Characteristic Impedance (Zo)

It is also called surge impedance and

intrinsic impedance. It is the opposition to the
transfer of energy which is considered the
dominant characteristic of a cable that
emanates from its physical structure. It is the
impedance measured at the input of the line
when its length is infinite.
 Note:
1. A line terminated in its Zo is called non-
resonant, resistive or flat line.

2. The V and I of a lossless line are constant in

phase.

3. The V and I of a line with loss are reduced

exponentially.
• Zo of a Transmission Line
𝒁
𝒁𝒐 =
𝒀
𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳
𝒁𝒐 =
𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪
Where: Z = series impedance
Y = shunt admittance

At Radio Frequency At Audio Frequency

ῳ L >> R R >> ῳ L
ῳ C >> G G >> ῳ C
𝑳 𝑹
𝒁𝒐 = 𝑪
𝒁𝒐 = 𝑮
 Nature/Behavior of Transmission Line
Nature/Be Zo Equation
havior

Purely Zo = 𝑅𝐿
Resistive
Purely Zo = 0 + jωL
Inductive
Inductive Zo = R + jωL

Purely Zo = 0 – jωC
Capacitive
Capacitive Zo = R – jωC
 Problem:
What is the inductance per foot of a cable that
has a capacitance of 80 pF/ft and a surge
impedance of 100 ohms?
 Problem:
A particular cable has a capacitance of 50 pF/ft
and a characteristic impedance of 70 ohms.
What is the impedance of an infinite long
section of such cable?
 Problem:
A balanced transmission line has the following
parameters: R = 10 Ω/m, L = 4 mH/m,
G = 0.4 µS/m and C = 8 nF/m. Calculate the
characteristic impedance at a frequency of 3.4 kHz.
Find the nature of the line.

𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳
𝒁𝒐 =
𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪
 Zo based on Physical Dimension

• Geometry of the conductor

• Size of the conductor
• Spacing of the conductor
• Dielectric constant of the insulator
• For Parallel Wire Line
𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝒔
s 𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒅

𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒔
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒓
d d
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒌 𝒓
Where: Zo = char. Impedance, ( Ω )
k = dielectric constant
s = separation of conductors from center to center
d= diameter of the conductor
r = radius of the conductor
 Problem:
The spacing between a two-wire open air
unterminated transmission line is 12 inches and
the diameter of the conductor is 0.25 in. Find
the Zo at the following line length:
a. 10 ft
b. at infinite long section of the line
 Problem:
A ribbon cable is consists of #12 AWG (81 mils).
The distance between wire centers is 0.5 in,
what is the Zo of the line?

Note: 1 mil = 0.001 in

 Problem:

For an air-dielectric two-wire line, what is the

minimum characteristic impedance?
• For Coaxial Line
𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒅

𝟔𝟎 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒌 𝒅
Where: Zo = char. Impedance , ohms
K = dielectric constant h h

D = inside diameter of the outer conductor

d = diameter of the inside conductor
 Problem:
A piece of Teflon dielectric coaxial cable has a 60Ω-Zo and
a nominal capacitance of 50 pF/m. If the diameter of the
inner conductor is 0.6mm and the insulation thickness is
0.15mm, find the nominal inductance per meter and the
diameter (D) of the grounded conductor .
𝑳
𝒁𝒐 =
𝑪

𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒅
 Problem:
A 100 W transmitter is connected via a 50 ohm, 100ft
long coaxial cable to an antenna. The inner conductor
diameter is 0.18 in. Determine the diameter of the
second jacket if the skin depth is 0.06 in.

𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒅

Do = D t 2h
 Propagation Constant ( δ )
Propagation constant is a secondary line constant which determines the variation of
current and voltage with distance along a transmission line and is found to vary
exponentially.

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒆−𝜹𝒙

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝜹𝒙

Where: δ = propagation constant

x = distance
Is = magnitude of the current
Vs = magnitude of the voltage
s = sending end or input

The propagation coefficient also depends on the primary line constants

and the angular velocity of the signal.

𝜹= 𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳 (𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪)
This is also a complex quantity and can be written as:

𝜹 =∝ +𝒋𝜷

Where: α = attenuation constant (dB/uL, Neper/uL)

****It determines how V and I decreases with distance along the line

1 dB = 0.115 Neper
1 Neper = 8.686 dB

β = phase shift / phase delay constant (˚/uL, rad/uL)

****It determines the phase angle of the V or I variation with

distance
@ special condition : for lossless line

If :L/R=C/G
Therefore : C = LG / R
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝐺 + 𝑗ῳ𝐶)

