhaps the only structure finds the remains of the palace on the
which has wholly survived (Pis. 33, 34 & left and the inner citadel on the right.
35). Mr. Fergusson has recorded in his The desolation stands as an unfailing
remarks on this grand relic: “When the reminder of an incident which caused a
stern old warrior Tughluq Shah founded life-long rift between the Sultan and his
this new city of Delhi, which still bears teacher saint.
_ 41
PI. 33. Tomb of Ghiyathuddin Tughluq with outer fortification.
42
43
PI. 34. Tomb of Ghiyathuddin Tughluq.
44
PI. 35. Entrance arch of Ghiyathuddin Tughluq’s Tomb
46
PI. 36. Graves of Ghiyathuddin Tughluq and his relatives.
It is stated that while the Sultan orders that no oil should be allowed to
began building the city and his palace the Saint, to light the lamps with. The
at Tughluqabad, his religious teacher Saint laughed and told his workers not
Saint Nizamuddin Auliya (Pis. 37 a & to worry but to return at night. Familiar
b) was intent on constructing a step- with the Saint’s powers, the masons
well (PL 38) as an act of piety to provide came to work. The Saint took some water
water to the public. The Sultan, in a and told them to use it as a substitute of
haste to complete the construction of oil. Though bewildered, the workers took
the fort, asked the saint to suspend the water, poured it into the lamps and
work on the well. But the Saint was lighted them. To their utter amazement,
adamant. His behavior enraged the king. not only did the lamps burn, but they
Forgetting all etiquette and respect, the burnt brighter than ever! His step-well
Sultan forbade all the masons from was completed much before the city or
working for the Saint. The Saint, who the palace.
was held in high regard and believed
to possess miraculous powers, called This seemed a total outrage and the
the masons and asked them to work Sultan took it as an affront and a threat
for him at night. The masons agreed to to his power. He ordered the Saint to
abide by his orders. The work proceeded leave the city of Tughluqabad. The Saint
unhampered. The Sultan further issued accepted the decree but his patience
__ 47
48
PI. 37 b. Another view of Nizamuddin Dargah.
49
PI. 38. Nizamuddin’s step-well.
too had come to an end. Before he left, subjects, he next turned his attention
he cursed that the city of Tughluqabad to his great mission of constructing
would meet its end soon and would be the fort. This land was about eight
inhabited only either by jackals or Jats kilometers east of the Qutb Minar. The
(a tribe of Punjab and Rajasthan). His River Yamuna, which has now changed
prediction turned into reality and came its course vastly, then presented a lovely
true very soon. Tughluq Shah reined only sight as it lapped the rampart walls on
for a short while. The city was deserted one side of the fort.
soon because of acute water problem.
Besides the consideration of safety
The reign of Ghiyathuddin Tughluq and a bit of the Sultan’s fancy, there was
was marked by reduction in law and one more reason behind contemplating
order and threats of constant invasions. yet another city owing to overcrowding of
Ghiyathuddin, to start with, was fully the existing city. The foundation for the
occupied in restoring law and order given city of Tughluqabad was thus justified.
the chaotic situation at the time he took The city had a circumference of about
over from his predecessor. Having dealt 6.5 kilometers with massive slopping
with revolts in the south and east and bastion walls, a style specially chosen
restoring the lost sense of security to his by Ghiyathuddin in appreciation of the
50
leaning walls of Egypt. The proximity the common people. This was one of the
of the stone quarries not only proved main reasons why the people largely
to be an added advantage, but also preferred to stay behind on the plains,
allowed the profuse use of stones in where wells and tanks could be dug
the construction. Stone chips were also easily to provide water.
used, to reinforce the elevation of the
Tughluqabad seemed to be more or
fortification. The river Yamuna, flowing
less a detached complex for the Sultan’s
along one side, lent credence to the idea
residence and for his personal retinue
of constructing a dam as water had
and troops. In all probability, it was not
always been in short supply in Delhi.
intended to be a complete city to replace
The citadel with three gates had the ‘old’ city of Delhi on commercial or
underground chambers and passages administrative levels. The city today
connecting them with the old city. stands in ruins, awaiting further probe.
The Sultan erected many strange and
incomprehensible buildings in a style of The small fort with Egyptian style
architecture that was quite distinct from leaning walls is in ruins. But the city
the designs of that time. walls are intact at many places, because
they were built with rock support on a
The entire town was composed of
solid base of rocks. Long ago when the
enormous masses of sandstone. The
River Yamuna on the east side was a vast
relics of palaces and baths, which
stretch of water, its grandeur and charm
are still intact make us wonder if the
would have countered the grimness of
inhabitants were gigantic too! Some of
the dark grey and red walls of the fort.
the underground apartments were quite
extensive and exceedingly strange in The lofty gateway and triple-storied
their structure. The roofs, composed of tower with the remaining ramparts look
huge slabs of granite were so wedged impressive even today. The description of
together that they supported each other the Sultan’s court as given by Ibn Batuta
by their inward pressure. Unfortunately, gives interesting glimpses of that time.
Tughluqabad lacked the most “On all the thirteen gates were ushers
indispensable commodity for life, water. of different status. At the gate which
Since it was built on a rocky terrain, led to the main audience hall stood the
there was acute shortage of water. chief usher for introducing the visitor to
The reservoirs could store only limited the chief minister who took care of the
quantity of water to meet emergency visitor. It was only after crossing the
requirements. Wells had to be dug very third gate that one could enter the vast
deep to reach the water level and it was grandeur of the hall of thousand pillars
an arduous task hardly achievable by and have an audience with the Sultan.”
- 51
Sultan Ghiyathuddin, according to objective which was kept in view while

most accounts, was murdered by his building the Khushk was that it should
son Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. Saint fall down with a crash when the elephant’s
Nizamuddin, whom the Sultan had body hit or even touched a specially built
offended when he was constructing the weak section. The Sultan stopped at the
city of Tughluqabad is said to have been building and feasted. His son sought
a party to the plot. Ibn Batuta, who permission to parade elephants before
had spent a long time in Delhi during him. The Sultan consented. The Sultan’s
the Sultanate period had been an eye favorite son Mahmud was with him.
witness to many of the events and took Thereupon, they brought the elephants
interest in recording them. His narrative up on side as the prince had arranged.
claims to be the first-hand account of When the animals passed along that side,
the whole scene. He said, “There was the building fell down upon the Sultan
then Delhi’s Saint Nizamuddin Badauni. and his son Mahmud.”
Muhammad, the Sultan’s son, visited
Ghiyathuddin was buried outside
him to pay him respect in the eyes of
his followers and to implore his prayers. his new city, in the tomb which he
The Saint was subject to ecstatic fits in had constructed during his lifetime.
which he lost all control of himself. The Tughluq’s tomb is within an enclosure.
Sultan’s son directed his servants to let It is just as massive as all the other
him know when the Saint was in one of buildings of that time. Though plain,
his fits. When he was seized with a fit, it impresses the visitor in some ways.
the prince was informed, and he went to The monotony of the red sandstone is
him. As soon as the Saint saw him, he carefully broken by bands of marble.
exclaimed, We give him the throne’. The slope, a feature which had become
the hallmark of Tughluq era, persists
Batuta continues, “The Sultan was
in the structure of the tomb as well.
informed that the astrologer had predicted
The walls of the tomb are eleven feet
that he would never again enter the city
in thickness at the base and only four
of Delhi on returning from his expedition.
feet thick at the top. The interior is
So when he reached near his capital on
plain. There are three graves inside,
his return from the expedition, he ordered
the Sultan’s, his wife’s and his son,
his son to build him a palace or a ‘Khushk’
Mahmud’s (see Pis. 33-35).
along a running river near a place called
Afghanpur. Muhammad built the palace Though Ghiyathuddin Tughluq
in the course of just three days, making reigned for a short period, he tried his
it chiefly of wood. It was elevated above best to restore order in Delhi and gave a
the ground and rested on pillars of wood. fair measure of peace and comfort to his
Muhammad planned it scientifically. The subjects. He took all protective measures
52 _
to guard against the constant Mongol was constrained to plan another city
invasions. In his efforts to restore the which was to enclose the entire area
Deccan province, he had sent his son between Qutb, Delhi and Siri, to be a part
Jana to deal with the rebels twice and of Jahanpanah. Describing the extensive
finally had succeeded in recapturing enclosure, a chronicler of that time
Bidar. He himself in his expedition to Yazdi has observed that the enclosing
Bengal had marched up to Sundargaon, wall built by Muhammad exceeded all
near Dacca, and on his return annexed the earlier ones in length.
Tirkut. Had he survived, he could perhaps
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq named
have proved to be a successful ruler.
this city ‘Jahanpanah’ which means
The city of Tughluqabad seemed to have
the asylum of the world, a tall claim
truly been affected by the curse of Saint
indeed! However, the name acquired
Nizamuddin and ended as a cursed city.
much significance, as far as the people
Ghiyathuddin’s most important work of Delhi were concerned. Though the
in Delhi was the addition of a new city of Mongol threat had diminished, the
Tughlaqabad. Today it lies deserted, the public felt far from secure. The suburbs
enormity of its constructions being the only of Delhi were rendered unsafe because
factor drawing attention. After the death
of regular intrusions of the Mewati
of Ghiyathuddin, his son Muhammad-
Rajputs from the neighbouring state of
bin-Tughluq succeeded him but never felt
Rajasthan. They came on the pretext of
very comfortable in Tughluqabad mainly
drawing water from the large tanks and
because of the shortage of water and it
wells, which they did so without formal
being an accursed city. The period of his
permission. They robbed, plundered
stay at Tughluqabad for seven years is a
and even abducted women and escaped
subject of controversy.
unpunished. Times rendered the
The water of Tughlaqabad was suburbs of Delhi, Qila Rai Pithora and
brackish and in short supply and the Siri increasingly unsafe. The enclosing
heat was intense. These two factors walls of Jahanpanah provided much
made life difficult. Coupled with the needed security and boosted the morale
diminishing threats of Mongol invasions, of the populace (PI. 39). It certainly gave
the way was opened for construction of them the feeling of having found asylum,
the fourth city of Delhi. a place of security.
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq abandoned Within the enclosure, the Sultan had

Tughluqabad in AD 1327, and shifted to a royal palace and mosque constructed.
the outlying fort of Adilabad on a hill to In their efforts to discover and protect
the south of Tughluqabad but problems these monuments, the officers of the
dogged him there too. The Sultan then Archaeological Survey of India have in
53
the recent past searched for the mosque Excavations in 1931 revealed some
and the palace. The mosque when cleared treasure chambers in which were found
of the surrounding vestiges emerged some gold coins from South India,
as an edifice of good proportions. The acquired during Sultan Alauddin’s reign.
style of construction, of course was These were the first South Indian coins
predominantly Tughluq. The discovery of found in North India. In the layout of the
the remains of the royal palace nearby palace were discovered the foundations
was another important find. This palace of the Royal Bath and the Zenana (the
is generally referred to as the Bijai ladies) chambers visible on the west side
Mandal (Pis. 40 & 41) which is a name of the main building. An elephant track
used and reused in other contexts too. was traceable to the north of the hall of
private audience. The eastern wall of
Within the precincts of the palace, a
Jahanpanah is still traceable. Between this
big hall was clearly located. This hall,
and Tughluqabad lay a lake, some of the
in the beginning was mistaken for the
hall of thousand pillars, the one built by sluice gates of which are still identifiable.
Alauddin. But, later on, it was correctly The city of Delhi then stretched from
identified as the hall of public audience.
Qutb to about five kilometers to the north,
Some of the private apartments were also
consisting of three parts, Lal-Kot, Siri and
traced. Within the palace was a tower from
Jahanpanah. On the western side lay the
where the Sultan reviewed his troops.
great tank of Hauz-i-Khas, meant for
exclusive use of the royalty and men of
consequence. On the east, there existed
yet another lake, which covered the plains
between Jahanpanah and Tughluqabad.
To the south lay the stretch of rocky
terrain which the nobles must have used
for their sports. The space to the north,
presented a pleasant view as it was well
adorned by lovely gardens, amidst which
stand the houses and mansions inhabited
by the nobles. In between rose the white
dome of the mosque aspiring to touch
the sky. All in all it was pleasant indeed.
The glistening waters of the interspersing
lakes and the hustle and bustle of the
happy citizens completed the picture of a
prosperous metropolis.
PI. 39. A courtyard of Jahanpanah.
54
PI. 40. Bijai Mandal.
55
PI. 41. Bijai Mandal - stepped arch.
56
The mosque has no wood in it at all. has no parallel in the land of Islam. It is
It has thirteen domes and four courts. built of red stone, unlike the rest of the
In the centre of the mosque is an awe¬ edifice, ornamented with sculpture and
inspiring column and nobody knows of of great height. The ball on the top is of
what metal it is constructed. According glistening white marble and its ‘apples’
to one learned men it is called Haft (small balls surrounding the minaret)
Tush, which means ‘seven metals’ and are of pure gold. The passage is so wide
is constructed from these seven. Apart that an elephant could go up by it. A
from the majesty of these columns of finer person in whom I have confidence, told
quality, the city of Delhi, as mentioned me that when it was built he saw an
by Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta had elephant climbing with stone to the top.
never before been so vast in expanse This minaret in term of size is one of the
and of such magnificence as in the time wonders of the world.”
of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. Ibn Batuta,
who visited Delhi in 1334-42, has given Ibn Batuta was a traveller who had
a vivid and interesting account of the journeyed down to this part of the world
kingdom. He has described the Sultan as precisely with the intention of discovering
Muhammad Shah which had been done and enjoying his adventurous journeys.
by few others as well. Batuta speaks As such, he observed every palace, every
highly about the mosque. He says, monument, every court and the people
“The cathedral mosque occupies a large with keen interest. He noted every detail
area; its walls, roof and paving are all with interest. These are the factors,
constructed of white stones admirably which add luster to his accounts and
squared and firmly cemented with make them fascinating, taking us
lead breadth; it had been polished and directly into those times. It is because
given a brilliant glean which makes no of this, that one is tempted to quote
impression on it. It is thirty cubits high his accounts further, so let the reader
and well rolled all along a turn around have a glimpse of what the Sultanate era
it and the portion which encircled it was like. Much impressed by Delhi of
measured eight cubits. On the eastern Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s time, Batuta
gate, there are two enormous idols of continues his account with much relish,
brass, prostrate on the ground and “Outside Delhi is a large reservoir named
held by stones and everyone entering after Sultan Iltutmish, from which the
or leaving the mosque treads on them. inhabitants draw their drinking water.
The site was formerly occupied by an It is supplied by rain water and is about
idol temple and was converted into a three kilometers in length by half the
mosque on the conquest of the city. In breadth. In the centre there is a great
the northern court is the minaret, which pavilion built of squared stones two
57
stories high. When the reservoir is filled tarnished because the common belief
with water it can be reached only in boats was that he had his father killed. He has
but when the water is low, the people go also been described as an eccentric king.
into it. Inside it is a mosque, and most of The general state of tension, sporadic
the times it is occupied by mendicants intrusions and the growing congestion
devoted to the service of God. When the weighed heavily on Muhammad’s mind.
water dries up at the side of the reservoir, He ordered shift of the capital for the
they sow sugarcane, cucumbers, green second time and on a mass scale. This
melons and pumpkins. The melons and time, it was to Daulatabad, about one
pumpkins are very sweet but of small thousand one hundred twenty five kilo
size. Between Delhi and the abode of the miles away towards south (PI. 42).
t
Caliphate, is the private reservoir which
Criers were commissioned to
is larger than the other. Along its sides,
announce the Sultan’s orders of a
there are forty pavilions around which
shift. He announced categorically that
live the musicians.” The accounts of Ibn
whosoever remained in the city after
Batuta, apart from being interesting,
three days would be severely punished
extensively document the life and times
and done to death. The Sultan wanted
of that period.
strict compliance. To ensure that his
Now, coming back to the Sultans, the orders were followed, he decided to move
first imperative is to analyse the fact of out of the city on the last day. He climbed
Sultan Muhammad’s accession to the to the battlements of his palace to ensure
throne which is replete with controversies. that no hearth was lit, no smoke emitted
Ghiyathuddin had gone to Bengal to from any chimney and that there was
handle an uprising. Muhammad planned not a glimmer of light from any home.
a grand welcome, seemingly to express