𝑗ῳ𝐿𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝐺 + )
𝑅

𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 ( )
𝑅

𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿)
𝑅

𝐺
𝛿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿
𝑅
But : G/R = C/L
𝐶
𝛿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿
𝐿
 𝑪
𝜹=𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ 𝑳𝑪
𝑳

𝜹 = 𝜶 + 𝒋𝜷

Therefore:
𝑪
𝜶=𝑹
𝑳

𝜷 = ῳ 𝑳𝑪
Speed of Propagation ( V )
At any condition:

𝑫
𝑽=
𝑻

𝑫
𝑽=
𝑳𝑪

V =λf

V=ῳ/β

For lossless line:

V = ῳ / β but β = ῳ √LC

𝟏
𝑽=
𝑳𝑪
Wavelength:
λ=V/f
= (ῳ /β) / f
= ῳ / (βf)
= 2πf / βf

𝟐𝝅
𝝀=
𝜷

𝟑𝟔𝟎˚
𝝀=
𝜷
Problem: How many 1 MHz waves
can be on a 5 km transmission line
simultaneously?
Problem: One meter is one
wavelength at what frequency?
Delay Lines
Delay lines are transmission lines designed to
intentionally introduce a time delay in the path of an
electromagnetic wave. It is a function of the inductance
(provides opposition to changes in current) and capacitance
( charge and discharge times).

td = L C

where: td = time delay (s)

L = inductance (H)
C = capacitance (F)

td = 1.016 k

where: k = dielectric constant of the cable

Three things that may happen when the signal
reaches the load:

1. All signals that go to the load is totally absorbed

by the load.

2. Only portion or part of a signal is absorbed by

the load.

3. No signal is absorbed by the load (total

reflection) the line is shorted ( ZL = 0 ), or the line
is open (ZL = ∞); or perfectly unmatched.
The value of mismatched signal flowing
through the line can be known by:

1. Reflection Coefficient (Γ)

2. Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
Reflection Coefficient (Γ)
Reflection Coefficient is the relationship of the reflected signal to
that of the incident signal. It has magnitude and direction.

𝜞 = ‫𝜽 < ׀𝜞׀‬
Mathematically,
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝜞=
𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

In terms of power:
𝑃−
𝛤𝑃 = +
𝑃
In terms of voltage:
𝑉−
𝛤𝑉 = +
𝑉
In terms of current:
𝐼−
𝛤𝐼 = +
𝐼

𝜞𝑽 = 𝜞𝑰 = 𝜞𝑷
Note:
𝐼𝐿
𝑉+ = 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2

−
𝐼𝐿
𝑉 = 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 −𝛿𝑆
2

𝐼𝐿
𝐼+ = 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2𝑍𝑜

−𝐼𝐿
𝐼− = 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 −𝛿𝑆
2𝑍𝑜
Where:
IL = load current (A )
ZL = load impedance ( Ω )
Zo = characteristic impedance ( Ω )
δ = propagation constant
S = physical length
 𝐼𝐿 −𝛿𝑆
𝑉− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒
𝛤= += 2
𝑉 𝐼𝐿
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2

𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
𝜞=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐 𝒆𝟐𝜹𝑺

Note: evaluate the Γ at the load because we

start the measurement at the load; S = 0

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝛤=
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 2𝛿0

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝛤𝑉 = = 𝛤𝐼
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜

𝟐 𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 2
𝜞𝑷 = 𝜞𝑽 = 𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐

RANGE: -1 ≤ Γ ≤ 1
Through the direction of Γ, the nature of the line can be
known.

𝜞 = ‫𝜽 < ׀𝜞׀‬

𝜃 = 0˚, 180˚ = 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝜃 = 90˚ = 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝜃 = −90˚ = 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑄 − 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 − 𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑄 − 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 − 𝐼𝑉 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

= 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
 Nature/Behavior of Transmission Line
Nature/Be Zo Equation
havior

Purely Zo = 𝑅𝐿
Resistive
Purely Zo = 0 + jωL
Inductive
Inductive Zo = R + jωL

Purely Zo = 0 – jωC
Capacitive
Capacitive Zo = R – jωC
 Condition Zo ZL Γ Description
Matched Line Zo = Zo =0 No reflection
Short-circuited Line Zo = zero = -1 Total reflection
= 1 ∟180°
Open-circuited Line Zo = infinite =1 Total reflection
= 1 ∟0°

𝑺𝑾𝑹 − 𝟏
‫= ׀𝜞׀‬
𝑺𝑾𝑹 + 𝟏

𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
𝜞=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐

If the load is mismatched there will be maximum and minimum

voltage:

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝜞=
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
 Problem:

A transmitter operating at 100 MHz

with 100 W output is connected to a
100 ohms RG-8A/U coaxial cable.
The antenna has a resistance of 200
ohms. Find the reflection coefficient.
 Problem:

A transmitter operating
at 100 MHz with 100 W
output is connected to a
100 ohms RG-8A/U
coaxial cable. The
antenna has a resistance
of 200 ohms. Find the
reflection coefficient.
 Problem:

A transmitter delivers 50 W into a 120 ohm

lossless line that is terminated with an antenna
that has an impedance of 75 ohms. How much
power actually reaches the antenna?
 Problem:

A transmitter delivers 50
W into a 120 ohm
lossless line that is
terminated with an
antenna that has an
impedance of 75 ohms.
How much power
actually reaches the
antenna?
Standing Waves
Standing Wave is an interference pattern
resulted from ZL not being equal to Zo,
thereby, some power is absorbed and the rest
are reflected, then creating two sets of
travelling waves going in opposite directions
(about 180˚ out of phase). The first set of
travelling waves (V and I) travels toward the
load, and the reflected set (V and I) travels
back to the generator. In general, standing
wave is the interference of 2 waves going in
opposite directions.
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
It is the measure of mismatch between the load and the line.
The higher the SWR, the greater the mismatch. It is a scalar quantity.

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑰𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Conditions:
1. SWR = 1 at Zo = ZL

𝑍𝑜
2. SWR = 𝑅 if Zo> RL
𝐿

𝑅
3. SWR = 𝑍𝑜𝐿 if Zo< RL

Note:
❖ SWR >1 for # 2 and # 3, that is when the line is terminated in a
purely resistive load.
4. SWR = ∞ , when the load is purely reactive

Mathematically,
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = 𝐼𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

1
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸+ + 𝐸− ൗ +
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = .1𝐸
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸+ − 𝐸− ൗ𝐸+

𝑬−
𝟏+ +
𝑬
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑬−
𝟏− +
𝑬

𝟏+ 𝜞
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝟏− 𝜞

RANGE: ∞ ≥ 𝑺𝑾𝑹 ≥ 𝟏
RANGE: ∞ ≥ 𝑺𝑾𝑹 ≥ 𝟏

SWR = 0
there is no signal flowing along the line

SWR = 1
ideal value theoretically
Condition Zo ZL SWR Description
Matched Line Zo = Zo =1 No reflection
Short-circuited Line Zo = zero = infinite Total reflection
Open-circuited Line Zo = infinite = infinite Total reflection

4. ZLis purely resistive and maximum

ZL = Rmax

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸+ + 𝐸−
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼+ − 𝐼 −
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝒁𝒐

Rmax≥ 𝒁𝒐
5. If ZL is purely resistive and minimum

ZL= Rmin

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸+ − 𝐸−
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼+ + 𝐼−

𝒁𝒐
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏

Rmin≤ 𝒁𝒐

6. If ZL = RL
𝑹𝑳
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = if 𝑹𝑳 ≥ Zo
𝒁𝒐

𝒁𝒐
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = 𝑹𝑳
if 𝑹𝑳 ≤ Zo
 Problem:

1. A transmission line for which the attenuation

constant is zero and the phase shift constant is 0.1
rad/m and characteristic impedance is 100 ohms, is
operated at 5MHz with load impedance equal to 300
ohms. Find the SWR.
 Problem:

1. A transmission line for

which the attenuation
constant is zero and
the phase shift
constant is 0.1 rad/m
and characteristic
impedance is 100
ohms, is operated at
5MHz with load
impedance equal to
300 ohms. Find the
SWR.
 Problem:

2. A transmission line with Zo= 150 Ω is terminated in a

purely resistive load. It is found by measurements that
the minimum and maximum voltage upon it is 2µV and
6µV respectively. What is the value of the load
resistance?
 Problem:

2. A transmission line with

Zo= 150 Ω is terminated in a
purely resistive load. It is
found by measurements
that the minimum and
maximum voltage upon it is
2µV and 6µV respectively.
What is the value of the
load resistance?
 Voltage and Current Standing Waves on a Transmission Line that is
Terminated in an Open Circuit

Characteristics:
a. The incident voltage is reflected back just as if it were to continue; no phase
reversal.
b. The incident current is reflected back 180 degrees from how it would have
continued.
c. The sum of the incident voltage and reflected voltage is maximum at the open
end.
d. The sum of the incident current and reflected current is minimum at the open
end.
 Voltage and Current Standing Waves on a Transmission
Line that is Terminated in a Short Circuit

Characteristics:
a. The incident voltage is reflected back 180 degrees from how it would have
continued.
b. The incident current is reflected back just as if it were to continue; no phase
reversal.
c. The sum of the incident voltage and reflected voltage is minimum at the shorted
end.
d. The sum of the incident current and reflected current is maximum at the
shorted end.
Transmission Line Input Impedance Summary