Daulatabad known as Deogiri earlier,
his delight and appreciation of his father’s
was chosen partly because of security
achievement. But, in reality it was a crafty
reasons and partly because Muhammad-
plan to kill his father. The plan is said to
bin-Tughluq was tempted towards
have had the blessingof Saint Nizamuddin,
Alauddin’s big conquests and enormous
with whom Ghiyathuddin had a big
acquisition of wealth from the south. But
altercation, when the Tughluqabad fort
no sooner did he settle in his new capital
was under construction. The Saint had
than the problem of defence began to
neither forgiven nor forgotten the Sultan’s besiege him again. If the dangers to the
arrogance. empire lay in the north, its strength too
was inherent to that region.
Though this plan may not have been
really made or carried out, history reveals The people had already vehemently
that Muhammad’s image remained opposed the change because with their
58
homes abandoned they felt totally a ‘glamorous’ one too, as considered by

uprooted. Their trades were ruined and Ibn Batuta. The people seemed to be at
the fields, left uncared for long, turned in peace, but not the ruler. Muhammad-
to a state of neglect. Troubled, the Sultan bin-Tughluq has mainly been described
ordered a return to Delhi once again. as a refined scholar and a man of striking
originality which when mishandled
Muhammad thus realized his folly and
vastly contributed to his troubles. He
strived to set things right. But problems
was always impatient to impose his novel
did not leave him. Water scarcity
ideas and inventions upon his subjects.
continued to plague the people. The
This, coupled with his uncontrolled
Sultan had returned from Daulatabad
temper led him to extreme measures of
in AD 1334 but famine compelled him to
cruelty. He enforced his novel or original
plan yet another exodus within a short
ideas on his people who were severely
span of two years.
punished if they refused to conform.
Fortunately, the choice of place this
time gave relief to the people. It was near Once, he decided to introduce copper
ancient Khor, on the river Ganga, and coins, which met with total failure.
the fertile Gangetic plain offered the Silver was in such abundance at that
people scope to flourish and prosper. time that no one wanted even to look
They were happy. The Sultan first had at the copper coinage. To them, it was
temporary accommodation erected and a sign of utter poverty and misery. His
subsequently more permanent buildings experiment with copper coins failed. His
were raised. The entire arrangement other economic policies did not meet with
was made by Ainu-i-Mulk, the governor much acceptance either. When finances
of Oudh. began to dwindle, he decided to fix the

prices of commodities at a low rate which
Strangely enough, Muhammad had
once again met with resentment.
to abandon even this town, which he
had so fondly named Svargaduari which Muhammad tried to consolidate his
meant the gateway to heaven. The shift empire and succeeded in this mission
from Svargaduari became inevitable to a great extent. He had stretched his
as the governor threatened to rebel. empire as far as Mysore, though even
Muhammad returned to Delhi. His there his eccentricities caused agitation.
love-hate relationship with Delhi came However, the achievements had fanned
to a halt this time. The area between his aspiration to such an extent that
Qutb and Siri had already been walled. he aspired to conquer Persia and China
The big enclosure, surrounding all the also, which only led to the extinction of
earlier cities, had given the entire area his financial resources. In a desperate
the semblance of a sprawling city and attempt to fill his treasuries again,
59
PI. 42. Daulatabad Fort, Aurangabad.
60
61
he levied high taxes resulting further first gate. They were kept in readiness
increase in discontent. Muhammad, a to inflict punishment as soon as it was
victim of his own follies was overpowered required, or whenever the king desired.
by anger and revenge, the two major Between the first and second gates was
failings of his character. When Hindu posted a troop of security men. Between
cultivators abandoned their land and the second and third gates, was a large
fled to jungles, he ordered the entire platform provided for the Naquibs who
jungle to be set on fire to kill them all. If perhaps were symbolic inflictors of royal
a survivor was found, he was beheaded. punishments as they carried maces of
Such extreme punishment led to gold and silver. The chief Naquib wore
many revolts and uprisings. A brilliant an ostentatious kind of dress. His high
Sultan, who verged on genius, met with cap was made of gold and decorated
unfortunate situations just because he with a peacock feather. The other
could not direct his brilliance in proper Naquibs stood in front. They wore low
direction. Historians, comparing him to gilded caps and girdles and carried
Akhnaten of Egypt, Charles XII of Sweden whips with gold or silver handles. The
and Joseph II of Austria, have termed second gate led to a commodious hall.
him the brilliant failure of history. There was a third gate providing direct
access to the hall. On this gate, sat
Ibn Batuta however, unwilling to Munims or scribes who noted the name.
change his views about the Sultan The scribe were given the note and
insists on appraising as of the grandeur escorted the visitor and upon reaching
of Muhammad’s court, a favorite topic inside the hall announced the visitor’s
with this traveller. It would not be out of name. The attendants accompanying
place to visit the court of Muhammad- the visitor varied according to the status
bin-Tughluq along with the Moroccon of the visitor. As a disciplinary measure,
traveller whose accounts have always absentee attendants or officials (if absent
charmed us with minor details. for threee days continuously) were
not allowed to enter and resume duty
According to Batuta the palace had
without the Sultan’s formal permission.
several gates. He writes, “At the first gate
When permitted, the erring official had
were a number of guards. Along with
to present a gift to the Sultan. This
them sat buglers, trumpeters and pipe
ceremony took place in the hall of
players. Whenever an Amir or a noble
audience. Constructed of one thousand
arrived, the playing of the instruments
wooden pillars, its roof was exquisitely
heralded his presence. This process was
carved.”
repeated at the second and the third
gate too. To ensure security, Jallandins Apart from lbn Batuta, there were
- Arabian flaggers - were posted on the travellers from other countries, too.
62
Muhammad had always encouraged embankment wall on one side, formed

and welcomed visitors. A visitor from the southern wall of Jahanpanah. The
Damascus left behind an creditable dam towered 213 feet above the ground.
account of the city of the Delhi. The drain was in existence until recently
According to him, Delhi was a beautiful in its original form and through the
city surrounded with extensive gardens same channels.
on three sides, the western side
Sometimes it appears that in all
bordered by the ridge. The Tughluqs
fairness, it was not appropriate to have
were credited with having adorned
called Muhammad-bin-Tughluq either
the city of Delhi with some exquisite
an insane monarch or even “Muhammad
monuments. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq
the Bloody” as had been done by some
too made his contribution and shared
chroniclers simply because he enforced
this distinction.
his views and plans rather drastically.
Since water was always a scarce Later historical research has retrieved
commodity, the monarch thought his image to some extent. Some acts,
of ways to enrich the city’s water like choosing officials entirely on merit
supply by getting tanks and reservoirs and not for their religion, or having
constructed. One such relic of this extended the empire to great heights,
time, which survived for long and are a few of the things which easily won
was constructed by Muhammad was him the distinctive title of “Muhammad
a big reservoir to the east of Khirki the Just.” No sovereign of Delhi until
with a bridge-like construction. The the time of Aurangzeb had ruled so vast
construction and design august that a territory as Muhammad had done.
it was meant to be a dam across the

The fact that Delhi had one
ravine which runs from the south, with
thousand colleges during his time is
sluices for the over-flow. Called Satpula
almost unbelievable. Delhi boasted
or even Satphala (PI. 43), the band was
of 70 hospitals too. The number of
constructed to regulate the flow of water
monasteries and chapels at that time
with an embankment 850 feet long. It
was around two thousand. Delhi was
was situated about 800 meters east of
connected with other major cities by
Khirki mosque. Khirki itself is reduced
well regulated horse carriage routes
to the status of a village now, but
and foot posts.
was once a flourishing township. The
Satpula band had eleven openings, two History has been kind to the eccentric
on each end and seven on the bridge Muhammad and recognized his many
itself. The bridge was double-storied. achievements. Saint Nizamuddin Aulia’s
This embankment was apparently tomb still stands as one of the few relics
thrown across a drain near Khirki. The of the city of Jahanpanah.
63
\
■hg&Zr,
PI. 43. Satpula, Delhi.
64
im9,
*K~i M - ’T
65
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq had no son. administratively. Firuz Shah restored
So he decided to appoint his nephew order to his kingdom in northern India
Firuz Shah Tughluq as his successor. but did not bother to retrieve the Deccan
Firuz Shah chose to enter the capital states which were easily taken over by
of Delhi only five months after his the Bahamani dynasty. In many ways,
succession to the throne. He is said to Firuz was more modern in his outlook
have resided earlier at a palace in Khirki than his predecessors and was devoid of
which is some five kilometers to the right any ferocity of nature unlike the other
Tughluqs. But he was not free from
of the road turning to Delhi and about
religious bias. He extended the Jaziya -
six kilometers from Qutb. There is a fort
a tax on non-believers of Islam, i.e., on
and a mosque in the village of Khirki,
presumably constructed by his men. all Hindus.
Firuz Shah was an intelligent king. He Firuz Shah was a builder on a grand
wanted to begin on a solid foundation scale and building activities seem to
of peace and goodwill of his people. He have spanned the entire period of his
used the period of five months wisely to reign. The hunting lodges and pavilions,
which he constructed in the beginning,
erase the memories of his predecessor’s
heralded signs of tranquil times. Since
misdeeds by replacing them with acts
building was already his passion, it did
that reflected his care and concern
not take him long to consider raising
about his subjects and the redressal
a new city for which reasons were ever
of their wounds and punishments
present. Water was always a scarce
inflicted in the past. He paid generous
commodity and so was space due to
compensation to those unfortunate ones
the growing population. The enormous
whose eyes had been gouged out, noses
settlements built on the Aravalli rocks
chopped off or limbs cut off. He got a full
and the terrain around it were far
record prepared of all of Muhammad’s
away from the river, the main source
misdeeds and had it placed in his tomb
of water supply to Delhi. Besides
and invoked God’s grace on the departed
water, the task of transporting grain
soul. During these five months, he also
and other commodities became difficult
focussed on the day-to-day problems of
for their living away from the river.
his subjects and tried to provide them
Coupled with a perceptible decline in
with the necessities of life. Having thus
revenue, all these factors were by now
established his image as a just and fair
causing considerable discomfort and
ruler did he enter the city.
inconvenience to the general public.
As a consequence of the decline of the All these put together prompted Firuz
Sultanate, Delhi too was in the process Shah to give serious thought of building
of disintegration, structurally as well as a city close to the river.
66
He soon embarked on his plan. The a gate called the Lahori Gate, which
site for the new capital was of course was a later construction. Towards the
chosen to be as close to the river as southern end was a sparsely populated
possible. The specific site for the new area while the area between the present
city was a place called Gawin. It was a city walls and Purana Qila was the most
village then and is the site of present thickly populated. Around the ridge,
Firoz Shah Kotla. The total expanse of there was a sort of suburb, where the
the city, as described by two travellers king had one of his hunting lodges
of that time, Afif and Barni was vast. constructed. Surrounded by high walls,
The village Gawin was on the river bank the city had no boundary walls but
and the distance from the city of Delhi, it is believed that the first thing to be
as mentioned in their accounts was five constructed was a boundary wall with
kos which is about fifteen kilometers. a moat around it. One feels inclined to
Ziauddin Barni had enthusiastically accept the view that pillage had a great
foreseen a glorious future for the city. The role to play and even if there was a wall,
total expanse of the city had embraced pillage left no trace behind.
18 villages of which Gawin was the core
village. According to the records of those So, apparently the city which Firuz
two travellers, it included the land of Shah had chosen to call Firozabad
Kathiwara, the identity of which has not had no city walls. But he had walls
been established so far. On one side, it constructed around his hunting houses
extended up to Indarpat the spot where and Kotla as a line of defence. He had
Humayun later built his fort. The city chosen for it the portion of Firozabad
had extended to Razia Sultana’s tomb which lay adjacent to Purana Qila. As per
in a locality known as Bulbuli Khana design, the city was probably planned so
and was close to an old gate now known as to have the Kotla of Firuz Shah at the
as Turkman Gate . It spanned the entire northeastern corner and Purana Qila at
area of the later city of Shahjahanabad, the southeastern corner.
to the ridge between modern Subzi

Firozabad was actually an open city
Mandi and Civil Lines.
with a shape more like a half hexagon.
Roughly speaking, the extension of The suburbs of Firozabad joined the
the city formed a semi-circle with a two- suburbs of the old city. Firoz Shah Kotla
and-a half-kilometers radius, the centre was also his major achievement as a
being Kotla on the riverbank. Starting builder, however, the present state of
from that point, the row of houses began Kotla has a different story to tell. The
and continued on to Chandni Chowk, surrounding walls of Kotla have gone,
the main business center. The line of probably used to provide material for the
houses ran up to the point where stands walls of the city. A few parts still stand
67
as a specimen. The masonry appears is no trace left of his Palace of Grapes,

to be of a very rough kind. The rooms the Palace of the Wooden Gallery and
were of a dark type and the roof of a the Palace of the Public Court which
vaulted kind, which drew its support apparently was something like a hall
from the mortar which did not seem of public audience. The remains of the
to be very sturdy. The buildings inside cathedral mosque built by Firuz Shah
are in a total state of disintegration and can probably still be found opposite the
it is difficult to assess the design and pedestal that holds the Asokan Pillar.
allocation of the apartments. The part of
Firuz Shah was an intelligent monarch
the building, on which Firuz Shah had
who had established an altruistic image
set the Asokan pillar is the structure
early on through his good deeds, though
surviving the ravages of time (Pis. 44, 46,
he had not relaxed strictness with regards
and 47). The other surviving structure
to his Hindu subjects. Having established
is the Jama Masjid, a circular building
with underground rooms. The palace his rule and image, he pursued his
supposed to be the Emperor’s palace is interests, chief amongst which was his
in total ruins and no form can be made interest in building and restoration of
out or described. monuments of consequence. He was an

exponent of the canal system and built
The city said to have been constructed
some major tanks and canals which
there was of enormous size but there are
saved the inhabitants of Delhi from,
controversial descriptions of it. So it is
facing water shortages and provided
difficult to say whether it was a city in
tremendous relief. Not only that, these
the true sense of the word or whether
accounted for the large number of
it was just a grouping of suburbs
beautiful gardens and orchards which
which developed there. Historians have
produced many new and rare varieties of
considered the greater possibility of
fruits and flowers in Delhi at that time.
there being scattered suburbs around
the Kotla of Firuz Shah. The four main mosques of Firuz
Shah’s time were built by his minister
Firozabad was a fairly big town. It
Khan-i-Jahan. The prominent features
stretched from the river to Alauddin’s tank
of these four mosques are high walls
and from Khushk-i-Shikar, on the ridge
around the courtyard with arcades
to the traditional site of the Pandava’s
of arches on the interior, topped with
city. It included a large area, which also
heavy drip stones and a number of
comprised area of later Shahjahanabad.
domes and minarets. The rough kind of
Within the ramparts of the fortress, stonework which was the hallmark of
Firuz Shah had built a number of palaces this era is seen in these mosques also.
and buildings of public utility. There The dark stained plaster accentuated
68 _
69
PI. 45. Remains of Kotla Firoz Shah.
70
PI. 46. Jami Masjici, Kotla Firoz Shah.
PI. 47. Inscriptions on Asokanpillar, Kotla Firoz Shah.
71
the very somber look though it also The third mosque, which is to the
adds to a sinister kind of awe. Amongst south of Nizamuddin’s Dargah, is
these mosques, the Kalan Masjid (Pis. known as the Kali or Sanjan Masjid
48 - 50) with its high entrance flanked (Pis. 52-54). Though in ruins, it is a fine
by a pair of columns is the most example illustrating the arcade mosque.
imposing one. The court is cut into four smaller courts.
There is a fine domed entrance with an
The Kalan Masjid is a single room, inscription in white plaster stating the
71 feet in length and 41 feet in breadth. names of the builders.
It has two rows of four pillars, each
down the centre and one row of coupled The fourth mosque, of a similar
pillars along the front. The columns description is in the village Khirki and is
divide the whole area into fifteen just within Jahanpanah’s walls (PI. 55).
squares, each of which is covered by This mosque is a rare example where
a small dome, the central one being the covered area exceeds the open
higher than the rest. On the outside, court. The four small quadrangles are
the building consists of two stories, of symmetrical and produce the effect of
which the lower forms a kind of plinth light and dark, a factor which has made
to the actual place of worship which is this mosque unique.
28 feet high. The total height to the top The Jama Masjid a public
of the battlement is 66 feet. The walls mosque, could accommodate about
of the upper storey had a number of 10,000 people (PI. 46). Among the other
openings, filled with bold geometrical miscellaneous buildings, some acquired
tracery of marble. General Cunningham significance because of their sentimental
has considered this mosque as a typical value. Notable among these is a
and favourable specimen of architecture prominent name which has become
of the fourteenth century. The bright almost a landmark and is known as
paint plaster has been peeled off but Khushk-i-Shikar.
the structure stands solid even after
Firuz Shah was grief stricken at the
four centuries.
death of his son. He looked for something
The second mosque is in Begumpur to engage his mind. Interested in both
(PI. 51), now a village but in those days hunting and building, he is said to have
was a part of the circuit of Jahanpanah. constructed a strange set of buildings.
It was like a Jama Masjid which is a In those buildings, he had an enclosure
mosque for congregation. The main wall erected and named the whole
feature of this mosque is the lofty arched complex Khushk-i-Shikar. He used these
bay. The dome is of a very reasonable buildings as his hunting lodge. The odd
proportion. appearance of these buildings gave rise
72 _
PI. 48. Kalan Masjid (as in 1858)
PI. 49. Kalan Masjid in lithograph.
73
PI. 50. Kalan Masjid as it looks now-a-days.
74
to various conjectures afterwards and the tomb of Fateh Khan, the Sultan’s
whatever was left of them got different son. Firuz Shah, after great effort and
names. The lofty building was named at tremendous expense once acquired
Pir Ghaib (PI. 56) and was described as an imprint of the Caliph’s footprints.
an observatory by some and clock tower The king had treasured it as his most
by others. Some even called it Chauburji valued possession. When he asked his
because it was a set of four minarets. son to take a precious object from the
Another such curious construction, royal treasury, the prince is said to
which was discovered around the 1930s have chosen these. Firuz was dismayed
was an underground passage connecting but agreed to give these to him on the
the top of the ridge with an open well on condition that the footprints should
the western side. No one has been able be placed on the heart of the one who
to decide the purpose of this passage. died first. Most unfortunately it was the
Two tombs of consequence are the prince who died first. The tomb which
tombs of Qadam Sharif and Firuz the grief-stricken Sultan got constructed
Shah’s own tomb (Pis. 57 and 58). They for his son is about one km west of the
have acquired significance because of western wall of Shahjahanabad. The
the personal accounts associated with father built it with loving care and got a
them. The tomb of Qadam Sharif is wall constructed around it. The imprint
PI. 52. Kali Masjid, Nizamuddin.
76
PI. 53. Kali Masjid-Entrance.
PI. 54. Kali Masjid (inside).
77
PI. 55. Khirki Masjid.
78
PI. 56. Pir Ghaib.
79
was finally placed at this tomb thus Another building, one of the palaces of
giving it the name Qadam Sharif that Firuz Shah, is on the rising ground near
means the footprint of the Caliph. the Jail. Most likely, this is the group
of buildings forming a part of one of the
Firuz’s own tomb is at Hauz Khas,
famous plates of Daniel titled “Oriental
a tank constructed by Alauddin Khalji
scenery”. This palace was known as
which was in a state of complete
Khushk-i-Anwar or Mehndian. There
disrepair. Firuz Shah not only got it
was a central building with a multi-
renovated but also added vast extensions
roomed lower storey and above, a domed
giving it a totally new look. He planned
pavilion with twelve monolithic pillars.
to have his tomb placed near the tank.
His tomb is a specimen of simplicity
Another dargah of great fame and a
combined with nobility of structure.
famous landmark of Delhi is Roshan
The sloping wall, the hallmark of the
Chiragh which the Sultan constructed
Tughluqs was the pattern of the tomb
in the memory of Shaikh Nasiruddin
walls too. The tomb has proportioned
Muhammad (PI. 59). The Saint was
domes which are perfectly symmetrical.
highly revered and it was with a sense
The paintings on the interior of the
of deep esteem that the Sultan named
dome merit attention. After the tombs,
it ‘Roshan Chiragh’ which means ‘the
attention is drawn to the dargahs which
esteemed light’. To give the dargah
Firuz Shah constructed. The Dargah of
prominence, he also built a walled
Makhdum Sabzawari is between Hauz
township by the name Roshan Chiragh
Khas and Siri. These have the typical
Delhi. The town used to have three
features of the Tughluq dynasty but a
feature which is of great consequence gateways. Unfortunately, at present
in all these buildings is the hidden none of the gates remain. The wide road
but very noticeable hand of Hindu in New Delhi only bears a signpost of that
architects. This confirms the fact that name and parts of crumbling boundary
the earlier buildings of the Khalji and walls can be seen by the motorists for
Sultanate era definitely made use of the some distance.
exquisite carvings of Hindu temples of

Though a number of Asian rulers of
the Rajput period.
that era have been stated to have shown
The old Idgah, located behind Qadam no regard for buildings erected by their
Sharif and on the rising ground of the ridge predecessors, Firuz Shah was different.
is the place where Muslims assembled He devoted much time and attention to the
for their prayers during Ramdan and repairs of buildings of his predecessors
Id. This is within a fortification wall as and, at times, even gave the restoration
the danger of enemy attack even at such work priority over his construction
congregations was not exceptional. activity. May be this was an extension of
80
i*
PI. 57. Qadam Sharif, Paharganj.
PI. 58. Tomb ofFiruz Shah Tughluq, Hauz Khas.
81
his passion for construction of buildings This Madrasa was meant to be a college
during his reign. The most notable for the study of Arabic and is considered
restoration work was the repairs of the as one of the best-proportioned and most
famous Qutb Minar. The top storey had attractive buildings of the Tughluq era.
been damaged by an earthquake. This Firuz also constructed his tomb there,
was replaced and surmounted by a stone as mentioned earlier. The Madrasa was
cupola. The top was damaged again in AD in close proximity to the tomb and had
1803 by a second earthquake; and a new acquired the status of an academy noted
cupola of late Mughal design was fixed for teaching of the Quran.
by Major R.E. Smith who had repaired He had another extensive canal made
the entire monument at that time. in Delhi, named Hissar-i-Firuz which
meandered through most of the city.
Firuz Shah’s generosity extended even
It was this canal which when taken
to the buildings of the Rajput period.
up and restructured by the Mughal
The embankments of Suraj Kund owe
Emperor Shahjahan, beautified the then
their restoration and preservation to
prestigious business centre of Chandni
him. The Sultan also erected the outer
Chowk. Besides these two, there were
and the inner entrance gates to the
a number of drains and canals which
dargah of Saint Nizamuddin Aulia.
Firuz Shah had constructed. He also
Firuz Shah acquired great fame as the
constructed the first canal in northern
builder of an extensive canal system in
India. It was of course, the Yamuna
Delhi. He constructed many tanks and
canal which left the river at a place called
reservoirs and restored several others.
Karnal and followed its western bank
One prominent insertion in this list is
down to Hansi with a branch to Delhi.
the name of the famous tank of Hauz-i-
Khas which, of course, was constructed Besides construction, adorning the
by Alauddin. With the lapse of time, with city was also part of his programme. For
neglect and lack of maintenance, this this, if he located some nice structure
tank had silted up and was in a state of pillar at some place, he always tried
of despair. Firuz Shah, before starting to acquire it and have it transported to
the construction of new tanks, took up the place which he thought as a right
the task of getting this tank repaired. site for the installation of that object.
Bestowed with aesthetic sense, Firuz The account of the transportation of two
Shah took great care to beautify the Asokan pillars is quite interesting. The
surroundings of this vast Hauz-i-Khas. account is so fascinating and ingenious
Lovely gardens came up around the that every chronicle, whether written
tank. Since he was also a great patron of by a historian or by a traveller, makes
learning and religion, he got a Madrasa mention of it. These pillars were already
constructed at the corner of Hauz-i-Khas. 1,500 years old but were still intact
82 -
PI. 59. Dargah Roshan-Chirag.
83
when Firuz Shah found them. One of generations. After pondering over the best
the pillars was found at Topra near means of lowering the column, orders
Ambala and one near Meerut. Both these were issued commanding all the people
pillars are of Asoka and are inscribed dwelling in the neighborhood within and
with Asoka’s edicts and so are of great outside the town and all soldiers, both
significance. Firuz Shah chose to get horse-riding and foot. They were ordered
the Ambala pillar erected on the ridge to bring all implements and material
near one of his hunting boxes (PI. 60), suitable for the work. Directions were
the site close to the present Hindu Rao issued for bringing parcels of ‘Sambhal’
Hospital. The pillar found at Meerut was cotton (silk cotton). Quantities of this silk
transported to Firozabad and adorned cotton were placed round the column and
his palace there. This was the pillar on when the earth at its base was removed,
which were inscribed the basic tenets it fell gently over on the bed prepared
of Asoka’s religion. The inscriptions on for it. The cotton was then removed by
the pillar are in four compartments at degrees, and after some days the pillar
the four cardinal points and around was examined. A large square stone was
the lower portion. These are edicts and found as a base which was also taken
were written in the twenty-seventh year out. The pillar was then encased from
of Asoka’s reign, after his probable top to bottom in reeds and ram skin
conversion to Buddhism. so that no damage might occur to it. A
Shams-i-Shiraj Afif has given a carriage with 42 wheels was constructed,
graphic account of the transportation of and ropes were attached to each wheel.
the pillars to Delhi. The first step was Thousands of men hauled at every rope,
to lower them as they were still firmly and after great labour and difficulty the
standing when Firuz saw them. They pillar was raised on to the carriage. The
were very carefully lowered on to a bed strong rope was fastened to each wheel
of cotton of the softest variety known as and 200 men pulled at each of these
‘Sambhal’ or silk cotton. The pillar was ropes. By simultaneous exertion of so
then encased in reed and raw skin. His many thousands of men, the carriage
description is so vivid that it carries the was moved and was brought to the bank
reader to that spot. of the Jamuna (River Yamuna). Here,
As described by Afif : “Removal of the the Sultan came to see the work going
Minar-i-Zarine : Khazrabad is 90 kos on. A number of large boats had been
from Delhi, in the vicinity of hills. When collected, some of these could carry
the Sultan visited that district and saw 5,000 and 7,000 maunds of grains and
the column in the district of Topra, he the least of them 2000 maunds. The
resolved to remove it to Delhi and erect column was very ingeniously transferred
it there as a memorial to the future to these boats and was then conducted
84
PL 60. Asokan pillar, Ridge, Delhi.
85
to Firozabad where it was landed and upright position, straight as an arrow,

conveyed into Khushk with infinite without the smallest deviation from the
labour and skill.” perpendicular. The square stone, earlier
spoken of, was placed under the pillar.”
Giving an account of the raising of the
After it was raised, some ornamental
‘obelisk’, Afif proceeds further and says,
friezes of black and white stone were
“At that time the author (a historian of
placed round its two capitals (saz-i-an)
this book was 12 years old and was a
and over these there was raised a gilded
pupil of the respected Murkhan. When
copper cupola, called kalasa in Hindi.
the pillar was brought to the place,
The height of the obelisk was thirty-two
a building was commenced for its
gaz, eight gaz was sunk in its pedestal
reception near the Jama Masjid and the
and twenty-four gaz was visible. On the
most skilled architects were employed.
base of the obelisk there were engraved
It was constructed of stone and chunam
several lines of writing in Brahmi. Many
and consisted of several stages of steps
(polish). When a step was finished the Brahmins and Hindu devotees were
column was raised on to it, another step invited to read them, but no one was
was then built and the pillar was again able to do so. It is said that a certain
raised and so on... in succession until it infidel Hindu interpreted them as stating
reached the intended height.” that no one should be able to remove

the obelisk from its place till there arose
Arriving at this stage, contrivances
in the later days a Muslim king named
had to be devised to place it in an erect
Sultan Firuz, etc.
position. “Ropes of substantial thickness
had to be obtained and windlasses placed About the other obelisk in the Khushk-
on each of the six stages of the base. The i-Shikar, he said “This obelisk stood in
ends of the ropes were fastened to the top the vicinity of the town of Meerut in the
of the pillar and the other passed over the Doab and was somewhat smaller than the
windlasses which were firmly secured Minar-i-Zarine. This was also removed
with many fastenings. The wheels by Sultan Firuz Shah with similar skill
were then turned, and the column was and labour and was re-erected on a hill
raised about half a gaz (a gaz equals 36 in Khushk-i-Shikar amid great feasting
inches). Logs of wood and bales of cotton and rejoicing.”
were then placed under it to prevent its In another account the details of the
sinking. In this way, by degrees and in rope were also given. It was stated that
the course of several days, the column ten maunds of silk thread were used
was raised to a perpendicular position. to twine the rope with which the pillar
Large beams were then placed round it was tied to be raised and it said that
as shores until quite a cage of scaffolding the moment the pillar was lifted even
was formed. It was thus secured in an half a yard, heavy logs of sandalwood
86
were placed and pressed to support the time and guavas were one of them. The
pillar. two canals brought from doab, of which,
one was from river Satluj and the other
This pillar was broken in several
from Yamuna made the water available
pieces by an explosion during the siege
in plenty, facilitating the proliferation
of Delhi in 1857. These have been pieced
of gardens and orchards. The fruit
together but most of the inscription
orchards flourished so well that their
is missing. But the pillars, having
yields itself added a significant amount
withstood the vicissitudes of time, still
to the royal treasury.
stand undaunted and are a perennial
source of inspiration and guidance. Owing to Firuz Shah’s diligent efforts
and keen interest in gardens, 1022
Firuz who paid more attention to gardens find mention in the records
learning and the cultural aspects of of Firuz Shah’s time. There were three
life, could perhaps be pictured as a varieties of grapes - black, white and
learned and serious Turkish, James Chittori Grapes which were grown in
I who liked to spend much of his time abundance then. Apricots, peaches,
in hunting, holding courts, discussing and guavas were also grown in such
archaeology and theology in his spare abundance that the revenue from
time and besides all these in building fruits alone was a big addition to the
and restoring activities. His intellectual treasury.
interests prompted him to start many
With a number of cities, construction
colleges and schools of learning. Between
programmes and restoration activities,
Firozabad and Delhi, Firuz Shah built
the colleges and hospitals to take care
120 monasteries.
of the body and mind and last but not
Firuz Shah who is credited with having the least the heavenly surroundings of
started the well planned and extensive the gardens to relax and enjoy in, it is
canal system in Delhi, furthered that no wonder that Firuz Shah’s reign of 40
interest in utilizing the waters for years has been regarded as an excellent
planning and growth of gardens in and one. The means of transportation and
around Delhi which led to its added communication too did not escape
beautification. The city of Hissar Firoza his attention. There were modes of
which the Sultan founded after two or transportation even within the citadel
three years of his return from Bengal where the underground passages were
developed into a beautiful city with made with galleries with enough for
extensive gardens and orchards. He even ladies’ chariots to pass through if they
gifted free land to people who evinced chose to travel to distant places like
any interest in gardening. Many new river banks or the old fort of Qila Rai
trees were planted in Delhi for the first Pithora.
87
Firozabad was undoubtedly a these people and the promoters of this

populous city but probably was also abomination should be put to death.
the Windsor of Delhi as called by Lane I forbade the infliction of any severe
Poole. It was not regarded as a separate punishment on the Hindus in general
city by many but judging it by the same but I destroyed their idol temples and
yardstick by which the other cities of instead thereof raised mosques.” But
Delhi have been judged, even Firozabad despite his religious bias Firuz Shah
merits the same status. earned a reputation of being an able
ruler who was just and fair.
Firuz Shah was a devout Muslim
who allowed himself only a little Firuz Shah died in AD 1388 and with
indulgence of wine and hunting. Since him departed the glory of the Tughluq
his other interests were intellectual and dynasty. The era of peace, prosperity and
constructive, his omissions of bigotry stability came to an end. There was strife
were easily overlooked by people. Though amongst Firuz Shah’s sons that caused
born of a Hindu princess, he did not a massacre at Firozabad. The revolts
spare any Hindu from the tax of Jaziya naturally led to a weakened defence on
or any other punishment. the frontiers. The chaotic conditions,
disunity and retaliations paved a way
The internal administration of the
for outsiders to enter again.
country was in the hands of a minister,
Khan-i-Jahan who was an erstwhile Timur Lane or Timur, the Lame had
Hindu from the south. After his death strengthened his position by annexing
his son took over and assumed the same most of the dominions of Mongols. With
title. The mode of payment of salaries, a full appraisal of the confusion which
as approved by Firuz Shah was through prevailed at Delhi, Timur decided to
gifts of Jagirs (endowment of Lands). attack. He set out of Samarkand with
90,000 strong cavalry and entered India
Firuz chose to write a kind of memoir
from the Punjab side. He advanced
of his deeds and all the good work that
towards Delhi, he was confronted by the
he had done. He listed all the varieties
army of Mahmud Shah Tughluq who had
of cruel punishments which were meted
taken over after Firuz Shah. Mahmud
out to the subjects in the time of his
was from the house of Tughluqs and had
predecessors and mentioned the reforms
been the logical choice after Firuz Shah.
that he introduced and the gruesome
Mahmud and his army fought bravely
practice of mutilation that he abolished.
but Timur who had come with a large
He surely expected commendation for
force won the battle.
the abolition but he could be very fierce
when his religious zeal was roused. In his Timur pitched camp on the banks of
own words: “I ordered that the leaders of Hauz Khas and received surrender of the
88
city. He is stated to have agreed to spare which re-established stability occurred,

the inhabitants ransom but with little therefore in the fifteenth century.
or no control of his army, the situation Though Delhi could not claim the status
took a grim turn. There were altercations of an imperial city during this period,
between the army and the citizens who a kind of interlude, its other fain was
resented the soldiers’ behavior with their the singularly beautiful buildings of
women folk. The situation went out of the Pathan and Lodi style. The kings of
control when one of the citizens hurled this intervening period can certainly not
a country made bomb that caused heavy be compared to their predecessors nor
damage to Timur’s ammunitions as well to the ones who followed. They lacked
as men. Timur’s apartments in the fort ability to give a stable government.
were damaged too. Timur lost restraint
The successors of the Tughluqs were
and a mass pillage and massacre was
the Sayyids and Lodis after whom came
ordered. The city, which suffered this
Babur, the first of the Mughals. Delhi, of
fate was the city of “Old Delhi” with its
course, was the automatic choice and the
extension of Siri and Jahanpanh. Timur’s
natural destination for them all. Though
memoirs have presented a picture, not
Babur did not like the hostile climate
only of the city but also of the conditions
of Delhi which bordering the desert
prevailing at the time of his invasion.
had extremes of climate but the Golden
According to his account: “The flames Triangle was the only region from where
of strife were thus lit and spread through he felt he could command the entire
the entire city of Jahanpanah, Siri and country. So Babur chose Delhi.
Old Delhi. The Turks went on killing
and plundering. The Hindus set fire to He was a direct descendant of Timur,
their own houses, burnt their wives and but part Mongol and part Tartar. Having
children and rushed into fight and were had the privilege of being influenced
killed. A large number were spared too.” by the Persian civilization, he was
Timur had invaded India after having enlightened and well educated. He
conquered Persia, Afghanistan and himself was a good writer and one of
Mesopotamia; victories which seemed to his works, the Babur Nama is classed
have satisfied his ego as well as enriched amongst the better literary works.
his treasuries. However he did not seem

Babur chose Delhi and settled
to like to retain conquered territory. He
there but the conditions were not very
stayed in Delhi for only two weeks and
favourable. The Rajputs on one end
departed with all the spoils and the men
and the Afghans on the other took up
he had taken as prisoners.
arms. It took him long years to establish
The intervening period between the the extensive empire which ran from
Sultanate and the Mughal Empire Kabul on the west to the border of
89
Bengal on the east. He died leaving Whilst searching for a suitable location
a vast but unstable empire. His son for his new city, he was told about the
Humayun succeeded him. Humayun probable site of Indraprastha situated
locked the restless energy of his father on a hilly plain. During the survey,
and found it difficult to cope with the when he chanced upon the site which
administration of such a vast territory. was believed to be in the vicinity of
He abandoned Kabul and gave Punjab Indraprastha, his choice was made.
to his brother.
Humayun with his poetic bent of
A new city of Delhi with every monarch mind conceptualized a city which
seemed to be the tradition. Humayun would excel even the palace of Brahma
also followed the same tradition. and be even more powerful than that of
Although the reason or the pretext for the Sun. In such a city of his dreams
building a new city differed with each he wanted to construct a place of
one of them, a new city always came seven storeys surrounded by delightful
into being. gardens and orchards. Gifted with
a rich imagination, Humayun had
During the reign of Babur, the city
conceptualized a city fit to be called
of Delhi was reduced to the status of
Dinpanah. It was highly applauded by
a provincial city because Babur had
everyone.
hastened to Agra as that had been the
capital of the Lodis. After Humayun The following account of the founding
ascended the throne as the second of Dinpanah is from the Humayun Nama
Mughal ruler and returned to Delhi, his of Khond Amir: “Another great work of
first instinct was to restore Delhi to its this just and generous king was the
rightful status as an imperial city and city of Dinpanah, which was really the
celebrate not only his succession but asylum of religious men. Before building
also the establishment of the Mughal the city, he took counsel with ‘his great
dynasty. And what could be a better way courtiers and learned companions’ and
of celebrating all this except to build a expressed to them his intention to found
new city. So Humayun embarked on his near the capital of Delhi a city which
plan in AD 1530. was to challenge equality with Satura;
that the city should be the asylum of
Humayun was a very kind, generous
wise and intelligent person and be called
and relaxed sort of monarch who spent
Dinpanah.”
his time in the company of learned
and enlightened men whom he sought The project was highly appreciated,
out and provided his patronage to. He and one of the learned men Maulana
had heard about the glorious kingdom Shahabuddin said that since the
of Indraprastha of the Mahabharata. numerical value of the word Shah-i-
90
Badshah Dinpanah was 940, if the city “Indarpat” which had survived and
was built during that year, it would be remained preserved in their memories.
remarkable. A small fort which had survived the
ravages of time came to be known as
As further stated in Humayun Nama,
Purana Qila or the Old Fort (Pis. 61-65).
it was; “In the middle of the month of the
According to some accounts, it was the
sacred Muharram A.H. 940, at an hour
fort which was renovated and enlarged
which was prescribed by the most clever
in line with his wish and adorned to fit
astrologers and the greatest astronomers
his fancy. Gardens were developed in
that the foundation was laid”. The
and around it.
foundation for the king’s palace was also
laid simultaneously. He wanted his city However, by and large, all the authentic
to be unique in every way and to be the records have made a mention of the
envy of the world. He wished his magnum construction of new city and palaces as
opus to the asylum of scholars, men of conceptualized by Humayun. The very
wisdom and learning. fact that Dinpanah has been accepted as

one of the seven authentically accepted
It was during the month of Muharram,
cities of Delhi confirms that it was
a month of religious fasting that an
established as a new city. It has been
auspicious date was fixed to start the
described as an extensively laid out city
digging of the foundation. The king
with a formidable citadel which has left
was joined by his senior courtiers,
behind imposing remains that can be
nobles and eminent citizens at a grand
seen even today.
function organized for the laying of the
The confusion or the controversy may
foundation. A mass prayer was offered
have arisen because even before the
to invoke the blessings of the Almighty.
emperor could see this magnanimous
Humayun then laid the first brick of
concept fully executed, he was driven
the foundation wall, followed by the
back to Afghanistan by another Afghan
rest according to seniority. Next came a
called Sher Shah Suri. This Afghan
similar function to lay the foundation of
of the Sur Family had earlier ruled in
the Emperor’s palace.
Bihar and jumped at the opportunity
Some amount of controversy has to celebrate his victory by constructing
arisen regarding the name of the place, another city. But actually it was just
as the name “Dinpanah” did not survive a new quarter of Humayun’s city
long. Apparently, it was in use only rather than a new city altogether.
during Humayun’s time and may be for Sher Shah Suri completed the task
a few years after his reign. The general left by Humayun. The fort at this place
public was not aware of it. In popular continued to remain the royal palace.
tradition and folklore, it was the name Sher Shah made two additions to the
___ 91
complex, one was the Sher Mandal, west. It had three gates. Today, the south,
traditionally used as a library and the north and the east gates are closed but
other Sher Shah’s mosque, admired for the gate on the west which was the main
its proportionate dimensions. entrance, is still open. Besides these,
Sher Shah died in AD 1545. His son there are three wicket gates. Two of them
Islam Shah (also named Salim Shah) who faced the river flowing close to the fort at
succeeded his father made one addition that time. The third wicket gate was on
to the city. This was the Salimgarh Fort the western wall of the fort. On each of
(Pis. 65 & 66) which guarded over the the four corners of the fort, there were
other fort located over the River Yamuna. bastions whose enormous size was awe
The Afghan rule of Sur Dynasty ended inspiring. The enclosing walls of the city
in AD 1556. Humayun returned and had two storied cells. The walls and cells
recaptured his fort. The Humayun Nama rose to the height of the lofty gateways.
gives an account of how he conceived the The upper portion of the wall facing the
city and got it built. Dinapanah’s palace, river has crumbled now. But the lower
as it appeared after completion was of portions intact even today are used by
an irregular oblong shape. It was three villagers as their humble dwellings.
furlongs by one and a half furlongs. The They sometimes keep their cattle also in
longer sides were on the east and the those cells.
PI. 62. Rampart, Purana Qila
93
PI. 63. Structures inside Purana Qila.
94
PI. 64. Rampart (inner view), Purana Qila
95
PI. 65. Salimgarh Fort.
PI. 66. An old painting showing Salimgarh and Red Fort.
96
Two of the gates that need special the location was the same on the bank
mention are the Talaqi Darwaza and the of the river. It was about a five minute
main gate on the western wall (PL 67). walk from an important spot called
It is interesting to note the name Talaqi Nigam Bodh Ghat which as the name
which in Arabic means forsaken or denotes is an embankment constructed
forbidden. It is said that long ago, a king for the convenience of people to bathe or
who lived in that fort went out to quell perform religious ceremonies. It would
a rebellion. He had vowed not to enter have been on the bank of the river even
the city unless he defeated the enemy. at the time of the mythical Pandavas.
Unfortunately, the king was killed in the The temple called Nili Chhatri close
battle. The gate acquired an inauspicious by the river is where the Pandavas are
tone and was closed and banned forever. said to have performed their Yajnas.
This lofty gate was fifteen meters in Apparently, no remains of the temple
height. Two huge bastions stood guard are found now.
on both sides. The face of the gateway
is ornamented with marble bands and Since the monarch Humayun had
bosses. always tried to link his structures with the

glorious city of Indraprastha, the temple
The front of the main gate is
of Nili Chhatri also appears to have been
ornamented with grey and red stone.
included in the folds of his patronage.
The fact that the River Yamuna flowed
People now have tried to confirm very
in the vicinity of the fort and encircled
positively that it was built by Humayun
it seems rather farcical in the present
and was one of his guest houses on the
context but the bridge constructed in
river bank. The controversy will end only
those good old days, though in ruins
when the archaeologists prove it either
now still stands as a reminder when the
way. It has been accepted however that
river had lapped the walls of the western
the roof of the Nili Chhatri made of
side of the fort.
enameled stone was brought from some
The two other monuments, surviving ancient building.
within the fort are Masjid Qala-i-
Kuhna and Sher Mandal (Pis. 69-70). Now, a few words about the Nigam
Both these have acquired interesting Bodh Ghat. Well, tradition deems it
overtones with different versions of to be the only monument associated

their names and various associations. with Indraprastha. According to Indian
Another monument of this time, the Nili mythologicaltradition,about5,000years
Chhatri which according to one account ago Brahma, the creator of the Universe
is believed to be a temple of Pandava had forgotten all about the scriptures.
times, has been linked with Humayun’s He is believed to have regained his
reign. However, even in that context memory by a dip in River Yamuna at
- 97
PI. 67. Main entrance, Purana Qila
98
PI. 68. Qala-i-Kuhna Masjid, Purana Qila.
99
that particular spot and hence the place king and stay. But the thoughtful king
acquired the name Nigam Bodh Ghat, also realized that it was not wise to keep
meaning thereby that was the place the guest idle for three long months.
where Brahma regained his wisdom Humayun knew about his guest’s
and memory. Nigam signifies Vedas and knowledge of astronomy. To keep him
Bodh means knowledge. engaged and also to let his own men gain
some knowledge, he requested Ali to train
With the backing of the scriptural
his men in charting the course of the Sun
statement, one does feel more inclined
and assist his astrologers in determining
to accept that version. The name Nigam
the point of the equator. Ali agreed and
Bodh Ghat, however has not been lost
spent the rainy season in the king’s court,
in oblivion even today. It continues to
accomplishing the work assigned to him,
occupy a place of importance as all the
and then took leave of the emperor.
national leaders of India have had their
last rites performed there and their Some other travellers of Humayan’s
memorials raised there. The place has time have described him as
been made serene by vast lush green “Darya-i-Dil”, that is, a man whose
grounds beautified by floral beds. generosity matches the vastness of the
sea. An example of his greatness of heart
A traveller called Sidi Ali who had
and generosity is well illustrated in one
come from Constantinople is stated to
incident of his life. Humayun had gone to
have visited the court of Humayun and
Bengal to fight a battle to retain the parts
was highly impressed by his generosity.
of Bengal, which seemed to be slipping
He has described his generosity and
from the Mughal hold. He could have
courtesy in detail. He has recorded that
stayed for some more time to see that
the king not only made generous gifts of
everything was settled but he hastened
large sums of money and precious articles
back even ignoring the rains. The reason
but even offered him the governorship
for expediting his return was that he had
of a place Kharcha which Ali could not
established a good relationship with some
accept as he owed responsibility to his
of the Rajput kings of the neighbouring
own king and could not accept any
state of Rajasthan and had accepted one
position outside.
of the queens as his sister. The lady too
Humayun, deeply concerned about the cherished this relationship. Humayun
well being of his guest requested him not having been accepted as a brother had
to venture out and embark on his return promised his undying support to her.
journey during the rainy season. The Her kingdom was in danger of being
rains were to last for a full three months attacked and so she had called for
and the roads were likely to be flooded. Humayun’s help for which he facing all
Ali had no option but to agree with the the perils had undertaken that journey.
100_
PI. 69. Sher Mandal, Purana Qila.
101
PI. 70. Humayun’s Tomb.
102,
103
On the journey, Humayun while to begin. He checked the progress every

crossing a flooded river, fell from his day and used to climb the high tower of
elephant. In those days there were men Sher Mandal constructed by Sher Shah
who used to carry water in large leather within the fort of Dinpanah. One evening
bags called masks and the carriers were when Humayun was climbing down after
known as bhishtis. One such bhishti inspection, the staff which he used to have
happened to be at the river. He saw for support and the king lost balance and
Humayun struggling for his life in the tumbled down. He did not survive injuries
swollen river. This man jumped in and caused by the fall and died soon after.
saved Humayun’s life risking his own. Initially, he was buried at a place close
Humayan felt highly grateful to the man by. Later, his body was shifted into the
and asked him to tell his reward. The man mausoleum, the completion of which was
told the king that he would like to be the taken up by Bega Begam or Hagi Begam,
king for a day. Amazingly enough, the his Persian wife and native of Khurasan.
king accepted his demand. The bhishti

Humayun’s tomb (Pis. 70 & 71) which
was the king for a day but he wanted
took nine years to complete is one of the
this most important event of his life to be
most striking monuments of Delhi. It
commemorated and remembered, so he
has been considered a precursor to the
made a further request. He asked the king
famous Taj Mahal of Agra (PI. 72). The
to issue a leather coin to commemorate
tomb has gilded roof and the interior
the event. The generous Humayun did
was adorned with many paintings and
that too, for the water man.
a variety of precious stones. It was
customary to appoint a caretaker for
Although Humayun got opportunity
the tomb. Humayun’s tomb also had
to live in the palace and the city of his
one such caretaker. He not only looked
fancy for a very short period, people
after the upkeep but also handled
enjoyed peace and calm because of the
the responsibility of distributing alms
fine traits of king’s character. It was not
to the poor for which regular funds
uncommon in those days for emperors
were assigned. He was supposed to
to have their own mausoleum designed
enter the vault once a day to sweep
in their own lifetime. Humayun followed
and clean the main chamber. A cover
that trend of thought and had his own
of heavy brocade used to cover the
mausoleum designed.
main resting place and fresh fragrant
He cherished the thought of peace and flowers like jasmine, roses and other
tranquility even in the afterlife. He chose fragrant blossoms were placed on the
a place close to the bridge of twelve arches cover every day. Besides the cover, the
and issued orders for the site to be prepared empire’s armour was also placed there
for his mausoleum and the construction which was very valuable.
104.
Although the gentle and kind hearted While recollecting the story of Delhi
king had taken great care to consult the which was fondly called the Rome of Asia
astrologers to ascertain the auspicious by some, we traversed vast areas strewn
moment for laying the foundation of the with ruins and monuments only to finally
city, it is ironical that he failed to derive enter the portals of a glorious empire where
any comfort at the city and the place of we earlier witnessed a vast emptiness. It
his dreams. When he returned to the is a palace where once the grandeur of an
fort of Dinpanah for the second time, empire existed and the ruler took pride
he lived there for the short period of two in sitting on the Peacock Throne which
years and nine months and met a tragic was perhaps the envy of the world. The
death. However, his generosity and gentle throne changed into a canopied throne
manners have undoubtedly immortalized of wood covered with thin gold plating as
him. The historians somehow have a substitute. Another throne of crystals
been reserved in their appreciation of which stood in this hall once, today adorns
Humayun’s character just because he lost the Windsor Castle. What remains now is
his throne to Sher Shah. He had suffered a marble seat, a symbol of the monarchy
owing to the treachery of relatives who of the bygone eras.
could have supported him. He had turned
The fifteenth century formed an
to Iran where he had hoped to retrieve
some part of his father’s territory but interlude to the first two imperial eras
had failed. He were genial, sensible and and then a prelude to the Mughal
civilized but failed because he lacked the empire. It was a time when Delhi had
ability to command in an age when severity been relegated to the status of a mere
or a king of harshness was the order of provincial city which at times controlled
the day. Percival Spear was probably only the areas around a couple of
right when he described him as “a Mughal miles.
Stuart perhaps, a fair and fatal king.”

The successors of the Tughluqs
Humayun’s tomb, with its immense were Sayyids and the Lodis who came
dome of white marble juxtaposed with and departed. Their imprints are left
red sandstone not only breaks the in the form of some monuments (Pis.
monotony but dominates the landscape 79-85). The days of strife and struggle
of Delhi towards the south-east. It is lingered on till the Mughals took charge
a tribute of his wife to Humayun. The completely. During the Mughal empire
entire construction exemplifies the Delhi was undoubtedly at its peak but
Persian influence of a high standard was never entirely trouble free. Even after
(Pis. 73-78). The dome of the tomb ranks Babur took hold, there were vicissitudes
amongst the best and it is perhaps the witnessed by the city to which, of course
first of the garden tombs. it was accustomed.
105
PI. 71. Another view of Humayun’s Tomb.
106.
107
PI. 72. Taj Mahal, Agra.
Amongst the Mughals, Humayun left Akbar’s son, Jahangir rarely visited
without making much impact. Akbar Delhi. In fact, Delhi regained its full
made Delhi his capital for a period status of a capital only when Shahjahan
of eight years. He had been able to took command. Jahangir died on his
establish himself only after he defeated way down from Kashmir. Two of his
the Rajput king Hemu who had revived sons, Prince Khurram or Shahjahan
Hindu rule in Delhi for a short time and Prince Shahryar survived after
and was known as Raja Vikramaditya. Jahangir. Prince Khurram happened to
Akbar began with an eventful period. be away in Deccan while Prince Shahryar
A very dear friend Atagha Khan (PI. being at Agra was in an advantageous
86) was murdered by Akbar’s foster position. They both contested the
brother Adham Khan who then rushed throne. Incidentally their wives too
to Akbar’s personal chambers to defend were closely related to each other. A
his action. Akbar, enraged, picked up major family feud ensued. Shahjahan
Adham Khan and hurled him down from who knew it would take time to reach
the balcony where he met an instant Delhi sent his commanders with orders
death (PI. 87). Akbar then removed his to execute all the male relatives. He
foster mother, a very dominating and ascended the throne after his ruthless
powerful lady. actions. Tavernier, a French jeweller
108_
PI. 73. Facade of Humayun’s Tomb.
PI. 74. Inner view of the dome at Humayun’s Tomb.
109
PI. 75. Flooring at Humayun’s Tomb.
110.
PI. 76. Close-up view of dome of Humayun’s Tomb
,111
PI. 77. Charbaghpattern in Humayun’s Tomb.
112,
113
PI. 78. Jali work at Humayun’s Tomb.
who visited India at that time has Alia Begum. However, it was the title of
rightly remarked that Shahjahan’s Mumtaz Mahal, meaning the ornament
earlier actions have certainly tarnished of the palace, which gained popularity.
his memory and he does not deserve Shahjahan married Mumtaz when he
any sympathy or pity for the fate he was twenty. He had two children by his
met during his last days. first wife. It was Mumtaz who bore him 14
The initial drama was enacted at children, eight sons and six daughters.
Agra and the city of Delhi had remained Shahjahan and Mumtaz loved each other
a mute witness. The magnificence of passionately and she gave no chance
Shahjahan’s reign was in the glorification for anything scandalous to happen so
of the city of Agra from where the emperor far as her husband’s reputation was
was trying to rule the entire country, concerned. Most unfortunately she died
though he wasn’t totally unaware of during childbirth in AD 1631 at the age of
the inadequacies of not occupying 39 years. She was at Burhanpur at that
the centre stage, Delhi. Shahjahan’s time. Her body was laid there temporarily
wife was the famous Mumtaz Mahal. and was brought to Agra when her
Mumtaz Mahal was a title bestowed mourning husband left the Deccan. It
upon her by Shahjahan. Her real name was placed in a grave erected temporarily
was Arjumund Bano Begum and she in the garden of the present Taj Mahal
had one more title to her credit Nawab (PI. 88). Shahjahan began construction
114_
PI. 79. Isa Khan’s Tomb.
115
PI. 80. Shish Gumbad, Lodi Garden.
116,
117
PI. 81. Sikandar Lodi’s Tomb, Lodi Garden.
118.
PI. 82. Muhammad Shah’s Tomb, Lodi Garden.
119
PI. 83. Bada Gumbad, Lodi Garden.
120,
PI. 84. A view ofBada Gumbad
,121
PI. 85. Walls around Lodi Garden.
122
?
sab
PI. 86. Atagha Khan’s Tomb.
of this unrivalled monument in AD 1632. The Taj Mahal owes much of its style
The monument is not only amongst the to Humayun’s tomb (PI. 89) in particular
eight wonders of the world, but also has and to Khan-i-Khanan’s tomb (PL 90) in
immortalized the passionate love story of general, both of which are in Delhi. The
the two. Taj stands on a white marble platform
which is 6.7 meters in height and 95.4
According to Tavernier who claimed
meters square, at the far end of a large
to have seen it begin and finish, the
formal garden which is enclosed on three
completion of the whole complex of
sides by lofty walls and gateways. On the
building gave employment to 20,000
fourth side, flows the River Yamuna. The
workmen for 22 years at a time when
structure of the Taj is built in the shape
the resources of the Mughal empire
of a square with each of its four sides
were scarce. The finest of the materials
were used for its embellishment and the dominated by a deep recess 19.2 meters
quality of the craftsmanship available high, but its four comers slightly slanted to
in northern India at that time was form what actually is an octagon. It is this
perhaps superior to any other earlier slant perhaps which gives the effect of the
period. entire structure, being suspended in air.
123
PI. 87. Adham Khan’s Tomb or Bhul-bhulaiya, Mehrauli.

PI. 88. Taj Mahal, Agra.
The total height of the building, including While supervising construction of the
the metal pinnacle mounted on the dome Taj, Shahjahan paid attention to the
is 83.2 meters. Architecturally the most repair and construction of some other
enduring impression which this unique buildings at Agra as well as at Delhi. His
monument leaves is that of its style being time and attention was divided between
of Persian origin. This is considered to be a Delhi and Agra. That seems to be the time
positive impression of the Safavid art form when he conceptualized and considered
but in totality it should be considered a the idea of establishing a new city at
Mughal concept. Credit to the Mughals Delhi. He was firmly established as an
lies in their quality of decoration which emperor and it was high time he earned
presents almost a culmination of Persian world recognition as a ruler of Hindustan
form worked on Indian soil. A leading art by building a new city. Having seen the
historian Herman Goetz had described the monument completed to his satisfaction,
Taj as the work in the best Safavid taste. Shahjahan took the final decision to
shift his capital to Delhi.
During the early years of his reign,
Shahjahan had shown his preference Amongst the Mughals, Shahjahan
for Agra, but it was after Mumtaz has been considered a great planner.
Mahal’s death that he started feeling the He visualized the city of Shahjahanabad
effect of heat and dust excessively. The with wide streets and parks. It was
surroundings appeared rather dreary almost as if he was weary of crowd and
and he could not find solace anywhere. dreary atmosphere at Agra and needed
125
PI. 89. Humayun’s Tomb.
126,
,127
PI. 90. Khan-i-Khanan’s Tomb, Nizamuddin area
128.
129
something on a splendid scale to cheer probably on a larger scale than that of

him up and distract his mind from the Humayun’s. The two chief masons Ustad
sadness which plagued him so often. Hamid and Ustad Hira got the foundation
Shahjahan commenced the work in AD dug but mysteriously disappeared after
1638. He formed a team of competent the digging ceremony. When informed,
officials who were entrusted the task of the king was naturally furious. A hunt
choosing architects, engineers and other was ordered but the duo was nowhere to
specialized workers. Astrologers were be found.
consulted without fail. The first task
Infuriated, the king issued orders for
taken in hand was to choose the site for
their arrest but before the orders could
the palace. The site had to be in pleasant
be carried out, both of them appeared
and beautiful surroundings. The team
before the king. When an explanation
of architects and engineers along with
was demanded for their strange behavior,
chief mason set out in search of a proper
both of them apologized but said they
site.
had purposely disappeared because
The first choice was the land near the they wanted the dug up foundation to be
present Talkatora gardens but the chief subjected to a test through all the seasons
mason rejected this for reasons of his of the year. By doing so they wanted to
own. The search began again. This time ensure the firmness and the consolidation
it was in the vicinity of the Raisina hills of the soil to be able to support an
which became the hub of activity during everlasting building. Shahjahan was so
the British period. But the chief mason pleased that after the completion of the fort
disapproved that too. It was at the third he awarded them with a piece of land each
attempt that the chief mason gave his near the famous Jama Masjid, allowing
approval. them to construct their own mansions.
The localities named after them exist
This site was on the west bank of River even today in the downtown. Ali Mardan
Yamuna. One reason for this choice was Khan had supervised the construction
obviously the easy availability of water. of the Taj Mahal as well. Shahjahan had
Since the river had receded a lot, this conferred on him the title of Nadir-ul-
vast area was available for construction. Asr which meant the wonder of the age.
If a reference has to be made to the Bernier, who had been in the country for
oldest and most ancient site of the urban about nine years wrote extensively about
habitation, then this site was to the north the building of the city and the fort.
of Indraprastha. The task, according to
Bernier was supervised by Ali Mardan Shahjahan, the father of the grand
Khan, the Persian adventurer who Mughal Aurangzeb, to eternalize his

had joined the emperor’s service in AD memory, caused a town to be built
1637. The emperor performed the earth contiguous to old Delhi, which he
breaking ceremony with great fanfare, called after his name, Shahjahanabad.
130.
He designed to make it his capital of starting from the Lahori Gate (Pis. 95-
the empire instead of Agra where he 96), there were a number of buildings
said that the summer heat was too and courts, which were meant for public
violent. This nearness has occasioned functions of the emperor. Along the top
that the ruins of old Delhi served to of the eastern wall, above the river were
build a new city. Since the city of his private suits, In a line from north to
Shahjahanabad is not yet known south were the baths, the halls of private
amongst us, we intend to speak of it audience, the sleeping apartments and
under the old name of Delhi, which is the Zenana, that is the ladies’ chamber.
familiar to us. According to the Mirut- The first line meeting the second at right
i-Aftabnama, this fortress of the then angles formed a T-shaped arrangement.
New Delhi was built at an expense of The western side of the space between
no more than fifty lakhs of rupees of the two arms of the T’ was occupied
with subsidiary courts and building
that day, and the construction was for
of mundane use, like the kitchen and
twenty years in progress. It was about
stores. On the northern side were the
one and a half miles in circumference.
gardens called Hayat Bakhsh Bagh (giver
According to the original plan of the of life) and Mehtab Bagh (garden of the
Lai Qila or the Red Fort (Pis. 91-94), moon) and adjoining the northern wall
PL 91. Lai Qila.
131
PI. 93. A view of ramparts of the Red Fort.
132.
133
PI. 93. A view of ramparts and moat around Red Fort.
134,
■•
Rgxfi
'■
mSBSSr
135
PI. 94. Fortification Wall, Red Fort.
136.
PI 95. A view of Lahori Gate, Red Fort.
138.
PI. 96. A recent view of Lahori Gate, Red Fort.
,139
PI. 97. Hayat Bakhsh Garden, Red Fort.
were the houses of the royal princes. parapet but no cannon was mounted.
The Hayat Bakhsh garden (PL 97) has According to Bernier’s account, no wall
been restored to a large measure. The was originally built along the river side.
fort had high, solid, encircling walls of In fact, the earlier city walls were mud
red sandstone and the palace and the walls. Shahjahan got the strong brick
quarters inside the Red Fort were built wall constructed later.
facing the river. This ensured plenty
The entry to the palace was from the
of sun light and fresh air. This view to
Lahori Gate side which had received much
ensure light and air was followed by all
praise from the traveller who visited the
other nobles of the court who built their
city. After entry from the Lahori Gate
houses and mansions along Darya Ganj
side, comes Chhatta Chowk and the
and the area around the Kashmiri Gate.
famous Meena Bazar (PI. 98). The two
The whole court was designed with main entrances (the other being Delhi
utmost attention to every single detail. Gate in the southern side, PI. 99) have
There were well laid out gardens for survived more or less in their original
the royal complexes as well as for the form or in the state in which Bernier saw
mansions of the nobles. The line of the city them a couple of years after they were
wall was intercepted at different intervals completed. These engaged the attention
by round towers. There was a musketry of the traveller for some special reason.
140_
PI. 98. Chhatta Chowk and Meena Bazar.
141
PI 99. Delhi Gate, Red Fort.
142.
After having described the entries and fort self sufficient in every respect. These
the arrangement of defence, he details features never allowed the aesthetics to
us about one of the gates known as the be spoilt or hampered by the beauty of
Naubat-Khana (Pis. 100 - 103). This was the surroundings.
the gate which had a covered enclosure
The garden, the Hayat Bakhsh Bagh,
for the drummers and pipe musicians to
sit and play music from time to time. which always enhanced the beauty of
the palace, had a special feature of its
The portions of the chambers, housing own. It had two building on both sides
the amenities for daily use and other
of the garden, known as Sawan and
areas of personal use were laid out with
Bhadon (Pis. 104-105). Their placement
great care and with an eye for comfort.
and design, suggests that they were
The baths were spacious, with a supply
resorts for the rainy season where the
of scented water. The antechambers also
royalty could enjoy the musical showers
used to be carpeted and had cushioned
and the beat of the falling rain in their
seats. The elaborate royal secretariat was
chambers.
divided into a number of departments.
Another feature was a well organized A canal known as Nahr-i-Bihisht
factory manufacturing various kinds of flowed through the fort. The lovely
articles of royal use thereby making the channels and cascades were inset with
PI. 100. Naubat-Khana, Red Fort.
143
PI. 101. A view of Naubat-Khana.
144.
gems. The innumerable foundations

within the palace enhanced the charm
tremendously besides cooling the
atmosphere. The royal and the princely
buildings were richly ornamented with
rare carpets and furnishings. A walk
along with Bernier would apprise us of
the full details of the halls of public and
private audience. He proceeds to describe
the royal halls in their full splendour:
“Over again the great gate of the court,
upon which is the ‘Nagar kaney’ (Nakkar-
Khana), beyond the whole court, there is
a great and stately hall with many ranks
of pillars raised high, very airy, open on
three sides, looking to the court, having
its pillars and ground painted and gilded.
In the midst of the wall which separates
the hall from the ‘Seraglio’ there is an
opening, a kind of a great window high
and large, so high that a man cannot
reach to it from below with his hand.
PI. 102. Beautiful floral engraving inside There the king appears seated upon his
Naubat-Khana. throne, having his sons on his sides, and
some eunuchs standing, some of which
drive away the flies with peacock’s tail,
others fan him with great fans, others
stand there ready with great respect and
humility for several services. Thence he
sees beneath him all the Omars, Rajas
and ambassadors all of whom also stand
upon a raised garden encompassed with
silver rail with eyes downwards and
their hands crossing their stomachs.
Somewhat further off are the mansabdars
or lesser officers also standing in the
PI. 103. Beautiful flowers carved inside same posture and respect as Omars did;
Naubat-Khana. and somewhat further, in the remaining
145
PI. 104. Saw an pavilion.
146.
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PI. 105. Bhadon pavilion.
part of the hall and in the court, he sees which stands a high raised throne with
a great crowd of all sorts of people. In this a canopy of inlaid marble (PI. 107a). It
hall every day about noon the emperor is known as the “seat of the shadow of
gives a general audience to all which is God.” Since this was the durbar of the
the reason that great hall is called ‘Am- emperor, most probably it was here that
Khas’ that is place of audience or a place the famous Peacock Throne was placed.
of meeting common to great and small.” There was a dais in front from where
the minister handed over the petitions.
This hall of common audience was
Tavernier, the French jeweller, on his
once surrounded on three sides by
personal inspection had assessed its
the rooms of the nobles. The building
value at nearly six and half a million
which housed the Diwan-i-Am or the
sterling. Unfortunately, it was usurped
hall of public audience was an open
and carried away by Nadir Shah when
colonnaded building with rows of pillars
he ransacked Delhi.
and engraved arches (Pis. 106-107). The
surface having lost its plaster and gilt is Luckily, the paintings on the walls
bare now. In the middle of the eastern were spared and have withstood the
side (closed by a wall now) is a recess in ravages of time. Behind the throne on
_147
149
PI. 107. Collonades, Diwan-i-Am.
PI. 107a. Marble throne inside Diwan-i-Am.
150,
the wall of the recess are the well-known marble canopy. To the east of it was
panels of pietra dura (Pis. 108-110). another court, almost adjacent to the
There is a controversy about the origin monarch’s private apartments. This
of these frescoes. They have generally space formed a kind of passage through
been assigned to a French artist but which the king passed to the place of
John Marshall advanced a different his public business. Even it was made
view. He pointed out that since most of resplendent by enclosing it on three sides
the material is Italian, it is very likely with arches and buildings. There was a
that they were designed and painted in tank in the centre. Now, the buildings
Italy and brought to India. have gone and the tank remains dry. The
thoughtful planners have placed a basin
Bernier in his description of the king (seemingly a part of the earlier fountain)
in his full regalia said that the hall in the centre, the exquisite workmanship
on formal functions was extended on of which makes the visitors marvel at the
its three sides by embroidered fabric excellence of the craftsmanship of those
supported on silver covered pillars, the days. The central building where the two
nobles stood below the throne, and the lines join stands the Rang Mahal or the
emperor himself appeared beneath the colourful hall (PI. 111). The remains of
PI. 108. Beautiful pietra dura work, Diwan-i-Am.
151
152.
153
PI. 111. Rang Mahal.

PI. 112. Mumtaz Mahal.
155
PI. 113. ShahBurj.
156.
157
PI. 114. Diwan-i-Khas, Khas Mahal and Rang Mahal (from left to right).
PI. 115. The exquisitely carved basin with the ivory fountain in its centre in line with
Nahr-i-Bihisht, Rang Mahal.
the profuse adornment have survived as marble floor and sometimes welled into
a sample of the earlier workmanship. To the inlaid basins. Its ripples on the
the southern side is the Mumtaz Mahal marble floor created a kind of soft effect
(PI. 112). Some of the ladies’ apartments and added charm and coolness to the
used to be around these buildings. A entire surroundings (PI. 115). Towards
number of them have disappeared. north of the Rang Mahal was the most
Between the buildings of the north and private of the emperor’s apartments
the south, the remains of the water which he used either for very private
channel known as the Nahr-i-Bihisht consultations or for undisturbed sleep
are still visible. In fact, this channel was (Pis. 116-119).
the delight of the entire complex in the
original set up. This channel entered The nextbuildingof much consequence
the palace from under the Shah Burj is the building which housed Diwan-i-
(PI. 113), supplied water for the baths, Khas, the hall of private audience (Pis.
meandered down the Diwan-i-Khas, the 120-123). It is oblong shaped, pierced
sleeping apartments or Khas Mahal, and by engraved arches and broken by a
the Rang Mahal (PI. 114). As if playing deep drip stone and a plain kiosk at
pranks, it sometimes flowed under the each corner. The interior as well as the
158.
159
PI. 116. Khas Mahal: a view from the west the dome ofMuthamman Burj is seen at the top (Ring Road in the background).
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PI. 118. Beautiful marble screen at the south end of Khas Mahal.
161
PI. 119. The Scale of Justice carved on the marble screen.
outer side of this hall is an exquisite period. This entire building is built on a
example of Mughal art. The silver ceiling raised ground and supported on a high
which once adorned this hall has gone plinth. The three broad flights of steps
to Persia. But, there still pervades a lead to the three gates east, north and
kind of subdued magnificence, enough south which enhance the effect of the
to justify the repeated inscription on the solid structure. The architect has tried
upper portion of the panel: “If there is a to produce a harmonious whorl cut of
heaven on the face of the earth, it is this, a square austere exterior. This mosque
it is this, it is this.” can house 10,000 people at a time.
To the west of this portion lies the The daily reception of Diwan-i-Am
Hayat Bakhsh Bagh and to the south of indeed must have been a glittering
it are the marble pavilions from which ceremony but its special splendour
the garden was supplied with water on occasions like the birthday of the
cascading over the niches to hold the emperor, the birth of a prince of princess
candles behind the streams. To the west and the recovery of the emperor from an
of this wonderful relic of the Mughals illness were exceptional. Shahjahan’s
i.e. the Red Fort stands the grand accession to the throne was a celebration
Jama Masjid (Pis. 124-125) of the same unique in its grandeur.
162,
PI. 120. Diwan-i-Khas.
163
PI. 121. Another view of Diwan-i-Khas.
164.
PI. 122. Ceiling, Diwan-i-Khas.
PI. 123. Beautiful decoration, Diwan-i-Khas.
165
PI. 125. Another old view of Jama Masjid.
166,
The king, according to Bernier’s generated according to the seasons in

account, held a regular appraisal of those rooms came as an advantage. The
his troops and decided the promotions other important monuments inside the
or dismissals without much delay. Red Fort include Moti Masjid (Pis. 126-
Apparently, he had fixed days for 127) which was built by Aurangzeb and
certain kinds of petitions. On days when Zafar Mahal (PI. 128) built by the last
he heard the petitions from a certain Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar to
class, the person concerned would be name a few.
asked to present himself in the court
Shahjahan, the monarch who sat on
and the king dispersed the petition on
the Takht-e-Taus, the Peacock Throne,
the spot. On other days when he had to
knew of the judicious use of reward
hear the petition of selected persons, of
and punishment. On special occasions
whom ten were chosen, the king used to
the king bestowed rewards which were
devote two hours in a private chamber
of many kinds and according to the
and deliver his judgment. In such case
ranks. Rewards were in the form of
not all the ten people would be present.
money, jewellery, weapons, houses and
The grievance was presented by one old
elephants. The commonest present used
man from the group of them from the
to be the Khalat, a robe of honour with
lower classes. According to Bernier, the
gold thread embroidery and gems. There
king attended the court of justice, called
were titles also which were conferred for
Adalat-Khana, once a week. The two
the reward of faithful and honourable
chief judges who assisted the king were
services. These included Khan-i-Khana,
always present.
Khan-i-Jahan, and Nizam-ul-Mulk. This
It seems very peculiar, but the king has was the arrangement and the glory of
a chamber connected with the Diwan- the Red Fort.
i-Am which was called the Ghusal- The city of Shahjahanabad was in
Khana, which meant a wash-room. circumference surrounded on three
The king permitted very few persons to sides by high massive walls with a board
enter this. Though the place was meant parapet. At various points in the wall
for a wash, the hall was spacious, well there were huge gates. In some records,
painted and gilded. There was a raised thirteen city gates have been mentioned
platform for the king to sit and confer but Bernier who spent a long time in the
with the chiefs. The baths occupied an city has recorded ten city gates giving
important place in the Mughal palaces. their names and locations. They were :
Elaborately built and decorated, these
The Calcutta Gate to the northeast,
were used for transacting business as
well. There being no air conditioners The Kashmiri Gate to the north (Pis.
those days, the coolness or the heat 129-131),
167
PI. 126. Moti Masjid.
168,
PI. 127. Moti Masjid (inside).
169
PI. 128. Zafar Mahal.
170.
PI. 129. Kashmiri Gate.

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171
PI. 130. An old view of Kashmiri Gate.
172.
PI. 131. An old photograph of Kashmiri Gate.
173
PI. 133. Kashmiri Gate.
174.
The Mori Gate to the north, Bazar is considered to represent the bow
string. Similarly, the city gate between
The Kabuli Gate to the west,
south to east along with Lahori Gate,
The Lahori Gate to the west,
Turkman Gate and Ajmeri Gate are said
The Farsh Khana Gate to the west, to represent the carved shaft of the bow.
Though the idea is highly fascinating, it
The Ajmeri Gate to the southwest
is difficult to ascertain as to what extent
(PL 132),
the plan conformed to the idea.
The Turkman Gate to the south
(PL 133), According to this plan, the most
The Raj Gate to the east, auspicious spot was the junction of two
significant cross streets, where in Hindu
The Dilli Gate to the southeast (PL 134).
towns the temples to Lord Vishnu or
The factors which were considered Siva were built. Shahjahan chose this
important in the selection of the site were spot for his palace which happened to
of course the necessity of its being close be the meeting point of Faiz Bazar and
to the river and to the raised ground so Chandi Chowk (Pl. 135). The two major
that the city did not suffer during the thoroughfares in Shahjahanabad were
floods. Both these factors were taken the main sources of bazars as well,
care of and the site on the right bank where the streets were lined with shops
of the river being considerably safe from of merchants, artisans, jewellers and
floods had been selected. Besides, it had all such businessmen. The largest and
the added advantage of being protected the richest of these commercial avenues
by two rocky hills Jhojla and Bhojla stretched from Lahori Gate of the fort to the
which were on the north side of the Fatehpuri mosque (PL 136). This avenue
Aravalli mountains. was built by the king’s favorite daughter
Jahanara Begum who was popularly
This city was always admired for
known as Begum Sahib. The streets were
being very well-planned. Shahjahan
12 meters wide and 1390 meters long and
had made use of Hindu architecture
contained 1560 shops and porticos. Nahr-
and the science of town planning. The
i-Bihisht flowed in the centre.
main books available about knowledge
on town planning were the Vastusastra In the earlier accounts, there was no
and the Silpasastra. The shape on which name given to bazars but it was later that
the city was planned, was known as the bazaars were divided into several
the karmuka, representing the shape sections and each of them was given a
of a bow and arrow. The area between separate name. One section, which was
the north and south roads connecting 146.3 meters long and stemmed from
Akbarabad, Kashmiri Gate including Faiz Lahori Gate of the fort side to the Kotwali
,175
,177
PI. 135. A view of Chandra Chowk.
178,
Chabutra (police station) in the square, which they delighted in composing for
was called the Urdu Bazaar. This bazar each fruit, the jewellers had agents who
was for the exclusive use of imperial communicated with customers and
householders who lived in and around promoted business. It is interesting to
the palace fortress and were supposed know that the use of coffee was very
to accompany the emperor when he much in vogue even in those days. The
toured the country side. Darya Ganj, fashion of ‘Kahva’ said to have arrived
a colony on the river side was the area from Persia at that time was patronized
where the Amirs lived. The section from by the Amirs and nobles. There was
the Kotwali platform, where criminals Kahva Khanas where sat the nobles,
were tried in public, to the point of the the rich, the intellectuals and scholars
Chowk, the 146.3 meters long street who with sips of coffee enjoyed reciting
was called Asharfi Bazaar, that is the their poetry and Urdu couplets inviting
jeweller’s market. This square, octagonal appreciation form the nobility around.
in shape with its sides 30.5 meters
Francois Bernier who came to India in
long had a central pool which used to
AD 1663 spoke about Chandni Chowk as
look beautiful in moonlight, hence the
the most important commercial centre
name Chandni Chowk. Over the years
of the east. Foreign visitors marvelled
this name displaced all other names.
at the abundance and quality of rubies,
The Fatehpuri area was constructed by
sapphires, emeralds and pearls. The
one of the consorts of the king called
sapphires were described as emitting a
Fatehpuri Begum.
glow that spread all around.
Chandni Chowk was a flourishing The hot and dry climate put a premium
trade centre. Traders of various countries on places which could bring relief for
found it to be a prestigious trade centre. the people. People liked shaded areas
There were shops selling fruits from with trees, running water and drinking
Afghanistan and Kashgar, jewellers water. Landscaping with flowers and
displaying ornaments of rare gems, inlaid gardens was emphasized so that any
work design and ornaments of exquisite passer-by could derive solace and relax.
enamelled workmanship from Rajasthan. Shahjahan loved laying out gardens
The wine shops were well stocked with throughout the city which besides being
quality wine. The gold and silk brocades a source of comfort were also the lungs
from Varanasi and Surat were not only of the city.
much admired but were very much in
The basic pattern, followed for the
demand at home as well as abroad.
gardens was that of a triangle, both
While the vendors sat under the shady inside as well as outside the city.
trees selling their items with songs The gardens were very spacious, the
_—179
PI. 136. Fatehpuri Masjid.
180.
181
common size being of 122 meters by 183 Construction of a further segment was
meters. They used to be enclosed within ordered and the channel directing water
high walls with gates. The gardens had from Hissar via Sonepat brought water
pools and fountains and a baradari or a now to the northwestern suburb of
summerhouse. Shahjahanabad. This covered a distance
of about 124 kilometers. Arches and
Shahjahan’s daughter Roshanara
bridges were constructed to direct the
Begum too imbibed this love for nature
water. This kind of water system brought
and had a beautiful garden laid out
agricultural prosperity. The canal ran in
near Lahori Gate which used to be a
every part of the city around the moat,
suburb at that time. After her death,
into the palaces of the Princes and
she was buried in that garden. Another
Amirs, to Chandni Chowk, Pahar Ganj
fine garden was laid out by one of the
and even and the lanes and bylanes to
consorts of the king who was named
make water available even to the poorer
Nawab Akbarabadi Begum. This garden
section without much trouble.
is designed like the Shalimar Garden
of Kashmir and was called by the same The emperor had many good
name. No trace of these gardens remain institutions built and the location of
now but the areas still carry the names each one of them was very thoughtfully
to perpetuate the memories. Shahjahan planned. Around the Jama Masjid was
had not overlooked the water problems Darul Baga, a charitable institution for
that always plagued this city. The the poor and a medical institution called
precedent of extensive canals laid out Darul Shafa where free medical care
by Firuz Shah was revived with further was offered to the travellers, visitors
extension and care. and the poor.
The most delightful and useful was the Shahjahan like other great kings had
canal known as Nahr-i-Bihisht. It was an given patronage to various scholars,
impressive display of engineering skill. artists, poets, and men of wisdom.
This canal carried water from a point at There was a galaxy of eminent poets
river Yamuna which was 120 kilometers both in Persian and the vernaculars.
upstream and was brought to the city Khwaja Mirdaud was a renowned poet
by a circuitous route. The first section of that time. Waliallah and Anandram
of this canal built by Sultan Firuz Shah Mukhlis were the two prominent figures
Tughluq had silted up over the years and in the field of literature. The emperor’s
had ceased to flow. Shahjahan ordered patronage extended to all ranks and
it to be dug and got repaired the entire that was totally unbiased. He gave
waterway up to the point reached earlier patronage to astrologers too. His court
which was somewhere near Hissar. astrologer was a Hindu. Shahjahan had
182
great faith in him and consulted him white and delicately flowered satin with
before undertaking any important task silk and gold embroidery of the finest
or journey. texture. The turban of gold cloth had
an aigrette whose base was composed
The splendour of the empire had
of diamonds of an extraordinary size
attracted many craftsmen and artisans
and value besides an oriental topaz
who settled in Shahjahanabad. The
which may be pronounced unparalleled
production of fine cotton fabric had won
exhibiting a lust like the sun. A necklace
great acclaim. There were excellent chintz,
of immense pearls, suspended from his
quilts and tie and dye fabrics which
neck, reached to his stomach in the
earned wide appreciation. The copper
same manner as many of the Gentiles
goods and utensils, weapons, paper and
wear their strings of beads. The throne
leather goods were also excellent.
was supported by six massive feet, said
The stone cutters and masons of to be of solid gold, sprinkled over with
Delhi enjoyed a high reputation. In fact, rubies, emeralds and diamonds. I cannot
Nadir Shah was so struck with their tell you with accuracy the number of the
craftsmanship that he chose to carry value of this vast collection of precious
300 masons, 100 stone-cutters and 200 stones because no person may approach
carpenters from Delhi. He is stated to sufficiently near to reckon them or
have forced some of the writers also to judge their water or clearness; but I can
go with him. assure you that there is a confusion of
diamonds as well as other jewels and
Shahjahan always accorded
the throne to the best of my recollection
patronage to men of learning and to
is valued at four crores of rupees. I
great scholars. His library contained
observed elsewhere that a lakh is one
a large number of Arabic and Persian
hundred thousand rupees and that a
books. An ability to write well, to be
crore is a hundred lakhs. So the throne is
able to prepare documents, to compose
estimated at by the father of Aurangzeb
poems and to use appropriate couplets
for the purpose of displaying immense
during conversation was an essential
quantity of precious stones accumulated
qualification for an official to be in the
successively in the treasury from the
court’s service.
spoils of ancients Rajas and Pathans
Bernier speaks with delight about and the annual presents to the monarch
Shahjahan’s accession to the throne which every Omar is bound to make on
and the grandeur of the court: “The certain festivals. The construction and
king appeared seated on his throne, at the workmanship of the material along
the end of the great hall, in the most with the two peacocks covered with jewels
magnificent attire. His vest was of are well conceived and executed. They
183
were made by a workman of astonishing ruler or about his personal character,
powers, a Frenchman by birth, who, there can be no dispute about the fact
after defrauding several of the princes of that his reign marks the climax of the
Europe, by means of false gems which Mughal empire.

he fabricated with peculiar skill sought
The art and architecture of Shahj ahan’s
refuge in the great Mughal’s court, where
reign is of the highest quality. It is ironic
he made his fortune.” According to some
that an emperor who brought so much
other accounts, the cost of the throne
fame and glory to the Mughal dynasty
had been estimated at rupees 18 crores.
and to the perpetual capital of Delhi
The emperor signified the occasion should have been dealt such a blow at
by lavish gifts to his subordinates, his the hand of fate to have died in strict
subjects and friends. A grand banquet confinement. But was it history repeating
was held after the ceremony. The itself? Prince Khurram, the magnificent
feasting is said to have lasted for ten Emperor Shahj ahan of later years had
days. The magnificence surrounding the rebelled against his father Jahangir.
emperor brought unparalleled glory to Shahj ahan had to live in imprisonment
the Mughal empire. Whatever may be when his own son Aurangzeb rebelled
said about Shahjahan’s efficiency as a against him.
184.
Postscript the Sayyids and the Lodhi. Subsequent

to all came the Mughals. Mongols who
There was a movement which had caused much trouble to earlier
characterized a kind of restlessness, dynasties by their frequent invasions
propelled by which men advanced were quelled earlier.
in different directions to explore and
capture new frontiers. It was that The city of Delhi buffeted by
movement which brought the Franks, monarchies and dynastic change
Hans and Goths to the Mediterranean still preserves glimpses of strange
shore, destroyed many places, conquered vicissitudes and shadows of past
many and caused change in major memories. The last in the link of cities,
parts of the world. But this movement but the most splendid of all, the city
had not affected India. The invasions of Shahjahanabad remains epitomized
of Alexander or Seleucus did not leave in the Red Fort. It lingers still in the
any lasting impact on this country. culture, the style and the ways of living,
The Greco-Bactrian invasions, piercing the way of interacting and relating to
into the interiors of northwest India did each other, in the field of scholarship
influence the social and cultural patterns and in that something which makes
in a very small way. every resident of the city proclaim

with pride that he is a Delhiwalla, a
The invaders poured into India
Delhi-ite.
through the Bolan, Gomal and Khyber
passes at different times affecting It wasn’t the wealth, splendour and
different parts of the country. But the prosperity alone, which attracted men
land between the ridge and the River of consequence, men of learning. But,
Yamuna, cherished by monarchies since all those finer elements have rolled
right from the time of the glorious under the carpet of a swiftly changing
Indraprastha had remained more or material culture, it is only the Red Fort
less calm till a Prophet in one part of the and other monuments which perpetuate
world preached the maxim of conquest. the memories of that era or may be the
It was that which brought the armies of poetic verses of the last of the Mughal,
Islam to this part of the land through Bahadur Shah Zafar which echo the
various routes. sentiments, the agony of loss. The glory

has not remained unsung. Practically
The earliest invaders were Turks
every sensitive tourist to this part of the
and Afghans who made many forays.
world, right from the time of Bernier has
Muhammad of Ghur conquered Delhi in
written about this place.
twelfth century AD. He was followed by
the Turkish and the Pathan dynasties. The city had a character of its own, of
The Slaves, the Khaljis, the Tughluqs, which the prominent traits were mutual
185
respect and sharing of cultural nuances have recognized the city even after the
in which the last rulers, the British, British had taken over. The disparities
also participated. They appreciated the noticed by Bernier and corroborated by
feel, the delicacy of finer aspects of the Forbes have remained, undoubtedly and
Urdu language and the tahzeeb, the are probably on the increase. Yet the
etiquette which was an integral part of endeavour to cling to the spirit of the
the language and the culture. One of past was apparent. In the mansions of
the great poets of Delhi once said, “The the descendants of royalty, pushed into
city is aesthetically pleasing. The streets the dark alleys by a city bursting at its
are not mere streets. They are like the seams, one can still glimpse the style
album of a painter” and nothing could and riches of the past.
describe the entire vicissitude more
The palatial mansion of Begum
aptly than this simile of an album.
Samra, now called Bhagirath Palace,
Yes, it is an album but of a voluminous
houses a market complex, but that
nature. Turning the pages of this great
cannot erase the memory of a lady
album can be an absorbing as well as a
said to be “uncommonly beautiful and
fascinating pastime. In this album, one
wondrously intelligent.” Begum Samra
not only views the different monarchies
was a shrewd diplomat who, though a
who fought and won this city of Delhi,
slave girl, rose to the status of being the
thus proudly asserting their claim to the
‘beloved daughter of the emperor and
entire country, but could also glimpse
the pope.’ Bought by Sombre or Samra
the history of vaster field outside Delhi
as he came to be called later, the Begum
and outside the country.
was quick to discern and comprehend
After the dwindling stability offered and had an uncanny knack for quitting
by the last of the Mughals, the city her husbands, lovers and friends in the
passed through a quick change of political circle, which was wide indeed.
hands, leading to shattering of city and
the life within it. There were inevitable Soon after her marriage to Sombre,
changes in the names of the localities, who was in the defence services of a
changes in the trade pattern and may Maharaja in the state of Rajasthan,
be a few others but they all remained the Begum took a significant decision
at an superficial level and could not to embrace Christianity. Sombre
overshadow the tranquil memories of believed in changing horses according
the past. to the opportunities. Soon he was in

the service of another Maharaja, the
Nothing was able to erase the character Scindias of Gwalior State. His fortune
of the city and Bernier would surely was on the upswing and was awarded
186.
a big jagir. The Begum now was a made such a significant contribution
princess in her own right, with an army to the Urdu literature and enriched the
at her command. Sombre died soon and social circles of high profiled citizens, is
Begum Samra was anxious to develop another landmark. But these are just a
roots in the community, which of course few. Delhi, old and new is replete with
she did. She was a force to reckon such memories and monuments and
with. There were many who craved for in the old world charm is remembered
her attention and favours, amongst for its polished ‘urbanity’. As Percival
which were Frenchmen, the British Spear observes: “The tumult and the
and others. After Sombre, she married shouting dies, the captains and the
a French army man and then another. kind depart. But there is left the glitter
One more beautiful, palatial mansion of and the culture of nobles without their
a western style was built by her French suicidal struggle for power, the dignity
lover. It still stands, on a high plinth and learning of the court, without its
with long wide steps. Begum Joanna folly and its weakness.”
Samra sits with dignity in one of the
The twilight of Mughal Delhi still
large canvasses. This petite diamond
had a charm of its own which, though
studded woman sits on a low chair
quite different from the attraction of the
with a many-looped hookah, dressed in
bygone eras had a kind of intellectual
aristocratic Mughal style. The Begum
quality. The men of literature receive
had allies in every camp and had taken
no less respect and importance than
a great interest in the affairs of Delhi.
anyone in the highest ranks of hierarchy.
Also she had decided the destiny of
The great poet Mirza Ghalib may have
many, favouring some and tricking
bemoaned the loss of pomp and glory
others with great tact. Delhi certainly
around the Nahr-i-Bihisht in Chandni
cannot forget her.
Chowk, but he had nothing to lament
The new golf course in one of the about the recognition, honour and
posh areas of New Delhi is another respect that he received as a poet except
spot which holds the shadows of a that he neither could revel in wealth nor
romance of the time of the last Mughals. live in luxuriant comfort.
Within the precincts of the golf course
is ensconced a little fortress to one of Though there was no ruling authority,
the sons of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the life in the city continued more or less at
last Mughal emperor. It was his son’s its former pace. Trade and commerce
beloved Lai Kunwar who had enjoyed flourished as before. The expansion
living in that fortress. The home of Mirza of the city kept up with the process of
Ghalib, the renowned Urdu poet, who change. It has been mentioned that
187
one of the deputy commissioners had India and England. But that was indeed
taken up the expansion work moving the fateful beginning.
outwards from the centre, developing
Visitors from other countries had
suburbs. Under his supervision the
always found India a fascinating country
suburbs seem to have developed well.
to visit and India as usual always kept
One of them named after him was called
its doors open and its hospitality alive
Deputy Ganj. The Civil Lines and the
and warm. But the dwindling authority
locality of Darya Ganj which even earlier
was an open invitation to foreigners to
were a residential area of the nobility,
make inroads and capture the platform.
developed further as the locality of the
The pact signed by Jahangir earlier had
elite. The bungalow type of residences
set the stage. The British who had come
began to grow. The Delhiwallas watched
initially as traders made inroads and
the transitional phase with mixed
straightened and affirmed their path by
feelings of dismay and suspense.
creating disharmony amongst people.
But it was the sustained interest
The subtle intrigues smoothened the
and influence of European culture on
way further. The John Company which
the previous emperor Jahangir which
had appeared on the horizon some time
seems to have put a seal on the fate
ago settled firmly as the prestigious
of not only Delhi, but on the fate of
East India Company. Though settled as
the country itself. Jahangir’s attitude
a private firm, the company became the
towards religion was somewhat
representative of the British nation.
unpronounced. This gave the Jesuits
reason to believe that they could When they had established themselves
perhaps bring the emperor himself as the rulers, the British had chosen
within the fold of Christianity. But Calcutta as their capital. A grand vice
it was not easy to define his religious regal lodge was constructed in Belvedere
leanings. He sincerely believed in God near Alipore. The vast sprawling lawns
and loved to discuss spiritual matters with wide stretch of greenery surrounded
with Hindu saints as well as mullahs the palatial mansion. The boundary was
and missionaries. He kept paintings of lined up with every variety of Indian fruit
Christ and other saints within his view. trees and the choicest variety of flowering
It is very difficult to say if it was the trees like Moulshri, Champa, Hawaiian
emperor’s appreciation of Christianity or Champa and many other which spread a
the persuasive skill and statesmanship heavenly soothing fragrance. This row of
of Sir Thomas Roe, the young envoy, the trees had a second line of flower shrubs,
duly accredited ambassador of England followed by flower beds. The Belvedere
from James I to Jahangir which led to estate was an idyllic adobe of the power
the signing of the trade pact between wielders but pretty soon it was Delhi
188,
PI. 137. Rashtrapati Bhawan.
189
PI. 138. Close-up view of Rashtrapati Bhawan.
which cast its irresistible spell and the maintain an exclusive identity. Besides
inevitable followed. this since the land was on a narrow
mound which lay to the north of the city,
In the beginning, the British
it had the added advantage of security.
Cantonment was around the ridge.
Probably it was the strategic position of Later on, it was decided to move the
that place which brought them success in city to a more open land. The largest
various encounters and lastly during the mass of rock was chosen to be the focus
war of 1857. Their success influenced and of the city and the central buildings. Six
confirmed their choice of this particular meters of a rock which was 15 meters in
area to establish the residency. This was height was blasted away. The depression
a piece of land lying away from the city thus caused was filled to form a 9 meters
and had the advantage of being able to platform. Around this depression red
190,
stone walls were built. On the high Bhavan (Pis. 137-138). It has a beautiful
platform were built the secretariat garden, the Mughal Garden (Pis. 139-
buildings in two detached blocks, the 141). This garden as a large variety of
North Block and the South Block. The flower beds, manicured lawns and lovely
centre was occupied by the Viceroy’s water channels. The garden is opened to
residence. This entire area comprised public for two weeks.
nine villages and encompassed Raisina
Hill as well. The Viceroy’s residence with The layout of the city bears the true
its high dome was a sprawling mansion, testimony to Lord Lutyen’s architectural
which largely followed the British pattern. genius. The wide roads with tree-lined
This building had a large and spacious avenues, the spacious lush green lawns
Durbar hall. After India’s independence, around the war memorial called India
it came to be known as the Rashtrapati Gate have been further beautified by big
--191
PI. 139. Mughal Garden.
fountains in between, connected with personified the Royal seal. His presence
water channels. India Gate (PI. 142), a at formal functions was considered the
fitting memorial to the gallant soldiers next best to the presence of the Queen
who laid their lives during the Second herself. The Duke and the Duchess
World War is again an architectural spoke ‘Hindustani’ fluently.
marvel and perhaps excels the Gateway
Delhi has been a place much sought
of India at Mumbai.
after in every era and by every monarch.
The most popular spot of New Delhi Besides being a great imperial city, it
was Connaught Circus, which was had the distinction of being the most
the inner circle. This was the popular renowned city known for Constitution
shopping centre of the elite (PI. 143). to Canton. Finally and notably too,
This complex was named after the Duke the fifteenth century was a period of
of Connaught. Though almost forgotten great activity in Delhi. This century
by historians, he was the most obedient contributed much to art, literature
and the favourite son of Queen Victoria. and architecture. Imperial as well as
A mild mannered man he lived his entire provincial architecture contributed many
life in Her Majesty’s service. The Duke motifs to the Mughal architecture. The
192_
PI. 140. Another view of Mughal Garden.
,193
PI. 141. Some plant species at Mughal Garden.
performing arts flourished as they had synthesize in spite of conflicts and social
never flourished before because of the and political upheavals.
patronage which they received during
these times. Many works on music So the tale remains an unending
were also produced during this period. story an ongoing process of making,
In the fields of science and literature, unmaking and re-embarking. It is a
quite a number of meritorious works story to be remembered for lessons it
were produced. All in all, there was a teaches through the mistakes made by
continuity of progress in many directions. monarchies or the factors which caused
The most significant is the motivation to the downfall of the empires.
194.
PI. 142. India Gate.
,195
PI. 143. A view of Connaught Place.
196,
8. Tavernier
Appendix
Chroniclers Whose Accounts Have 9. Mohammad Qasim Farishta
Enlivened The Pages Of This Book 10. Fa-Hien
1. Al-biruni 11. Hiuen Tsang
2. Alexander Cunningham 12. William Finch
3. Abul Fazal 13. Thomas Roe
4. Ibn Batuta 14. T.G. Frasier
5. Ziauddin Barni 15. Francois Bernier
6. Shams-i-Shiraz Afif (Hafiz) 16. Sidi Ali Reis
7. Abdulla 17. Babur
,197
Jain, A.K. The Cities of Delhi, Delhi, 1994.

Bibliography
Kaul, H.K. Historic Delhi-An Anthology,
Ali, Ahmed. Twilight in Delhi, New Delhi,
Delhi, 1997.
Reprint, 1994.
Kaul, H.K. Traveller’s India: An Anthology,
Batuta, Ibn. Rihla, translated by Samuel Lee
OUP, Delhi, 1998.
(1829), LLC, UK, 2009.
Kaye, M.M. The Golden Calm: An English
Bakshi, S.R. and T.R. Sareen. India Through
Lady’s Life in Moghul Delhi, New York,
Ages: Cities of India, Vol. 3, Delhi, 1992.
1980.
Barni, Ziauddin. Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi
Keene, H.G. Handbook for Visitors to Delhi
Bernier, Francois. Bernier’s Travels in the
(Updated by E.A. Duncan), Calcutta, 1906.
Mughal Empire, USA, 2001.
Khan, Sir Sayyid Ahmad. Asar-ul-Sanadid,
Carr, Stephen. Archaeology and Monumental
Delhi, 1847.
Remains of Delhi, Delhi (reprint), 2002.
Mani, B.R. Delhi The Threshold of the Orient,
Chopra, Prabha. Delhi: History and Places
Delhi, 1997.
of Interest, Delhi, 1970.
Oak, P.N. Delhi’s Red Fort, Bombay, 1976.
Dayal, Maheshwar. Rediscovering Delhi: The
Piggott, Stuart. Some Ancient Cities of India,
Story of Shahjahanabad, Delhi, 1994.
OUP, London, 1945.
Fanshawe, H.C. Delhi- Past and Present,
Qasim, Muhammad. Tarikh-e-Farishta
OUP, London, 1902.
Sharma, Y.D. Delhi and Its Neighbourhood,
Frykenberg, R.E. Delhi through the Ages:
Delhi, 1974.
Selected Essays in Urban History, Culture
and Sociology, OUP, USA, 1994. Sharp, Sir Henry. Delhi: Its Story and
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Gupta, Narayani. Delhi Between Two Empires
1803-1931: Society, Government and Urban Spear, T.G. Percival. Delhi: A Historical
Growth, OUP, USA, 1998. Sketch, London, 1945.
Hambly, Gavin. Cities of Mughal India: Delhi, Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste. Travels in India
Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, New York, 1968. (1676), translated by V. Ball, USA, 2001.
Hearn, Sir Gordon Risley. Seven Cities of Yamamoto, Tatsuro et al. Delhi: Architectural
Delhi, London, 1906. Remains of Delhi Sultanate Period, Tokyo,
1967-70.
Jagmohan. Rebuilding Shahjahanabad: The
Walled City of Delhi, Delhi, 1975.
198.

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y

FROM LAL-KOT TO SHAHJAHANABAD

THE DIRECTOR GENERAL

D elhi, the city that would never

arising because of a mere name, the the old fortress of Tughluqabad. It is

obvious choice for settlement. us with the glorious past.

Another interesting fact was brought Significantly, until the beginning of

to light by remote sensing geo-satellite the present century, a village known as

Delhi area. was a distortion of Indraprastha, the

PI. 1. Prehistoric site, Anangpur.

science of architecture, which seems relationship of the physical form of a

PI. 2. Hand axes from Anangpur PI. 3. Cleavers from Anangpur

facilitated the movement. That perhaps archaeologist Alexander Cunningham,

PI. 4. A general view of Purana Qila .

PI. 5. A general view ofPurana Qila excavations.

been the site of a succession of cities, 3. Tughluqabad AD 1321

undisputed choice of those who sought

revealed that it was constructed by city named Dhilli or Dhillikapur, which

Anangpal I. The fort lies in Faridabad happened to be in the vicinity of the

known fort in Delhi. A trench dug to into prominence, even Indraprastha’s

PI. 6. A view of Anangpur dam

PI. 7. Stone embankment at PI. 8. A view of Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.

PI. 9. Another view of Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.

PI 10. Panoramic view of Suraj-Kund, Faridabad.

PI. 11. Lal-Kot, general view showing Ranjit Gate

PI. 12. Lal-Kot, succession of bastions.

to the king about their grievances. In invaders.

later times, Emperor Jahangir seemed

distinguishing features. The position as the Kasr-e-safed or a white palace.

PI. 14. Remains of an excavated structure, Lal-Kot.

expansion plan, Prithviraj constructed medieval buildings. The Archaeological

Gate occupied a place of prestige, as it the ridge, it was traceable up to Metcalfe

PI. 16, Rampart wall, Qila Rai Pithora.

Qila Rai Pithora. PI. 17. Northern rampart,

relevant data. surround his legend? Well, in a way as

PI. 18. Qutb Minar.

PI. 21. Quwwatul Islam mosque.

PI. 23. A general view of a bastion of Siri Fort.

PI. 24. Ruins of Siri Fort wall.

to plunder the defenseless population, palaces. Curiously, a place with

which made the construction of a thousand pillars, of a similar description

fortification wall absolutely imperative. or name was also built by Muhammad-

The Alai Darwaza, or gate (Pis. 25 to be a companion to the famous Qutb

PI. 25. Alai Darwaza, Qutb-complex.

PI. 26. Close-up view of Alai Darwaza.

PI. 27. Alai Minar, Qutb-complex.

by some chroniclers as a shahr par tank dug at a distance of two and a

PI. 28. Hauz-Khas, Delhi

PI. 29. Another view of Hauz-Khas, Delhi.

separated and positioned the tank on He thought that he could probably

up to his camp. Alauddin suddenly mounted and sped away accompanied

turned treacherous. He found this an and guarded by their soldiers. They

Besides all this, the older Delhi of the sought Delhi.

Chauhans was also taken care of and

to construct the walls of his city. capabilities as an administrator and

The mins of the fort of Tughluqabad that he observed measured fourteen

traveller. Capt. Harcourt’s description of thickness respectively and must have

architectural dreams, was built early in sheet of water which is held up by an